PWG a) me ee | | j | ISA OAS ees LU } ORO RYUTHANVASTOVIBYAPRAVESIKA A TEXT BOOK OF VASTUVIDYA DR. BALAGOPAL T.S. PRABHU Professor of Architechtural Engineering, Regional Engineering College, Calicut. DR. A. ACHYUTHAN Executive Director, Vastuvidyapratisthanam. 1996 VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM ACADEMIC CENTRE, SARASWATHAM, KILIYANAD, CALICUT -673 001English VASTUVIDYAPRAVESIKA A TEXT BOOK OF VASTUVIDYA Authors : Dr. Balagopal. T.S. Prabhu : Dr. A. Achyuthan. First Published : August 1996. Reprint : October 1997. Copies : 2000. : Academic Centre, Vastuvidyapratisthanam, Calicut - 1. : Geethanjali Offset Prints, Feroke. DTP typeset at Printed at Cover Design : Chandramohan. Price : Paper back edition - Rs. 200/- : Deluxe Library edition - Rs. 300/- : Outside India - US $ 20. : VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM, SARASWATHAM, KILIYANAD, CALICUT - 673 001. © : Authors. Publishers PREFACE During my travels in India and abroad in connection with my profession, | have noticed a deep interest among engineers, architects and others to know about the traditional Indian science of Vastuvidya. Though there is a vast amount of literature available in Samskrt, English and other Indian languages, there is no single book that covers the subject matter spread in the various classics. This book is an attempt to present the vast subject in a systematic manner so that students and practitioners of architecture as well as others interested in Vastuvidya will be able to followit easily. Both the authors are engineers with long years of experience in teaching and naturally the approach is basically analytical. In order to introduce the reader to the evolutionary nature of Vastuvidya, the authors give the historical and archeological background. Then follows the analytical exposition based on the fundamental concepts. The principles governing the construction of houses are explained in detail along with information on materials, and techniques. An analysis of temples and theatres is followed by short descriptions of yana, sayana, silpa and citra. On the whole, the book forms a very good guide for the study of Vastuvidya. Camp. Mezhathol, Kanippayyur Krishnan Nambudiripad, 11-07-96. Chairman, Vastuvidyapratisthanam. iiiCONTENTS PROLOGUE INTRODUCTION GLIMPSES OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE - EARLY PERIOD INFLUENCE OF OTHER CULTURES ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS IN KERALA THE SCOPE OF VASTUVIDYA DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM IN VASTUVIDYA CONCEPT OF VASTUMANDALA ANALYSIS OF VASTUMANDALA SELECTION OF SITES SETTLEMENT PLANNING ACCORDING TO VASTUVIDYA RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE, SITE & LAYOUT RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE, PLAN-TYPES MATERIALS & TECHNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTION TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE OF THEATRES YANA & SAYANA SILPA CITRA EPILOGUE PHONETIC REPRESENTATION OF DEVANAGARI SCRIPT REFERENCES GLOSSARY Page xt AZ 29 a1 59 70 81 95 a 123 138 147 159 176 192 205 213 223 231 232 233 23606.01 Basics of Measuring System dz LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 06.02 Different Lengths for Hasta 76 Fig. No. Title Page No. 06.03 Octal Divisions of Hasta 16 01.01 Early Evolved Buildings 3 06.04 Units of bate Measurements 16 5 07.01 Shapes of Vastumandala 82 01.02 Early Structural Systems } O7RO2a PinnerianstOd Rovdlinde Pe 01.03 Symbolism of Form 7 ‘ ae : ‘ 07.03 Efficiency of Rectangles 86 ns 9 Se ee ee amano cam si 07.04 Yoni, the Architectural Formula for Orientation 90 02.01 Mohan-jo-daro, Location &Fort area 13 Priel nei a ee ae Fa cate i 08.02 Padavinyasa in Navavarga 100 02.03 Vedic Constructions ks : 3 ; 08.03 Padavinyasa in Astavarga 102 02.04 Budhist tne ia school tg ostodopaia salt miDeearee 192 O2I0S “Buchs Cai ae aa 08.05 Grhavedika in Vithisankalj Res 3 % 5 z pa 104 02.06 Caityajalaka - Ajanta ts 08.06 Dividing the Khanda into 9 Vithis 104 02.07 Budhist Vihdra - Ajanta 18 08.07 Vastupurusasankalpa 104 02.08 Evolution of Hindu Temples 21 O8108: Sutras and’Mvarraee 106 02.09 Hindu Temple, Northern Styles f 08.09 Method of Avoiding Marmavedha 108 02.10 Hindu Temple, Pallava School 24 09.01 Determination of Cardinal Directions 116 02.11 Hindu Temple, Cola School 24 09.02 Regents of Eight Directions 116 02.12 Hindu Temple, Pandya School 27 09.03 Analysis of Ground slope ¢ 119 02.13 Hindu Temple, Calukya School 27 09.04 Classification of Site by Shape ng 03.01 Qutub Minar. Delhi 30 09.05 Location of Trees 120 03.02 Tomb of Giasuddin, Tuglakabad 30 10.01 Agrahara type of Settlements 126 03.03 Mughal Architecture 32 i 10.02 Growth of Settlements 128 03.04 Provincial style 34 10.03 Models of Settlement Planning 130 03.05 Christian Architecture 36 11.01 Location of Residential Zones 140 03.06 Architecture of Colonial Period 38 11.02 Desirable Position of Gateways for Houses 140 03.07 High Court Building, Chandigarh 38 11.03 Location of Building Plot in Large Sites 142 04.01 Pre-historic Vestiges of Kerala 44 11.04 Location of Building Plot in Small Sites 142 04.02 Primary Temple Forms of Kerala 46 11.05 Individual House in Row Ha Scheme 144 04.03 Three-tiered Vimana of Matathilappan 48 11.06 Demarkation of Regions for Residences in 04.04 Nestorian Cathedral, Thrissur 48 2 Mae rei SENET Al aabin 144 RE i ialMosaué, Caticur 48 be oe Salas * “ ae rder of Preference 1 04.06 Buildings of Laurie Baker 56 ee EXpanblon Olea Waa i MA vii12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 15.01 15.02 15.03 16.01 16.02 17.01 17.02 18.01 Six types of Dwisala Four types of Trisala Types of Catussala Classification of Catussala as in Brhatsamhita Expansion of Catussala along the Axes Location of Functions in Catus. Vertical Elements of a Building Adhisthana Forms for Houses Details of Pillars Details of Gonnection of Wall Plate & Rafters Section of Roof showing Aridhothara Foundation Details Details of Door Details of Ceiling & Entablature Details of Sabha Roof Position of Dieties in a Settlements Alpaprasada Shrine Square Garbhagrha in Circular shritie Roof Construction through Corbelled Dome Pancaprakara Proportions The Proportionate System of Measurement in Temples Different Adhisthana Forms used in Temples Typical Kerala Temple with Sloping Roof Ornamental Pillars used in Temples Temple as Purusa Srikara and VijayaTypes of Mandapa Details of Kittampalam Triangular, Square and Rectangular forms of Theatres Different Categories of Sibika Kiirmasana & Simhasana Proportions in Pancatdla Proportions in Navatala Style of Mural Paintings in Kerala viii 150 152 153 154 156 156 164 164 166 166 168 168 172 172 174 178 178 180 180 184 184 186 188 188 190 194 196 198 206 206 218 218 PROLOGUE Vastuvidya is the art of building evolved in India, through centuries of experimentation, theorisation and adaptation to man's everchanging needs. It is dynamic in character. It transcends space and time. The wheel on the front cover of this book is symbolic of this concept. Classically Vastuvidya was taught as part of kalpa and jyotisa. Kalpa covered the spatial and technological aspects of the Vastu and jyotisa dealt with the temporal aspects. This book concentrates on the technological aspects as the foundation course in the study of Vastuvidya. It compiles the information which lies scattered in several treatises covering the subject. This work is based on the programmed lessons offered to a select group of motivated participants and on the feed back received from them. It is divided into four modules: 1. Historical background of architectural styles 2. Fundamental concepts of Vastuvidya. 3. Elements of planning settlements and houses. 4. Basics of Prasadavastu and allied areas. A diligent learner will be able to cover the subject matter in four months' time and will be able to proceed to the design aspects in a logical sequence.MODULE 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLE1 —————— INTRODUCTION ee 01.01 DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE Architecture is the science and art of designing and constructing buildings. As a science it uses the systematic knowledge regarding (i) the materials for construction, (ii) the techniques of building and (iii) the methods of environmental control. As an art, it utilizes the medium of construction to express human aspirations and aesthetics through space, form and decoration. The word ‘architecture’ is derived from the Greek word 'Architekton' meaning the chief worker or the Master Builder. Indian literature refers to the Master Builder as ‘sthapati', meaning one who conceives and erects the building (vastu). Architecture is hence referred here as'Vastuvidya', meaning the knowledge of building science. The primary concern of architecture is ‘function’. Function relates to the suitability of the building for particular human activities. It depends on the design and organisation of space for accommodating the intended purpose. This functional space is clothed in the building envelope. The permanence and stability of the building envelope hence become equally important in architecture. It is decided by the strength and durability of the material and the way in which ——————= Vistuvidyapravesika —— they are assembled. The overall form of the building and its decoration decide its expression or aesthetic appearance. Aesthetic expression is again an integral part of architectural creation. According to Vetruvius, architecture is the ultimate synthesis of Utilitas (adequacy of space), Firmitas (firmness of structure) and Venustas (delightful appearance). According to Ruskin, all good architecture is the expression of national life and character and is produced by a prevalent and eager national taste or desire for beauty. The genius and character of a nation is unmistakably stamped on its architecture. With the Greeks this was refined perfection, with the Romans the grandeur of construction, with the Gothic the passionate enquiry into new forms and with the Indians the mystic spiritual content and unity with the environment. 01.02 ORIGIN OF BUILDING ART Architecture had a simple origin in the primitive efforts of mankind to secure protection against elements: the rock caves, the huts of reeds and the tents of bark or skin (fig. 01.01). In settled life, the shelters came to be built more solidly in brick, stone and timber. Increasingly ,efforts were devoted to the community needs such as fortifications, places of worship, tombs, granaries, markets, etc. Modern times have presented need for factories, educational buildings, assembly halls, traffic terminals, commercial centers and new forms of housing. Through the ages, the styles of construction were moulded and adapted to the changing needs of the society. Architecture thus remains as the principal visible and material record of man’s intellectual evolution to date. It forms the prerequisite for and symbol of the cultural development of a people. The early construction techniques were based or ‘trial and error' methods. At any place, the construction was = 8 ——_ Viistuvidydpravesika CAVE LAKE HUT ON STILES MUD HUT ON PLATFORM FIG.01.01 EARLY EVOLVED BUILDINGSa Vastuvidytpravesixa —$__——— evolved depending on the properties of the available materials and the skill in modifying them. The trabeated construction using post and lintel was developed in regions where stone and timber were available. Arcuated construction using arches and vaults was evolved where the materials available were clay, brick and stone (fig 01.02). Composite construction was evolved where different materials were available for putting up building. Built forms so evolved were also shaped to suit the climate of a region. Distinct styles of construction thus appeared in different parts of the world. The traditionally evolved construction showing distinct regional character is known as ‘Vernacular Architecture’. It is functionally efficient and is appropriate to suit the materials, topography, climate and social and cultural factors of the region. But any society is in a continuous process of development. Ethnic contacts, economic prosperity, vigorous polity and technological growth are the main forces of social development. The forces which produce dynamic social changes also bring forth innovations in architecture. The innovations influence the space design, construction methods and ornamentation. At any time two styles of architecture may thus co-exist in a region. One is the ‘old’ evolved vernacular style, mainly adopted and conserved by the individuals in their humble constructions. Second is the 'new' innovative buildings, expressive of the power, aspirations and skills of the society at large, generally adopted for public buildings. 01.03 FEATURES OF AN ARCHITECTURAL STYLE Architecture as a creative art has two distinct aspects - the interior and the exterior. The interior serves to fulfill complex human needs - personal and social. Most of these needs are utilitarian, such as requirements of space for ee — meveiae comes ee ee ‘TRUE ARCH \ TRUSS AND LEAN TO ROOF TRABEATED SYSTEMS ARCUATED SYSTEMS FIG. 01.02 EARLY STRUCTURAL SYSTEMSVastuvidyapravesika ——emmem working, learning, praying, entertaining etc. Sometimes, the needs are symbolic as in the case of temples and monuments, where a feeling of reverence is to be evoked on the user by the interior. The organisation of the interior space for satisfying the function generates the architectural plan of a building. The exterior decides the aesthetics of the building. The characteristics of the exterior are the form and its details. Many forms are beautiful by their geometric perfection. New forms are also generated by the combination of basic forms. The exterior forms also become symbolic of social institutions by association. For example, dome is associated with the cosmic power, tower with the aspirations, spire with religious fervour, portals with the elegance etc. (fig. 01.03). Often, as in painting or sculpture, the exterior also becomes abstract in order to emphasise the aesthetic quality of the form itself in modernistic expression. Surface treatment further emphasises the form. Truly, in architecture both these aspects, interior and exterior, have to be combined and closely related to each other and to the environment. Often this relation was not presented in the architecture of all periods. Closed form compositions generally emphasised on decorative treatment of the exterior. Open form architecture, on the other hand, was evolved out of coherent organisations of functional spaces. Here the separation of interior and exterior was less marked. The organisation of space, the form and ornamentation of exterior materials and method of constructions, the structural system and above all the overall concept of the building thus form the salient features which distinguish one architectural style from another. 01.04 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE Architecture is the most elaborate, costly and enduring one among the creative arts. It, therefore, flourishes in stable —O————————————— oC wwhbpoe dd —_ DOME (Sach ‘TOWER (Chittore) Be SCULPTURE (Harp) FIG.01.03 SYMBOLISM OF FORM———_ Vistwvidyapravesiea ——————— and wealthy societies with a taste or desire for beauty. Such civilizations must have also acquired mechanical techniques like ramp, pulley, lever, winches etc. and craft skills for processing, lifting and assembling heavy materials. The earliest conjunction of stability, wealth and impulse for building occured some 5000 years ago in the ancient civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, Indus Valley, China and Mexico. The art of building was taken up by successive civilisations, to new heights. In the west the Greeks, the Persians and the Romans were the carriers of the architectural tradition. In the east, the Indians developed the building art in new directions and spread it far and wide. By the dawn of the Christian era, well defined architectural styles were existing in all parts of the world. The great religions of the world have played a decisive role in the evolution of architecture. Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam adopted for the places of worship distinct architectural styles rooted in the land of their origin. As the religions spread in new areas, local features of construction and decorations were incorporated in these buildings. The modification of the central theme of a style by the vernacular features generated different schools of style. (fig. 01.04). Patronage for architectural constructions was provided at all times by the rulers, for whom buildings were the glowing symbols of triumph, power and immortality. Money, materials and skills were, hence, lavished, on constructing monumental structures by the royalty. These architectural monuments viz., palaces, institutional buildings, assembly structures etc. in turn became the models for the aristocracy and the layman in designing and constructing their own places of residence. Architectural ideas thus infiltrated from the royalty to the subjects, from the rulers to the citizens. 8 ——————————" OVMiWidaprosiie SS “SS (FEA JUMA MASJID (Delhi) > FIG. 01.04 SAME THEME, DIFFERENT EXPRESSIONS.—_ Vwidooske——————— In the modern era, the leadership in architectural construction has been taken over by the industrial and commercial powers. Industrial revolution and urbanisation brought changes in the life of the people and generated new need for buildings. Invention of steel and concrete opened up possibilities of erecting larger and taller structures in various forms. The history of architecture traces experiments and transitions in the method of construction as a sequence of development. We are concerned with the history as a means of wisdom, as a basis of sound judgement and thereby as an aid to design. Thus, the architecture of any region is the result of evolutionary changes brought about during thousands of years. But in almost all parts of the world, except the Indian sub- continent; the evolution has not been a continuous process. In India, the continuity is maintained through archeological remains, written texts and transfer of technology through generations of silpins. The old science of building, Vastuvidya, remained a living tradition till about a century ago. Though the ‘new’ innovative technology was introduced by modern education in engineering and architecture, the search for identity takes us to the ‘old’ cultural roots. Fortunately, Vastuvidya has not yet become a thing of the past, it very much co-exists with the present and is flexible enough to be fused with it. Therein lies the importance of Indian Architecture. Q ce nee rm eceamenersmee | mer rine easement meme Vastuvidyapravesika ASSIGNMENTS 1. Fill in the blanks a) According to Vetruvius, eee is the ultimate synthesis of 2») he 2 fad). and iii). b) The important aspects of the nation stamped on all works of Bestional Indian architecture are“ “and c) The: dome symbaniies cosmic power, the tower symbolises and the portal symbolises 2. Sketch the primitive efforts of man for security from elements. 3. Sketch the following structural systems in traditional architecture: a) post and lintel b) corbelled arch 4. Briefly discuss the relevance of studying traditional system in modern times, particularly for residential architecture. c) true arch.2 GLIMPSES OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE EARLY PERIOD 02.01 INTRODUCTION A distinct architectural style had developed in the Indian sub-continent from the ancient times, owing mainly to its geographical isolation. Its salient features may be studied in different phases of evolution. > Phase - I Ancient Period Phase - I Budhist Period Phase -I11_ = Hindu Period Phase -IV _ Indo - Islamic Period Phase - V Colonial Period Phase -VI_ Contemporary Period The first3 phases belong to the early period and the next three phases denote the influence of other cultures on Indian Architecture. 02.02 PHASE - I: ANCIENT PERIOD a) Indus Valley Constructions. (3000 BC-1500BC) The Indian Architecture had its beginning from the ancient cities which flourished in the Indus valley form 3000 BC. Most of the information concerning these cities comes from the excavations of Mohan-jo-daro and Harappa. Mohan-jo-daro 12, ee ir rr @——_— M-MOHANJO-DARO H-HARAPPA (©-CHANHU DARO R-RANGPUR }) eae so MOHAN - JO - DARO -- FORT AREA 1.COLLEGE 2. BATH 3.GRANARY 4. TOWER 5.MONASTRY 6. ASSEMBLY 7. FORTIFICATIONS PLAN OF SETTLEMENT FIG.02.01 MOHAN - JO- DARO LOCATION AND FORT AREA PRE-HISTORIC SITES OF INDUS CULTURE PICTORIAL VIEW OF BATH (MOHAN- JO- DARO) SHOWING POOL, CELLS & CLOISTER AROUND FIG. 02.02 BATHING POOL, MOHAN - JO-DAROSSPE lh ik —_—_ VILLAGE SCENE (FROM AMARAVATIC. 2° Cent. A.D ARTING A PILLAR (FROM WALL OF RAICHUR FORT) SHAPES OF VEDIC BUILDING: ARDEN (FROM AMARAVATI) ie Pa PROM SANG VLLAGE Gate (RECONSTRUCTION) (FROM SANC) REED HUT (FROM MATHURA) FIG. 02.03 VEDIC CONSTRUCTIONS ef me nett in Cool OO was a city carefully plannned in a grid system with the main streets in south-north and west-east directions dividing the city into rectangular blocks. The houses were oriented in the cardinal directions and conceived as self-contained units with inner courtyards. The city had a walled citadel for the ruling class, which contained complex buildings (fig. 02.01). The gro und plan ofa granary structure 70 m x 23 m shows many rooms surrounding acourt. Another is a bathing pool (12 mx 9 mx 2.5 m), surrounded by small cells (fig. 02.02). The style of construction in Indus valley cities was bare and utilitarian. Brick, sun-dried and burnt, was the common material for walls. Floors and roofings were in timber. Post and lintel was the structural system, but corbelled arches were used for culverts and sewers. Vestiges of Indus valley construction have been traced over extensive areas of north- western India. Later developments, however, were not a continuation of the brick construction of the Indus valley cities, but they were of a fresh origin from the simple structures of the vedic age. b) Vedic Architecture (1500 BC- 250 BC) Most of the information regarding this phase is derived from the vedic literature and form the bass reliefs on the later monuments. Vedic people were of a pastoral and agricultural class. The early huts were circular in plan. Later the circular plan was elongated to rectangular or apsidal plans, with barrel roofs formed of bent bamboos and covered with grass. The horse-shoe shape of the roof was later adopted by Buddhists in their caitya windows. A cluster of huts formed a grama (fig. 02.03). It was protected by fence with uprights and three horizontals pierced through the uprights. Entrances were formed by placing a gateway of similar construction in advance of the fence. This form of gateway (torana) became a symbol of protection during the Buddhist time. SOVastuvidyapravesika ————— 'SARNATH NEPAL LATER FORMS OF STUPA ASOKASTAMBHA (SARNATH) LOMAS RSI CAVE FIG. 02.04 BUDHIST ARCHITECTURE - ASOKA SCHOOL ————————]|, 5) ee] Vastuvidydpravesika Over the years, the vedic people had put up more enduring buildings and established cities. The best example of this was the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra. From the accounts of Megesthenis, it is seen that this city was surrounded by a stupendous timber palisade. One of the quarters of the city contained the citadel and the royal apartments. The palace consisted of a series of halls with pillars of wood, carved and gilded. 02.03 PHASE - II: BUDDIST PERIOD (250 B.C. - 750AD) With the invasion of Alexander, the vedic style was gradually influenced by Greco-Persian features. The rise of Buddhism further brought about changes in the socio-cultural values and their expression in construction. a) Asokan School The acceptance of Buddism as a state religion during Asoka's period and great efforts of the emperor to propagate the faith amongst the people gave rise to a new class of structures. The principal contributions of the Asokan School were i) stipa (ii) stambha and (iii) rock-cut chambers. (fig. 02.04) The stipas are circular monuments of brick, built around some relic of Buddha. They are crowned by symbolic elements of harmika and chatrayasti. A stupa is also surrounded by a palisade enclosing a path for circambulation. The best example of Asokan stipa is that at Sdnci enlarged and brought to its present state by the Sunga kings. By the first century, four glorious gateways (torana) were added to the Sanci stupa. From this seed, stupas of various forms were put up later in regions where Buddism spread. The greatest achievement of Asokan school is stambha, the symbolic stone pillar. A stambha consists of a 0 Ss SSS—_ swings ————— e2eescccee® INTERIOR VIEW FIG.02.05 BUDHIST CAITYA HALL (KARLE) LAY-OUT OF SHRINE (S) AND CELLS (C) AROUND THE COURT (0) ——Vistuvidyapravesika plain unadorned shaft of circular section, about 90cm in diameter and 9-12 m high, rising straight out of ground and tapering like the trunk of a palm tree (fig. 02.04). At the top of this shaft is a bell capital and an abacus supporting figures of animals symbolizing 4 quarters of the universe: horse for the south, lion for the north, bull for the west and elephant for the east. In the Saranath pillar, all these four animals were carried in relief on the abacus which was surmounted by 4 lions. Supported over the heads of these animals was the wheel of law (dharmacakra). The capital and superstructure are formed of one piece connected to the shaft by a copper bolt. Asokan school also initiated the rock cut architecture. The rock cut chambers situated near Gaya and Nagarjuna hills are more of less imitations of timber forms in rock. But in details, craftsman were evolving a characteristic style in stone work. Further, Greco-Persian motifs were being synthesized with the local style as seen in the stambhas. b) Hinayana School During Kaniska's time, Buddhism was divided into Hinaydna and Mahaydna sects, the influence of which is manifested in the architectural style also. The main structure of HinayGna school was caityasala, the prayer halls of Budhist monks (fig. 02.05.) The central theme of the hall is a miniature stijpa, hewn out of solid rock and decorated with graphic symbols, at the apsidal end. The hall is divided into a broad nave and two aisles by colonnades. This has striking resemblance to the Greco-Roman basilicas of that period. The roof of the hall is finished like a vault and the facade is treated with a large caitya window over the doorways, admitting light into interior. The caitya hall at Karle is the most famous among them. In the Mahayana phase, the caitya hall retained its form, but they increasingly incorporated icons, ——eG—e————"§ edo he ——_—_—_ sculptures, reliefs, and frescoes as in Ellora and Ajanta (fig. 02.06). c) Mahayana School The important structures of Mahayana school are viharas (monasteries). Viharas consisted of stipas and quarters for the monks (fig. 02.07). The stiipas of this period were erected on tall platforms and consisted of diminishing drums one above the other, surmounted by many tiered umbrella. These ‘stipas may have inspired the Chinese, Japanese and Burmese to erect their multistoreyed pagodas. The monks' quarters were a group of rooms around a central courtyard. The monasteries at TaksaSila and Nalanda later became centres of philosophical studies. Some vihdras were also rock-cut as in Aurangabad. In these viharas, cells were carved out around a central hall and the innermost halls were used for installing the images of Budha. This formed a distinct feature of Mahayana school. 02.04 PHASE - III: HINDU PERIOD (500AD - 1500AD) a) Evolutionary Period By the Sth century, all over India theistic Hinduism had become very widespread repiacing Buddhism. In the north, this period coincides with the golden rule of Guptas and, in peninsular India, with the reign of Pallavas. Indian history saw the rise and fall of many dynasties during the 1000 years that followed. A large number of cities flourished during this period all over India. Each had two foci - the palace and the temple. The high level of palace architecture can be gauged only from the descriptions in literature and archeological remains at isolated locations. But temples have survived ‘better as representative edifices of Hindu architecture. 2) ST MUO ——— ~~ JRGANNATH (PURI, 12TH CENT. AD.) FIG. 02.08 EVOLUTION OF HINDU TEMPLESBs A = Maswidnannsii ——————— 4. BHOG MANDIR 2. NAT MANDIR 3. JAG MOHAN 4. GARBHAGRHA 1. ENTRY 2. RANGAM: SEU AA 4. GODHAMANDAPA 5. GARBHAGRHA 6. CELLS ‘TEMPLE PLAN CENTRAL INDIA Api 3. GARBHAGRHA ‘TEMPLE PLAN WESTERN INDIA ( MADHERA) FIG. 02.09 HINDU TEMPLES, NORTHERN STYLES OS a Vwihpos— The heart of the temple is a shrine room (garbhagrha), connected to a porch (arthamandapa) for worshippers (fig. 02.08). Later it became a vestibule (anthardla) to the pavilion (mandapa). The shrine room is generally surmounted by a tower, while lesser towers rise from other parts of the puilding. The whole is set in a rectangular court yard which may contain secondary shrines and ancillary buildings. Silpins devoted their energies to create monuments of fantastic beauty out of this simple layout. Heavy cornices, sturdy pillars and stout towers gave the temple a feeling of strength and solidity. This was counteracted by delicate carvings, statuaries and other ornamentation. Every aspect of divine and human existence was symbolized in these decorations, which often made the temple both austere and voluptuous, aspiring to reach heaven, but rooted in the earth. Considering the size of the land, Indian temple architecture is remarkably uniform but authorities distinguish two chief styles, the northern or Aryan style and southern or Dravidian style. The Aryan style is characterised by a tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline, while the tower of Dravidian style is usually in the shape of a rectangular truncated pyramid. b) Northern Style of Temple Architecture North Indian temple architecture is best illustrated by three schools, those of Orissa, central India and Gujarat. The finest Orissan temple is the Lingardja at Bubhneswar (fig. 02.09). It is built as a series of four halls: a hall of offering, a dancing hall, an assembly hall and a sanctuary.. The sanctuary is crowned by a great tower (sikhara) curving inwards terminated by an amalaka disc and a finial (kalasa). The other three elements of the temple are also roofed with towers of smaller size, carrying the eye to the main sikhara. Orissan schools feature lavish exterior decoration but the ———— 23—_———____. Vastuvidyépravesika =m ———Viistuvidyapravesiba —— interiors are left unadorned. The abundance of sculpture can be seen best in the Sun temple of Kondrak. e Khajuraho, near Jhansi, is the supreme example of the school which flourished in central India. The standard type of Khajuraho temple contains a sanctuary, an assembly hall and an entrance portico, conceived as if they are not structurally separate. The characteristic tower is curved for its whole length and its upward thrust is accentuated by miniature sikharas emerging from the central tower. The effect of the whole is one of organic and natural growth, suggestive of a mountain range. In contrast with the Orissan temples, Khajuraho displays sculptural omamentation both outside and inside. SECTION Xx FIG.02.10 HINDU TEMPLE; PALLAVA SCHOOL. (KANCIPURAM) The most important buildings of the Gujarat school are the Jaina shrines of Mount Abu, the style of which is not very different from that of Khajuraho in their treatment of Sikhara. Perhaps through the influence of Persians and Arabs, the ceilings are made in the form of corbelled dome and brackets from columns are made to meet in the centre to give an arch-like effect. The shrines of Gujarat school, mostly of marble, are covered with delicate and ornate carvings especially in the interior. c) Southern Style i) Pallava School Earliest temples of Dravidian style are those belonging to Pallava school (fig. 02.10). The apogee of Pallava school was reached in the shore temples at Mamallapuram and the Kaildsanath temple at Kanchi. These monuments carry the remanants of Buddhist architecture. Their towers are like FIG. 02.41 HINDU TEMPLE, COLA SCHOOL A a (TANJAVUR) | truncated pyramids, surmounted by a solid cupola suggestive of Buddhist stipa. (————— O———————e——"_—Vastuvidyapravesika ii) Cola School The comparatively modest tower of Pallavas was replaced by a great pyramid rising from a tall base and crowned by a domed finial by Colas. The best example of Cola school is the Siva temple at Tanjavur, with a tower, rnearly 60m high (fig. 02.11). This set the style of Dravidian sikhara which has continued with some varitation down to the present day. Emancipation of architecture from the carpentry techniques is evident here. The temples of Cola school contain elaborate pillared halls and beautiful decorations. iii) Pandyan School The Pandyan school is characterised by the shifting of the emphasis from the tower above the main shrine to the entrance gateways of the surrounding wall. (fig. 02.12) By the 12th century, it became usual to fortify the temple with gateways surrounded by soaring towers (gopura), in the form of oblong pyramid. These were identical to the watch towers of palaces. This school also introduced more elaborate ornamentation and use of animal forms in pilasters and columns. The best examples of this style are the Minaksi temple at Madurai and Rangandatha temple at Srirangam. iv) Calukya School By 11th century, in Deccan, Calukyans and Hoysdlas had developed an elaborate style of temple construction. Their temples were no longer built on a rectangular plan, but were polygonal or stellar, raised on tall solid platforms of the same shape as the building. The characteristics features of the Calukya and Hoysdla school are: 1. profuse carvings of animals and legendary motifs, 2. use of kirtimukha as a decorative feature, 3. turned columns, and 4. flat dome-like sikhara. 26 —_———_ KKK idysprVC CO [) LAY-OUT PLAN VIEW OF GOPURA FIG.02.12 HINDU TEMPLE, PANDYA SCHOOL (MADURA\) FIG. 02.19 HINDU TEMPLE, CALOKYA SCHOOL (CENNAKESAVA, BELUR) ————————_ OoSSS Vastuvidyapravesika ——— A profusion of ornamentation gives this style delicate Prettiness, despite its solid proportions. Famous temples of this school are those of Halebid and Belur (fig. 02.13). v) Vijayanagara School The culmination of the stylistic development of Dravidian temple architecture is seen in the Vijayanagara school. Temple complex now contained new elements: a shrine for the goddess, often nearly as large as the main shrine, pillared halls, marriage hall and shrines for other dieties. The columns were so decorated that they became sculptures in their own right. For brilliance of decorative imagination the Vijayanagara school was never surpassed in Hindu India. Its finest production is the Vittala temple at Hampi. Q ASSIGNMENTS - What are the characteristic features of ancient Indus valley constructions? 2. What are the principal contributions of the Asokan school of architecture? 3. What is the difference’ between Caitya and Vihdra of Buddhist style? 4. Tabulate the different schools of Dravidian architecture, their main features and give examples of each. —— =. »s_ _— INFLUENCE OF OTHER CULTURES ON /| INDIAN ARCHITECTURE — 03.01 INTRODUCTION Alexander's invasion (323 BC) brought into India, Greek, Assyrian and Persian influences. The Mohamadan invasion in 13th century introduced Islamic features and the colonization by the Europeans brought Gothic and Renaissance styles. Contemporary Indian architecture is shaped by the above influencing factors and modern architectural thoughts. 03. 02. PHASE - IV: INDO - ISLAMIC PERIOD (12-17 Century AD) a) Imperial School The Indo-Islamic architecture resulting from the contact with the West Asia may be resolved into three main schools, viz., the imperial, the Mughal and the provincial. In the development of the imperial style, Delhi occupied the prominent place. Beginning in the last years of thel2th century, for a period of over three centuries, five Mohamadan dynasties - Slave, Khilji, Tugluk, Sayyid and Lodi - held sway, with Delhi as the focal point of their domination. Each has left substantial evidences of architectural works. Two of these are most significant: the Qutub mosque of the slave period and the tomb of Gias-ud-din of the Tuglaq period. 0o———$S—ae ‘4 = \swhbaproaeskh —_— FIG. 03.02 TOMB OF SIASUDDIN, TUGLAKABAD a a it OO iO Qutb mosque gets distinction by two elements: (i) a vast arcade and (ii) the Qutub Minar (fig. 03.01). Working according to the verbal instructions of their overlords, Indian craftsmen had fashioned the first arcade. They made it ingenuously graceful with Hindu techniques: it was essentially a corbelled arch, shaped like a Buddhist niche. Right up to 17th century, this corbelled arch co-existed in Islamic style with the true arch. The second element, Qutub minar, is unique owing to its size and design. From a base of about 14 m diameter it tapers to 3 m at the summit in four stages, each in a different pattern and in section. A fifth storey was later added. It was intended first as a tower from which the faithful could be summoned to prayer, but later regarded as a tower of victory. It also became a forerunner of minars in the architectural scheme of the Islamic religious buildings. The tomb of Gias-ud-din is the fore-runner of the tomb architecture (fig. 03.02). Built on a square base of about 18 m sides, it rises to over 24 m in height. A striking feature of this structure is the pronounced batter of the outer walls. Tall pointed archways are recessed at the centre of each side. A true arch has been used here, but lintels are incorporated across the base of the arch, possibly owing to the insistence of workmen in maintaining their traditions. Three of the arch ways contain doors, but the fourth one on the west is closed to accommodate the mihrab in its interior. The interior of the tomb is a single chamber roofed with a solid dome of brick and cement core with marble sheathing supported on arches. The dome later became the characteristic feature of the Islamic style, though it underwent a series of changes in its shape and supporting system. b) Mughal School Islamic architecture attained its grandest form under the patronage of the Mughal dynasty. Humayun's tomb (1564) ———————— 3SSS Vastuvidyapravesika ——es —_——— 2) NN] LSM iD O_o si” —_— forms an outstanding landmark in its development. This monument presents an Indian interpretation of a Persian conception. The building stands in a park-like enclosure on a lofty terrace (6.6 m high) of arched alcoves opening to small rooms. The tomb structure is of red sand stone, 47 m square in plan, with charmfered angles. It is roofed with a marble dome with a cluster of pillared kiosks around. The blending of red sandstone with white marble is an admirable feature of this structure. Important Mughal monuments of Akbar's period are at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. Agra fort is distinguished by its magnificent palaces of double-storeyed rooms around central courtyards. Fatehpur Sikri is the dream city of Akbar, with buildings of typical Indo-saracenic design. Among these, Panch mahal, Bulund darvaza and tomb of Salim Chisti (fig. 03.03) attract special attention, on account of their form, layout and carved decoration. These features are also seen in Akbar's tomb at Sikandra built by Jehangir. This is an imposing structure of five terraces, all treated with decorative elements and pillared kiosks. Islamic architecture during Shah Jahan's period is marked by extensive use of marble and the introduction of cusped arches. These two features gave new sensibility to the building art and decoration. The most famous buildings of this phase are the Juma Masjid at Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra. Built on a lofty plinth, Juma Masjid has a vast congregational courtyard (about 98 m wide) surrounded by arched cloisters on the three sides (refer fig. 01.04). On the western side stands the sanctuary buildings 60 m wide and 27 m deep. Its exterior presents a wide central archway flanked by an arcade of five engraved arches. The wings terminate in tall minarets of four stages. Three large bulbous domes of white marble create a lasting impression. —0—————— — Vastuvidyapravesika ——_— me ‘SHER SHAH'S TOMB (SASARAM) ey ee = FIG.03.04 PROVINCIAL STYLE _ —_e_—_————— 5) a Oistxv id yaprvcsikba ———— Taj Mahal (fig. 03.03) testifies to the rich experience of master builders summoned from India and abroad. Taj is located on the banks of Yamuna in the midst of a garden, so planned as to prepare the spectator for the exquisite appearance of the central structure. The mausoleum rises almost abruptly from a high marble terrace, defined by the minarets. The arrangement in the interior consists of an octogonal central hall and subsidiary chambers in the angles. Its elevation is divided into two parts of approximately equal height - a two-storeyed prism and a magnificent dome. The great bulbous dome rises to 56 m. Subsidiary domes rise at the four comers. The charm of Taj is produced by its beautiful setting in the well-laid-out garden, the perfect proportion of its form and the quality of the fine marble which tends itself to delicate treatment and embellishments with floral forms. c) Provincial Style While Muslim architecture was developing at Delhi and Agra, distinct provincial styles were being shaped in the outlying portions of the empire, merging the local methods with the Islamic features. In Bengal, Western India and Deccan, these provincial styles flourished. In Deccan, the best examples of the stylistic development are seen in Gulbarga and Bijapur. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga has two special characteristics - the broad square arches of the cloisters and the courtyard covered by small domes carried on arched bays. The prominent feature of Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur (fig. 03.04) is the dome, ingeniously supported on pendants formed by intersecting arches rising from pilasters. Some of the later examples of provincial styles are the Udaipur Palace in Rajasthan, the golden temple in Punjab, the city gates in Hyderabad, palace in Mysore, Rani Sarai's tomb in Ahmedabad and Shersha's tomb at Sasram. In each of these cases, one can discern the influence of a variety of earlier Styles and Islamic features. FO ————_FL A Te TE a rr e_" hiwihbapoedske—_ —=$-s Ms A sik Islamic Architecture introduced arcuated forms and domes in India. It infused open planning and garden layout, with geometric design of building. Design theories of Islamic architectures have not been studied in detail; yet it appears that there are many features common to the traditional design system of India and the practices in West Asia. 03.03. PHASE - V: COLONIAL PERIOD From 16th century, several European powers - Portugese, Dutch, French and English - established their colonies in India. Buildings with the style prevalent in each of these countries had been introduced in large numbers. These buildings include residences, convents, cathedrals, warehouses and fortresses. Examples of these early constructions are still seen in Kerala and Goa (fig. 03.05). Projecting balconies and porticoes are the characteristic features of the new residential architecture. Various church forms with buttesses, bell towers, pointed and circular arches, trusses, stained glass work, etc are the main features of religious buildings. The second phase of European style manifested itself in the work of British engineers during the 18th and 19th centuries. This style copied the Gothic and classical motifs prevalent in London. Examples of this are seen in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Classical facades, pillared porticos, vaulted halls and arcades distiguish these works of royal engineers. At the beginning of 20th century, some attempts were made to orientalise the construction of public building by amalgamating Indian features with European styles, two examples of which are the Prince of Wales Museum in Bombay, the Victoria Memorial and High Court Building in Calcutta (fig. 03.06). The building of New Delhi afforded an opportunity for laying the foundations of a modern school of Indian 2——_$————__ E565. iwi ovr ——_—_—_ — Vastuvidyapravesika architecture. Edward Lutyens tried to synthesis the various styles of Indian architecture with the contemporary style in designing the administrative complex of Delhi, but the design has resulted ina grandiose and heavy architecture, resembling the renaissance style, prevalent in Europe. 03.04 PHASE - VI: CONTEMPORARY PERIOD Modern architecture as a universal mode of construction has appeared in India also, mainly through the work of Le Corbusier in the city of Chandigarah. (fig. 03.07). This was followed by many followers of ‘international’ styles as practiced by Frank Lloyd Wright, Mies Van Der Rohe, Philip Johnson, etc. With the introduction of modern education in architecture this trend has increased. Modern buildings have thus appeared in towns and villages with no consideration to their settings. Ina vast country like India with diverse cultures, no style will be universally accepted unless it is rooted in the Indian tradition. There are many elements of the indigenous architecture evolved through centuries to suit the climate, materials, spiritual values and social norms. An Indian form of modern architecture may have to be evolved synthesising these features to provide a cultural continuity to the building art. This concept necessitates a serious enquiry into traditional architecture - a search for the theory and philosophy that lie hidden in its superficial form. Q | FIG. 03.07 HIGH COURT BUILDING (CHANDIGARH) ———— OI 3SSSSSSSSSS-«CVastuvidyapravesika —<—— ASSIGNMENTS 1. What are the three major division into which the Indo- Islamic architecture can be classified? Give one example for each division. 2. What are the major structural forms introduced in the Islamic Architecture in India? 3. What are the main features of the colonial style of Indian Architecture? 4. Give three examples of the provincial style of Indo-Islamic Architecutre. Pe Explain the reason for adoption of European classic styles in the colonial architecture of India in the 18th and 19th centuries. Give two examples of buildings built in that style. 6. Write a note on the relevance of in-depth study of traditional architecture in Indian context. as————$_. » 4 ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN KERALA 04.01 INTRODUCTION While maintaining a continuity of the general pattern of construction in the mainland of India, a unique architectural style developed in the west coast, especially in Kerala. The main reasons for this are the geographic and climatic features of this region. Geographically, Kerala is a narrow strip of land confined between the western ghats and the Arabian sea, which serve as natural barriers. There have not been any destructive foreign invasions and subjugation here. Further, the trade contact with foreign countries were on peaceful basis unlike that of the northern parts of India. Kerala thus presents a very good background for studying the evolution of architecture. The pre-historic megaliths, caves, pavilions, temples, palaces and houses bear testimony to the continuity of evolution of architecture in this region. 04.02. THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE The main feature of this region, blessed with copious rainfall and bright sunshine, is natural beauty. Therefore, it is not accidental that the buildings were comparatively small and simple structures, merging with nature. The sloping roof with projecting eaves which give protection from the lashing QL —————_—_— Vistuvidyapravesika