Lecture 18 - Final For Posting - Reservoir Geomechanics Standford

Reservoir Geomechanics
In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes
Mark D.
Professor of

Zoback

Geophysics

Week 9 Lecture 18
Geomechancis of Shale Gas/Tight Oil - 1
Stanford|ONLINE gp202.class.stanford.edu

Global Energy and Environment Challenge
Economy

Society

National

Security

Environment

How Do We Provide Accessible, Affordable, and Secure Energy While

Protecting the Planet (2x by 2050, 3-4x by 2100)?

2

Strategies for Geologic Sequestration of CO2

IPCC (2005)
Large-Scale CCS?
CCS is a risky, and likely unsuccessful, strategy for significantly reducing

greenhouse gas emissions! Proc. National Academy of Sciences, June 18, 2012

4

CCS Too Little to Late (and at Too High a Cost)

To Achieve Significant GHG Emission Reductions
M. Orcutt
MIT Tech. Rev.
Sept./Oct. 2012

Shale Gas and Electrical Power

EIA 2013 Energy Outlook
Air Pollution and Energy Source*

CH4

Oil

Coal

CO2
117,000
164,000
208,000
CO
40
33
208
NOx
92
448
457
SO2
0.6
1,122
2,591
Particulates
7.0
Formaldehyde
0.75
0.22
0.221
0.007
0.016
Mercury
~20% Reduction in CO2

Emissions
2006

84 From Coal Since2,744
*Pounds/Billion
BTU
Administration, Monthly Energy Review.

Source:
U.S. Energy Information
CO2 emissions from coal were down 18% to 387 million metric tons in the

January-March 2012 period.

EIA, 1998

7

Total Recoverable Gas
Total Recoverable Gas

1,400
1,200
1,275
Global Shale Gas

Technically Recoverable Resource (Tcf)
1,000
TRR, Tcf
862
800
774
600
400
200
681
647
645
485
396
388
290
230
226
187
180

Energy Consumption in China by Fuel
(Quadrillion in
BTU)
Energy Consumption
China by Fuel
(Quadrillion BTU)
200
180
160
140
Nuclear
120
Natural Gas
100
Renewables
80
Liquids
60
Coal
40
20
0
2008
2015
7 Gtonnes CO2 y-1
2020
2025
2030
2035
14 Gtonnes CO2 y-1
Source: US EIA International Energy Outlook 2011


Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature

Deaths in China Each Year
In the U.S , the health effects from coal-fired

power plants cost the nation about
$62 billion per year. (NRC, 2010)
Shanghai, January


April 2013

10
Organic Rich Shales

Deep Water, Anaerobic /Clay Matrix
Organic Rich Source Rock

Extremely Low Permeability
11

Shale Gas Reservoirs
The Shale Reservoir

Shale Gas Unconventional gas reservoir contained in very
fine-grained, organic-rich sedimentary rocks, containing clay,
kerogen and other minerals like quartz, feldspar and calcite
Continuous Formation - No Trap Gas/Oil Sourced and
remains in same formation
Total Organic Carbon, Thermal Maturity, Mineralogy, and
Natural Fractures are Key
- Porosity in nanoscale pores (of different types)
- Porosity also in microcracks and macro-scale fractures
- ~100 nanoDarcy matrix permeability
- Permeability enhanced by hydraulic stimulation
12

Eagle Ford Shale Pore Structure

Shale Permeability is a
Million Times
Smaller Than
Conventional Reservoir
50m
10 m

500 nm
13
Thermal Maturation
Thermal Maturity Vitrinite Reflectance

Thermal Maturity measures the degree to which a
formation has been exposed to high heat needed to
convert organic matter into hydrocarbons
Ro % (Vitrinite Reflectance of certain type of minerals) is
used as an indication of Thermal Maturity
Dry Gas Ro > 1.0 (470 F)
Wet Gas Ro = 0.5 1.0
Oil Ro < 0.5 (430 F)
Higher Thermal Maturity leads to the presence of
nanopores, which contribute to additional porosity in
shale matrix
14

Thermal Maturation
Thermal Maturity Vitrinite Reflectance
15

Average Shale Properties
BARNETT
MARCELLUS
EAGLE FORD
FLOYD
Depth (ft)
3 9,000
2 9,500
4 13,500
6 13,000
TOC (%)
1 10
1 15
27
17
RO (%)
0.7 2.3
0.5 4+
0.5 1.7
0.7 2+
Porosity (%)
2 14
2 15
6 14
1 12
Qtz + Calcite (%)
40 50
40 60
50 80
20 30
Clay (%)
20 40
30 50
15 35
45 65
Areal Extent (mi2)
22,000
60,000
15,000
6,000
25 250
50 500
10 100
<<1
Resource Size (Tcf)
Subtle variations can mean large variations in economics
16

Eagle Ford Shale Pore Structure

Shale Permeability is a
Million Times
Smaller Than
Conventional Reservoir
50m
10 m
How Can Economic Rates of Gas
Production be Achieved?

500 nm
17
18
Multi-Stage Hydraulic Fracturing Works!

SHmax
Dan Moos et al.

SPE 145849
Horizontal Drilling and Multi-Stage

Slick-Water Hydraulic Fracturing
Induces Microearthquakes (M~ -1 to M~ -3)
To Create a Permeable Fracture Network

22
Shale Gas/Tight Oil Field Studies

Horn River Basin/

Cordova Embayment

>700 Tcf

Montney Deep Basin

>250 Tcf

Colorado Group

>300 Tcf

Bakken

3.65 Billion Bbl

Green River

1.3-2 Trillion Bbl

Gammon

Antrim

35-160 Tcf

Utica

Shale

New Albany

86-160 Tcf

Horton Bluff

Formation

Michigan Basin

Lewis/Mancos

97 Tcf

Niobrara/Mowry

Cane

Creek

Monterey

Marcellus

225-520 Tcf

Woodford

Palo Duro

OIL SHALE PLAY

GAS SHALE PLAY
Avalon

Eagle Ford

25-100+ Tcfe

Barnett

24-252 Tcf

Fayetteville

20 Tcf

Floyd/

Conasauga

0

Haynesville

(Shreveport/Louisiana)

29-39 Tcf

Dry Gas ~25%

Petroleum Liquids ~ 5%

600

MILES

23
Production Challenge
Average Monthly Well Production
Barnett Shale
Valko and Lee (2010)

Extended Exponential Model
SPE 134231
24

Research Themes in Stimulation Geomechanics

How do stress, fractures and rock properties
affect the success of stimulation?
How do pressure and stress (and formation
properties) evolve during stimulation?
What factors affect seismic and aseismic
deformation mechanisms and how do these
affect production?
Can we accurately model pore pressure and
stress in the reservoir before, during, and after
stimulation?
How do we optimize slickwater fracing?
Stanford|ONLINE

gp202.class.stanford.edu

25
This Lecture
Section 1
The Opportunity of the Shale Gas Revolution
Section 2
Physical Properties of Organic Rich Shales
Section 3
Hydraulic Fracturing and Microseismicity
26

This Lecture
Section 1
Shale Permeability and Desorption
Section 2
Slow Slip on Faults and Permeability Enhancement
Section 3
Modeling Reservoir Stimulation
Section 4
Watch out for Faults
Section 5
Environmental Protection
27

Recent Publications

Physical properties of shale reservoir rocks
Sone, H and Zoback, M.D. (2013), Mechanical properties of shale-gas reservoir
rocksPart 1: Static and dynamic elastic properties and anisotropy, Geophysics,
v. 78, no. 5, D381-D392, 10.1190/GEO2013-0050.1
Sone, H and Zoback, M.D. (2013), Mechanical properties of shale-gas reservoir
rocksPart 2: Ductile creep, brittle strength, and their relation to the elastic
modulus, Geophysics, v. 78, no. 5, D393-D402, 10.1190/GEO2013-0051.1
Slowly slipping faults during hydraulic fracturing
Das, I. and M.D Zoback (2013), Long-period, long-duration seismic events during
hydraulic stimulation of shale and tight gas reservoirs Part 1: Waveform
characteristics, Geophysics, v.78, no.6, p. KS107KS118.
Das, I., and M.D Zoback (2013), Long-period long-duration seismic events during
hydraulic stimulation of shale and tight gas reservoirs Part 2: Location and
mechanisms, Journal of Geophysics, , v.78, no.6, p. KS97KS105.
28

Recent Publications
Why slow slip occurs
Kohli, A. H. and M.D. Zoback, Frictional properties of shale reservoir rocks, Journal of
Geophysical Research, Solid Earth, v. 118, 1-17, doi: 10.1002/jgrb. 50346, 2013
Zoback, M.D., A. Kohli, I. Das and M. McClure, The importance of slow slip on faults during
hydraulic fracturing of a shale gas reservoirs, SPE 155476, SPE Americas Unconventional
Resources Conference held in Pittsburgh, PA, USA 5-7 June, 2012
Viscoplasticity in clay-rich reservoirs
Sone, H. and M.D. Zoback (2013), Viscoplastic Deformation of Shale Gas Reservoir Rocks
and Its Long-Term Effects on the In-Situ State of Stress, Intl. Jour. Rock Mech., 120-132,
2014.
Fluid transport/adsorption in nanoscale pores
Heller, R., J. Vermylen and M.D. Zoback (2013), Experimental Investigation of Matrix
Permeability of Gas Shales, AAPG Bull., 98 (5), 975-995, 2014.
Heller, R. and Zoback, M.D. (2013), Adsorption of Methane and Carbon Dioxide on Gas
Shale and Pure Mineral Samples, The Jour. of Unconventional Oil and Gas Res., in review,
2014.
29

Recent Publications
Discrete Fracture Network Modeling in Unconventional Reservoirs
Johri, M. and M.D. Zoback, M.D. (2013), The Evolution of Stimulated Reservoir
Volume During Hydraulic Stimulation of Shale Gas Formations, URTec 1575434,
Unconventional Resources Technology Conference in Denver, CO, U.S.A., 12-14
August 2013
Multi-Well, Multi-Stage Frac Case Study in the Barnett
Vermylen, J.P. and Zoback, M.D., Hydraulic Fracturing, Microseismic Magnitudes,
and Stress Evolution in the Barnett Shale, Texas, USA SPE 140507, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, 2011.
Watch Out for Faults
Yang, Y. and Zoback, M.D., The Role of Preexisting Fractures and Faults During
Multi-Stage Hydraulic Fracturing in the Bakken Formation, Interpretation, in press,
2014.
Environmental Protection
Zoback, M. and D. Arent, Opportunities and Challenges of Shale Gas Production,
The Bridge (U.S. National Academy of Sciences), in press, 2014.
30

Triaxial Lab Upgrade
31

Gas Shale Samples
Barnett-1

Barnett-2

4 different shale gas reservoirs

Barnett, Haynesville, Eagle Ford divided into subgroups
subgroup-1 more clay-rich and organic-rich than subgroup-2
1 diameter cylindrical samples

Cylinder axis vertical and horizontal to bedding plane
32

Organic Rich Shale Composition
Sample group
Clay
Carbonate
QFP
TOC (wt%)
Barnett-dark
29-43
0-6
48-59
4.1-5.8
Barnett-light
2-7
37-81
16-53
0.4-1.3
Haynesville-dark
36-39
20-23
31-35
3.7-4.1
Haynesville-light
20-22
49-53
23-24
1.7-1.8
Fort St. John
32-39
3-5
54-60
1.6-2.2
Eagle Ford-dark
12-21
46-54
22-29
4.4-5.7
Eagle Ford-light
6-14
63-78
11-18
1.9-2.5
33

A Typical Experiment & Objectives
Hydrostatic Stage: Bulk modulus, hydrostatic creep

Triaxial State: Youngs modulus, Poisson ration, triaxial creep
Failure & Friction: Onset of dilatancy, intact/frictional strength
34

A Typical Stress-Strain Curve
Barnett 31Vd

(Dark Sample)

Dilatancy

Strength

Friction

Creep?

Static
Modulii

35

Youngs Modulus
Strength

Barnett Dark
Haynesville Dark
Ft. St. John
200
0.8
150
0.6
100
0.4
50
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
ApproximateClay
Clay Content
[%]
Approximate
Content
(%)
Strength decreases with clay

content

Young's
Modulus [MPa]
Youngs
Modulus
(GPa)
250
Coefficient of Internal Friction
UCS(MPa)
[MPa]
UCS
Unconfined Compressive Strength

Internal Frictional Coefficient
Barnett Light
Haynesville Light
80
70
Bed-Parallel
Samples
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Clay Clay
Content Content
[%]
Approximate
(%)
Modulus correlate with clay content

and porosity
Bedding parallel samples are
36
systematically stiffer
Poissons Ratio
Barnett Light
Haynesville Light
Barnett Dark
Haynesville Dark
Ft. St. John
0.35
0.35
0.3
0.3
Poisson's Ratio
Poisson's Ratio
Barnett Dark
Haynesville Dark
Ft. St. John
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0.05
0
0
10
20
30
40
Clay Content [%]
50
Barnett Light
Haynesville Light
10
Porosity [%]
15
Poissons ratio does not correlate with other properties

37

Youngs Modulus
Barnett Light
Haynesville Light
Barnett Dark
Haynesville Dark
Ft. St. John
80
70
Young's Modulus [GPa]
Young's Modulus [GPa]
Barnett Dark
Haynesville Dark
Ft. St. John
Bed-Parallel
Samples

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Barnett Light
Haynesville Light
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
Clay Content [%]
50
10
15
Porosity [%]
Clay rich rocks are softer, Barnett is stiffer compared to Haynesville

Modulus correlate with clay content and porosity
Bedding parallel samples are systematically stiffer
38

Youngs Modulus
Youngs modulus falls within rough estimates of Voigt-Reuss

bounds
Anisotropy exists between vertical and horizontal samples
39

Creep Strain vs. Clay and E
Normal

To Bedding

Parallel

To Bedding

Amount of creep (ductility) depends on clay content and

orientation of loading with respect to bedding
Youngs modulus correlates with creep amount very well
40

Viscoplasticity Increases with Clay Content

From Lecture 4
39%clay

25%

22% clay

33%

5% clay
41

Predicting Stress Anisotropy over Geological Time

From Lecture 4
Stress Accumulation
under constant strain
rate
150 Ma - Half of age
of Barnett shale
10-19 s-1 - Stable
intraplate
(t ) =
1
t 1n
B(1 n)
Significant stress
relaxation observed for
high n
42

Average Shale Properties
BARNETT
MARCELLUS
EAGLE FORD
FLOYD
Depth (ft)
3 9,000
2 9,500
4 13,500
6 13,000
TOC (%)
1 10
1 15
27
17
RO (%)
0.7 2.3
0.5 4+
0.5 1.7
0.7 2+
Porosity (%)
2 14
2 15
6 14
1 12
Qtz + Calcite (%)
40 50
40 60
50 80
20 30
Clay (%)
20 40
30 50
15 35
45 65
Areal Extent (mi2)
22,000
60,000
15,000
6,000
25 250
50 500
10 100
<<1
Resource Size (Tcf)
Subtle variations can mean large variations in economics
43

This Lecture
Section 1
The Opportunity of the Shale Gas Revolution
Section 2
Physical Properties of Organic Rich Shales
Section 3
Hydraulic Fracturing and Microseismicity
44

How Does Multi-Stage Fracing

Stimulate Production?
MW
-1.0
MW -1.5
MW
4000 ft
-2.0
Well A
Well B
Well C
N
Map View
Well E
Well D
4000 ft
45

Fracturing and Monitoring Program
Wells divided into 300 ft frac intervals

6 perf groups per interval, each 50 feet apart
Stages in Well A and

Well B are
fractured at the
same time, thus
simulfrac
Stage in Well D and
Well E are
alternately
fractured, thus
zipperfrac
Well C is fractured
conventionally
Fracturing of Wells A,
B, D, & E are
monitored by an
array in Well C
Fracturing of Well C is
monitored by an
array in the vertical
portion of Well B
46

Frac Stages Were Quite Similar

Water: ~325,000 gal, Sand: ~400,000 lbs, Pumping
Time: ~150 mins, Max Slurry Rate: 50-60 bpm
Well C
Stage 6
47

Why Microearthquakes in These Old Shales?

a

9

6

3

0

8
16
24

Critical P (Mpa)

18
26
34
Normal Stress (Mpa)

42
Shear Stress (Mpa)

Shear Stress (Mpa)

Initial reservoir
conditions: No
well oriented
fractures
present
9
c

6

3

0

18
8

9

26
8 16 24

Critical P (Mpa)

34
Normal Stress (Mpa)

Shear Stress (Mpa)

Shear Stress (Mpa)

7

8

9
c

6

3

0

18
42

42
P = 4MPa
Some misoriented
fractures activated
26
34
Normal Stress (Mpa)

P = 2MPa
Less well oriented
fractures activated
8 16 24

Critical P (Mpa)

9
c

6

3

0

18
42

26
8 16 24

Critical P (Mpa)

P = 6MPa
Nearly all
misoriented
fractures activated
34
Normal Stress (Mpa)

48

Implications of Spatial Variations in Pressure

a

7

8

9

Shear Stress (Mpa)

9
c

6

3

0

18
42

26
8
16
24

Critical P (Mpa)

34
Normal Stress (Mpa)

Shear Stress (Mpa)

49

Earthquake/Fault Scaling Relationships
Earthquake Magnitude
6
5
4
Major: can cause serious damage over large areas.
1020
Strong: can be destructive in populated areas
1018
Moderate: can cause damage to poorly constructed buildings
1016
Noticeable shaking but damage is unlikely

Minor: felt but does not cause damage
1014
3
2
1012
1010
0
108
-1
106
-2
-3
Earthquake Moment (Nm)
100
101
Fault Patch Size (m)


102
103
104
10
5
50
5 5 Wells 50 Stages,
~ 100 Microearthquakes/Stages
Microseismic fault patches

MW
-1.0
MW
-1.5
MW
4000 ft
-2.0
~100 m

~200 m

Well A
N
Map View
Well E
Well D
Well
WellB
C
~100 m

Rock volume affected by one

fracturing stage

4000 ft
Does the Cloud of Microearthquake Hypocenters Really Reflect

the Stimulated Rock Volume?

51
Production Does Not Correlate

with Microseismicity
Dan Moos et al.

SPE 145849
52

53

An Alternative to the Standard Paradigm

Why appreciable slow slip on faults during stimulation is
expected
Next Lecture
Evidence for slowly slipping faults (not seen in
microseismic surveys) during multi-stage hydraulic
fracturing of shale gas reservoirs
Implications of slowly slipping faults for optimization of the
stimulation process
54

Rate and State Friction
55

The Case for Slow Slip on Faults

3
x 10
Barnett Light
Eagleford Light
0.8
Haynesville Light
Eagleford Dark
Haynesville Dark
Barnett Dark
10
0.6
5
0.4
Unstable
Stick-Slip/Eqs
Stable Sliding/Creep
Stable
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Clay + Organic Content (wt%)

(a - b)
Coefficient of Friction
5
60
56
Well C
57

Well C
Recording Arrays in C
while frac-ing A-B
Heel
Toe
11
10
80
Frac Stages
Natural Fractures
in Each Frac
Stage (from FMI)
0
40
Number of
meqs -2.5 per
Stage
0
API
400
Gamma Ray
Light
Stick-Slip

Stages 6-9
Dark
Stages 1-5
Stable

Fracture Strikes
58

Highly Variable Microseismicty in

Two Barnett Shale Data Sets Why?
Barnett Data 1
Barnett Data 2
59

Lecture 18 - Final For Posting - Reservoir Geomechanics Standford

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Reservoir Geomechanics

In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes

Global Energy and Environment Challenge

How Do We Provide Accessible, Affordable, and Secure Energy While

Strategies for Geologic Sequestration of CO2

CCS is a risky, and likely unsuccessful, strategy for significantly reducing

CCS Too Little to Late (and at Too High a Cost)

Shale Gas and Electrical Power

EIA 2013 Energy Outlook

Air Pollution and Energy Source*

~20% Reduction in CO2

Total Recoverable Gas

Total Recoverable Gas

Global Shale Gas

Energy Consumption in China by Fuel

7 Gtonnes CO2 y-1

Source: US EIA International Energy Outlook 2011

Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature

In the U.S , the health effects from coal-fired

Organic Rich Shales

Organic Rich Source Rock

Shale Gas Reservoirs

The Shale Reservoir

Eagle Ford Shale Pore Structure

Thermal Maturity Vitrinite Reflectance

Thermal Maturity Vitrinite Reflectance

Average Shale Properties

Qtz + Calcite (%)

Areal Extent (mi2)

Resource Size (Tcf)

Subtle variations can mean large variations in economics

Eagle Ford Shale Pore Structure

Multi-Stage Hydraulic Fracturing Works!

Dan Moos et al.

Horizontal Drilling and Multi-Stage

Shale Gas/Tight Oil Field Studies

Montney Deep Basin

OIL SHALE PLAY

Dry Gas ~25%

Valko and Lee (2010)

Research Themes in Stimulation Geomechanics

Triaxial Lab Upgrade

Gas Shale Samples

4 different shale gas reservoirs

1 diameter cylindrical samples

Organic Rich Shale Composition

Fort St. John

A Typical Experiment & Objectives

Hydrostatic Stage: Bulk modulus, hydrostatic creep

A Typical Stress-Strain Curve

Strength decreases with clay

Coefficient of Internal Friction

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Modulus correlate with clay content

Clay Content [%]

Poissons ratio does not correlate with other properties

Young's Modulus [GPa]

Young's Modulus [GPa]

Clay Content [%]

Clay rich rocks are softer, Barnett is stiffer compared to Haynesville

Youngs modulus falls within rough estimates of Voigt-Reuss

Creep Strain vs. Clay and E

Amount of creep (ductility) depends on clay content and

In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes