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SAFETY
FACTORS
for design of thin
granite cladding
A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL PRACTICE
INTRODUCTION
This article is the first part of an occasional series on the engineering
design of stone cladding. It is a review of published safety factors
for the design of thin stone cladding panels, particularly with regard
to the effect of wind, or lateral, loads.
BACKGROUND
Engineering design typically allows for variation in the design
assumptions through the use of safety factors. These are typically
intended to accommodate a combination of excess capacity in case
of unforeseen loads or changes in conditions, allowances for
unknown variation in the properties of materials, and accommodation
of workmanship during construction.
Traditionally, safety factors have been applied by comparing the ratio
of the design strength to the design stress (load) with standard or
accepted values for the material and/or situation which is being
designed (equations 1 and 2). This is often referred to as allowable
or permissible stress design.
Safety factor <
Design stress <
Over the past three decades, there has been a gradual move towards
STRAIGHT SAFETY FACTORS
limit state or load/resistance factor design. This approach applies
factors to each component of the design assumptions to
Those safety factors intended to be applied irrespective of any
accommodate unknowns. These factors can be applied to portions
variability in strength data are summarised in Table 1.
of the design assumptions. For example, each type of loading
situation may have a different load
factor, and the design case might be
Table 1 Straight safety factors
Safety Factor
Stone
Safety Factor
(connections or
to allow for a combination of certain
Type
(bending)
concentrated loads)
(but not all) loads to act
simultaneously. Alternatively, there
National Building Granite
granite
3
4
may be a material factor to allow for
variability in strength of the
Quarriers Association [A]
material, and another factor to allow
Marble Institute of America [B]
granite (<50mm thick)
3
4
for loss of strength over time. Limit
state design does not seek to
identify the overall safety factor
acting on each design case, but it is
often calculated by engineers for
ease of comparison to traditional
allowable stress design, particularly
in areas where limit state design is
relatively new or not widely
accepted.
44
marble
slate
limestone
sandstone
limestone
granite
na
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Approach
Approach
Gere [I] - granite
Gere [I]
- sedimentary stones
McCabe [L]
Heintges [M]
Wonneberger &
Bortz [G]
<10
4.5
10-20
>20
<10
10-20
7.5
>20
10
<10
7.5
10-20
>20
12
<3
2.5
3-9
9-20
3.5
>20
<5
5-10
2.5
10-15
3.75
15-20
>20
6.5
<3
3-9
9-20
>20
Range Variation
Coefficient of Variation
of Strength Data
(%)
RV = 100(max - X)/X
RV = 100(X - min)/X
(4) where
RV = range variation
X = mean of strength data
max = maximum value in strength data set
min = minimum value in strength data set
Heitman [N]
Range Variation of
Strength Data
(%)
Safety Factor
(bending)
<10
10-20
>20
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46
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that there is significant recognition of the potential benefits
of adopting a limit state design approach for stone cladding, but the
lack of good data, along with the wide range of stone material which
is used in cladding, presents substantial barriers to pursuing this.
It should also be noted that the majority of the literature about safety
factors for the design of thin stone cladding deals with the design of
the stone panels themselves. Very little guidance on appropriate
safety factors has been published for the design of the anchor
connection points in stone panels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research for this paper was presented in a seminar format at the
ASTM C18 Symposium on the Design, Construction, Evaluation and
Repair of Stone Cladding held in St Louis in October 1999. Input at
that symposium, particularly from Sy Bortz, led to further refinement
of the content.
FUTURE PARTS
Future parts of this paper may explore comparisons between the
various safety factors outlined above, or provide some guidance on
appropriate safety factors for the design of anchorages in the stone
panels.
In the next edition we hope to look closely at the amazing structure
specified by architect Peter Davidson, at Federation Square
Melbourne, which supports tons of Dimension Stone.
www.discoveringstone.com issue #5
22/3/04, 10:38:25 AM
REFERENCES
[A] National Building Granite Quarries Association, Inc.,
Specifications for Architectural Granite, 1985.
[B] Marble Institute of America, Marble Design Manual, 1987.
Architects
TAKE NOTE
AustralAsian Granites are exporting world class
granite to Italy, the United States, Taiwan, Thailand,
Indonesia & other international markets.
22/3/04, 10:38:26 AM