CS15 8 Mechanics

Kul-34.
3600
Composite Structures
Mechanics
2015
Objective and Contents of the Module

The objective of the module is to
introduce equations that describe
mechanical behaviour of fibre
reinforced composite laminates
Introduction 2 h
Materials 8 h
Properties 4 h
Mechanics 12 h
The module is divided into 3 sub
modules:
Processing 6 h
1. Laminate composition (1 h)
2. Micromechanics (1 h)
3. Macromechanics (10 h)
Composite structures 2015

Mechanics
Page 2
Laminate Composition Introduction

Answers to the following questions are repeatedly needed in analyses
of fibre reinforced laminates:
1. How to compute volume fractions of the constituents when their
weight fractions are known (and vice versa)?
2. How to compute laminate density when the constituents and their
fractions are known?
3. How to compute laminate thickness when the constituents and
their fractions are known?
4. How to compute the fraction of gas (air) in a laminate?

Mechanics
Page 3
Weight vs. Volume Fractions

Composition of a composite is
defined by the constituents and
by their weight or volume
fractions:
Weight fractions (W) are

often practical in the
manufacture of composite
parts
Volume fractions (V) are

needed in mechanical
analyses

Mechanics
Page 4
Weight vs. Volume Fractions Conversion

Weight/volume fraction conversion for a composite can be easily
derived when a sample with a unit mass / unit volume is considered
For a composite consisting of fibres (f) and matrix material (m) the
conversion equations are:
Vf =
Wf r f
W f r f + Wm r m
Wf =
Vf r f
V f r f + Vm r m
; Vm = 1 - V f
; Wm = 1 - W f
Note! Each new constituent adds one term to the denominators

Mechanics
Page 5
Fibre volume fraction
Weight vs. Volume Fractions Examples

rm = 1.2 kg/dm3
rf = 1.45 kg/dm3 (aramid fibres)
rf = 1.7 kg/dm3 (carbon fibres)
rf = 2.0 kg/dm3 (carbon fibres)
rf = 2.54 kg/dm3 (E-glass fibres)
Fibre weight fraction

Mechanics
Page 6
Weight vs. Volume Fractions Example

Mix ratio for an epoxy resin and its hardener is 100 : 38 by weight.
What is the mix ratio by volume?
(resin and hardener densities are known)
Resin (r)
Wr =
Vr =
Hardener (h)
100
= 0.725
138
Wh = 1 - Wr =
Wr / rr
= 0.679
Wr / rr + Wh / rh
38
= 0.275
138
Vh = 1 - Vr = 0.321
( 0.679
0.321 0.321
=
0.679 0.679
0.472 47.2
=
1
100

Mechanics
Page 7
Laminate Density
Laminate density can be computed when densities and volume or
weight fractions of the constituents are known
For a fibre/matrix laminate with no voids:
r c =V f r f + Vm r m =
1
W f / r f + Wm / r m
Note! Each new constituent adds one term

Mechanics
Page 8
Laminate Density Example

Calculate the density of a glass/epoxy laminate assuming 35% fibre
content by weight. The laminate has two 450 g/m 2 plies and the resin
is mixed with micro balloons 30% by weight.
Densities are 1.3 kg/dm 3 for resin, 0.60 kg/dm3 for balloons and 2.54
kg/dm3 for glass.
Wf = 0.35
Wm = 0.65 x 0.7 = 0.455
Wb = 0.65 x 0.3 = 0.195
rc =
=
1
W f / r f + Wm / r m + Wb / rb
1
kg / dm3
0.35 0.455 0.195
+
+
2.54
1 .3
0 .6
= 1.23 kg / dm3
Mechanics
Page 9
Laminate Thickness
Laminate thickness s can be computed when masses per unit area
(mA) and densities of the constituents (r) are known
For a fibre/matrix laminate:
mAf mAm
s=
+
rf
rm
Note! Each new constituent adds one term
Thickness is often computed from the mass per unit area, density
and volume fraction (V) of the reinforcement; alternatively, fibre
volume content can be evaluated when laminate thickness is known:
1 mAf
s=
Vf r f
1 mAf
Vf =
s rf
Mechanics
Page 10
Laminate Thickness Example

Calculate thickness of the laminate analysed in the previous example
mAf mAm mAb

sc =
+
+
rf
rm
rb
mAf = 2 0.45kg / m 2 = 0.9kg / m 2
mAf Wm
0.455
mAm = Wm mAc = Wm
=
mAf =
0.9kg / m2 = 1.17kg / m 2
Wf Wf
0.35
mAb =
Wb
0.195
mAf =
0.9kg / m 2 = 0.5kg / m 2
Wf
0.35
0.9 1.17 0.5

sc =
+
+
m = 2.08mm
2540 1300 600
Mechanics
Page 11
Void Content Definition

A composite always contains some amount of gas (air) pockets that
are called voids
The volume fraction of voids is called the void content
Void content can be determined when densities and weight fractions of
the solid constituents and density of the composite are known
For a fibre/matrix composite the void content is:
W f Wm
Vv = 1 - r c
+
r f rm
(Each new constituent adds one term)
Note! The weight and volume of a composite sample must be

measured to determine the value of rc (volume can be determined e.g.
by weighing the sample in air and in water)
Mechanics
Page 12
Void Content Notes

Void content does not
fully describe how
voids affect composite
performance; the
other affecting
parameters are the
size and location of
voids
Voids typically
decrease especially
compressive strength
of the composite

Mechanics
Page 13
Void Content Example

Measured thickness of the laminate described in previous example
was 2.2 mm. What is the void content?
W f Wm Wb
Vv = 1 - r c
+
+
r f r m rb
mAf
Vv = 1 tc
1
Wm
Wb
r +W r +W r
f
m
f
b
f
rc =
mAf
mAc
=
tc
W f tc
Wf =
mAf
m
mAc = Af
mAc
Wf
The densities and weight ratios calculated in the previous example

yield:
Vv = 1 -
0 .9 1
0.455
0.195
+
+
= 0.05 = 5%
0.0022 2540 0.35 1300 0.35 600
Mechanics
Page 14
Micromechanics Introduction
Micromechanical analysis models predict composite behaviour
starting from the composition of the composite and from the
properties of the constituents
Micromechanical models are typically used
to predict ply properties in their principal
coordinate system
The so-called rules-of-mixtures relations
are the most commonly used models
Due to many simplifications, results provided
by micromechanical models are normally
applicable only for preliminary analyses

Mechanics
Page 15
Micromechanics Notation and Conventions

The principal coordinate system is
denoted 123
Fibre axes are denoted L and T
So-called row normalized notation is
used for engineering constants, e.g.:
n 12 = -
e2
e1
, s1 0
s2 = s3 = s4 = s5 = s6 = 0
Engineering shear strain (g) is used
g
2

Mechanics
Page 16
Micromechanics Assumptions
Linear elastic behaviour of
material constituents (and the
composite)
The constituents are perfectly

bonded to each other
No voids

Mechanics
Page 17
Rules-of-Mixtures Relations
Unidirectional Ply Youngs Modulus E1
Assumption:
e f 1 = e m1 = e 1
Fiber/matrix E_1 vs. volume fraction

GPa
250
200
Loads carried by the

constituents:
Ff 1 = Af s f 1 = V f A E fL e1
Fm1 = Am s m1 = Vm A Em e1
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
V_f
80
100
%
E_1
Modulus:
s 1 Ff 1 + Fm1
E1 = =
= V f E fL + Vm Em
e1
Ae1
f_1 = 100 %
Micromechanical model :
Standard
Fiber : T300;7/1750
Modified : Sun Sep 22 15:40:38 2002
Matrix material : Epoxy;Typical:1250
Modified : Thu Mar 01 16:06:23 2001

Mechanics
Page 18
Unidirectional Ply Youngs Modulus E2
Assumption:
s f 2 = s m2 = s 2
Fiber/matrix E_2 vs. volume fraction

GPa
14
12
10
Elongations of the
constituents:
DL f 2 = L f 2 e f 2 = L V f s 2 E fT
8
6
4
2
0
DLm 2 = Lm 2 e m 2 = L Vm s 2 Em
20
40
60
V_f
80
100
%
E_2
Modulus:
E2 =
s2
s2
1
=
=
e 2 (DL f 2 + DLm 2 ) L V f E fT + Vm Em
f_1 = 100 %
Standard
Fiber : T300;7/1750

Mechanics
Page 19
Unidirectional Ply Poissons ratio n12

Assumption:
e f 1 = e m1 = e 1
Fiber/matrix nu_12 vs. volume fraction

0.4
0.3
Transverse deformations:
DL f 2 = L f 2 e f 2 = - L2 V f n fLT e 1
DLm 2 = Lm 2 e m 2 = - L2 Vm n m e1
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
40
60
V_f
Poissons ratio:
e2
DL2 L2
n 12 = - = = V f n fLT + Vm n m
e1
e1
80
100
%
nu_12
f_1 = 100 %
Standard
Fiber : T300;7/1750

Mechanics
Page 20
Unidirectional Ply Shear Modulus G12
Assumption:
t f 12 = t m12 = t 12
Fiber/matrix G_12 vs. volume fraction

GPa
40
30
Shear strains of the

constituents:
g f 12 = t f 12 G fLT =t 12 G fLT
g m12 = t m12 Gm =t 12 Gm
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
V_f
80
100
%
G_12
Shear modulus:
G12 =
t 12
t 12
1
=
=
g 12 V f g f 12 + Vm g m12 V f G fLT + Vm Gm
f_1 = 100 %
Standard
Fiber : T300;7/1750

Mechanics
Page 21
Rules-of-Mixtures Relations Example

In-plane moduli for a UD-laminate with Vf = 35% are E1 = 80 GPa and
E2 = 6 GPa. What are the moduli when Vf = 50%? The matrix material
used is epoxy for which the tensile modulus is 4 GPa.
E1 = V f E fL + Vm Em = 80GPa
E2 =
1
= 6GPa
V f E fT + Vm Em
80GPa - 0.65 4GPa

E fL =
= 221GPa
0.35
0.35
E fT =
= 84GPa
1 / 6GPa - 0.65 / 4GPa
E1 = V f E fL + Vm Em
= 0.5 221GPa + 0.5 4GPa
= 112.5GPa
E2 =
1
V f E fT + Vm Em
1
=
0.5 84GPa + 0.5 / 4GPa
= 7.6GPa
Mechanics
Page 22
Unidirectional Ply CTE a1
Assumptions:
e f 1 = e m1 = a1 when T = 1o C
a fL p a1 p a m
(for clarity)
Fiber/matrix alpha_1 vs. volume fraction

e-6/C
80
60
40
Resultant forces due to

restrained strains:
Ff 1 = Af s f 1r = V f A E fL (a1 - a fL )
Fm1 = Am s m1r = Vm A Em (a m - a1 )
CTE a1:
V f E fL a fL + Vm Em a m
SF = 0 Ff 1 = Fm1 a1 =
V f E fL + Vm Em
20
-20
0
20
40
60
V_f
80
100
%
alpha_1
f_1 = 100 %
Standard
Fiber : T300;7/1750

Mechanics
Page 23
Unidirectional Ply Strengths
Rules-of-mixtures relations can also be
derived for strengths by assuming that the
ply fails when
fibre failure strain; or
matrix failure strain,
whichever is lower, is reached

The relations normally give too high
strength values and shall be used with
caution

Mechanics
Page 24
Fabric and Mat Plies
To some extent, rules-of-mixtures relations can be applied also for
laminates made of fabric and mat plies
Youngs moduli of fabric and mat plies are often estimated with the
equation:
E1 = a V f E fL + Vm Em
where a is the efficiency factor:
a 1/2 for balanced fabric plies
a 3/8 for mat plies

Mechanics
Page 25
Macromechanics Introduction
Macromechanical analysis
models predict laminate
behaviour in mechanical and
hygrothermal loading
Ply properties and laminate
structure are the initial data for the
analyses
Commonly used term for the theory
to be presented is the Classical
Lamination Theory (CLT)
Results provided by the models
describe well laminate behaviour

Mechanics
Page 26
Macromechanics Outline
Assumptions
Notation and conventions
Ply behaviour
Symmetric laminate in mechanical loading
Unsymmetric laminate in mechanical loading
Hygrothermal behaviour
Laminate failure
Applicability of the models

Mechanics
Page 27
Assumptions
Isotropic and/or orthotropic plies
Linear elastic behaviour of plies
Layers of the laminate are perfectly
bonded to adjacent layers
Homogeneous plies ply properties are

constant through the thickness of the ply
The laminate is in plane stress state
Lines originally straight and normal to the
midplane of the laminate remain straight
and normal in extension and in bending
Small deformations
e
Mechanics
Page 28
Assumptions (Continued)
The assumed mechanical behaviour of a symmetric laminate with 4
layers is illustrated below
In-plane loading
Flexural loading
e = z k
z
z
s
z
z
Mechanics
Page 29
Notation and Conventions

Coordinate Systems
Plies are specified in their principal
coordinate systems 123
12-plane is the ply midplane
3-axis points downwards
Laminates are specified in the laminate
coordinate system xyz:
x- and y-axes define the laminate
plane
z-axis coincides with the 3-axes of
layers
the origin of the system is fixed to
the laminate midplane
Mechanics
Page 30

Laminate Lay-up
Laminate lay-up is specified layer
by layer from the top surface to the
bottom surface, the former being
the surface on the negative side of
z
the z-coordinate
top
z0 = - h/2
zn = h/2
1
2
z1
zn-1
n-1
n
bottom
Layers are numbered from the top

surface to the bottom surface
Laminate thickness is denoted by h
Positive rotation of the layer axes 1
and 2 with respect to the laminate
axes x and y is defined by the
adjacent figure
Mechanics
Page 31

Laminate Code 1/2
Laminate lay-up is defined with the so-called laminate code. The code
is formed by displaying, layer-by-layer, orientation angles of the layers.
In addition:
Letter S is used to indicate symmetry with respect to the midplane
Letters E and O are used to indicate an even/odd number of layers
Multipliers are used to indicate a stack of adjacent layers with the
same orientation
Letters a,b, are used to indicate different plies of the laminate
top
z0 = - h/2
zn = h/2
1
2
z1
zn-1
n-1
n
bottom
Mechanics
Page 32

Laminate Code 2/2
top
z0 = - h/2
Examples
zn = h/2
1
2
z1
zn-1
n-1
n
bottom
[0/90] : a 2-layer laminate, layers oriented to 0 and 90 degrees

[0/90]SE: a symmetric 4-layer laminate, layers oriented to 0 and 90
degrees
[0a/90b]SO: a symmetric 3-layer laminate made of two types of plies
(a and b), layers oriented to 0 and 90 degrees
[0/90/2(45)/2(-45)]SE: a symmetric 12-layer laminate, layers
oriented to 0, 90 and +/- 45 degrees

Mechanics
Page 33

Shear Strain and Coupling Terms
Engineering shear strain g
is used in all analyses
g /2
Row normalized notation is used for coupling terms such as the

Poissons ratios, e.g.:
e2
n 12 = ; s 1 0 ; s 2 = s 3 = t 23 = t 31 = t 12 = 0
e1
e
n xy = - y ; s x 0 ; s y = s z = t yz = t zx = t xy = 0
ex
Mechanics
Page 34

Laminate Deformations 1/2
Laminate deformations are
defined with:
midplane and flexural
strains (e0 and ef); or
midplane strains and
curvatures (e0 and k)

Mechanics
Page 35

Laminate Deformations 2/2
Curvature defines how many
radians per unit length the
laminate is curved unit
[rad/m]
Curvature and strain due to

flexure are related as: e = z k
The relations between
curvatures and flexural strains
are thus:
e yf
g xyf
e
kx =
;ky =
; k xy =
h2
h2
h2
f
x
k
k
k =1 R = e z
\e = k z

Mechanics
Page 36

Laminate Loads 1/3
Since stress components are discontinuous through the thickness of
the laminate, laminate load state is often defined with forces and
moments per unit width applied to the laminate:
resultant in-plane forces are the
forces per unit width corresponding
to the stress state of the laminate
resultant moments are the moments
per unit width corresponding to the
stress state of the laminate
Note! The units of resultant in-plane
forces and moments are, respectively,
[N/m] and [Nm/m]
Mechanics
Page 37

Laminate Loads 2/3
Based on the definitions of
resultant in-plane forces and
moments:
N x = t s x dz ; M x = t s x zdz
N y = t s y dz ; M y = t s y zdz
N xy = tt xy dz ; M xy = tt xy zdz
Note! Mx / My is the moment that
bends the laminate in the
direction of the x-/y-axis

Mechanics
Page 38

Laminate Loads 3/3
Alternatively, laminate load state is defined with normalized stresses:
normalized in-plane stresses (s0) are
the average in-plane stresses achieved
by dividing the corresponding resultant
in-plane forces by the laminate
thickness
normalized flexural stresses (sf) are
the laminate surface stresses that
would, in case of a linearly varying
stress distribution and with the change
of sign at the laminate midplane, give
the same moment effect as the actual
stress distribution
Mechanics
Page 39

Stress and Strain States
Stress and strain states are defined with vectors that are formed by
arranging the stress and strain components as follows:
{s }
xyz
s x
s
y
s z
= ;
t yz
t zx

t xy
{e }
xyz
e x
e
y
e z
=
g yz
g zx

g xy
Note!
Plane stress state

sz, tyz and tzx are
assumed to be zero
ez, gyz and gzx are

normally not of interest

Mechanics
Page 40

Stress-Strain Relations
When stress and strain states are defined with vectors, matrix
equations define the stress-strain relations, e.g. for a symmetric
laminate in plane stress state and in-plane loading:
e x a11 a12 a16 N x

e y = a21 a22 a26 N y
g a a a N
xy 61 62 66 xy
e x = a11 N x + a12 N y + a16 N xy
e y = a21 N x + a22 N y + a 26 N xy
g xy = a61 N x + a62 N y + a 66 N xy
Note! Numbering of matrix elements follows the arrangement of

stress and strain components in the stress and strain vectors (see
the previous slide)
Mechanics
Page 41

Vector and Matrix Review 1/2
Matrix [a] :
a11
[a ] = a21
a31
Vector {b}
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
b1
{b} = b2
b
3
Multiplication:
a11 b1 + a12 b2 + a13 b3 c1

[a ]{b} = a21 b1 + a22 b2 + a23 b3 = c2
a b + a b + a b c
33 3
31 1 32 2
3

Mechanics
Page 42

Vector and Matrix Review 2/2
3x3 matrix:
a11
[a ] = a21
a31
Transpose:
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
[a]
a11
= a12
a13
Inverse:
a21
a22
a23
a31
a32
a33
... ... ...

[a ] -1 = ... ... ...
... ... ...
Multiplication:
a11 a11 + a12 a21 + a13 a31 ... ...

[a ][a ] =
...
... ...
...
... ...

Mechanics
Page 43
Ply Behaviour
Isotropic Ply Stress-Strain Relations 1/3
Three engineering constants
fully describe linear-elastic
behaviour of an isotropic
material:
Youngs modulus E
Poissons ratio n
shear modulus G
From the three constants,
only two are independent
since it can be shown that:
G=
2
1
s 1 = E e1
n = - e 2 e1
t 12 = G g 12
2
E
2 (1 + n )
Mechanics
Page 44
Ply Behaviour
Plane stress state:
s 3 = t 23 = t 31 = 0
s2
t 12
Strains due the stresses:
1
n
e1 = s 1 - s 2
E
E
n
1
e 2 = - s1 + s 2
E
E
1
g 12 = t 12
G
s1
s1
t 12
s2
Mechanics
Page 45
Ply Behaviour
Stress-strain relations in matrix form:
{e }
12
e1 1 E - n E 0 s 1 S11

= e 2 = - n E 1 E
0 s 2 = S21
g 0
0
1 G t 12 0
12
S12
S22
0
0 s 1

0 s 2 = [S ] {s }12
S66 t 12
Or:
{s }
12
s 1 b E

= s 2 = b n E
t 0
12
b n E 0 e1
1

b E
0 e 2 = [Q ] {e }12 ; b =
2
1
n
0
G g 12
[S] and [Q] are, respectively, the compliance and stiffness matrices
of the ply
Mechanics
Page 46
Ply Behaviour
Orthotropic Ply in Its Principal Coordinate System 1/2
For orthotropic plies (materials), material properties are symmetric with
respect to three mutually orthogonal planes
In plane stress state, stress-strain relations in the principal coordinate
system are then:
s2
1
n 21
e1 = s 1 - s 2
E1
E2
n 12
1
s1 + s 2
E1
E2
1
g 12 =
t 12
G12
e2 = -
s1
t 12
s1
2
1
t 12
s2
Mechanics
Page 47
Ply Behaviour
Orthotropic Ply in Its Principal Coordinate System 2/2
In matrix form:
{e }
- n 21 E2
0 s 1
e1 1 E1

= e 2 = - n 12 E1
1 E2
0 s 2 = [S ] {s }12
g 0
t
0
1
G
12 12
12
{s }
s 1 b E1

= s 2 = b n 12 E2
t
0
12
12
12
b n 21 E1 0 e1
1

b E2
0 e 2 = [Q] {e }12 ; b =
1 - n 12n 21
0
G12 g 12
It can further be shown that the [S]- and [Q]-matrices must be

symmetric. This yields:
n 21 E1 = n 12 E2
Mechanics
Page 48
Ply Behaviour Example 1

Calculate ply stresses corresponding to the strain state {e}12 = {0.2 0 0}T %.
The ply properties are E1 = 40 GPa, E2 = 8 GPa, G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3
n 21 =
E2
8
n 12 = 0.3 = 0.06
E1
40
{s }
- 0.06 8 0
1 40
[S ] = - 0.3 40 1/ 8
0 1 / GPa
0
0
1 / 3
40.7 2.44 0
[Q] = [S ]-1 = 2.44 8.15 0 GPa
0
0
3
12
= [Q ]{e }12
40.73 2.44 0
0.2

= 2.44 8.15 0GPa 0 10-2
0
0
0
3

81.5
= 4.9 MPa
0

Mechanics
Page 49
Ply Behaviour
Stress Transformations 1/2
third equation
When ply stress state is known in one
coordinate system, it can always be
computed in another coordinate system
+q
Transformation equations can be

derived by considering force equilibrium
of triangular ply elements, e.g.:
sy
t xy
t 12 + s 1 tan q =
sin q +
cosq
cosq
cosq
sy
t xy
t 12 tan q + s 2 =
cosq sin q
cosq
cosq
s2
t 12
t xy
+q
s1
sy
1
Mechanics
Page 50
Ply Behaviour
Stress Transformations 2/2
The transformation equations become:
{s }
12
2
s 1 cos q

= s 2 = sin 2 q
t - sin q cosq
12
{s }
xy
sin 2 q
cos 2 q
sin q cosq
2 sin q cosq s x

- 2 sin q cosq s y = [T ] {s }xy
cos 2 q - sin 2 q t xy
= [T ] {s }12
-1

Mechanics
Page 51
Ply Behaviour
2
y
Strain Transformations 1/2

Strain transformations are analogous
with the stress transformations
If tensorial shear strains were used, the

transformation equations would be
identical with the stress transformation
equations:
ex
e x
e1 e1

[
]
[
]
e
=
e
=
T
e
=
T
2 2
y
e y
e g / 2
g / 2
e
12 12
xy
xy
+q
x
2
1
e12 =
g 12
2

Mechanics
Page 52
Ply Behaviour
Strain Transformations 2/2
Use of engineering shear strains results in the following transformation
equations:
2
e1 cos q
{e }12 = e 2 = sin 2 q
g - 2 sin q cosq
12
sin 2 q
cos 2 q
2 sin q cosq
{e }
xy
Note!
[T ]
-T
sin q cosq e x
-T

- sin q cosq e y = [T ] {e }xy
cos 2 q - sin 2 q g xy
= [T ] {e }12
T
[ ]
= [T ]
T -1

Mechanics
Page 53
Ply Behaviour
Stress and Strain Transformations Summary
cos 2 q
[T ] = sin 2 q
- sin q cosq
{s }
12
= [T ] {s }xy
12 = [T ] {e }xy
{e }
[T ]
-T
-T
sin 2 q
cos 2 q
sin q cosq
2 sin q cosq
- 2 sin q cosq
cos 2 q - sin 2 q
{s }
= [T ] {s }12
{e }
= [T ] {e }12
-1
xy
xy
[ ]
= [T ]
T -1

Mechanics
Page 54
Ply Behaviour
Orthotropic Ply in the xyz Coordinate System 1/4
When (1) ply behaviour in the principal coordinate system and (2)
stress and strain transformation equations are known, it is easy to
derive constitutive equations that define ply behaviour in the xyz
coordinate system (i.e. in the laminate coordinate system):
{s }
xy
= [T ] {s }12
= [T ] [Q ] {e }12
-1
-1
= [T ] [Q ][T ]
-1
-T
{e }
xy
Ply stiffness and compliance matrices in the xyz coordinate system

are thus:
[Q ] = [T ] [Q][T ]
-1
-T
Q11 Q12
= Q21 Q22
Q16 Q26
Q16
Q26 ;
Q66
S11
[S ] = [Q ]-1 = S21
S16
S12
S22
S26
S16
S 26
S66

Mechanics
Page 55
Ply Behaviour
Worth of noting is that the stiffness
and compliance matrices do not
contain null terms
This means that there is a new type
of coupling in ply behaviour :
normal stress results in normal
strains and in shear strain
shear stress results in shear
strain and in normal strains

Mechanics
Page 56
Ply Behaviour
Ply engineering constants
can be derived from the
elements of the compliance
matrix:
1
1
1
Ex =
; Ey =
; Gxy =
S11
S22
S66
S12
S12
n xy = - ; n yx = S11
S 22
Carbon/epoxy unidirectional ply:

Ply E_x, E_y, G_xy, nu_xy, ... vs. theta
GPa
140
0.35
120
0.3
100
0.25
80
0.2
60
0.15
40
0.1
20
0.05
0
0
10
E_x
E_y
G_xy
20
30
40
50
theta
60
70
80
90
nu_xy
nu_yx

Mechanics
Page 57
Ply Behaviour
Due to the new coupling effect,
the moduli and Poissons ratios
do not fully define ply
behaviour
Additional terms needed to
define ply behaviour are called
the Lekhnitskiis coefficients:
h x , xy
h y , xy
g xy S16
e
S
=
=
; h xy , x = x = 16
e x S11
g xy S66
g xy S 26
e y S26
=
=
; h xy , y =
=
e y S 22
g xy S66
Carbon/epoxy unidirectional ply:

Ply eta_xy,x, eta_xy,y, eta_x,xy and eta_y,xy vs. theta
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
theta
60
70
80
90
eta_xy,x
eta_xy,y
eta_x,xy
eta_y,xy

Mechanics
Page 58
Ply Behaviour Example 2

Calculate ply stresses corresponding to the strain state {e}xy = {0.2 0 0}T %
when the ply of Example 1 is oriented to 40 degrees.
40.7 2.44 0
[Q] = 2.44 8.15 0GPa
0
0
3
[Q ] = [T ] [Q][T ]
-1
s x
39.0

s
=
Q
{
e
}
=
20
.
4
y
MPa
xy
t
18.8
xy
[]
T -1
19.5 10.2 9.4

= 10.2 13.9 6.7 GPa
9.4 6.7 10.8
s 1
49.8

s
=
[
T
]
{
s
}
=
9
.
6
2
MPa
xy
t
5 .9
12

Mechanics
Page 59
Laminate Behaviour
Symmetric Laminate in In-plane Loading 1/4
Constitutive equations can be derived for a symmetric laminate in inplane loading when ply properties and laminate structure are known:
{N }
xy
N x h / 2 s x
s x ,i
n

= N y = s y dz = s y ,i hi
i =1
N - h / 2 t
t
xy
xy

xy ,i
z
= {s }xy ,i hi = [Q ] i {e }xy ,i hi
n
i =1
i =1
= [Q ] i hi {e }xy = [ A] {e }xy
i =1
s
z
Mechanics
Page 60
Laminate Behaviour
On the other hand, laminate strains can be solved when the resultant
in-plane forces (applied loads) are known:
{e }
xy
= [ A] {N }xy = [a ] {N }xy
-1
[A] and [a] are, respectively, the in-plane stiffness and compliance
matrices of the laminate:
[A] = [Q ] h = [T ] [Q] [T ]
n
i =1
[a] = [ A]
i =1
-1
-T
i
hi
[ ]
Note! [T ] = [T ]
-T
T -1
-1

Mechanics
Page 61
Laminate Behaviour
Replacing the resultant in-plane
forces with normalized in-plane
stresses yields:
{s }
0
xy
{e }
xy
1
{N }xy = 1 [A] {e }xy = [A* ] {e }xy
h
h
e
z
= [A* ] {s 0 }xy = [a* ] {s 0 }xy

-1
[A*] and [a*] are, respectively, the

normalized in-plane stiffness and
compliance matrices of the laminate
s
z
s0

Mechanics
Page 62
Laminate Behaviour
In-plane engineering constants
can further be derived from the
elements of the normalized
compliance matrix:
1
1
1
;
E
=
;
G
=
y
xy
a*11
a*22
a*66
a*12
a*12
n xy = - * ; n yx = - *
a 11
a 22
a*16
a*16
h x , xy = * ; h xy , x = *
a 11
a 66
a*26
a*26
h y , xy = *
; h xy , y = *
a 22
a 66
Ex =
Carbon/epoxy [+q/-q]SE
Theta-laminate E_x, E_y, G_xy, nu_xy, ...
GPa
160
1.6
140
1.4
120
1.2
100
80
0.8
60
0.6
40
0.4
20
0.2
0
0
10
E_x
E_y
G_xy
20
30
40
50
theta
60
70
80
90
nu_xy
nu_yx

Mechanics
Page 63
Laminate Behaviour
Carpet Plots
(0/45/90)s - E_x
GPa
140
120
So-called carpet plots are

commonly used as a design
aid to display engineering
constants of commonly used
symmetric 0/90/q-laminates
100
80
60
40
20
0
The example beside displays

Ex-values for carbon/epoxy
laminates when q = 45
20
40
60
45 layers
80
100
%
0% 0
20% 0
40% 0
60% 0
80% 0
0% 90
20% 90
40% 90
60% 90
80% 90
E_x
100% 0
125.00
100% 90
8.00
100% 45.00
17.48 GPa

Mechanics
Page 64
Laminate Behaviour Example 1

Calculate the stress-state of a 80 mm wide [30/-30]SE laminate strip
under 5 kN tension loading in the x-direction. E1= 40 GPa, E2 = 8 GPa,
G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3, t = 0.2 mm
Solution:
1. {N}xy
2. [A]
3. {e}xy
4. {e}12
5. {s}12
5kN
= 62.5kN / m
80mm
N x 62.5

N
=
0
y
kN / m
N 0
xy
Nx =
900
5kN
x
z

Mechanics
Page 65
Laminate Behaviour Example 1 (Continued)

G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3, t = 0.2 mm
26.6 8.4 10.5

-1
-T
Q 30 = [T ]30 [Q ][T ]30 = 8.4 10.3 3.6 GPa
10.5 3.6 9.0

8.4 - 10.5
26.6
Q -30 = 8.4
10.3 - 3.6 GPa
- 10.5 - 3.6 9.0

40.73 2.44 0
[Q] = 2.44 8.15 0GPa
0
0
3
Solution:
1. {N}xy
2. [A]
3. {e}xy
4. {e}12
5. {s}12
[]
[]

Mechanics
Page 66

G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3, t = 0.2 mm
Solution:
1. {N}xy
2. [A]
3. {e}xy
4. {e}12
5. {s}12
[A] = hi [Q ]i
26.6 8.4 10.5
i =1
= 8.4 10.3 3.6 GPa

= 2 0.2mm [Q ]30
10.5 3.6 9.0

+ 2 0.2mm [Q ]-30
8.4 - 10.5
26.6
21.3 6.8 0
= 8.4
10.3 - 3.6 GPa = 6.8 8.2 0 MN / m
- 10.5 - 3.6 9.0

0
0 7.2
n
[Q]
30
[Q]
-30

Mechanics
Page 67

G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3, t = 0.2 mm
Solution:
1. {N}xy
2. [A]
3. {e}xy
4. {e}12
5. {s}12
{e }
xy
= [ A] {N }xy = [a ]{N }xy

-1
0 62500
6 .4 - 5 .2
0.3973
= - 5.2 16.4
0 0 10-8 = - 0.3258%
0
0
13.9 0

Mechanics
Page 68

G12 = 3 GPa, n12 = 0.3, t = 0.2 mm
Solution:
1. {N}xy
2. [A]
3. {e}xy
4. {e}12
5. {s}12
{e }
= [T T ] {e }xy
{e }
0.2165
= - 0.1450 %
- 0.6262
{e }
0.2165
= - 0.1450 %
0.6262
12
30
12
-30
12
-1
{s }
= [Q ]{e }12
{s }
84.65
30
= [Q ]{e }12 = - 6.52MPa
- 18.8
12
30
12
{s }
-30
12
= [Q ]{e }12
30
84.65
= - 6.52 MPa
18.8

Mechanics
Page 69

Calculate engineering constants Ex, Ey, Gxy and nxy for the [30/-30]SE
laminate analysed in the previous example.
-1
[a *] = [A *] = 1 [A] = h[A]-1 = h[a]

h
-1
1
1
Ex = * =
Pa = 19.7GPa
-11
a11 5.1 10
1
1
6.4 - 5.2 0
Ey = * =
Pa = 7.6GPa
-11
-8
a22 13.1 10
= 0.8mm - 5.2 16.4 0 10 m / N
0
0 13.9
1
1
Gxy = * =
Pa = 9.0GPa
-11
a66 11.1 10
5.1 - 4.2 0
*
-11
= - 4.2 13.1 0 10-11 m 2 / N
a
4
.
2
10
vxy = - 12* = = 0.82

-11
0
0 11.1
a11
5.1 10
Mechanics
Page 70
Laminate Behaviour
Symmetric Laminate in Bending 1/4
As for in-plane loading, constitutive
equations can be derived for a
symmetric laminate in bending by
noting that:
{e }
xy
{M }
= z {k }xy
xy
e
z
M x h / 2 s x

= M y = s y z dz
M -h / 2 t
xy
xy
s
z

Mechanics
Page 71
Laminate Behaviour
{M }
xy
M x h / 2 s x
h/2

= M y = s y z dz = [Q ] i{e }xy ,i z dz
-h / 2
M -h / 2 t
xy
xy
h/ 2
= [Q ] i z {k }xy z dz = [Q ] i z 2 dz {k }xy
-h / 2
-h / 2
h/ 2
1 n
3
3
= [Q ] i zi - zi -1
3 i =1
) {k } = [D] {k }
xy
xy
{k }
xy
= [ D]-1{M }xy
= [ d ]{M }xy
[D] and [d] are respectively the flexural stiffness and compliance
matrices of the laminate
Mechanics
Page 72
Laminate Behaviour
e = z k
Replacing the resultant moments with

normalized flexural stresses yields:
{s }
f
xy
6
6
{
}
[D ] {k }xy
M
=
xy
2
2
h
h
12
= 3 [D ] {e f }xy = [D* ] {e f }xy
h
{e } = [D ] {s } = [d ] {s }
* -1
xy
[D*]
xy
xy
[d*]
and
are, respectively, the
normalized flexural stiffness and
compliance matrices of the laminate
sf

Mechanics
Page 73
Laminate Behaviour
Flexural engineering constants can further be derived from the elements
of the normalized flexural compliance matrix:
f
f
xy
1
1
1
f
f
= * ; E y = * ; G xy = *
d 11
d 22
d 66
d *12
=- *
d 11
h f x , xy =
*
16
d
d *11
; n
f
yx
d *12
=- *
d 22
; h f xy , x =
*
16
d
d *66
Theta-laminate E^f_x, E^f_y, G^f_xy, nu^f_xy, ...

GPa
140
1.4
120
1.2
100
80
0.8
60
0.6
40
0.4
20
0.2
h f y , xy =
d 26
d * 22
; h f xy , y =
d 26
d *66
0
0
10
E^f_x
E^f_y
G^f_xy
20
30
40
50
theta
60
70
80
90
nu^f_xy
nu^f_yx

Mechanics
Page 74

Calculate ply stresses and strains at the defined cross-section of a 80
mm wide [30/-30]SE-laminate beam loaded with transverse load of 10 N
Solution:
1) {M}xy
2) [D]
3) {k}xy
4) {e}xy
{e}12
5) {s}12
Moment distribution:
M =Fx
10 N
450
F L 10 N 450mm
Mx =
=
b
80mm
x
z
M x 56.25

Nm
M
=
0
y
M 0 m
xy

Mechanics
Page 75

Solution:
1) {M}xy
2) [D]
3) {k}xy
4) {e}xy
{e}12
5) {s}12
1 n
[D ] = [Q ] (zi3 - zi3-1 )
3 i =1
i
[ ] [(-0.0002)
1
{Q
3
30o
- 30o
- 30o
30
and [Q ]-30 from
the previous example
- (-0.0004)3 m3
[ ] [0 - (-0.0002) ]m
+ [Q ] [(0.0002) - 0 ]m
+ [Q ] [(0.0004) - (0.0002) ]m }
+Q
[Q ]
30o
1.13 0.36 0.34

= 0.36 0.44 0.11 Nm
0.34 0.11 0.38

Mechanics
Page 76

Solution:
1) {M}xy
2) [D]
3) {k}xy
4) {e}xy
{e}12
5) {s}12
{k }
xy
= [D ] {M }xy = [d ]{M }xy

-1
-1
1.13 0.36 0.34

56.25
0.0836
1
1
= 0.36 0.44 0.11
0
Nm
/
m
=
0
.
05356
mm
Nm
0
- 0.0572
0.34 0.11 0.38
{e }
i
xy
= zi {k }xy
{e }
12
= [T T ] {e }xy
-1
{s }
12
= [Q ]{e }12
i

Mechanics
Page 77

mm wide [30/-30]SE-laminate beam loaded with 5 kN axial and 10 N
transverse load.
10 N
450
{e }
xy
0.3973 0.0836
= - 0.3258 + z - 0.053561 / mm
0
- 0.0572
5 kN
x
z
= {e 0 }xy + z{k }xy
{e }
12
= [T T ] {e }xy
-1
{s }
= [Q ]{e }12
i
12

Mechanics
Page 78
Laminate Behaviour
Unsymmetric Laminate 1/5
In an unsymmetric laminate, the
neutral plane does not coincide with
the midplane
in-plane forces result in midplane
strains and curvatures
moments result in curvatures and

midplane strains
{e }
xy
= {e 0 }xy + z {k }xy
Mechanics
Page 79
Laminate Behaviour
Constitutive equations can be derived when the laminate structure, ply
behaviour and the form of strain distribution are known:
{N }
xy
h/2
{s }
xy dz =
-h / 2
[Q ] {e }
h/ 2
xy dz =
-h / 2
[Q ] [{e }
h/2
xy
+ z {k }xy ]dz =
-h / 2
h/2
0
h/2
= [Q ] i dz {e }xy + [Q ] i z dz {k }xy = [ A]{e 0 }xy + [B ]{k }xy

-h / 2
-h / 2
{M }
xy
h/ 2
{s }
-h / 2
xy z dz =
[Q ] {e }
h/2
-h / 2
xy z dz =
[Q ] [{e }
h/2
xy
+ z {k }xy ] z dz =
-h / 2
h/ 2
0
h/2
= [Q ] i z dz {e }xy + [Q ] i z 2 dz {k }xy = [B]{e 0 }xy + [D ]{k }xy

-h / 2
-h / 2

Mechanics
Page 80
Laminate Behaviour
To summarize:
{N }
xy
{M }
xy
= [ A]{e 0 }xy + [B ]{k }xy

= [B ]{e 0 }xy + [D]{k }xy
[A] = [Q ]
h/2
-h / 2
dz = [Q ] i ( zi - zi -1 ) = [Q ] i hi
0
N
A B e
=
k
M
B
D
xy
xy
i =1
i =1
1 n
[B] = [Q ] i z dz = [Q ] i zi 2 - zi-12
2 i =1
-h / 2
h/2
Or:
1 n
[D] = [Q ] i z dz = [Q ] i zi 3 - zi-13
3 i =1
-h / 2
h/2
The new 3 x 3 matrix [B] is called the coupling stiffness matrix

Mechanics
Page 81
Laminate Behaviour
Laminate midplane strains and curvatures can be solved when the
resultant in-plane forces and resultant moments are known:
{e } = [a ]{N } + [b ]{M }
0
xy
{k }
xy
xy
xy
or
= [b T ]{N }xy + [d ]{M }xy
e 0
a bN
= T
k xy b d M xy
The matrices [a], [b] and [d] are called, respectively, the in-plane,
coupling and flexural compliance matrices:
[a ] = [a ] + [a ][B]([D ] - [B][a ][B]) [B][a ]

-1
[b ] = -[a][B]([D] - [B][a][B])
-1
[d ] = ([D] - [B][a][B])
-1

Mechanics
Page 82
Laminate Behaviour
Sometimes its advantageous to perform matrix inversion only partly:
{N }
= [ A]{e 0 }xy + [B ] {k }xy
{M }
= [B ]{e 0 }xy + [D]{k }xy
xy
xy
{e } = [a]{N } - [a ][B]{k }
0
xy
{M }
xy
xy
xy
= [B ][a ]{N }xy + ([D ] - [B ][a ][B ]){k }xy
The equations provide, for example, the in-plane strains in the wall of
a cylindrical pressure vessel ({k}xy = 0) and the applied moments due
to the curvature restraint of the wall
Mechanics
Page 83

A one-meter-long [+45/-45]-laminate is loaded in tension. Calculate the
normal force when the rotation between the two ends is 1.3 degrees.
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, G12 = 7.17 GPa and n12 = 0.28.
{N }
xy
{M }
xy
= [ A]{e
} + [B]{k }
xy
xy
= [B ]{e o }xy + [D ]{k }xy
N x A11
N A
y 12
N xy A16
=
M x B11
M y B12

M
xy B16
A12 A16 B11 B12 B16 e xo

A22 A26 B12 B22 B26 e yo
A26 A66 B16 B26 B66 e xyo

B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 k x
B22 B26 D12 D22 D26 k y

B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 k xy
[A] = h [Q ]
n
i =1
1 n
[B] = [Q ] (zi2 - zi2-1 )
2 i =1
i
1 n
[D ] = [Q ] (zi3 - zi3-1 )
3 i =1
i
1.3o
p
o
k xy = 180 = 0.02271 m
1
Mechanics
Page 84

A one-meter-long [+45/-45]-laminate is loaded in tension. Calculate the
normal force when the rotation between the two ends is 1.3 degrees.
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, G12 = 7.17 GPa and n12 = 0.28.
Antisymmetric, angle-ply laminate:
N x A11
0 A
12
0 0
=
0 0
0 0

0 B16
0 B16 e xo

0 B26 e yo
0 A66 B16 B26 0 e xyo

0 B16 D11 D12 0 k x
0 B26 D12 D22 0 k y

B26 0 0 0 D66 k xy
A12 0
A22 0
0
0
N x = A11e xo + A12e yo + B16 k xy
o
o
0
=
A
e
+
A
e
+ B26 k xy
12 x
22 y
0 = B16e xo + B26e yo + D66 k xy
A11 D66 A12 D66

k xy
N x = B16 + B26 B16
B16
D
= 2 B16 - ( A11 + A12 ) 66 k xy
B16

Mechanics
Page 85
Laminate Behaviour
Meaning of the Coupling Terms 1/3
A16 and A26 0
D16 and D26 0

Mechanics
Page 86
Laminate Behaviour
B11 , B22 and B12 0
B66 0

Mechanics
Page 87
Laminate Behaviour
B16 and B26 0

Mechanics
Page 88
Laminate Behaviour
Classification Symmetric Laminates

Mechanics
Page 89
Laminate Behaviour
Classification Antisymmetric Laminates

Mechanics
Page 90
Laminate Behaviour
Classification Unsymmetric Laminates

Mechanics
Page 91
Laminate Behaviour
Quasi-Isotropic Laminates
So-called quasi-isotropic
laminates are a specific
group of laminates
Laminate E and G
GPa
60
40
These laminates have the

same elastic in-plane
properties in any coordinate
system
20
0
20
The simplest quasi-isotropic

laminates are of the type:
40
60
60
[0/90/45/-45]SE; and
[0/60/-60]SE
E
G
40
20
0
20
x-direction -->
40
60
GPa
Carbon/epoxy
Mechanics
Page 92
Laminate Behaviour
Load Response
Stiffness and compliance matrices define load response of the
laminate:
laminate strain state can be computed when in-plane forces and
moments applied to laminate are known; or
in-plane forces and moments can be computed for a given state of
deformation
When laminate strain state is known, the strain state of each layer is
also known
Layer stresses can further be computed from layer strains

Mechanics
Page 93
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Introduction
Hygrothermal stresses develop in
laminates when layers with different
properties and/or orientations are not
able to expand/compress freely
Assuming linear elastic behaviour,
hygrothermal stresses in a layer can
be computed with the Hookes law
from residual strains of the layer
Hygrothermal strains and stresses
can further be added to the strains
and stresses due to mechanical
loading
Laminate strain
due to DT
1
2
3
4
Free strain of
layer 4 due to
DT
Residual strain
of layer 4 due
to DT

Mechanics
Page 94
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Notation and Conventions
e0I
e = actual strain (laminate
ee
-erI
layer 1
and the layers)
e I = strain due to internal load

(laminate and the layers)
layer 1
layer 2
e NM = strain due to applied

e0I
ee
erI
e NM
eI
stress-free state
layer 2
laminate
forces and moments

(laminate and the layers)
e 0I = free strain (layers)

e rI = residual strain (layers)
e e = e - e 0I = equivalent strain (layers)

Mechanics
Page 95
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Ply
Ply behaviour in the principal coordinate system:
e 1 1 E1 - n 21 E2 0 s 1
a1
b1

s + DT a + Dc b
e
=
n
E
1
E
0
2 12 1
2
2
2
2
g 0
t
0
0
0
1
G
12 12
12

or shortly:
{e }
12
E2 ; a 2 ; b 2
= [S ] {s }12 + DT {a }12 + Dc {b }12
1
Note! The unit of b is [1/w%]
E1 ;a1 ; b1
Mechanics
Page 96
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Equivalent Stresses
To model hygrothermal behaviour of a laminate, ply equivalent
stresses are defined
These are the mechanical stresses that result in the same ply
strains as a temperature / moisture content change
In the principal coordinate system:
G1DT =1 Q11 Q12 0 a1

DT =1
DT =1
{G }12 = G2 = Q12 Q22 0 a 2 = [Q]{a }12
G DT =1 0 0 Q 0
66
12
{G } = [Q]{b }
Dm =1
12
12
Coordinate transformation of the stresses further gives:
{G } = [T ] {G }
-1
DT
xy
DT
12
{G } = [T ] {G }
-1
Dm
xy
Dm
12

Mechanics
Page 97
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Equivalent Forces and Moments
Equivalent in-plane forces and bending moments of a laminate
due to a temperature change can further be computed:
{N }
DT
xy
{G }
h/2
DT
-h / 2
{M }
DT
xy
DT
{
dz
=
G
}xy,i (zi - zi -1 )
xy ,i
n
i =1
1 n DT
2
2
= {G }xy ,i z dz = {G }xy ,i zi - zi -1
2 i =1
-h / 2
h/2
DT
These are the forces and moments that result in the same
laminate strains as a temperature change
Analogous expressions can be written for equivalent in-plane forces
and bending moments due to a moisture content change

Mechanics
Page 98
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Effects Constitutive Equations
Constitutive equations with hygrothermal effects included can further
be written:
0
N DT
N Dc
N
A B e
=
- DT - Dc
M xy B D k xy M xy M xy
or:
N A
N DT
N Dc
N
A B e 0
A = + DT + Dc =
k
M
B
D
M
M
M
xy
xy xy
xy
xy
where:
N and M are the externally applied forces and moments
NA and MA are the apparent forces and moments
Mechanics
Page 99
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Expansion 1/2
The coefficients of hygrothermal expansion can be derived from the
constitutive equations by noting that externally applied forces and
moments are zero in free expansion:
N DT
N Dc
N
A B e 0
0
=
- DT - Dc =
M xy B D k xy M xy M xy 0
Additionally, for a symmetric laminate:
{M } = {M }
DT
Dc
xy
xy
= 0 and [B ] = 0
This yields: {a }xy = [ A] {N
DT =1
= [ A] {N
Dc =1
-1
{b }
xy
-1
{0} = [A]{e }
0
xy
} = [a] {G } (z
n
xy
DT =1
xy ,i
i =1
} = [a] {G } (z
n
xy
i =1
Dc =1
xy ,i
- {N DT }xy - {N Dc }xy
- zi -1 )
- zi -1 )
Mechanics
Page 100
Laminate Behaviour
Hygrothermal Expansion 2/2
Note:
The derived hygrothermal expansion coefficients are also valid for
unsymmetric laminates in zero-curvature state, i.e. when curvature
is suppressed
Hygrothermal expansion and curvature coefficients can be derived
analogously for unsymmetric laminates that are allowed to curve
It is relatively straightforward to extend the theory to cover the
cases where temperature and/or moisture content is not constant
through the thickness of the laminate

Mechanics
Page 101

Calculate strains and the normalized stresses for a fully restrained
[0/90]s laminate that is cooled down 70 degrees from the reference
temperature. Additionally, calculate ply stresses in local coordinates.
{e }
xy
= {e }12 = 0 ; [B ] = 0 {N }xy = [ A]{e 0 }xy + [B ]{k }xy - {N DT }xy = -{N DT }xy
{N } = {G} (z
n
DT
xy
i =1
- zi -1 )
xyi
Q11 Q12 0 a1
(E1a1 + n 21E1a 2 ) D
1.11
{G DT }12 = DT Q12 Q22 0 a 2 = DT (n 12 E2a1 + n 21E2a 2 ) D = -16.8MPa
0
0 0 Q66 0
0
{N } = {G} {2 0.2mm} + {G} {2 0.2mm} = {- 7175 - 7175 0}

DT
xy
0o
90o
xy
xy
N
m

Mechanics
Page 102

Calculate strains and the normalized stresses for a fully restrained
[0/90]s laminate that is cooled down 70 degrees from the reference
temperature. Additionally, calculate ply stresses in local coordinates.
{N }
xy
{s }
0
xy
= -{N DT }xy
{N }
xy
7175
N
= 7175
0 m
8.97
= 8.97 MPa
0
{e }
xy
= {e }12 = 0
{e } = [S ]{s } + D T {a }
{s } = -D T [Q ]{a }
12
12
12
12
{s }
12
=0
12
= {s }12 = {s }12
0
90
1.11
= 16.8MPa
0

Mechanics
Page 103

Calculate layer stresses in a freely deforming [60/-60]s laminate that
is brought to 150 degree temperature. The reference temperature for
this laminate is 25 degrees.
47.7
-1
= [T ] {G}12 = 6.41 MPa
m 35.8
N
N
A B e
+ DT =
k
M
B
D
M
xy
xy
xy
{G}
{N } = [A]{e }
38.2
{N DT }xy = 5.1 kN
0 m
DT
DT
xy
xy
= {G} ( zi - zi -1 )
n
i =1
xyi
8.04 11.92 0
[A] = 11.92 36.08 0 MN
m
0
0 12.01
60o
xy
{e }
xy
0.89
-1
= [ A] {N DT }xy = - 0.28%
0

Mechanics
Page 104

Calculate layer stresses in a freely deforming [60/-60]s laminate that
is brought to 150 degree temperature. The reference temperature for
this laminate is 25 degrees.
{e }
I 60
12
{e }
o
I 60
0 12
= [T T ]60 {e }xy
-1
0.013
= 0.597%
-1
a1 - 0.05

= DT a 2 = 1.2 %
0 0

{e }
I 60
r 12
{s }
60o
12
= {e I }12 - {e 0I }12
60
= [Q ]{e
60
o
I 60
r 12
0.06
= - 0.65%
-1
35
= - 35MPa
- 20

Mechanics
Page 105
Laminate Failure
Analysis Approach 1/4
When only mechanical loads are applied to a laminate, laminate failure
analysis is performed as follows:
1. Laminate strain state due to the applied loads is computed:
e 0
a bN
= T
k xy b d M xy
2. Layer strains at the top (t) and bottom (b) surfaces of the layer are
computed:
{e }
t
xy , k
= {e 0 }xy + zk -1{k }xy
{e }
b
xy , k
= {e 0 }xy + zk {k }xy
3. Layer stresses are computed:
{s }
= [Q ]{e } xy ,k
t
xy , k
{s }
= [Q ]{e } xy ,k
b
xy , k

Mechanics
Page 106
Laminate Failure
4. Coordinate transformations are made to obtain layer strains and
stresses in their principal coordinate systems
{e }
12 , k
= [T ]
-T
{e }
xy , k
{s }
12 , k
= [T ]{s }xy ,k
4. Layer strains or stresses are compared with failure strains or

stresses measured for the ply in principal loading conditions
5. Conclusions on possible failure and failure mode are made for each
layer
6. Conclusions on laminate failure and laminate failure mode are made
based on the critical layer

Mechanics
Page 107
Laminate Failure
The techniques applied to compare the layer strain/stress state with
ply failure strains/stresses in principal loading conditions are generally
called failure criteria
Three types of failure criteria are in use:
independent failure criteria: strain/stress components are
compared independently with measured failure strains/stresses
partly interactive criteria: interaction of two strain/stress
components is accounted for
fully interactive criteria: interaction of all three strain/stress

Mechanics
Page 108
Laminate Failure
When internal strains/stresses due to
temperature and/or moisture content
changes exist, layer strains/stresses to
be used in failure analyses are:
sum of the stresses due to external
(mechanical) loading and residual
stresses that are computed from
residual strains of layers:
{s }
xy , k
{ }
= [Q ] {e }xy ,k + e r
NM
DT
xy , k
{ } )
+ er
Dm
xy , k
or corresponding strains (equivalent

strains)
Mechanics
Page 109
Laminate Failure
Failure Criterion Functions
Failure criteria are expressed in the form of failure criterion functions
The functions are constructed so that their value is
zero (0) with no loads applied
one (1) when the lowest load resulting in failure is applied
Stress-based criteria:
Strain-based criteria:
0 f (s 1 ,s 2 ,t 12 ) < 1 no failure
1 f (s 1 ,s 2 ,t 12 ) failure
0 f (e1 , e 2 , g 12 ) < 1 no failure
1 f (e1 , e 2 , g 12 ) failure
Mechanics
Page 110
Laminate Failure
Criticality of a Load
Criticality of a load can be expressed with
Value of the failure criterion function f
Reserve Factor RF:
{F }
failure
= RF {F }applied
or
RF = {F }failure /{F }applied
Margin of Safety MoS:
MoS = RF - 1 or
MoS = 100 (RF - 1)%
Note!
RF > 1 and MoS > 0 indicate that the laminate does not fail
1/RF is often used instead of RF since acceptable values of 1/RF

always lie in the range 0 < 1/RF < 1
Mechanics
Page 111
Laminate Failure
Maximum Stress Criterion
Maximum stress criterion is an independent criterion in which each
stress component is compared to the corresponding failure stress and
the highest ratio is selected to describe severity of the loading
Failure criterion function is thus:
s s t
f = max 1 , 2 , 12
S
X Y
where X, Y and S are ply failure stresses in the principal loading
conditions:
s1 0 X = X t ; s1 < 0 X = X c
s 2 0 Y = Yt ; s 2 < 0 Y = Yc
Note! t = tension,
c = compression

Mechanics
Page 112
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Maximum Stress Criterion
FPF - Layer stresses/strains
Carbon/epoxy [30]
Laminate : Hiili/epoksi [30]
Modified : Sun Oct 13 11:33:38 2002
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60
Load : sigma_x=125 MPa

Type : Normalized stresses (Var.;E)
sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
Laminate margins of safety
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa
MoS_FPF Mode Crit. layers

%
MoS =
28 2t
All
Layer inv. reserve factors, 1/RF_FPF

tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=
0 MPa
0 MPa
1 30
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Nominal load :{F} = {F}^v

Layer stresses/strains -Nominal load
Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 113
Laminate Failure
Maximum Strain Criterion
Maximum strain criterion is an independent criterion in which each
strain component is compared to the corresponding failure strain and
the highest ratio is selected to describe severity of the loading
Failure criterion function is thus:
e1 e 2 g 12
f = max
,
,
X e Ye Se
where Xe, Ye and Se are ply failure strains in the principal loading
conditions:
e1 0 X e = X et ; e1 < 0 X e = X ec
e 2 0 Ye = Yet ; e 2 < 0 Ye = Yec
Note! t = tension,
c = compression

Mechanics
Page 114
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Maximum Strain Criterion
Laminate :Carbon/epoxy
Hiili/epoksi [30] [30]
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60

sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=

%
MoS =
36 2t
All
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa
0 MPa
0 MPa

1 30
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 115
Laminate Failure
Fully Interactive Failure Criteria
In fully interactive failure criteria, the interaction of all stress/strain
The subset of fully interactive criteria, called the quadratic criteria, are
commonly used for fibre-reinforced plies
In stress space, assuming plane stress state, the failure criteria are
generally of the form:
f = F11 s 1 + F22 s 2 + F66 t 12 + 2 F12 s 1 s 2 + F1 s 1 + F2 s 2 + F6 t 12

2
The coefficients Fii and Fi are determined so that the value of the failure
criterion function is one in the principal loading conditions when failure
load is applied
Mechanics
Page 116
Laminate Failure
Tsai-Hill Criterion
In the Tsai-Hill Criterion it is assumed that F1 = F2 = F6 = 0 which results
in the failure criterion function:
f = F11 s 1 + F22 s 2 + F66 t 12 + 2 F12 s 1 s 2

2
The coefficients Fij are solved by considering failure in the principal

loading conditions (separately for tension and compression) which yields:
s s t s s
f = 1 + 2 + 12 - 1 2 2
X
X Y S
s1 0 X = X t ; s1 < 0
2
s 2 0 Y = Yt
X = Xc
; s 2 < 0 Y = Yc
Mechanics
Page 117
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Tsai-Hill Criterion
Carbon/epoxy
Laminate : Hiili/epoksi
[30] [30]
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60

sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=

%
MoS =
-3 2t
All
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa

1 30
0 MPa
0 MPa
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2

Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 118
Laminate Failure
Tsai-Wu Criterion
In the Tsai-Wu criterion, all components of the general expression are
included
The coefficients Fij and Fi are solved by considering failure in the
principal loading conditions, which yields:
2
2
2
1 1
s1
s2
t 12 1
1
s 1 + - s 2 + 2 F12 s 1 s 2
f =
+
+ 2 + X t X c Yt Yc S
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Value of the coefficient F12

is determined from the results of bi-axial load tests; or
estimated, typically as: F12 = -0.5 F11 F22
Mechanics
Page 119
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Tsai-Wu Criterion
Carbon/epoxy
[30] [30]
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60

sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=

%
MoS =
-9 2t
All
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa
0 MPa
0 MPa

1 30
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2

Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 120
Laminate Failure
Hoffman Criterion
The Hoffman criterion is equivalent to the Tsai-Wu criterion, except that
the value of the coefficient F12 is specified to be - F11
This yields:
2
2
2
1 1
s1
s2
t 12 1
1
s1 s 2
s 1 + - s 2 f =
+
+ 2 + X t X c Yt Yc S
Xt Xc
Xt Xc
Yt Yc

Mechanics
Page 121
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Hoffman Criterion
Carbon/epoxy
[30] [30]
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60

sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=

%
MoS =
-10 2t
All
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa

1 30
0 MPa
0 MPa
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2

Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 122
Laminate Failure
Puck Criterion
An example of partly interactive failure criteria is the Puck criterion
that is applicable for unidirectional plies
In the criterion, the criticality of the stress state in the fibre direction is
predicted with the maximum stress condition and matrix/interphase
failure is predicted with an interactive criterion:
s
s t
f = max ( f f , f m ) ; f f = 1 ; f m = 2 + 12
X
Y S
s1 0 X = X t ; s1 < 0 X = X c
s 2 0 Y = Yt ; s 2 < 0 Y = Yc
2

Mechanics
Page 123
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Puck Criterion
Carbon/epoxy
[30] [30]
Lay-up : (+30a) h = 0.2 mm
Ply
a T300;Epoxy;UD-.200/210/60

sig_x = 125 MPa
sig_y =
0 MPa
tau_xy =
0 MPa
tau_zx
tau_yz
=
=

%
MoS =
-3 2t
All
sig^f_x = 0 MPa
sig^f_y = 0 MPa
tau^f_xy = 0 MPa

1 30
0 MPa
0 MPa
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2

Ply
1
theta
30
t
b
sig_1
MPa
93.75
93.75
sig_2
MPa
31.25
31.25
tau_12
MPa
-54.13
-54.13
eps_1
%
0.0675
0.0675
eps_2
%
0.3681
0.3681
gam_12
%
-1.0825
-1.0825

Mechanics
Page 124
Laminate Failure
Modified Puck Criterion
The modified Puck criterion is identical with the original Puck
criterion, except for the matrix/interphase failure that is predicted with
the expression:
2
2
s2
t 12 1 1
fm =
+ 2 + - s 2
Yt Yc S
Yt Yc

Mechanics
Page 125
Laminate Failure
Hashin Criterion
Fibre failure and matrix/interphase failure predicted separately also in
the Hashin criterion:
f = max ( f f , f m )
2
s 1 t 12
f f = +
Xt S
2
s t
f m = 2 + 12
Yt S
when s 1 0 ;
s1
ff = Xc
when s 1 < 0
when s 2 0
2
2
2
s2
s
t
Y
2 12
c
f m = + + - 1 when s 2 < 0
2 S S 2S
Yc

Mechanics
Page 126
Laminate Failure
Example 1 Comparison of Failure Analysis Results
Carbon/epoxy [30]

Mechanics
Page 127
Laminate Failure
Failure Analyses vs. Experiments [q]-laminate

Tsai-Hill
Maximum strain
Maximum stress

Mechanics
Page 128
Laminate Failure
Reserve Factor vs. Value of Failure Criterion Function
With independent failure criteria, the relation between the value of
reserve factor and failure criterion function is:
RF =
1
f
With quadratic criteria, the RF value must be solved from the second
order equation, e.g. with the Hoffman criterion the RF value is solved
from the equation:
2
2
2
1
1 1
s
s
t
s1 s 2
1
2
1
2
12
s 1 + - s 2 = 1
RF
+
+ 2 + RF Xt Xc
Yt Yc
X t X c Yt Yc S
X t X c

Mechanics
Page 129
Laminate Failure Example 2

A boron layer is subjected to stress {s}xy = {150 0 20}T MPa. The layer
orientation is 40. What is the Margin of Safety according to maximum
stress and Tsai-Hill criteria?
{s }
12
= [T ]40 {s }xy = {68.3 81.7 - 77.3} MPa

T
Maximum stress criterion :

s s s
f = max 1 , 2 , 12 = 0.984
X Y S
Reserve Factor :
{s }failure 1
RF =
=
{s }applied f
MoS = RF - 1 =
1
- 1 = 1.6%
0.984
Mechanics
Page 130
Laminate Failure Example 2 (Continued)

A boron layer is subjected to stress {s}xy = {150 0 20}T MPa. The layer
orientation is 40. What is the Margin of Safety according to maximum
stress and Tsai-Hill criteria?
{s }
12
= [T ]40 {s }xy = {68.3 81.7 - 77.3} MPa

T
Tsai - Hill criterion :

s s s s s
f = 1 + 2 + 12 - 1 2 2 = 1.357
X
X Y S
2
2 s1
2 s2
2 s 12
2 s 1s 2
RF + RF + RF
=1
- RF
2
X
X
Y
S
1
1
2
f RF = 1 RF =
MoS =
- 1 = -0.14 = -14%
f
1.357
2

Mechanics
Page 131
Laminate Failure Example 3

The [60/-60]s laminate discussed in the earlier example is stress-free
in 25C temperature. Using the Tsai-Hill criterion, estimate the
temperature that causes ply failure in the laminate?
In the earlier example, ply stresses corresponding to the temperature change

DT of 125C were computed :
{s
o
DT =125 60
12
= {35 - 35 20} MPa

T
Since applied forces and moments are zero and the solution is linearly
dependent on DT , the stresses per unit temperature change are :
{s }
o
DT =1 60
12
1
=
{s DT =125 }1260 = {280 - 280 - 162}T 103 Pa
o
DT
C
o

Mechanics
Page 132
Laminate Failure Example 3 (Continued)

The [60/-60]s laminate discussed in the earlier example is stress-free
in 25C temperature. Using the Tsai-Hill criterion, estimate the
temperature that causes ply failure in the laminate?
2
DTs 1 DTs 2 DTt 12 DT s 1s 2
f =
+
+
X2
X Y S
2
2
2
1
0
.
28
0
.
28
0
.
16
0
.
28
(
0
.
28
)
2
2
= DT
+
+
2
C
1400
1400 100 40
1
= DT 2 2.4 10-5 2 = 1 , for failure
C
2
1
o
o
DT =
C
=
204
C
-5
2.4 10
T = 204 oC + 25 oC = 229 oC

Mechanics
Page 133
Laminate Failure
Failure Envelopes
Failure envelopes are commonly
used to display combinations of
loads that result in failure
Envelopes can be created in
stress or strain space
eps_y
%
1
FPF envelope - load parameter gam_xy
-1
Third load component can be

included in the chart as a
parameter
The example beside displays the
failure envelope in strain space
for a unidirectional carbon/epoxy
laminate (Tsai-Hill criterion)
-2
-3
-1
-0.5
0.5
eps_x
gam_xy = 0 %
gam_xy = 0.5 %
gam_xy = 1 %
1.5
%
Carbon/epoxy [0]

Mechanics
Page 134
Laminate Failure
Comparison of Failure Criteria
Failure envelopes created using
different failure criteria clearly
indicate the nature of different
types of failure criteria:
eps_y
%
1
FPF envelope - multiple failure criteria
envelopes created using

maximum stress and strain
criteria are discontinuous due
to the independent conditions
-1
envelopes created using fully

interactive criteria are
continuous
-4
-2
-3
-1
-0.5
0.5
eps_x
Tsai-Hill
Max stress
Max strain
1.5
%
Carbon/epoxy [0]

Mechanics
Page 135
Laminate Failure
FPF and DLF Analyses
Laminate failure analyses are commonly performed using different
initial data used for plies:
in the FPF (First Ply Failure) analysis, stresses/strains resulting
in first failure are used for plies FPF analysis gives a prediction
for the load with which laminate degradation initiates
in the DLF (Degraded Laminate Failure) analysis, stresses/
strains resulting in final failure are used for plies DLF analysis
gives a prediction for the load resulting in the final failure of the
laminate
Note! Another common term for the DLF type analysis is the LPF
(Last Ply Failure) analysis

Mechanics
Page 136
Laminate Failure
Example of FPF and DLF Analysis Results
Carbon/epoxy [0/60/-60]SE-laminate (note different scales)
eps_y
%
1
FPF envelope
eps_y
2
DLF envelope
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
eps_x
Plot x- and y-components not in the same scale.
Failure criterion : Max stress

Stress/strain recovery : layer top/bottom
1.5
%
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
eps_x
Plot x- and y-components not in the same scale.
Failure criterion : Max stress

DLF model :stress based
Stress/strain recovery : layer top/bottom

Mechanics
Page 137
Applicability of Analysis Models

Classical Lamination Theory 1/2
CLT predicts well laminate behaviour
as long as:
assumption on linear-elastic
behaviour is good enough
ply properties do not change too
much within the environmental
changes being analysed
e
z
laminate is continuous and

relatively thin
Straight and curved laminates with
thickness of several centimetres can z
be analysed with good accuracy

Mechanics
Page 138

Classical Lamination Theory 2/2
Results of the CLT are not valid close to laminate free edges where
significant out-of-plane stresses exist
These free edge stresses can be evaluated to some extent with
analytical techniques (normally free edge stresses are solved
numerically)

Mechanics
Page 139

Laminated Plate Theory 1/2
CLT is also applied in analyses of
laminated plates
u 0
ex =
x
The terms Laminated Plate Theory

and Classical Plate Theory (CPT)
are commonly used for these
models
g xy
The relations of midplane strains

and curvatures vs. displacements
are displayed beside
v 0
; ey =
y
0
v 0 u 0
=
+
x y
2 w0
kx = - 2
x
2 w0
ky = - 2
y
2 w0
k xy = -2
xy
Mechanics
Page 140

Laminated Plate Theory 2/2
dw
dx
To be noted is that the CPT only

accounts for bending deformations
When laminate thickness ratio is
increased or laminate is subjected to
shear loading, shear deformations
need to be accounted for
The simplest method accounting
shear deformations is called the First
order Shear Deformation Theory
(FSDT) assuming constant out-ofplane shear deformations through
laminate thickness
dw
dx
gxz
Mechanics
Page 141

Availability of Analysis Tools
Continuous calculation by hand is not efficient
Special software based on the CLT have been developed and can be
used as a pre- and postprocessor for the FE-programs
In FE-programs, laminates should be modelled as layered structures
formed from directional orthotropic layers.
If the laminate material is modelled as an orthotropic layer with
laminate engineering constants Ex, Ey etc., the coupling effects will not
be accounted for

Mechanics
Page 142
Summary
Basics of
(1) micromechanics,
(2) the classical lamination theory, and
(3) the commonly used failure criteria of fibre reinforced laminates
were introduced
Analyses of laminate structures are based on these methods

Mechanics
Page 143

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Kul-34.

Objective and Contents of the Module

Composite structures 2015

Laminate Composition Introduction

Composite structures 2015

Weight vs. Volume Fractions

Weight fractions (W) are

Volume fractions (V) are

Composite structures 2015

Weight vs. Volume Fractions Conversion

Note! Each new constituent adds one term to the denominators

Composite structures 2015

Fibre volume fraction

Weight vs. Volume Fractions Examples

Fibre weight fraction

Composite structures 2015

Weight vs. Volume Fractions Example

Composite structures 2015

Note! Each new constituent adds one term

Composite structures 2015

Laminate Density Example

Note! Each new constituent adds one term

Laminate Thickness Example

mAf mAm mAb

0.9 1.17 0.5

Void Content Definition

(Each new constituent adds one term)

Note! The weight and volume of a composite sample must be

Void Content Notes

Composite structures 2015

Void Content Example

The densities and weight ratios calculated in the previous example

Composite structures 2015

Micromechanics Notation and Conventions

Composite structures 2015

The constituents are perfectly

Composite structures 2015

Fiber/matrix E_1 vs. volume fraction

Loads carried by the

Composite structures 2015

Fiber/matrix E_2 vs. volume fraction

Composite structures 2015

Unidirectional Ply Poissons ratio n12

Fiber/matrix nu_12 vs. volume fraction

Composite structures 2015

Fiber/matrix G_12 vs. volume fraction

Shear strains of the

Composite structures 2015

Rules-of-Mixtures Relations Example

80GPa - 0.65 4GPa

Fiber/matrix alpha_1 vs. volume fraction

Resultant forces due to

Composite structures 2015

fibre failure strain; or

matrix failure strain,

whichever is lower, is reached

Composite structures 2015

Composite structures 2015

Composite structures 2015

Composite structures 2015

Homogeneous plies ply properties are

Notation and Conventions

Notation and Conventions

Layers are numbered from the top

[A] and [a] are, respectively, the