Cooper Powerpoints (All) PDF

Applied
Behavior Analysis
All Powerpoints
John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, and William L. Heward
Chapter 1:
Definition and Characteristics of Applied
Behavior Analysis
Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second
Edition
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Basic Characteristic of Science

Systematic approach for seeking & organizing knowledge about the
natural world
Purpose
To achieve a thorough understanding of the phenomena under study
ABA socially important behaviors
Seeks to discover the real truths (not those held by certain groups,
organizations, etc.)

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Three different types of investigations provide different levels of
understanding:
Description
Prediction
Control
Each level contributes to the overall knowledge base in a given field

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Description
Collection of facts about observed events that can be quantified, classified, &
examined for possible relations with other know facts
Often suggests hypotheses or questions for additional research

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Prediction
Relative probability that when one event occurs, another event will or will not
occur
Based on repeated observation revealing relationships between various
events
Demonstrates correlation between events
No causal relationships can be interpreted
Enables preparation

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Control
Highest level of scientific understanding
Functional relations can be derived
Specific change in one event (dependent variable).
Can reliably be produced by specific manipulations of another event (independent
variable)
And the change in the dependent variable was unlikely to be the result of other
extraneous factors (confounding variables)

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Control (continued)
Events can only really be co-related
Nearly impossible to factor out all other possible causes

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Attitudes of Science
Science as a set of attitudes (Skinner, 1953)
Definition of science lies within the behavior of scientists, not the
instruments or materials they use
Only known as science due to an overriding idea of scientific
method
Fundamental assumptions about the nature of events

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Attitudes of Science
Scientific attitudes that guide the work of all scientists include:
Determinism
Empiricism
Experimentation
Replication
Parsimony
Philosophic doubt

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Attitudes of Science:
Determinism
Assumption upon which science is predicted
Presumption that the universe is a lawful and orderly place in which
all phenomena occur as the result of other events
Events do not just occur at will
Events are related in systematic ways

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Empiricism
Practice of objective observation of phenomena of interest
What all scientific knowledge is built upon
Objective is the key to gaining a better understanding of what is
being studied

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Attitudes of Science: Experimentation

Basic strategy in most sciences
Experiment:
Controlled comparison of some measure of the phenomenon of interest
(dependent variable) under two of more different conditions in which only
one factor at a time (independent variable) differs from one condition to
another

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Replication
The repetition of experiments to determine the reliability and
usefulness of findings
Includes the repetition of independent variable conditions within
experiments
Method for which mistakes are discovered

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Parsimony
The idea that simple, logical explanations must be ruled out,
experimentally or conceptually, before more complex or abstract
explanations are considered
Help scientists fit findings within the fields existing knowledge base

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Philosophic Doubt
The continuous questioning of the truthfulness and validity of all
scientific theory and knowledge
Involves the use of scientific evidence before implementing a new
practice, then constantly monitoring the effectiveness of the practice
after its implementation

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A Definition of Science
Science is
A systematic approach to the understanding of natural
phenomena
As evidenced by description, and control
That relies on determinism as its fundamental assumption
Empiricism as its prime directive
Experimentation as its basic strategy
Replication as its necessary requirement for believability
Parsimony as its conservative value
And philosophic doubt as its guiding conscience.

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Development of
Applied Behavior Analysis
Behavior analysis is comprise of three major branches
Behaviorism
Philosophy of the science of behavior
Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)

Basic research
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

Development of a technology for improving behavior
Can only be understood in the context of the philosophy & basic
research traditions & findings

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Development of
Psychology in the early 1900s was dominated with
the study of states of consciousness, images, & other
mental processes

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Development of
Watson is recognized as moving the field of psychology in a new
direction
Argued that subject matter for psychology should be the study of observable
behavior, not states of mind or mental processes
Early form of behaviorism known as stimulus-response (S-R) psychology
(Watsonian behaviorism)
Created foundation for the study of behavior as a natural science

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Development of
B.F. Skinners The Behavior of Organisms (1938/1966)
Formally began the experimental branch of behavior analysis
Summarized his laboratory research from 1930-1937
Discussed two types of behavior
Respondent
Operant

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Development of
Respondent behavior
Reflexive behavior
Ivan Pavlov (1927/1960)
Respondents are elicited (brought out) by stimuli that immediately precede
them
Antecedent stimulus & response it elicits form a functional unit called a reflex
Involuntary responses
Occur whenever eliciting stimulus is present
S-R model

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Development of
Operant behavior
Behavior is shaped through the consequences that immediately follow it

Three term contingency
S-R-S model
Behaviors that are influenced by stimulus changes that have followed the
behavior in the past

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Development of
Named as a new science by Skinner
Outlined specific methodology for its practice:
The rate or frequency of response is the most common dependent variable
Repeated or continuous measurement is made of carefully defined response classes
Within-subject experimental comparisons are used instead of designs comparing the
behavior of experimental & control groups

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Development of
Specific methodology for its practice (continued):
Visual analysis of graphed data is preferred over statistical inference
A description of functional relations is valued over formal theory testing

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Development of
Skinner & colleagues conducted many laboratory experiments
between the 1930s -1950s
Discovered & verified basic principles of operant behavior
Same principles continue to provide the empirical foundation for behavior
analysis today

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Development of
B.F. Skinner
Founder of experimental analysis of behavior
Wrote extensively
Very influential in the guiding practice of the science of behavior &
in proposing the application of the principles of behavior to new
areas
Walden Two (1948)
Science and Human Behavior (1953)
About Behaviorism (1974)
Philosophy of science became known as radical

behaviorism

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Development of
Radical behaviorism
Attempts to explain all behavior, including private behavior (e.g. thinking &
feeling)
Methodological behaviorism
Philosophical position that considers behavioral events that cannot be
publicly observed to be outside the realm of the science

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Development of
Mentalism
Approach to understanding behavior that assumes that a
mental or inner dimension exists that differs from a
behavioral dimension & that phenomena in this dimension
either directly cause or at least mediate some forms of
behavior
Relies on hypothetical constructs and explanatory fictions
Dominated Western intellectual thought & most
psychological theories (e.g. Descartes, Freud, Piaget)

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Development of
Mentalism (continued)
Relies on the premise of explanatory fiction (e.g. knowledge)
A fictitious variable that often is simply another name for the observed behavior that
contributes nothing to an understanding for the variables responsible for developing (or
maintaining) the behavior
Circular view of the cause & effect

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Development of
Structuralism
Rejects all events that are not operationally defined by objective assessment
Restrict activities to descriptions of behavior
Make no scientific manipulations; do not address causal questions

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Development of
Methodological behaviorism
Rejects all events that are not operationally defined by
objective assessment
Deny existence of inner variables or consider them outside the
realm of scientific account
Acknowledge the existence of mental events but do not consider
them in the analysis of behavior
Use scientific manipulations to search for functional

relationships between events
Restrictive view since it ignores major areas of importance

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Development of
Skinner did not object to cognitive psychologys concern with
thoughts & feelings (i.e. events taking place inside the skin)
Referred to these as private events
They are behavior to be analyzed with the same conceptual &
experimental tools used to analyze publicly observable behavior

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Development of
Radical behaviorism (Skinners behaviorism) makes
three assumptions about the nature of private events
Private events such as thoughts and feelings are behavior
Behavior that takes place within the skin is distinguished
from other (public) behavior only by its inaccessibility
Private behavior has no special properties & is influenced
by (i.e. is a function of) the same kinds of variables as
publicly accessible behavior

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Development of
Radical behaviorism (Skinners behaviorism)
Includes & seeks to understand all human behavior
Far-reaching & thoroughgoing
Dramatic departure from other conceptual systems

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Development of
Fuller (1949)
One of the first studies to report the human application of operant behavior
Participant: 18-year-old boy with profound mental retardation
Arm-raising response was conditioned by injecting a small amount of a warm
sugar-milk solution into participants mouth every time he moved his right
arm

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Development of
Ayllon & Michael (1959)
The Psychiatric Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer
Formed the basis for branch of behavior analysis that would later be called
applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Described techniques based on principles of behavior to improve the
functioning of chronic psychotic or mentally retarded residents

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Development of
1960s
Researchers began to apply principles of behavior in an effort to improve
socially important behavior
Techniques for measuring behavior & controlling & manipulating variables
were sometimes unavailable, or inappropriate
Little funding was available
No ready outlet for publishing studies
Difficult to communicate findings

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Development of
Despite limitations in the 1960s many applications of

behavior principles were made
Application of behavior principles to education is a
major area of impact
Provided the foundation for:
behavioral approaches to curriculum design

instructional methods
classroom management
generalization and maintenance of learning

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Development of
1960s & 1970s
Many new university programs were developed in applied behavior analysis
Teaching & research conducted in these programs made major contributions
to the rapid growth of the field

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Development of
1968 Formal beginning of contemporary applied behavior analysis
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) began publication
Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis (Baer, Wolf, &
Risley)

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Development of
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA)
First journal in U.S. To deal with applied problems & gave researchers using
methodology from the experimental analysis of behavior an outlet for
publishing their findings
Flagship journal of ABA

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Development of
Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis (Baer, Wolf,
& Risley)
Founding fathers of the new discipline (ABA)
Defined the criteria for judging adequacy of research & practice in ABA &
outlined the scope of work for those in the science
Most widely cited publication in ABA
Remains standard description of the discipline

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Defining Characteristics of
Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) recommended the
following seven defining dimensions for research or
behavior change programs:
Applied
Behavioral
Analytic
Technological
Conceptual
Effective
Generality

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Applied
Investigates socially significant behaviors with immediate
importance to the participant(s)
Examples include behaviors such as:

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Social
Language
Academic
Daily living
Self-care
Vocational
Recreation and/or leisure

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Behavioral
Precise measurement of the actual behavior in need of improvement &
documents that it was the participants behavior that changed
The behavior in need of improvement and it is a study of behavior (not about behavior)
The behavior must be measurable
Important to note whose behavior has changed

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Analytic
Demonstrates experimental control over the occurrence and non-occurrence
of the behavior (a functional relation is demonstrated)
Functional & replicable relationships

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Technological
Written description of all procedures in the study is sufficiently complete and
detailed to enable others to replicate it
All operative procedures are identified and described in detail & clarity
Replicable technology

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Conceptually systematic
Behavior change interventions are derived from basic principles of behavior
Better enable research consumer to derive other similar procedures from the
same principle(s)
Assist in integrating discipline into a system instead of a collection of tricks

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Effective
Improves behavior sufficiently to produce practical results for the
participant(s)
Improvements in behavior must reach clinical or social significance
Extent to which changes in the target behavior(s) result in noticeable changes

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Generality
Produces behavior changes that last over time
Appear in other environments (other than the one in which intervention was
implemented)
Or spread to other behaviors (those not directly treated by the intervention)

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Additional Characteristics of Applied Behavior

Analysis
Offers society an approach toward solving problems that is:
Accountable
Public
Doable
Empowering
Optimistic

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Analysis
Accountable
Created by the focus on
Accessible environmental variables that reliably influence behavior
Reliance on direct & frequent measurement to detect changes in behavior
Detect successes and failures
Allow changes to be made

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Analysis
Public
Visible, explicit, & straightforward
Of value across a very broad spectrum of fields

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Analysis
Doable
Not prohibitively complicated or arduous
Variety of individuals are able to implement principles and interventions
Does involved more that learning to do some procedures

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Analysis
Empowering
Provides practitioners with real tools that work
Raises confidence
Increases confidence for future challenges

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Analysis
Optimistic
Possibilities for each individual (Strain et al., 1992)

Detect small improvements
Positive outcomes yield a more optimistic attitude about future successes
Peer-reviewed literature provides many examples of success

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Definition of
Applied behavior analysis is:
A scientific approach to improving socially significant behavior
In which procedures derived from the principles of behavior are
systematically applied to improve socially significant behavior
And to demonstrate experimentally that the procedures employed were
responsible for the improvement in behavior

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Definition of
Six key components:
Guided by attitudes of methods of scientific inquiry
All behavior change procedures are described & implemented in a systematic,
technological manner
Only procedures conceptually derived from the basic principles of behavior
are circumscribed by the field
Focus is socially significant behavior
Seeks to make meaningful improvement in important behavior
Seeks to produce an analysis of the factors responsible for improvement

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Domains of
Behavior Analytic Science
Four domains
Behaviorism
Professional practice
Behavior analysts may work in one or more of the four domains

Domains are very interrelated & influence one another

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Domains of
Behaviorism
Theoretical & philosophical issues
Conceptual basis of behavior principles as it relates across many spectrums

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Domains of
Basic research
Experiments in laboratory settings with both human participants and
nonhuman subjects
Goal of discovering & clarifying fundamental principles of behavior

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Domains of
Applied research
Experiments are aimed at discovering & clarifying functional relations
between socially significant behavior & its controlling variables
Desire to contribute to further development of a humane & effective
technology of behavior change

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Domains of
Professional practice
Providing behavior analytic services to consumers
Design, implement, & evaluate behavior change programs that consist of
behavior change tactics derived from fundamental principles of behavior
Discovered by basic researchers
Experimentally validated for their effects on socially significant behavior by applied
researchers

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Chapter 2:
Basic Concepts

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Definition of Behavior
the behavior of an organism is that portion of an organisms
interaction with the environment that is characterized by detectable
displacement in space through time of some part of the organism and
that results in measurable change in at least one aspect of the
environment
Johnston & Pennypacker (1980, 1993a)

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Definition of Behavior
Behavior of an organism
Portion of the organisms interaction with the environment
Displacements in space through time
Temporal locus
Temporal extent
Repeatability
Results in a measurable change in some aspect of the environment

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Behavior or Response
Behavior in reference to a larger set or class of responses sharing
certain
Physical characteristics
Functions
Response
Specific instance of behavior

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Descriptions of behavior
Structural and functional
Response topography
Form
Physical characteristics
Functional
Effects of behavior on environment
Saying the word fire while looking at the letters f-i-r-e different than saying FIRE! When smelling
smoke in a crowded theater.

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Response Class
A group of responses with the same function
Each response in the group produces the same effect on the environment

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Repertoire
All behaviors a person can do
Set or collection of knowledge and skills a person has learned that are
relevant to a particular setting or tasks
Repertoires with respect to language skills, academic tasks, everyday routines,
recreation, & APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

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Environment
All behavior occurs within an environmental context;
Behavior cannot be emitted in an environmental void or vacuum

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Environment
Johnston & Pennypacker (1993a) defintion
Complex, dynamic universe of events that differ from instance to
instance
Stimulus
an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells
Michael, 2004, p. 7

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Description of Stimulus Events

Formally
Physical features
Temporally
Occur with respect to a behavior of interest
Functionally
Effects on behavior

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Stimulus Class
Any group of stimuli sharing a predetermined set of common
elements in one of more of these dimensions
Formal dimensions of stimuli
Temporal locus of stimuli
Behavioral functions of stimulus changes

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Formal dimensions of stimuli

Descriptions, measurements, manipulations based on
Size, color, intensity, etc.
Stimuli can be
Social
Nonsocial

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Behavior is affected by stimulus changes that
occur prior to (Antecedent)
Immediately after the behavior (Consequence)

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Antecedent
Environmental conditions or stimulus changes that exist or occur prior to the
behavior
Play a critical part in learning and motivation
Learners do not need to be aware of antecedents for antecedents to effect behavior

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Consequence
Stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest
Especially those that are immediate
Relevant to current motivational states
Influence on future behavior
Other consequences have little effect

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Big Idea
Consequences combine with the antecedent conditions to determine
what is learned
True, whether or not individual is aware or systematically plans the
consequences
Its happening all around us!

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Stimulus changes are best understood through a functional analysis of
their effects on behavior
Immediate control
Delayed, or no apparent effect

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Stimulus changes
An immediate but temporary effect of increasing or decreasing the current
frequency of the behavior
A delayed but relatively permanent effect in terms of the frequency of that
type of behavior in the future
Michael (1995)

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Stimulus Changes: Social & Nonsocial

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Respondent Behavior
Behavior that is elicited by antecedent stimuli
Induced, brought out by the stimulus that precedes it
Something in your eye elicits eye blink (reflex)
Ready-made behaviors protect against harmful stimuli
Stimulus-response relations
Reflex
Habituation
Gradually diminishing response strength

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Respondent Conditioning
Experimental demonstrations of respondent conditioning
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
Digestive systems of dogs
Animals salivated every time lab assistant opened the cage door to feed them

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Respondent Conditioning

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Operant Behavior
Any behavior whose future frequency is determined primarily by its
history of consequences
Selected
Shaped
Maintained by consequences
Defined functionally, by their effects

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Selection by Consequences
All forms of life, from single cells to complex cultures, evolve as a
result of selection with respect to function
Pennypacker, 1994, pp. 12 -13
Ontogeny
Operates during the lifetime of the individual
Phylogeny
Natural selection in the evolution of a species

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Operant Conditioning
Process and selective effects of consequences on behavior
Functional consequence
Stimulus change that follows a given behavior in a relatively immediate
temporal sequence and alters the frequency of that type of behavior in the
future

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Strengthen an operant
Response more probable, more frequent
Skinner, 1953, p. 65
Reinforcement has taken place when

Operant conditioning consists of an increase in response frequency

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Type of Stimulus Change

Insert Figure 2-2 here

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Consequences can only affect future behavior
Consequences select response classes, no individual responses
Immediate consequences have the greatest effect

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Consequences select any behavior
Reinforcement and punishment are equal opportunity selectors
Importance of temporal relations
Operant conditioning occurs automatically

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Reinforcement
Most important principle of behavior
Key element to most behavior change programs

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Reinforcement - Defined
If behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a
result the future frequency of that type of behavior increases in
similar conditions, reinforcement has taken place

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Stimulus Changes Functioning as Reinforcers

Positive Reinforcement (Adding)
A new stimulus added to the environment (or increased in intensity)
Negative Reinforcement (Withdrawing)

An already present stimulus removed from the environment (or reduced in
intensity)

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Reinforcement Big Ideas

Always means an increase in response rate
The modifiers positive (adding) and negative
(withdrawing)
Describe the type of stimulus change operation that
best characterizes the consequence
Additional information on schedules of reinforcement in Chapter 13

Principle of Extinction and its use as a behavior change tactic in Chapter 21
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Punishment
If behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a
result the future frequency of that type of behavior decreases in
similar conditions, punishement has taken place

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Stimulus Changes Functioning as Punishers

Positive Punishment (Adding)
Punishment by contingent stimulation

A new stimulus added to the environment (or increased in intensity)
Type I
Negative Punishment (Withdrawing)
Punishment by contingent withdrawal of a positive reinforcer

An already present stimulus removed from the environment (or reduced in
intensity)
Type II

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Punishment Big Ideas

Always means a decrease in response rate
The modifiers positive (adding) and negative (withdrawing)
Describe the type of stimulus change operation that best characterizes the
consequence

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Principles and Behavior Change Tactics

Principle of behavior
Describes a functional relation between behavior and one or more of its
controlling variables (b = fx)
Thorough generality across individual organisms, species, settings, behaviors

Empirical generalization inferred from many experiments
Describe how behavior works
Reinforcement, punishment, extinction

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Principles and Behavior Change Tactics

Behavior change tactic
Research-based, technologically consistent method for changing behavior

that has been derived from one or more basic principles of behavior
Sufficient generality across subjects, settings, and or behaviors to warrant its codification
& dissemination
Technological aspect of ABA

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Principles and Behavior Change Tactics Big Idea

Principles
Describe how behavior works

Lawful relationship between behavior,
An immediate consequence, and an increased frequency of the behavior in the future

under similar conditions
Behavior change tactics
Are how applied behavior analysts put the principles to work to help people
learn and use socially significant behaviors

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What kinds of stimulus changes function as reinforcers

and punishers?
Unconditioned reinforcement and punishment
Function irrespective of prior learning history

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What kinds of stimulus changes function as reinforcers

and punishers?
Conditioned reinforcers and punishers
Function as such based on previous pairings with other

reinforcers and punishers

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Motivating Operations
Function
Alters the current value of stimulus changes as

reinforcement or punishment
Satiation
Deprivation

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Discriminated Operant
Occurs more frequently under some antecedent
conditions than it does under others
Stimulus Control
Differential rates of operant responding observed in the

presence or absence of antecedent stimuli
Due to pairings (antecedent/consequence) in the past,
antecedents acquire the ability to control operant
behavior

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Three-Term Contingency
Antecedent (A) Behavior (B) Consequence (C)
Basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior

All ABA procedures involve the manipulation of one or
more components of the 3-term contingency

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The Complexity of Human Behavior

Highly complex variables governing human
behavior
Human capabilities
Large repertoires of response chains, verbal behavior
Analysis of control complicated by
Individual differences in histories of reinforcement

Practical, ethical, logistical, etc. issues

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Chapter 3:
Selecting and Defining Target Behaviors

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Role of Assessment in Applied Behavior

Analysis
Methods to identify and define targets for behavior change
Identify relevant factors that may inform or influence intervention

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Five Phases of Assessment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Screening
Defining problem or criteria for achievement
Pinpointing target behaviors
Monitoring progress
Following-up

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Pre-assessment Considerations
Ethical considerations
Authority
Permission
Resources
Social validity

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Assessment Methods
Indirect measures
Interviews
Checklists
Direct measures
Tests
Direct Observation

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Interviewing the Individual

Identify list of potential target behaviors
What and when
Avoid why
Identify primary concerns

Verified through further data collection
Direct observation
Use of questionnaires or self-monitoring

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Interviewing Significant Others

Develop behavioral descriptions
What, when, how
Avoid why
Move from general to specific
Determine participation

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Checklists
Descriptions of specific behaviors and conditions under which each
should occur
Alone or with interview

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Checklists
Typically Likert-scale assessments
Ask about antecedents and consequences
Child Behavior Checklist
Adaptive Behavior Scale - School
Adaptive Behavior Scale - Residential and Community

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Standardized Tests
Consistent administration
Compares performance to specified criteria
Norm-referenced
Limitations
Do not specify target behaviors
Do not provide direct measure of behavior
Licensing requirements

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Direct Observation
Direct and repeated

Natural environment
Identifies potential target behaviors
Preferred method

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Anecdotal observation
Features of ABC recording
Descriptive
Temporally sequenced
Description of behavior patterns
Full attention, 20 - 30 min
Observations only, no interpretations

Repeat over several days

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Ecological Assessment
Data on individual and environment
Physical features
Interactions with others
Home
Reinforcement history
Evaluate amount of descriptive data required to address current need

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Reactivity
Effects of assessment on behavior being assessed
Obtrusive assessment great impact
Self-monitoring most obtrusive
Reduce reactivity
Unobtrusive methods
Repeat observations
Take effects into account

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Assessing Social Significance

Consider whose behavior is being assessed and why
Unacceptable to change behavior primarily for benefit of others
To what extent will proposed change improve the persons life?

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Habilitation
Degree to which a persons behavior repertoire maximizes short and
long term reinforcers and minimizes short and long term punishers
Use to assess meaningfulness of behavior change

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Determining Habilitation
Relevance of behavior after intervention

Necessary prerequisite skills
Increased access
Impact on behavior of others
Behavior cusp
Pivotal Behavior

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Behavior Cusp
Behaviors that open persons world to new contingencies
Crawling, reading
Socially valid
Generativeness
Competes with inappropriate responses
Degree that others are affected

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Pivotal Behaviors
Once learned produces changes in other untrained behaviors
Self-initiation, joint attention
Advantages for both interventionist and client

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Age appropriateness
Normalization
Philosophy of achieving greatest possible integration of people with
disabilities into society
Replacement behaviors
Cannot eliminate or reduce a behavior without teaching a replacement

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Actual target goal or indirectly related
On-task vs. work completion
Talk v. Behavior of interest

Primary importance is actual behavior
Focus on behavior, not end product

Weight loss or exercise and diet?

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Prioritizing Target Behaviors

1. Threat to health or safety
2. Frequency
Opportunities to use new behavior

Occurrence of problem
3. Longevity
4. Potential for higher rates of reinforcement

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5. Importance
Skill development
Independence
6. Reduction of negative attention

7. Reinforcement for significant others
Social validity
Exercise caution when considering

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8. Likelihood of success
Research
Practitioners experience
Environmental variables
Available resources
9. Cost-benefit
Costs include clients time and effort

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Target Behavior Ranking Matrix

Numerical rating of potential target behaviors
Increase client, parent, and staff participation
Resolve conflict
Build consensus

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Sample Ranking Matrix

Behaviors
#1
#2
#3
Does this behavior pose a

danger?
01234 01234 01234
How long-standing is this

problem or deficit?
01234 01234 01234
Will changing this behavior

produce higher rate of
reinforcement?
01234 01234 01234
How likely is success in

changing this behavior?
01234 01234 01234

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

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Defining Target Behaviors

Role and Importance of Definitions
Definitions required for replication
Replication required to determine usefulness of data in other situations
Necessary for research

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Importance of Definitions to Practitioner

Accurate, on-going evaluation requires explicit definition of behavior
Operational definition
Complete information
Accurate and believable evaluation of effectiveness

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Two Types of Definitions

Function-based
Designated according to effect on the environment
Topography-based
Identifies the shape or form of the behavior

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Reasons to Use Function-based Definitions

Includes all members of response class
The function of behavior is most important feature
Simpler and more concise definitions
Easier to measure accurately and reliably

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Other Uses
When natural outcome is not within control of behavior analyst
Logistical, ethical, or safety reasons
E.g., Function of elopement is a lost child
In these cases, function-based definition by proxy

More restrictive definition that keeps behavior within control of analyst

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Reasons to Use Topography-based Definitions

Behavior analyst does not have direct, reliable, or easy access to
functional outcomes
Cannot rely on function of behavior because each occurrence does
not produce relevant outcome

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Other Uses
When the relevant outcome is sometimes produced by undesirable
variations of the response class
E.g., A basketball player scores with a sloppy shot from the free throw line
Definition should encompass all response forms that produce

relevant outcomes

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Writing Target Behavior Definitions
Accurate
Complete
Concise
Inclusions
Exclusions

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Characteristics of Good Definitions

Objective
Refer only to the observable
Clear
Readable and unambiguous
Complete
Delineate boundaries of definition

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Purpose of Good Definitions
Precise and concise description

Reliable observation
Accurate recording
Agreement and replication

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Testing a Definition
Can you count number of occurrences?
Should answer Yes
Will a stranger know what to look for based on definition alone?

Should answer Yes
Can you break the target behavior down to smaller, more specific
components?
Should answer No

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Setting Criteria for Behavior Change

Selected because of importance to clients
Increase, maintain, generalize desirable behaviors
Decrease undesirable behaviors
Valued and meaningful behaviors have social validity

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Set Criteria Before Modifying
Setting criteria as important as defining

Range of acceptability
Must identify optimum range prior to modifying
Must know when to terminate treatment
Eliminate disagreements on effectiveness

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Two Approaches for Setting Criteria

Assess performance of highly competent people
Experimentally manipulate different performance levels to determine
optimal results

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Chapter 4:
Measuring Behavior

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Definition of Measurement
The process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of
events using a standard set of rules

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Researchers Need Measurement

How scientists operationalize empiricism
Without measurement, science is guesswork and opinion
Applied behavior analysts measure behavior to answer questions

Basis for talking about behavior

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Practitioners Need Measurement

To evaluate effects of intervention
Before and after treatment
During treatment
To guide decision making

To prevent mistakes
Continue ineffective treatment
Discontinue effective treatment

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Benefits of Measurement
Optimize effectiveness
Verify legitimacy of treatments
Identify and end use of pseudoscience
Accountability
Meet ethical standards

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Measurable Dimensions of Behavior

Dimensions are distinct features that can be measured
Three fundamental properties
Repeatability or countability: behavior can be counted
Temporal extent: duration
Temporal locus: when behavior occurs

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Measures Based on Repeatability

Count
Number of responses emitted during an observation period
Reported as frequency count

Measures of count alone do not provide sufficient information for
analysis

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Rate/Frequency
Ratio of count per observation period
More meaningful than count alone

Include counting time for reference
Rate of correct and incorrect responses helpful in skill development
Reported as number per standard unit of time

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Guidelines for Using Rate
Take complexity of response into account

Useful measure for free operants
Not appropriate for responses within discrete trials
Not appropriate for continuous behavior over extended period

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Celeration
Measure of the change in rate of responding per unit of time
Reported using Standard Celeration Chart

Captures behavior acceleration and deceleration

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Measures Based on Temporal Extent

Duration
The amount of time a behavior occurs
Total duration of session

Duration of each occurrence
Reported in standard time units
Count and duration measures provide different pictures of same
behavior

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Measures Based on Temporal Locus

Response latency
Measure of elapsed time between onset of stimulus and initiation of
response
Typically reported as mean, median, and range

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Measures Based on Temporal Locus

Interresponse time
Amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a
response class
Direct measure of temporal locus and related to rate

Reported as mean, median, and range

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Derivative Measures
Percentage
A ratio formed by combining the same dimensional qualities
Expresses proportional quantity
Proportion of correct to incorrect

Proportion of observation intervals when behavior occurred

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Considerations for Using Percentage
Often misunderstood, used incorrectly

Most accurate with divisor of 100 or more
Percentage may be misleading
Limited use because has no dimensional quantity
Sets artificial limits on behavior change

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Derivative Measures
Trials-to-criterion
Measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a
predetermined level of performance
Other measures can be used to determine trials-to-criterion (e.g.,

rate)
Typically calculated post facto
Used to compare effectiveness

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Definitional Measures
Topography
The physical form or shape of a behavior
Measurable dimension
Malleable by consequences
Not a fundamental quality of behavior

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Definitional Measures
Magnitude
The force or intensity with which a response is emitted
Important parameter for some response classes

E.g., voice volume
Not a fundamental quality of behavior

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Procedures for Measuring Behavior
1.
2.
3.
Typically involve one or a combination of these three:

Event recording
Timing
Time sampling methods

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Event Recording
Procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a
behavior is observed
Devices include:
Wrist counters, digital counters, masking tape, paper clips, etc

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Considerations for Event Recording
Easy to do
Behavior must have discrete beginning and ending
Rate must not be too high
Inappropriate for behaviors with long duration

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Timing
Procedures to measure duration, response latency,
and interresponse time
Duration:
computer systems, stopwatch, wall clocks, tape
recorder
Response latency and interresponse time

Precise recording of duration between events of
interest

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Time Sampling
Variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during
intervals or at specific moments in time
Observation is divided into intervals, presence or absence of behavior
recorded for each interval

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Time Sampling: Whole-Interval Recording
Used to measure continuous behavior

Brief intervals (5-15 seconds)
At end of interval, record if behavior occurred throughout
Risk of underestimation
Reported as percentage of intervals when behavior occurred

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Time Sampling: Partial-Interval Recording

At end of interval record if behavior occurred at any time during
interval
Multiple occurrences scored as one
Does not capture duration
Allows recording of multiple behaviors


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Time Sampling: Momentary Time Sampling

Record whether the behavior is occurring at the end of the interval
Does not require undivided attention
Misses much behavior
Best for continuous behavior

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Time Sampling: Planned Activity Check

Variation of momentary time sampling
Measures behavior of individuals within a group
At end of interval, measure number of students engaged in target

activity

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Guidelines for Time Sampling

Use a timing device to signal beginning and end of observation
Increase accuracy
Not distracted by watching a stopwatch
Record a response for every interval (e.g., yes or no)

Prevents losing your place with blank intervals

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Time Sampling Artifactual Variability

Artifact is something that appears to exist because of the way it is
examined or measured
Time sampling provides estimate of actual occurrences
Different procedures produce different results
Differences produce variability in data

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Measuring Behavior by Permanent Product

Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring its effects on
the environment
Ex post facto
All previous procedures can be applied to permanent product
measurement
Products can be a natural or contrived

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Advantages of Permanent Product Recording
Practitioner free to do other tasks

Possible measurement of otherwise inaccessible behavior
More accurate, complete, continuous
Easier data collection (IOA, treatment integrity)
Measurement of complex behavior

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Determining Appropriate Use

Is real-time measurement needed?
Moment to moment decisions required
Can behavior be measured by permanent product?

Each occurrence must produce same product
Product can only be produced by target behavior

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Determining Appropriate Use

Will a contrived product affect the behavior?
Reactivity effects
Cost to obtain and measure the permanent product?

Availability, cost and effort of generating the product

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Computer-Assisted Measurement
Data collection and analysis software combined
Multiple systems available
Sophisticated and easy to use
Laptops, hand-held computers, PDAs
Simultaneous recording of multiple behaviors across multiple

dimensions

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Chapter 5:
Improving and Assessing the Quality of
Behavioral Measurement

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Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement

Validity
Directly measures a socially significant behavior
Measures a dimension of the behavior relevant to the question
Ensures the data are representative

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Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement

Accuracy
Observed values match the true values of an event
Reliability
Measurement yields the same values across repeated measurement of the
same event

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Threats to Measurement Validity

Indirect measurement
Measuring a behavior other than the behavior of interest
Requires inferences be made about the relationship between those behaviors
Must provide evidence that the behavior measured is directly related to
behavior of interest

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Threats to Measurement Validity

Measuring a dimension that is irrelevant or ill suited to the reason for
measuring behavior
Measurement artifacts

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Measurement artifacts
Misleading data that result from the way behavior is measured:
Discontinuous measurement
Poorly scheduled observations
Insensitive or limiting measurement scales

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Threats to Measurement Accuracy and

Reliability
Human error
Poorly designed measurement systems
Cumbersome
Difficult to use
Complex

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Reliability
Inadequate observer training
Explicit and systematic

Careful selection
Train to competency standard
On-going training to minimize observer drift

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Reliability
Unintended influences on observers
Observer expectations of what the data should look like

Observer reactivity when she/he is aware that others are evaluating the data
Measurement bias
Feedback to observers about how their data relates to the goals of
intervention

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Assessing the Accuracy and Reliability of

First, design a good measurement system
Second, train observers carefully
Third, evaluate extent to which data are accurate
and reliable
Measure the measurement system

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Assessing the Accuracy of Measurement

Accuracy means the observed values match the true values of an
event
No one wants to base research conclusions or treatment decisions on
faulty data

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Assessing the Accuracy of Measurement

Four purposes of accuracy assessment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine if data are good enough to make decisions

Discovery and correction of measurement errors
Reveal consistent patterns of measurement error
Assure consumers that data are accurate

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Accuracy Assessment Procedures

Measurement is accurate when observed values match true values
Accuracy determined by calculating correspondence of each data point with
its true value
Process for determining true value must differ from measurement procedures
Accuracy assessment should be reported in research

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Assessing the Reliability of Measurement

Measurement is reliable when it yields the same values across
repeated measures of the same event
Not the same as accuracy

Reliable application of measurement system is important
Requires permanent products for re-measurement
Low reliability signals suspect data

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Using Interobserver Agreement to Assess

The degree to which two or more independent
observers report the same values for the same
events

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Benefits of Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
Determine competence of new observers

Detect observer drift
Judge clarity of definitions and system
Increase believability of data

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Requisites for IOA

Observers must:
Use the same observation code and measurement system
Observe and measure the same participants and events
Observe and record independently of one another

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Methods for Calculating IOA

Percentage of agreement is most common
Event Recording methods compare:
Total count recorded by each observer

Mean count-per-interval
Exact count-per-interval
Trial-by-trial

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Timing recording methods:
Total duration IOA
Mean duration-per-occurrence IOA
Latency-per-response
Mean IRT-per-response

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Interval recording and Time sampling:
Interval-by-interval IOA (Point by point)
Scored-interval IOA
Unscored-interval IOA

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Considerations in IOA
During each condition and phase of a study

Distributed across days of the week, time of day, settings, observers
Minimum of 20% of sessions, preferably 25-30%
More frequent with complex systems

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Obtain and report IOA at the same levels at which researchers will
report and discuss in study results
For each behavior
For each participant
In each phase of intervention or baseline

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More conservative methods should be used
Methods that will overestimate actual agreement should be avoided
If in doubt, can report more than one calculation

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Believability of data increases as agreement approaches 100%
History of using 80% agreement as acceptable benchmark
Depends upon the complexity of the measurement system

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Reporting IOA
Narrative form
Table
Graphs
In all formats, report how, when, and how often IOA was assessed

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Assessing the Quality of Measurement

Indicators of the quality of data include:
IOA
Accuracy
Reliability
Can report multiple indices to assess data quality

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Chapter 6:
Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays
of Behavioral Data

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Chapter Focus Questions
What are the benefits of graphic display and visual analysis of behavioral data?
What are the fundamental properties of behavior change over time?
What are the different visual formats for the graphic display of behavioral
data? What are the relative strengths and limitations of each visual format?
What are the basic parts of a properly constructed line graph?
What is the purpose of visual analysis?
How is a visual analysis of behavioral data conducted?

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Direct and Repeated Measurement of Behavior

Data
Medium with which the behavior analyst works

Results of measurement
Empirical basis for decision making
Plural
These data are

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Direct and Repeated Measurement of Behavior

Consecutive measures, over time
Data series vs. graphic display
Number Correct
Condition A Condition
B
12
14
15
21
13
24
Percentage of correct responses

70, 72, 71, 87,90, 85, 73

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Graphic Display

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Graphic Display

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Purpose & Benefits of Graphic Display

Graphic displays
Primary function communication

Display relationships between dependent variable and independent variable
Summarization of data collected
Facilitates of accurate analyses

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Purpose & Benefits of Graphic Display

Benefits
Immediate access to record of behavior
Variations prompt exploration
Provides judgmental aid
Relatively easy to learn, no predetermined level for determining significance of change,
no mathematical properties required
Conservative method
Encourages independent judgment & interpretation
Effective source of feedback

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Fundamental Properties of Behavior Change

Level
Trend
Variability

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Types of Graphs Utilized in ABA
Line graph
Bar graphs
Cumulative record
Semilogarithmic charts
Standard Celeration Chart
Scatterplots

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Types of Graphs Utilized in

ABA Line Graph
Based on the Cartesian plane
Two-dimensional area formed by intersecting lines
Points on the plane represent relationships
Level of the dependent variable when the independent variable was in effect
Comparisons of data points reveals the presence or absence of changes in

level, trend, and/or variability

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Parts of a Line Graph
Horizontal axis
Vertical axis
Condition change lines
Condition labels
Phase and condition
Data points
Data path
Figure Caption
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Figure 5. Rates of hits during baseline and the blocking condition for Arlo.
Figure Legend

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Line Graph Variations
Two or more dimensions of the same behavior

Two or more different behaviors
Measure of the same behavior under different conditions
Changing values of the independent variable
Same behavior of two or more participants

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Bar Graph
Based on the Cartesian plane
No distinct data points representing successive response measures through
time
Functions
Displaying and comparing discrete sets of data that ARE NOT related by a common
underlying dimension by which the horizontal axis can be scaled (Example)
Visual summary of participant or group performance during different experimental
conditions
Provides efficient summary of data

DOES NOT allow for analysis of variability & trends in behavior

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Sample Bar Graph

% Completion
Percent Completion/Accuracy
% Accuracy

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Baseline
Generalization/Maintenance

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Cumulative Record
Developed by Skinner
Primary means of data collection in EAB
Cumulative recorder
Experimental subject draws its own graph
Shows the number of responses on the ordinate against time on the abscissa

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Cumulative Record
Number of responses recorded and added to the total number of
responses recorded during previous observations
Cumulative
Y-Axis (vertical axis)

Represents the total number of responses recorded since the start of data
collection

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Cumulative Record
Display
Total number of responses at any given point in time
Relative rates of response

The steeper the slope, the higher the response rate
Overall response rate
Local response rate

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Cumulative Number Correct

Cumulative Record
The steeper the slope, the
higher the response rate
Sessions
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Cumulative Record
When to use cumulative graph over noncumulative graph
Progress toward a specific goal can be measured in cumulative
units
E.g., Number of new words learned, quarters saved
Graph is used as personal feedback

Total progress and relative rate of performance easily detected
Target behavior can only occur once per observation period

Yes/No
Intricate details between behavior & environmental variables are

of interest
E.g., Within session analyses

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Equal-interval Graphs
Distance between any two consecutive points on each axis is always
the same
Increase/decrease in performance expressed by equal distances on the y-axis
Distance between sessions, days, etc. expressed by equal distance on the xaxis

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Semilogarithmic Charts
Ratio or multiply-divide charts
One axis is scaled proportionally
Double response rate 4 to 8 same as 50 to 100
All behavior changes of equal proportion are shown by equal vertical

distances on the vertical axis

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Developed by Ogden Lindsley
Standardized method for
Charting & analyzing how frequency of behavior changes over time

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From the Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 19(1), p. 54. Copyright 2002 by The Standard Celeration Society. Used by
permission.
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Four standard charts
Difference in scaling on horizontal axis
Daily chart (140 calendar days)

Weekly chart
Monthly chart
Yearly chart
Whats standard about the standard celeration chart?

Consistent display of celeration

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Celeration
Linear measure of frequency change across time

A factor by which frequency multiples or divides per unit of time
Acceleration accelerating performance
Deceleration decelerating performance
Standard chart
Six, X 10 cycles (vertical axis)

1 per 24 hrs
1,000 per minute
Bottom left to top right corner
Slope of 34 - celeration value X2

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Standard Celeration Chart & Precision Teaching

Precision Teaching
Instructional decision-making system
Developed for use with standard celeration chart
Position
Learning best measured as a change in response rate
Learning most often occurs through proportional changes in behavior
Past changes can predict future learning
Chart uses estimations for most frequency values

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ABA Scatterplot
Shows relative distribution of individual measures in a data set
Data points are unconnected
Depicts changes in value on one axis correlated with changes in value
on the other axis
Patterns suggest certain relationships
Sometimes used to discover the temporal distribution of the target behavior

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ABA Scatterplot
From A Technology to Measure Multiple Driving Behaviors without Self-Report or Participant Reactivity by T. E. Boyce and E. S.
Geller, 2001, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, p. 49. Copyright 2001 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, Inc. Used by permission.
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Constructing Line Graphs

An effective graph presents data
Accurately
Completely
Clearly
Makes visual analysis as easy as possible
Does not create distortion or bias interpretation

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Drawing, scaling, & labeling axes

Use a balanced ratio between the height and width of
the axes
Relative length of the vertical axis to horizontal axis
Suggestions
5:8; 3:4; 1:1.6 ratio y-axis to x-axis
Horizontal axis
Mark equal intervals
Left to right chronological succession of equal time periods
or response opportunities
Use regularly spaced tic marks
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Use a scale break to represent discontinuities in the

progression of time
Regularly spaced
tic marks
~
~
Scale break

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Scaling of vertical axis
Most significant feature of the graph

Mark the origin at zero
Mark the full range of values represented in the data set
Good Practice: Plot the data set against several different vertical axis scales
If relatively small changes in performance are socially watch
for distortion
that may lead to inaccurate interpretations
significant
Y-Axis should reflect a smaller range of values

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Labeling vertical axis
Hits per minute
Brief label,
printed,
centered
to the left
and
parallel to
the
vertical
axis

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Condition Change Lines
Vertical lines
Extend upward
Indicate change in treatment or
experimental condition
Solid or dashed lines
Major changes solid
Minor changes dashed
Asterisks (*), arrows () or
other symbols to indicate small
changes

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Baseline
Blocking
Condition Change Labels

Identify conditions in effect
during each period of the
experiment
Centered above & between
condition change lines
Brief, but descriptive labels

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Data Points & Data Paths
Place each data point in the exact coordinate of the horizontal and
vertical axis
If graphing by hand - use a graph paper with appropriately spaced grid lines
Use bold, easily discernable symbols

Use a different symbol for each set of data

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Draw data paths using a straight line
The center of each data point in a given data set to the
center of the next data point in the same set

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DO NOT CONNECT DATA POINTS IF
Points fall on either side of a condition change line
A significant span of time passed and behavior was not
measured
There was a discontinuity in time in the horizontal axis (e.g.,
school vacation)
Data were not collected, lost, etc.
It is follow-up or post-check data

Unless intersession time span same as original experiment
Data points fall beyond the values described by the vertical

axis

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Use different styles of lines for multiple data paths on
the same graph
Clearly identify what each data path represents
Use arrows or a legend

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Figure Caption & Printing
Figure caption
Printed below the graph
Concise, complete description of figure
Direct viewers attention to features of the graph that may be
overlooked
E.g., scale changes
Describe the meaning of any added symbols
Print graphs in one color - black

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Constructing Graphs
Using Computer Software
Use with caution
Check the range of scales available
Check the accuracy of data point plotting
Check the precision of data paths
Further information
Carr & Burkholder (1998)
Silvestri (2003)
www.prenhall.com/cooper

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Interpreting Graphically Displayed Behavioral

Data
Visual analysis
Did behavior change in a meaningful way?
If so, to what extent can that change in behavior be attributed to the independent
variable?
Identification of
Variability
Level
Trend

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Data
It is impossible to interpret graphic data without being influenced by
various characteristics of the graph itself.
Johnson & Pennypacker, 1993b, p. 320

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Data
Read the graph
Figure caption
Condition & axis labels
Location of numerical value & relative significance of scale breaks
Visually track each data path

Are data paths properly connected?
Is the graph distorted?

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Data
Visual analysis
Within conditions
Number of data points

Nature & extent of variability in the data
Absolute & relative level of the behavioral measure
Direction & degree of any trends in the data

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Data
Visual analysis
Between conditions
Level
Mean or median level lines
Trend
Stability/Variability
Across similar conditions

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Data
Level
Value on the vertical axis around which a series of data points converge
Stability
When data points fall at or near a specific level
Mean or median lines

Added to represent overall average or typical performance
Use with caution - can obscure important variability

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Data
Trend
Overall direction taken by the data path
Direction
Increasing, decreasing, or zero trend
Degree
Gradual or steep
Extent of variability
Trend line or line of progress

Freehand, least-squares regression equation, or split-middle line of progress

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Data
Variability/Stability
Frequency and degree to which multiple measures of behavior yield different
outcomes
High degree of variability
Little or no control over the factors influencing behavior

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Chapter 7:
Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic
Assumptions and Strategies

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Concepts & Assumptions Underlying the Analysis

of Behavior
Determinism
Empiricism
Experimentation
Parsimony
Philosophic doubt

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of Behavior
The overall goal of science is to achieve an understanding of the
phenomena under study
In applied behavior analysis the phenomena of interest is socially
significant behavior

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of Behavior
Science enables various degrees of understanding at three levels
Description
Prediction
Control

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Experimental Control:
The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis

Experimental control (defined)
A predictable change in behavior (dependent variable) can be reliably
produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the persons
environment (independent variable)

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Experimental analysis (defined)
Experimentally determining the effects of environmental manipulation on
behavior and demonstrating that those effects can be reliably produced
Can be achieved when
A reliable functional relation between behavior and some specified aspect of the
environment has been demonstrated convincingly

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Internal validity
The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in
behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of
uncontrolled or unknown variables
Studies without high a high degree of internal validity
Yield no meaningful statements about functional relations
Lack generality

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Confounding variables are those variables known or suspected to
exert an uncontrolled influence on the dependent variable
The effects of confounding variables must be evaluated and
eliminated to demonstrate experimental control

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the goal of experimental design is to eliminate as
many uncontrolled variables as possible and to
hold constant the influence of all other variables
except the independent variable, which is
purposefully manipulated to determine its effects

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Behavior
Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Defining features
Behavior is an individual phenomenon
Behavior is a continuous phenomenon
Assumptions
Behavior is determined
Behavioral variability is extrinsic to the organism

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Behavior
Behavior is an individual phenomenon

Behavior
a persons interaction with the environment
Groups of people do not behave
Experimental strategy of ABA is based on within-subject (singlesubject) methods of analysis

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Behavior
Behavior is a dynamic, continuous

phenomenon
Changes over time
Requires continuous measurement over time
Complete record of behavior as it occurs in context
Systematic repeated measurement is the
hallmark of ABA

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Behavior
Behavior is determined
The occurrence of any event is determined by
the functional relations it holds to other events
Behavior is a natural phenomenon

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Behavior
Behavioral variability is extrinsic to the

organism
Variability is the result of environmental
influence such as,
The independent variable under investigation
Some uncontrolled aspect of the experiment
Uncontrolled or unknown factor outside of the
experiment

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Behavioral Variability
Most commonly held assumptions in psychology and other social/behavioral

sciences
The assumption of intrinsic variability

An intrinsic characteristic of the organism
Distributed randomly among individuals in any given
population
Methodological implications
Attempting to experimentally control or investigate
variability is a waste of time
By averaging the performance of individual subjects
within large groups the random nature of variability
can be statistically controlled or cancelled out
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Behavioral Variability
Assumptions of Behavior Analysts
Behavioral variability is the result of an
environmental influence
Methodological implications
Experimental manipulations of the factors suspected
of causing variability
Search for causal factors
In practice
Applied behavior analysts seek treatment variables
robust enough to overcome variability
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Components of Experiments in ABA

At least one
Subject or participant
Behavior (dependent variable)
Setting
Treatment or intervention condition (independent
variable)

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(continued)
A system for measuring the behavior and
ongoing analysis of the data
Manipulations of the independent variable
so that its effects on the dependent
variable, if any, can be detected
Experimental design

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(continued)
Research question
a brief but specific statement of what the researcher
wants to learn from conducting the experiment
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993b, p.366)
What are the effects of the independent variable on

the dependent variable
for what population & in what setting?

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(continued)
Subject (s)
In single-subject research the subject is employed as
his or her own control
Measures of the subjects behavior during each phase of the
study provide the basis for comparing experimental variables
as they are presented or withdrawn in subsequent conditions

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(continued)
Behavior (s)
Dependent variable (s)
Reasons for multiple dependent measures

Provide data patterns that can serve as controls for evaluating &
replicating the effects of an independent variable
Assess the presence and the extent of the independent
variables effects on behaviors other than the response class to
which it was directly applied
Determine whether changes in the behavior of a person other
than the subject occur during the course of an experiment & if
such changes can explain changes in the subjects behavior
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(continued)
Setting
Control the environment and you will see order in behavior.
(Skinner, 1967, p. 399)
Control two sets of environmental variables to

demonstrate experimental control
Independent variable
Presenting, withdrawing, or varying its value
Extraneous variables
Prevent unplanned environmental variation
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Measurement System and

Visual Analysis
Ongoing
Observation & recording procedures must be

conducted in a standardized manner
Standardization involves every aspect of the
measurement system
Definition of the target behavior to scheduling of
observations
Behavior analysts must develop skills in the

detection of changes in the level, trend, and
degree of variability in behavioral data
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Intervention or Treatment:
Independent Variable
Independent variable (defined)
The particular aspect of the environment that the
experimenter manipulates to find out whether the it
affects the subjects behavior
The researcher controls or manipulates this variable
independent of the subjects behavior or any other
event

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Experimental design
Defined
The particular arrangement of conditions in a
study so that meaningful comparisons of the
effects of the presence and absence of the
independent variable can be made

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Experimental design
Nonparametric study
Independent variable is either presented or absent
during a time period or phase of the study
Parametric study
The value of the independent variable is manipulated
Seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of
values

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Fundamental Rule
Change only one variable at a time
Experimenter can attribute any measured changes to
a specific independent variable
If investigating the effects of a treatment package
Ensure that the entire package is presented or withdrawn
each time a manipulation occurs

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Some Additional Rules

Do not get locked into textbook designs
Often require a priori assumptions about the nature of
the functional relations one seeks to investigate
May be insensitive to unanticipated changes in
behavior
Select & combine experimental tactics that best

fit the research questions

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Steady State Strategy &

Baseline Logic
A pattern of responding that exhibits relatively
little variation in its measured dimensional
quantities over a period of time
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 199)
Provides the basis for baseline logic

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Baseline Logic
Steady state strategy
Repeated exposure of a given subject to a given
condition while trying to eliminate or control
extraneous influences on behavior & obtaining a
stable pattern of responding before introducing the
next condition

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Baseline Logic
Baseline logic
Prediction
Verification
Replication

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Nature & Function of Baseline Data

Serves as a control condition
Does not imply the absence of intervention
Absence of a specific independent variable
Why?
To establish a baseline level of responding to use
the subjects performance in the absence of the
independent variable as an objective basis for
detecting change

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Nature & Function of Baseline Data

Applied Benefits of establishing a baseline
level of responding
To obtain descriptions of antecedent-behaviorconsequent correlations for the planning of an
effective treatment
Valuable guidance in setting initial criteria for
reinforcement
Baseline data may reveal the behavior targeted for
change does not warrant intervention

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Types of Baseline Data Patterns

Stable baseline (A)
Ascending baseline (B and C)
Variable baseline (D)

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Types of Baseline Data Patterns

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Prediction
the anticipated outcome of a presently
known or future measurement. It is the
most elegant use of quantification upon
which validation of all scientific and
technological activity rests.
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1980)

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Prediction
Prediction

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Affirmation of the consequent

Inductive logic
if the independent variable were not applied, the
behavior, as indicated by the baseline data path,
would not change
If-A-then-B statement

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Verification
Verification of a previously predicted level
of baseline responding by termination or
withdrawal of the treatment variable

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Verification

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Replication
Replication is the essence of believability
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p. 95)
Replication of the experimental effect

accomplished by reintroducing the
treatment variable

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Replication

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Chapter 8:
Reversal and Alternating Treatments
Designs

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Reversal Design
Repeated measures of behavior in given setting
Requires at least 3 consecutive phases:
Initial baseline (A)

Intervention (B)
Return to baseline (A)

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A-B-A-B Reversal
A-B-A-B preferred over A-B-A as stronger demonstration
Most powerful within-subject design for demonstrating a functional
relation between an environmental manipulation and a behavior

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Operation and Logic of Reversal Design

Involves prediction, verification, and replication
Independent variable is responsible for behavior change if repetition
of baseline and treatment phases approximate the original phases

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Variations of the A-B-A-B Design
Repeated reversals
B-A-B reversal design
Multiple treatment reversal designs
NCR reversal technique
DRO reversal technique
DRI/DRA reversal technique

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Repeated Reversals
A-B-A-B-A-B
Replications present more convincing demonstration of functional
relation
Possible, however, to become redundant

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B-A-B Reversal Design
Doesnt enable assessment of effects on preintervention level

Possible sequence effects
May be appropriate with dangerous behaviors
Ethics of withholding effective treatment

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Multiple Treatment Reversal Designs

To compare effects of two or more experimental conditions with each
other or baseline
Can make design decisions based on on-going assessment of data
Vulnerable to sequence effects
i.e., A-B-A-B-C-B-C, A-B-C-B-C-B-C

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NCR Reversal Technique

Noncontingent reversal
Demonstrates effects of contingent reinforcement
Useful when not possible to eliminate activity used as contingent
reinforcement
Deliver NCR on fixed or variable schedule independent of the
behavior

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DRO/DRI/DRA Reversals
DRO: Deliver reinforcement following any behavior other than the
target behavior
DRI: Reinforcement following behavior thats incompatible with target
behavior
DRA: Following an alternative behavior other than the target behavior
Shows effectiveness of contingent reinforcement

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The Appropriateness of the Reversal Design

Advantages:
Clear demonstration of functional relationship
Quantifies amount of behavior change
Shows need to program for maintenance
Disadvantages:
Irreversibility
Social, educational, and ethical concerns

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Irreversibility
Reversal design not appropriate when independent variable cannot
be withdrawn
Level of behavior from earlier phase cannot be reproduced again
under the same conditions
If suspected, consider DRO or DRI/DRA as controls or multiple
baseline designs

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Withdrawing Effective Interventions

Social concerns
Get full support of everyone involved
Educational and clinical issues

Reversal phases can be very short
For ethical reasons, withdrawal of intervention may not be appropriate in
harmful situations

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Alternating Treatments Design

Efficient for comparing effects of 2 or more treatments
Also known as:
Multi-element baseline design

Multiple schedule design
Concurrent schedule design
Simultaneous treatment design

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Operation and Logic of Alternating Treatments

Design
Alternated in a variety of ways
A distinct stimulus is often associated
with each treatment
Involves prediction, verification, and
replication

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Operation and Logic of Alternating Treatments

Design
Experimental control demonstrated with different levels of response
in different treatments
Allows for quick comparison
Stress importance of evaluating individualized treatments

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Variations of Alternating Treatments Design
Single phase without no-treatment control condition

Single phase with one no-treatment control condition
Two phase with initial baseline
Three phase with baseline and final best treatment phase

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Without No-Treatment Control Condition

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With No-Treatment Control Condition

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With Baseline and Final Best Treatment Phase

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Advantages of Alternating Treatments Design
Does not require treatment withdrawal

Speed of comparison
Minimizes irreversibility problem
Minimizes sequence effects
Can be used with unstable data
Can be used to assess generalization of effects
Intervention can begin immediately

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Disadvantages of Alternating Treatments Design
Multiple treatment interference

Unnatural nature of rapidly alternating treatments
Limited capacity (max. of 4 conditions)
Selection of treatments should be significantly different from one
another

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Chapter 9:
Multiple Baseline and Changing Criterion
Designs

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Multiple Baseline Design

Most widely used for evaluating treatment effects in ABA
Highly flexible
Do not have to withdraw treatment variable

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Operation and Logic

Alternative to reversal design when target behavior is likely to be
irreversible or when impractical or unethical to reverse conditions
3 basic forms:
Multiple baseline across behaviors
Multiple baseline across settings
Multiple baseline across subjects

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Prediction, Verification, and Replication

Apply independent variable to Behavior 1 when you can confidently
predict that the behavior would remain the same in constant
conditions
If Behaviors 2 and 3 remain unchanged after the application of the IV
to Behavior 1, this verifies the prediction
If the IV changes Behavior 2 like it did Behavior 1, the effect of the IV
has been replicated
The more replications, the more convincing the demonstration; most
commonly 3-5 tiers
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Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors

2 or more different behaviors of same subject
Each subject serves as his/her own control
After steady state baseline responding, independent variable is
applied to 1st behavior, while other behaviors are kept in baseline
conditions
When steady state responding is reached for 1st behavior, then IV is
applied to next behavior

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Multiple Baseline Across Settings

A single behavior is targeted in two or more different settings or
conditions
applied to 1st setting, while other settings are kept in baseline
conditions
When steady state responding is reached for 1st setting, then IV is
applied to next setting

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Multiple Baseline Across Subjects

One target behavior for 2 or more subjects in the same setting
applied to 1st subject, while other subjects are kept in baseline
conditions
When steady state responding is reached for 1st subject, then IV is
applied to next subject
Most widely used multiple baseline design

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Variations of Multiple Baselines

Alternative tactics for pursuing a multiple baseline analysis:
Multiple probe design
Delayed multiple baseline design
When extended baseline measurement is unnecessary, impractical,

too costly, or unavailable

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Multiple Probe Design

Analyzes relation between independent variable and acquisition of
skill sequences
Instead of simultaneous baselines, probes provide basis for
determining if behavior change has occurred prior to intervention
Appropriate for analyzing a shaping program

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Delayed Multiple Baseline Design

Initial baseline and intervention begin and subsequent baselines are
added in a delayed or staggered fashion
Effective when reversal design is not possible, limited resources
preclude a full-scale design, and when a new behavior, subject, or
setting becomes available
Limitations: shorter baselines and can mask interdependence of
dependent variables

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Assumptions and Guidelines

1.
Select independent, yet functionally similar baselines

Behaviors are functionally independent of one another
Behaviors share enough similarity that they will change with the
application of the same independent variable
2. Select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baselines
Behaviors must be measured concurrently
All relevant variables that influence one behavior must have opportunity to
influence other behaviors

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Assumptions and Guidelines

3. Do not apply the independent variable to the next behavior too
soon
4. Vary significantly the lengths of multiple baselines
The more baseline phases differ in length, the stronger the design
5. Intervene on most stable baseline first
If possible, application of independent variable should be made in
order of greatest stability

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Multiple Baseline Design Advantages
Does not require withdrawal of an effective treatment

Ideal for multiple behavior changes sought by many practitioners
Useful in assessing occurrence of generalization of behavior change
Relatively easy to conceptualize

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Limitations
Does not demonstrate experimental control
Provides more information about effectiveness of treatment variable
than function of target behavior
Can require treatment being withheld for some
behaviors/settings/subjects for a long time
Required time and resources

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Changing Criterion Design

Used to evaluate effects of a treatment that is applied in a graduated
fashion to a single target behavior
Initial baseline phase followed by series of treatment phases that
serve as baseline for increased criterion of the next phase

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Operation and Logic

Prediction, replication, and verification
Variation of the multiple baseline design
Show repeated production of new rates of behavior as function of
manipulations of independent variable
Flexibility of the design

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Guidelines for Use

Requires careful manipulation of 3 design factors:
length of phases
magnitude of criterion changes
number of criterion changes

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Length of Phases
Each phase serves as baseline for next phase, so must be long enough
to achieve stable responding
Slower to change target behaviors, therefore, require longer phases
Should vary considerably to increase designs validity

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Magnitude of Criterion Changes

Varying size of changes gives more convincing demonstration of
experimental control
Must be large enough to be detectable, but not so large as to be
unachievable
Smaller changes can be used with very stable levels of responding
Larger changes required to demonstrate behavior change in presence
of variability

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Number of Criterion Changes

The more times the behavior changes to meet new criteria, the more
convincing the demonstration of experimental control
Interrelated with phase length and magnitude of criterion changes
If limited time for study, the greater the number of phases, the
shorter each phase can be

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Appropriateness of Changing Criterion Design

Does not require reversal of improved behavior
Only one target behavior is required
Only for use with behaviors that are already in students repertoire
and lend themselves to stepwise modification

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Appropriateness
Not appropriate for shaping behaviors
Best suited for evaluating effect of instructional techniques on
stepwise changes in rate, frequency, accuracy, duration, or latency of
single target behavior

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Chapter 10:
Planning and Evaluating Applied Behavior
Analysis Research

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Importance of Individual Subject

Enables applied behavior analysts to discover and refine effective
interventions for socially significant behaviors
Contrasted with groups-comparison approach

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Groups-Comparison Experiment
Randomly selected pool of subjects from relevant population
Divided into experimental and control groups
Pretest, application of independent variable to experimental group,
and posttest

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Group Data Not Representative of Individual

Performance
Individuals within a group could stay the same or decrease, while the
improvement of others could make it appear as overall average
improvement
To be most useful, treatment must be understood at an individual
level

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Group Data Masks Variability

Hides variability that occurs within and between subjects
Statistical control should not be a substitute for experimental control
To control effects of any variable, must either hold it constant or
manipulate it as an independent variable

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Absence of Intrasubject Replication

Power of replicating effects with individuals is lost
Many applied situations in which overall performance of group is
socially significant
When group results dont represent individuals, should supplement
the data with individual results

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Importance of Flexibility in Design

An effective researcher must actively design each experiment so that
it achieves its own unique design
Good experimental design is any independent variable manipulation
that produces data that convincingly addresses the research question
The book presents analytic tactics in design form

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Experimental Designs
Often designs entail a combination of analytic tactics

Component analysis of elements
Infinite number of possible designs with different combinations
Most effective use ongoing evaluation of data from individuals to
employ baseline logic of prediction, verification, and replication

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Internal Validity
Experiments that demonstrate clear functional relations have high
degree of internal validity
Experimental control refers to all relevant variables
Steady state responding as evidence
Confounding variables are threats to internal validity

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Subject Confounds
Maturation: changes in subject over course of experiment
Repeated measurement controls and detects uncontrolled variables

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Setting Confounds
Studies in natural settings are more prone to confounding variables
than in controlled laboratories
If change in setting occurs, should then hold new conditions constant
until steady state responding is observed

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Measurement Confounds
Observer drift or bias
Keeping observers nave to expected outcomes can reduce observer
bias
Must maintain baseline conditions long enough for reactive effects to
run their course and then obtain stable responding
Could use intermittent probes except when practice effects would be
expected

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Independent Variable Confounds

Placebo control separates effects produced by subjects perceived
expectations
Double-blind control eliminates confounding by subject expectations,
teacher and parent expectations, differential treatment by others,
and observer bias

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Treatment Integrity
Similar to procedural fidelity
Extent to which the independent variable is implemented or carried
out as planned
Low treatment integrity makes it very difficult to confidently interpret
experimental results
Treatment drift: when application of independent variable in later
phases differs from original application

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Precise Operational Definition

A high level of treatment integrity requires a complete, precise
operational definition of treatment procedures
Define in 4 dimensions: verbal, physical, spatial, and temporal

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Simplify, Standardize, and Automate

Simple, precise treatments are more likely to be consistently
delivered
Simple, easy-to-implement techniques are more likely to be used and
socially validated
Experimenters should standardize as many aspects as possible and
practical
If possible without compromise, could use an automated device to
deliver independent variable

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Training and Practice

Train or provide practice for individual who will conduct the
experimental sessions
Could provide a detailed script, verbal instructions, modeling, or
performance feedback

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Assessing Treatment Integrity

Collect treatment integrity data to measure how the actual
implementation of the conditions matches the written methods
Observation and calibration give the researcher the ongoing ability to
use retraining and practice to ensure high treatment integrity
Reduce, eliminate, or identify the influence of as many potentially
confounding variables as possible

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Social Validity
Includes the social significance of the target behavior, the
appropriateness of the procedures, and the social importance of the
results
Usually assessed by asking direct and indirect consumers
Consumer satisfaction

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Social Importance of Behavior Change Goals

To determine socially valid goals:
Assess the performance of persons considered competent
Experimentally manipulate different levels of performance to determine
which produces optimal results

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Social Importance of Interventions

Rating scales and questionnaires for obtaining consumers opinions
on acceptability of interventions
Examples:
Intervention Rating Profile
Treatment Acceptability Rating Form

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Social Importance of Behavior Changes

Methods for assessing outcomes:
Compare subjects performance to a normative sample

Use standardized assessment instrument
Ask consumers to rate social validity of performance
Ask experts to evaluate subjects performance
Test subjects new performance in natural environment

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Normative Sample
Not limited to posttreatment comparisons
Compare subjects behavior to ongoing probes of behavior of
normative sample to provide ongoing measure of improvement and
how much is still needed

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Consumers and Experts

Most frequently used method for assessing social validity is to ask
consumers
Experts can be called upon to judge the social validity of some
behavior changes

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Standardized and Real-World Tests

Example of standardized test: Self-Injury Trauma Scale (SITS)
Real-world test in the natural environment provides direct
assessment of social validity
Also exposes subject to naturally occurring reinforcement, which may
promote maintenance and generalization

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External Validity
Degree to which a functional relation in an experiment will hold
under different conditions
A matter of degree, not all-or-nothing
Those with greater degrees of generality, make greater contribution
to applied behavior analysis

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External Validity and Groups-Design Research

There is nothing in the results of a groups-design experiment that can
have external validity
Unable to provide data that lead to improved practice in education
Groups-design is effective in large-scale evaluations

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External Validity and Applied Behavior Analysis

Generality of findings in ABA is assessed, established, and specified
through replication of experiments
Two major types of scientific replication: direct and systematic

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Direct Replication
Duplicates exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment
Intrasubject direct replication: uses same subject to establish
reliability of functional relation
Intersubject direct replication: uses different but similar subjects to
determine generality

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Systematic Replication
Researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of earlier
experiment
Can demonstrate reliability and external validity of earlier findings
Can alter any aspect: subjects, setting, administration of independent
variable, or target behaviors

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Evaluating Applied Behavior Analysis Research

Questions to ask in evaluating the quality of research in applied
behavior analysis fall under 4 categories:
Internal validity
Social validity
External validity
Scientific and theoretical significance

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Internal Validity
Must decide whether functional relation has been demonstrated
Requires close examination of measurement system, experimental
design, and the researchers control of potential confounds

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Evaluating Internal Validity
Definition and measurement of dependent variable

Graphic display
Meaningfulness of baseline conditions
Experimental design
Visual analysis and interpretation

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Visual Analysis and Interpretation

Factors that favor visual analysis over tests of statistical significance in
ABA:
Want to see socially significant behavior change, not statistically significant
Good for identifying variables that produce strong, large, and reliable effects
Accepting statistical analysis as evidence of functional relation may cause
researcher not to experiment further
Tests of statistical significance may cause data sets to conform, losing
flexibility in design

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Errors
Type I error: when researcher concludes that independent variable
had effect on dependent variable, when it did not
Type II error: when researcher concludes that independent variable
did not have effect on dependent variable, when it did
Visual analysis leads to less Type I and more Type II errors
Statistical analysis leads to more Type I and less Type II errors

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Social Validity
Independent variable should be assessed in terms of its effects on
dependent variable, as well as social acceptability, complexity,
practicality, and cost
Consider maintenance and generalization of behavior change in
evaluation of a study

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External Validity
To effectively judge external validity, compare a studys results with
those of other relevant published research

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Theoretical Significance and Conceptual Sense

Evaluate a study in terms of its scientific merit
Look at its contribution to the advancement of the field
knowledgeable reproducibility

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Need for More Thorough Analyses

Need for more conceptual understanding of the principles that
underlie successful demonstrations of behavior change
Readers should consider the technological description, the
interpretation of results, and the level of conceptual integrity in
experimental reports

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Chapter 11:
Positive Reinforcement

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Definition
Stimulus presented
Contingent on a response
Which increases the future probability of the response
The future increase in the response is a critical feature in defining
reinforcement

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Reinforcement is Not a Circular Concept

Circular Reasoning
Faulty logic in which the name used describe the effect is also mistaken for
the cause of the phenomenon
Example: Johnny has trouble learning to read (effect). Therefore, he has a
learning disability (phenomenon). How do I know he has a learning disability?
Because he cant read (effect now translated into cause)

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Reinforcement is Not a Circular Concept

Sometimes, people refer to reinforcement as a circular concept--it
is not!
Example: Robbies studying behavior increased when he earned
points for studying.
Cause (earning points) and effect (increased study behavior) are different
Points can be manipulated as an independent variable to observe effects on
studying

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The Role of Antecedent Stimuli

Caveat #1: Reinforcement does not increase behavior
under all conditions
The temporal relation between
Antecedent variables
Responses
Consequences
is important!
These antecedent variables become discriminitive
stimuli (SDs)
Thus, the response is more likely to occur in the future
in the presence of these stimuli

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The Discriminated Operant

AKA The Three-term Contingency
SD
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Response
Turn tap
with blue
dot or C
SR+
Cold water
presented
Turning tap marked

with blue dot or
C occurs more
often in the future
This term is referred to as the

reinforcer


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The Role of Antecedent Stimuli

Caveat #2: Reinforcement depends on motivation
The SD will only signal the response if the individual is motivated to
engage in the response
Motivating Operations (MOs)
Alter the reinforcing effectiveness of stimuli, and thus
Alter the momentary frequency of responses reinforced by those stimuli

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Establishing Operations (EO)
Increases the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
Usually involves decreased access to the stimulus (deprivation)
Abolishing Operation (AO)

Decreases the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
Usually involves having increased access to the stimulus (satiation)

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The Four-term Contingency

The consideration of MOs are important in relation
to the three-term contingency
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Turn tap
with blue
dot or C
Cold water
presented
We only expect blue tap-turning behavior when the

person wants water (i.e., is thirsty)

Turning tap marked

with blue dot or
C occurs more
often in the future
when the individual
has been deprived
of water for
periods of time

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Questions About Reinforcement

Does a person have to be aware that a response is being reinforced
for it to increase?
NO! The effect is automatic.
Are certain behaviors susceptible to reinforcement and others are

not?
NO! The only relevant relevant property is the temporal relation between the
response and the consequence.

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Immediacy of Reinforcement
It is critical that the consequence is delivered immediately following
the target response
Problems with delays to reinforcement
Other behaviors occur during the delay
The behavior temporarily closest to the presentation of the reinforcer will be
strengthened

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Delayed Reinforcement
Does not necessarily reinforce the target behavior; rather influences it
Instructional Control/Rule Following
Rule: verbal description of a behavioral contingency
Can allow delayed consequences to influence behavior

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Rule-governed Behavior
Indicators
No immediate consequence apparent
Response-consequence delay > 30 s
Large increase in frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of
reinforcement
No consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic
reinforcement), but rule does

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Superstitious Behavior
Occurs when reinforcement accidentally follows a behavior that did
not produce the reinforcement
Sports players who equate putting on a certain pair of socks with winning a
game (leading to the lucky socks idea)
A teacher consoling a child who hurt himself may reinforce crying and/or
hurting oneself

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Automatic Reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs independent of another
person delivering it
The response, itself, produces the reinforcement
Examples
Wiggling your leg during a boring lecture to stimulate
yourself and stay awake
Note: This does not mean the behaviors are

automatic (i.e., reflexive); rather that the
consequences are delivered automatically
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Classifying Reinforcers

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Reinforcers by Origin
Unconditioned Reinforcers (AKA primary or unlearned reinforcers)
Function as reinforcers due to heredity/evolution
Do not require any learning history to become reinforcers
Examples: Food, water, oxygen, warmth, sexual stimulation, human touch

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Reinforcers by Origin
Conditioned Reinforcers (AKA secondary or
learned reinforcers)
Neutral stimuli that begin to function as reinforcers as a
result of being paired with other reinforcers (either
conditioned or unconditioned)
Can also condition reinforcers through verbal analog
conditioning
Examples: Yellow paper, stickers, tokens

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Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers

A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many
conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers
Do not depend on a specific EO to be effective
Examples: tokens, money, points

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Reinforcers by Formal Properties
Edible reinforcers (food)

Sensory reinforcers (massage, tickles)
Tangible reinforcers (trinkets, toys)
Activity reinforcers (playing a game, recess)
Social reinforcers (physical proximity, social
interaction)
Bear this in mind:
Items that function as reinforcers are
idiosyncratic across people!

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Identifying Potential Reinforcers

It is important to identify reinforcers empirically
Staff, parents, teachers, and even children themselves who report what they
believe to be reinforcers are often wrong
Two strategies to use in tandem

Stimulus Preference Assessments
Reinforcer Assessments

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Caveats Regarding Preference/Reinf. Assess.

Preference changes over time
Evaluate frequently
Preference assessments do not identify the reinforcing effects of

stimuli
Just because people prefer paper towels to hot-air hand dryers in public
restrooms doesnt mean theyll work to earn paper towels!

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Stimulus Preference Assessments

Identify
Stimuli a person prefers
Relevant preference values
Conditions under which these preferences hold true
Three Categories
Asking about stimulus preferences
Observing the target person under free-operant
conditions
Presenting various stimuli in a series of trial-based
observation
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Asking About Stimulus Preferences

Ask the Target Person
Open-ended questions
What would you like to work for?
Asking about specific items

How would you like to work for stickers?
Choice format
Would you rather work for things to eat or things to do?
Rank order format

Put these items/activities in order from which youd like to work for most to which youd
like to work for least.

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Offering Pre-task Choices
When you are finished working, you can play with Battleship, checkers, or the
computer
Asking Significant Others

Ask caregivers to identify preferred stimuli

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A relatively uncomplicated procedure
Problems
Verbal reports may not correspond to actual behavior
High number of false positives and low number of false negatives

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Free-Operant Observation
Observing and recording what activities the target person engages in
when he/she has unrestricted choice of activities
No response requirements
All stimuli available within sight and reach
Items are never removed
Can be contrived or naturalistic

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Contrived Free-Operant Observation

Just prior to observation, provide learner with noncontingent
exposure to each item (for sampling purposes)
Place all items in view and within reach
Observe for a set period of time and record the duration of time
target person engages with each stimulus item

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Naturalistic Free-Operant Observation

Conducted in everyday environments as unobtrusively as possible
(e.g., during recess)
Observe for a set period of time and record the duration of time
target person engages with each stimulus item/activity

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Advantages of Free-Operant Assessments

Less time consuming than some trial-based methods of preference
assessment.
Less likely to produce problem behavior because preferred stimuli are
never removed.

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Trial-Based Methods
General Procedure
Present selected stimuli to children in a series of trials

Measure approach (e.g., eye gaze, hand reach), contact
(e.g., touch/hold), and/or engagement (e.g., interacting
with stimulus)
Can categorize as high, medium, and low preference
Many variations for procedure

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Trial-based Method 1:
Single Stimulus Presentation
Present stimuli, one at a time, in random order and record target
persons reaction to it
Well suited for individuals who have difficulty selecting among two or
more stimuli

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Paired Stimuli Presentation
Sometimes called forced-choice method
Present two stimuli simultaneously and ask the target person to
choose one
Each stimulus is matched to every other stimulus in the set
Rank order from high, medium, and low preference

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Multiple Stimulus Presentation
Extension of the paired-stimuli presentation
Present an array of 3 or more stimuli together
Two major variations:
With replacement
Stimulus selected remains in array in subsequent trials
Without replacement
Selected stimulus is removed from the array in subsequent trials
(takes about half the time to complete the procedure, and it is
still fairly accurate)

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Multiple Stimulus Presentation
Begin trial with: Which one do you want the most?
Repeat several times

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Guidelines for Selecting and Using Stimulus

Preference Assessments
Monitor target persons activities prior to assessment
to be aware of EOs that may affect results
Balance cost-benefits of procedures (time to do vs.
level of confidence)
Balance rankings vs. no rankings with shifts of
preference
When time is limited, use fewer stimuli in array
When possible, combine data from multiple
assessment procedures

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Reinforcer Assessment
A direct, data-based method in which
One or more stimuli are presented
Contingent on a target response, and
Observing whether an increase in responding occurs
Allows you to verify/confirm whether a stimulus

functions as a reinforcer

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Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

Pit two stimuli against each other and observe which produces the
larger increase in responding
Allows you to determine differences between relative and absolute
reinforcement effects

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Multiple Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

Two or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single
response with only one component schedule in effect at a given time
An SD signals the presence of each component schedule and is
present while that component is in effect

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Progressive-Ratio Schedule Reinforcer

Assessment
Preferences may change when response requirements increase
Progressive-ratio schedules provide a framework for assessing relative
effectiveness of a stimulus as reinforcement as response
requirements increase
Response requirements are systematically increased over time until
responding declines

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Control Procedures for Positive

Reinforcement
When evaluating the effects of reinforcement in an
ABAB reversal design:
the ideal control procedureeliminates the contingent
relation between the occurrence of the target response
and the presentation of the stimulus while controlling
for the effects of stimulus presentation alone
(Thompson & Iwata, 2003, p. 259).
Perhaps a noncontingent schedule of

reinforcement is the appropriate control (A)
condition as a comparison for the positive
reinforcement (B) condition.

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Reinforcement
DRO may be another appropriate control procedure
May produce a reversal more quickly than the NCR schedule
DRA could be used as a control procedure to reinforce another

alternative response

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Reinforcement
Limitations of DRO/DRA as controls
Introduce new contingencies that were not present in original experimental
arrangement
Reversals may be due to
Termination of a contingency between target response and reinforcer
Introduction of reinforcement for absence of the target response or for the occurrence
of a competing response

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12 Guidelines for Using Reinforcement

Effectively
1. Choose reinforcers relevant to current or creatable establishing
operations
2. Maintain establishing operations
3. Use high-quality reinforcers of
sufficient magnitude
4. Set an easily achieved initial criterion for reinforcement
-criterion should be less than or
equal to best performance during
baseline
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Effectively
5.
6.
7.
8.
Explain the contingency and provide prompts to respond

Deliver the reinforcer immediately following behavior
Reinforce each occurrence of the behavior initially
Use direct rather than indirect reinforcement contingencies

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Effectively
9.
10.
11.
12.
Gradually increase response-to-reinforcement delay

Use varied reinforcers
Use contingent praise and attention
Shift from contrived to naturally occurring reinforcers

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Chapter 12:
Negative Reinforcement

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Definition
Stimulus removed (terminated, reduced, or postponed)
Contingent on a response
Which results in an increase in the future probability of that response

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Escape Contingency
Includes 4 terms
Establishing operation
Antecedent event in the presence of which escape is reinforcing
An aversive stimulus
A discrimintive stimulus (SD)

A response
The reinforcer (termination of the EO)

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Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

How they are similar:
Both produce an increase in responding via a stimulus change
How they are different:

The type of stimulus change that follows the behavior
Positive reinforcement produces a stimulus that was absent prior to responding
Negative reinforcement terminates a stimulus that was present prior to responding

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Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement:
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Absence of
food for 2
hours
Teacher says
Snack time
and apples on
table
Apple,
please
Apple
presented
Saying Apple,
please when it is
snack time and
apples are present
more likely in the
future
Negative reinforcement:
EO
SD
Response
SR-
Math
worksheet
with 20
problems on
students desk
Teacher says
Complete 5
problems, then
you dont have
to do the rest
Completes 5
problems
Remaining
problems on
worksheet
removed

Completing
problems when
math worksheet
and teacher
instructions
present more likely
in the future

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A difficulty
Sometimes it can be difficult to determine
whether the stimulus change was positive or
negative
Turning up the heat
Adds heat
Removes cold
Free time contingent on work completion

Adds preferred activities
Removes work

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A solution
Michael (1975) suggested the distinction is not
important
Instead, define key stimulus features
Before the stimulus change
After the stimulus change
This may provide a more complete, functional

understanding of the relationship between the
behavior and environment

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Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Often confused because:
Positive and Negative are opposites
But positive refers to presentation of the stimulus and negative refers to the
termination of the stimulus
Both involve aversive events

But in negative reinforcement, the aversive event is present prior to the target behavior
and in punishment, the aversive event is presented contingent on the target behavior
And the effect on behavior is different (negative reinforcement produces an increase in
responding; punishment produces a decrease in responding)

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Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Negative reinforcement:
EO
SD
Response
SR-
Math
worksheet
with 20
problems on
students desk
Teacher says
Complete 5
problems, then
you dont have
to do the rest
Completes 5
problems
Remaining
problems on
worksheet
removed
SD
Response
SP+
Teacher says
Complete 5
problems, then
you dont have
to do the rest
Destroys
worksheet
Teacher
requires
student to
complete all 20
problems
Punishment:
Completing
problems more
likely in the future
when math
worksheet and
teacher
instructions
present
Destroying
worksheet less
when teacher
makes work
request
Escape and Avoidance Contingencies

Escape Contingency
EO
SD
Response
SR-
Rain falling
on your head
as you walk
down
sidewalk
Friend says
Do you have
an umbrella?
Put up
umbrella
Escape rain
falling on your
head

Putting up
umbrella more
when its raining
and friend asks for
umbrella

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Escape and Avoidance Contingencies

Avoidance Contingency
EO
SD
Response
SR-
Rain
outside; you
are still
inside--nice
and dry
Friend says
Do you have
an
umbrella?
Put up
umbrella
(prior to
going
outside)
Avoid rain
falling on
your head

Putting up
umbrella more
when its raining
and friend asks for
umbrella

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Characteristics of Negative Reinforcement

Any response (socially appropriate or inappropriate) can be
strengthened by negative reinforcement
All are adaptive because they allow the individual to interact effectively with
the environment
A variety of stimuli can serve as negative reinforcers

Unconditioned
Conditioned

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Characteristics of Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement can be
Socially mediated (delivered by another person)
Automatic (is produced directly by the persons response)

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Factors Influencing Effectiveness

As with positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement is most
effective when
It is delivered immediately following the target behavior

The magnitude of reinforcement is large
It is delivered consistently
Reinforcement is unavailable for competing (nontarget) responses

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Ethical Considerations
Like positive reinforcement, ethical issues arise
from the severity of the EO that may need to be in
place to motivate the occurrence of the behavior
The presence of particularly aversive antecedent stimuli
may be problematic
These stimuli may generate undesirable competing
behaviors

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Chapter 13:
Schedules of Reinforcement

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Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)
Provides reinforcement for every occurrence of a behavior.
Advantageous for skill acquisition

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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (INT)
Used to strengthen established behaviors
Usually necessary for the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement.

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Basic Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio (instances) and Interval (time)
Ratio schedules require a number of responses before one response produces
reinforcement
Interval schedules require and elapse of time before a response produces reinforcement.

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Ratio Schedules
Require a number of responses before one response produces reinforcement.
A fixed number of instances or occurrences of the correct target behavior.

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Interval Schedules
With an interval schedule, a specific amount of time elapses before a single
response produces reinforcement
Reinforcement is contingent only on the occurrence of one response after the
required time has elapsed.

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Fixed Schedules
With a fixed schedule, the response ratio or the time requirement remains
constant.
Fixed Ratio 4 (FR 4) Reinforcement is delivered after every 4th correct response.
Fixed Interval 2 min (FI 2) Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after the 2
minutes have elapsed.

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Fixed Ratio and Schedule Effects
Consistency of Performance
Produces a typical pattern of responding
After the first response of the ratio requirement, subject completes required responses with
little hesitation
Postreinforcement pause follows reinforcement

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Fixed Ratio (FR) and Schedule Effects
Rate of Response
Often produce high rates of response
Larger the ratio requirement, the higher the rate of response.

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Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule Effects
A = Post reinforcement pause
B = High rate of response run
A
Responses
C = reinforcer delivered upon

emission of nth response
C
Time

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Variable Schedules
The response ratio or the time requirement can change from one reinforced
response to another.
Variable Ratio 4 (VR 4). An average of every 4th correct occurrence
Variable Interval 2 minute (VI 2). Reinforcing the first occurrence after an
averaged elapsed time of 2 minutes.

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Variable Ratio (VR) and Schedule Effects
Produce consistent, steady rates of response
Do not produce a postreinforcement pause

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Variable Ratio (VR) and Schedule Effects
Rate of Response
Tends to produce a quick rate of response
To a degree, the larger the ratio requirement, the quicker the rate of response.

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Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule Effects
Responses
A = High steady rate of responding

B = Reinforcement delivered after a varying
number of required responses are emitted
Schedule Effects:
B
Time

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Ratio requirements are completed with a very high

rate of response and little hesitation between
responses. Postreinforcement pauses are not a
characteristic of the VR schedule. Rate of response
is influenced by the size of the ratio requirements

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Fixed Interval (FI)
Provides reinforcement for the first correct response following a fixed
duration of time.
Elapse of time alone is not sufficient for reinforcer delivery.

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Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule Effects
Typically produce a postreinforcement pause
Gradually accelerating rate of response toward the end of the interval is called an FI
scallop

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Rate of response
Tend to produce a slow to moderate rate of response
To a degree, the larger the fixed interval requirement, the longer the postreinforcement
pause

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A = Postreinforcement pause
B = increase in response rates as interval
progresses and reinforcer becomes
available
Responses
C = reinforcer delivered contingent on

first correct responses after interval
Schedule Effects:
C
Time

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FI schedules generate slow to

moderate rates of responding with a
pause in responding following
reinforcement. Responding begins to
accelerate toward the end of the
interval.

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Variable Interval (VI)
Provides reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of
variable durations of time
Average amount of time

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Variable Interval (VI) Schedule Effects
Tends to produce a constant, stable rate of response.
Typically produces few hesitations between responses.

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Rate of responding
Tends to produce low to moderate rate of response.
The larger the average interval, the lower the overall rate of response

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A = Steady response rate; few, if any,
postreinforcement pauses
B = Reinforcer delivered
Responses
A
Schedule Effects:
A VI schedule generates a slow to moderate

response that is constant and stable. There
are few, if any, postreinforcement pauses with
VI schedules
Time

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Thinning Intermittent Reinforcement

One of two methods commonly used:
Gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval
Providing instructions such as rules, directions and signs to communicate the
schedule of reinforcement.

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Thinning Intermittent Reinforcement

Ratio Strain
A result of abrupt increases in ratio requirements
Characteristics include: avoidance, aggression, and unpredictable pauses in
responding

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Variations on Basic Intermittent Schedules of

Reinforcement
Schedules of Differential Reinforcement of Rates of Responding
Provides an intervention for behavior problems associated with rate of
response.
Variation of ratio schedules

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Reinforcement
Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)
Reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion.

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Reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
Responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion.

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Reinforcement
Definitions
Reinforcement is available only for responses that are separated by a given duration time
Sometimes referred to as Spaced-responding DRH or Space-responding DRL

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Reinforcement
Full Session DRH
Provides reinforcement if the total number of responses during the session meets or
exceeds a number criterion

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Reinforcement
Full Session DRL
Provides reinforcement if the total number of responses during the session is at or below
a number criterion

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Reinforcement
Interval definition for DRH & DRL
Reinforcement is available only for responses that occur at a minimum or better rate of
response over short durations of time during the session.

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Reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates (DRD)
Provides reinforcement of responses at the end of a pre-determined teim interval when
the number of respones is less than a criterion that is gradually decreased across time
intervals based on the individuals performance.

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Reinforcement
Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement
Systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity independent
of the participants behavior.
Progressive Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement (PR)
Progressive Interval Schedules of Reinforcement (PI)

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Reinforcement
Using Progressive Schedules for Reinforcer Assessment
Provide an assessment procedure for identifying reinforcers that will maintain treatment
effects across increasing schedule requirements.

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Reinforcement
Using Progressive Schedules for Intervention
Systematically increasing the ratio or interval requirements for reinforcement

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Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

Combined elements of continuous reinforcement (CRF), the four
intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI), differential
reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DRL), and
extinction (CRF)

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Concurrent Schedule of Reinforcement (conc)
Occurs when (a) two or more contingencies of reinforcement (b) operate
independently and simultaneously (c) for two or more behaviors.

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Using Concurrent Schedules for Reinforcer Assessment
This schedule requires the participant to choose between two or more stimuli rather
than indicating a preference for a given stimulus.

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Using Concurrent Schedules for Intervention
Arranging two or more reinforcers for the participant to choose from contingent upon
the occurrence of a target behavior.

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Concurrent Performances: Formalizing the Matching Law
Concurrent interval schedules participants typically do not allocate all of
their responses exclusively to the richer schedule.
Concurrent ratio schedules participants are sensitive to the ratio schedules
an tend to maximize reinforcement by responding primarily to the ratio that
produces the higher rate of reinforcement.

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The Matching Law
Rate of responding typically is proportional to the rate of reinforcement
received from each choice alternative.

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Discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement

Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement (mult)
Presents two or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an alternating,
usually random, sequence.
Basic schedules occur successively and independently.
A discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic schedule and is present
as long as the schedule is in effect

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Discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement

Chained Schedules of Reinforcement (chain)
Similar to (mult)
Differs in three ways
Basic schedules occur in a specific order
The behavior may be the same for all elements of the chain, or different behaviors may
be required for different elements
Conditioned reinforcement for first behavior in the chain is the presentation of the
second element and so on.

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Non-discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement

Mixed Schedules (mix)
Identical to multiple schedules, except the mixed schedule has no
discriminative stimuli correlated with the independent schedules
Example: mix FR 10 FI 1 schedule

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Non-discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement

Tandem Schedules
Similar to the chained schedule except the tandem schedule does not use a
discriminative stimulus
Example: FR 15 FI 2 schedule participants makes 15 responses then
reinforcement is delivered for the first response after 2 minutes of elapsed
time.

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Chapter 14:
Punishment by Stimulus Presentation

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Introduction
Learning from the consequences that produce pain or discomfort, or
the loss of reinforcers, has survival value for the individual and for the
species.
Punishment teaches us not to repeat responses that cause us harm

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Introduction
Punishment is:
Poorly understood
Frequently misapplied
Controversial

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Introduction
As a principle of behavior, punishment is not about punishing the
person.
Punishment is a:
response consequence
contingency that suppresses the future frequency of similar
responses.

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Definitions & Nature of Punishment

Operations & Defining Effect of Punishment
Punishment has occurred when a response is followed immediately
by a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of similar
responses

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Punishment is defined neither by the actions of the person delivering
the consequences, nor by the nature of those consequences.

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A decrease in the future frequency of the occurrence of the behavior
must be observed before a consequence-based intervention qualifies
as punishment.

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Positive Punishment & Negative Punishment
Positive Punishment
Presentation of a stimulus (or an increase in the intensity of an
already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that
results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior.

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Negative Punishment
The termination of an already present stimulus (or a decrease in the
intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a
behavior that results in a decrease in the future frequency of the
behavior.
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For a stimulus change to function as negative punishment, which
amounts to the removal of a positive reinforcer, a motivating
operation for the reinforcer must be in effect, otherwise removing it
will not constitute punishment.
(Michael, 2004, p.36)

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Positive & negative punishment are sometimes identified as:
Type I Punishment
Type II Punishment

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Because aversive events are associated with positive punishment and
with negative reinforcement, the umbrella term aversive control is
often used to describe intervention involving either or both of these
two principles.

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Discriminative Effects of Punishment
The 3 term contingency for punishment
(1) In a particular stimulus situation (S), (2) some kinds of behavior
(R), when followed immediately by (3) certain stimulus changes (SP),
show a decreased future frequency of occurrence in the same or in
similar situations.
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If punishment occurs only in some stimulus conditions and not in
others, the suppressive effects of punishment will be most prevalent
under those conditions.

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The symbol adopted by Cooper, Heron, and Heward for the
discriminative stimulus for punishment is SDp.

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SDp
A stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a
lower probability of occurrence than it does in its absence as a
result of response-contingent punishment delivery in the
presence of the stimulus.

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Dp
Grandma in the
kitchen before dinner
Reach into cookie jar
Grandma scolds
Seagulls present at
beach picnic
Leave sandwich
unattended
Seagull flies away

with sandwich
Effect on Future Frequency

of Similar Responses
D
in Presence of S
Three-term contingencies illustrating positive and negative punishment of a

discriminated operant: A response (R) emitted in the presence of a
discriminative stimulus (SDp) is followed closely in time by a stimulus change (SP)
and results in a decreased frequency of similar responses in the future when the
SDp is present. A discriminated operant for punishment is the product of a
conditioning history in which responses in the presence of the SDp have been
punished and similar responses in the absence of the SDp have not been
punished.
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Recovery from Punishment
When punishment is discontinued, its suppressive effects on
responding are usually not permanent.
Sometimes the rate of responding after punishment is discontinued
will not only recover but also briefly exceed the level at which it was
occurring prior to punishment
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Recovery from Punishment
Permanent response suppression may occur when complete
suppression of behavior to a zero rate of responding has been
achieved with intense punishment.

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Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers
A punisher is a stimulus change that immediately follows the
occurrence of a behavior and reduces the future frequency of that
type of behavior.

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An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus whose presentation functions as
punishment without having been paired with any other punishers.
Product of the evolutionary history of a species (phylogeny); all biologically intact
members of a species are more or less susceptible to punishment by the same
unconditioned punishers.

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Unlike unconditioned reinforcers, under most conditions many
unconditioned punishers will suppress any behavior that precedes
their onset.

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A conditioned punisher is a stimulus change that functions as
punishment as a result of a persons conditioning history.
Acquires the capability to function as a punisher through stimulusstimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned or conditioned
punishers.
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If the conditioned punisher is repeatedly presented without the
punisher(s) with which it was initially paired, its effectiveness as
punishment will diminish until it is no longer a punisher.

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Verbal analog conditioning
Previously neutral stimuli can also become conditioned punishers for
humans without direct physical pairing with another punisher.

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A stimulus change that has been paired with numerous forms of unconditioned
and conditioned punishers becomes a generalized conditioned punisher.
Generalized conditioned punishers are free from the control of specific
motivating conditions and will function as punishment under most conditions.

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- IMPORTANT point Punishers, like reinforcers, are not defined by their physical properties,
but by their functions.

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Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment
Immediacy of punishment
Intensity of punishment
Schedule or frequency of punishment
Availability of reinforcement for the target behavior
Availability of reinforcement for an alternative behavior.
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Immediacy
Maximum suppressive effects are obtained when the onset of the punisher
occurs as soon as possible after the occurrence of a target response.

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Intensity
The more intense the punishing stimulus is the greater it will reduce future
responding.

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Schedule
The greater the proportion of responses that are followed by the punisher is the
greater the response reduction.
Continuous Punishment = response suppression, but allows for rapid recovery
when the punishment contingency is removed.
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Reinforcement for the Target Behavior
The effectiveness of punishment is modulated by the reinforcement
contingencies maintaining the problem behavior.
To the extent that reinforcement maintaining the problem behavior can be
reduced or eliminated, punishment will be more apparent.
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Reinforcement for Alternative Behaviors
Milleson (1967) stated:
If punishment is employed in an attempt to eliminate certain behavior, then
whatever reinforcement the undesirable behavior had led to must be made
available via a more desirable behavior.
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Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment
Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression
Escape and Avoidance
Increased rate of the problem behavior under nonpunishment
Modeling undesirable behavior
Not teaching the learner what to do
Overusing punishment because of the negative reinforcement it provides the punishing agent.
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Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression.
Punishment, especially positive punishment in the form of aversive stimulation,
may evoke aggressive behavior with respondent and operant components.

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Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression.
Aggressive behavior following punishment that occurs because it has enable the
person to escape the aversive stimulation in the past is referred to as operant
aggression.

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Escape and Avoidance
Natural reactions to aversive stimulation
As the intensity of the punisher increases, so does the
likelihood of escape and avoidance.
Can be minimized by providing alternative responses that
come into contact with reinforcement and avoid the punisher.

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Behavioral Contrast
Change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the
rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the
response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the
schedule.

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Punishment may involve undesirable modeling
Punishment tactics may model undesirable behaviors.
2 decades of research have found strong correlation between young childrens exposure to harsh
and excessive punishment and antisocial behavior and conduct disorders as adolescents and
adults.
(Patterson, 1982; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Sprague & Walker, 2000).

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Negative Reinforcement of the Punishing Agents Behavior
Punishment reinforces the punisher.
Punishment tends to terminate the punished behavior quickly. The punishers
behavior tends to be negatively reinforced by the immediate cessation of the
punished behavior.
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Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions

Reprimands
The delivery of verbal reprimands following the occurrence of misbehavior is an
example of attempted positive punishment.
Reprimands given repeatedly may lead to the subject habituating to the stimulus

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Response Blocking
Physically intervening as soon as the person begins to emit the problem behavior
to prevent or block the completion of the response has been show to be
effective in reducing the frequency of some problem behaviors.
Suppressive effects of response blocking may be due to punishment or to
extinction.

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Response Blocking
Response blocking as a treatment intervention must be approached with great
care.
Side effects such as aggression and resistance to the response blocking procedure
have occurred in some studies.

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Contingent Exercise
An intervention in which a person is required to perform a response that is not
topographically related to the problem behavior.

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Overcorrection
A behavior change tactic based on positive punishment in which, contingent on
the problem behavior, the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior that
is directly or logically related to the problem.
2 Forms:
Restitutional and Positive Practice

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Overcorrection
Restitutional Overcorrection
Contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair or return
the environment to its original state and then to engage in additional behavior to
bring the environment to a condition vastly better than it was in prior to the
misbehavior.

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Overcorrection
Positive Practice Overcorrection
Contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior the learner is required to
repeat a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior incompatible with the
problem, a specified number of times.

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Contingent Electric Stimulation
46 studies have demonstrated that contingent electric stimulation can be a safe
and highly effective method for suppressing chronic and life- threatening selfinjurious behavior (SIB).
Self-Injurious Behavior Inhibiting System (SIBIS)
One of the most rigorously researched and carefully applied procedures for
implementing punishment by electric stimulation for self-inflicted blows to the
head or face.
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Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively

Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers
Punishment as part of a behavior change program has nothing to do with
retribution.
1. Punishment is not about threats.
2. When punishers are threatened and not delivered, the child learns that your
verbal threats are not associated with the actual punishing behavior.
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Conduct Punisher Assessments
Parallel process to a reinforcer assessment (Ch. 11).
Advantages:
1. The sooner an effective punisher can be identified, the sooner it can be applied to treat the
problem behavior.
2. Data from punisher assessments might reveal the magnitude or intensity of punisher necessary
for behavioral suppression. Allows practitioner to determine the smallest intensity of punisher
that is still affective.
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Consider Using Varied Punishers
Varying the form of the punishing stimulus enhanced the punishing effect.
It appears that by presenting a varied format of commonly used punishers,
inappropriate behaviors may further decrease without the use of more intrusive
punishment procedures.
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Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That is Effective
Ethical guidelines and the doctrine of the least restrictive alternative demand that the most
effective, but least intrusive, form of punishment be used initially.
Questions to answer when deciding on a form of punishment:
Will this form of punishment suppress the behavior?
Will this form of punishment be controlled from application to application?

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Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That is Effective
Punishment is more effective when the stimulus is delivered at its optimum level
initially than when its intensity is gradually increased over time.

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Experience the Punishment Personally
Practitioners should experience any punisher personally before the treatment
begins
Doing to reminds the practitioner that the technique produces physical
discomfort.

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Deliver the Punishment Immediately
Every instance of the inappropriate behavior should be punished.
Punishment affects most the behavior that immediately precedes the onset of
punishment.

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Deliver the Punishment at the Beginning of the Response Chain
As much as practical, punishment should occur early in the behavioral sequence
rather than later.

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Deliver the Punishment Unemotionally
Punishment should be delivered in a business-like, matter-of-fact manner.
Resist statement such as, I told you so. Now, youve gone and done i. and
What do you have to say for yourself?
All you want to do is modify behavior, not make people atone for their sins.

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Punish Each Instance of the Behavior
Punishment is most effective when the punisher follows each instance of the
behavior.

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Provide Response Prompts and Reinforcement for Alternative Behavior.
Punishment is most effective when the learner can make other responses for
reinforcement.
The more reinforcement the learner obtains by emitting appropriate behavior,
the less motivate he will be to emit the problem behavior.

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Watch for Side Effects of Punishment
The suppression of one inappropriate behavior may lead to the increased
expression of another or the complete suppression of all other behaviors.
Decreasing episodes of self-injurious behavior bay produce increased levels of
verbal noncompliance
Expand observations to include collateral or parallel behaviors.
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Record, Graph and Evaluate Data Daily
Data collection in the first session or two of a punishment based intervention is especially critical.
Graphing the frequency of the target behavior before, during, and after the presentation of the
punisher establishes the effectiveness of punishment.

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment

Right to Safe and Humane Treatment
The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services program is to do
no harm.

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment

Least Restrictive Alternative
The less intrusive procedures should be tried and found to be ineffective before
more intrusive procedures are implemented.
Interventions can be viewed as falling along a continuum of restrictiveness from
least to most.

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Ethical considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment

Least Restrictive Alternative
A procedures overall level of restrictiveness is a combined function of its
absolute level of restrictiveness, the amount of time required to produce a
clinically acceptable outcome, and the consequences associated with delayed
intervention.

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Right to Effective Treatment
Failing to use a punishment procedure that research has show to suppress selfdestructive behavior similar to the clients is unethical because it withholds a
potentially effective treatment and may maintain a dangerous or uncomfortable
state for the person.

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Developing and Using a Punishment Policy can Procedural
Safeguards
Follow a written policy statement.
Consult local, state, or professional association policy statement regarding the
use of punishment.

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Concluding Perspectives
Recognizing Punishment's Natural and Necessary Role in
Learning
Behavior analysts should not shy away from punishment.
Positive and negative punishment contingencies naturally as a part of everyday
life.

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Punishment is a natural part of life
Punishment happens!
Whether punishment is socially mediated, planned or unplanned, or conducted
by sophisticated practitioners, Vollmer believed that a science of behavior should
study punishment.

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More Research on Punishment is Needed
Many recommendations for punishment are derived from basic research
conducted more than 40 years ago.

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Interventions Featuring Positive Punishment Should be
Treated as Default Technologies
Iwata (1988) recommended that punishment-based intervention involving the
contingent application of aversive stimulation, such as SIBIS, be treated as default
technologies.
A default technology is on the at practitioner turns to when other methods have
failed.

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Chapter 15:
Punishment by Removal of a Stimulus

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Definition of Punishment by Removal of a

Stimulus
Stimulus removed
Contingent upon a response
That decreases the future probability of that response
The future decrease in the response is a critical feature in defining
punishment

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Punishment by contingent removal of a

stimulus
Future
Frequency
Behavior is
reduced

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Stimulus Change
Stimulus
Applied
Stimulus
Removed
Type I
Positive
Punishment
Type II
Negative
Punishment

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Example
EO
SD
Child is
Adult says,
participating
Lets open
in classroom our books to
buddy
page 12. Each
activities,
of you should
where
read the first
attention
paragraph to
from peers (a your buddy.
positive
reinforcer) is
available.

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Response
SR-
Child pokes
his buddy
Adult places
child in time
out (peer
attention is
removed)

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Poking a buddy
occurs less often in
the future when
the teacher gives a
classroom
instruction and
peer buddies are
available.
Time-out from Positive Reinforcement
The withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement, or

The loss of access to reinforcers for a specified period of time
Contingent upon the occurrence of a target behavior
If the effect of these is to decrease the future probability of the
behavior, then this procedure has functioned as a punisher for the
behavior

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Important Aspects of Time-out

The discrepancy between time-out and time-in must be great
The loss of access to reinforcement must be contingent upon a target
behavior
There is a resultant decrease in the future probability of the behavior
(otherwise it is likely not time out from reinforcement because the EO
that preceded the behavior was not a reinforcing, time-in
environment)

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Time-out Procedures
Nonexclusion
Planned ignoring
Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer
Contingent observation
Time-out ribbon
Exclusion
Time-out room
Partition time-out
Hallway time-out

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Nonexclusion Time-out
The individual is not completely removed physically from time-in
setting
However, position within the environment may shift

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Planned Ignoring
Social reinforcers--usually attention, physical
contact, or verbal interaction--are removed for a
brief period
Systematically looking away from the student
Remaining quiet
Refraining from any interaction for a specified period of
time
Planned ignoring is
Nonintrusive
Quick
Convenient
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Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer

Some sort of positive reinforcer that is already present is removed for
a brief period of time contingent upon a target behavior, and then
reinstated
Can be implemented as a group contingency

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Contingent Observation
The individual is repositioned within the existing setting
Observation of ongoing activities is still possible
Access to reinforcement is lost, however

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Time-out Ribbon
A colored band is placed on the childs wrist and is
discriminative for receiving reinforcement
Child earns reinforcers when it is on
Contingent upon a target behavior, the colored

band is removed for a specified period of time
All social interaction is terminated
Other reinforcers are also withheld

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Exclusion Time-out
The individual is removed, physically, from the environment for a
specified period of time
Contingent upon the occurrence of a target behavior
Time-out room
Separated by partition
Placed in hallway

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Time-out Room
A confined space outside the individuals normal educational or
treatment environment
It is devoid of any positive reinforcers; also minimally furnished
It is safe (adequate heat and light), secure (but not locked) and
temporary
Near time-in setting

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Advantages of Time-out Rooms

Opportunity to acquire reinforcement is eliminated or reduced
substantially
After a few exposures, students learn to discriminate it from other
rooms (making the time-in setting more desirable)
Decreases risk of student hurting other students

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Disadvantages of Time-out Rooms

Must escort students to time-out
May result in resistance, emotional outbursts
Access to ongoing instruction is prohibited
Individuals may engage in behaviors (e.g., selfinjury) that should be stopped but go undetected
Negative public perception

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Partition Time-out
Individual remains in time-in setting, but his view within the setting is
restricted by a partition, wall, or cubicle
Advantage: Keeps individual in instructional setting
Disadvantages: Individual still may be able to obtain covert
reinforcement, negative public perception

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Hallway Time-out
Individual sits in hallway outside of classroom or treatment area
Not highly recommended strategy
Individual can obtain reinforcement from a multitude of sources
Child can escape easily

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Desirable Aspects of Time-out
Ease of application (especially nonexclusion time-out)

Acceptability (especially nonexclusion)
Rapid suppression of problem behavior
Easily combined with other procedures, such as differential
reinforcement

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Effective Use of Time Out

Reinforce and enrich the time-in environment
Utilize differential reinforcement to reinforce
alternative and incompatible behaviors
Clearly define the behaviors leading to time-out

All parties (including the target individual) should have
explicit, observable definitions of the problem behavior

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Define procedures for the duration of time-out
Initial duration should be short
Longer than 15 minutes ineffective
Define exit criteria

If individual is misbehaving when time-out ends, it
should be continued until inappropriate behavior
ceases

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Exclusion vs. nonexclusion time-out
Consider institutional policies that may prevent

exclusion time-out
Physical factors (i.e., lack of appropriate space) may
prevent exclusion time-out
Explain time-out rules to the individual

Target behaviors, duration, exit criteria
Obtain permission
Administrative approvals
Parental approvals

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Apply consistently
Evaluate effectiveness
Target behavior should decrease
Track frequency and duration of time outs
Also track collateral behaviors for side effects
Consider other options

Consider legal and ethical issues

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Response Cost
Loss of a specific amount of reinforcement
Contingent upon a target behavior
Reduces the future probability of the target
behavior
Examples: reclaiming awards or stickers, fines
(e.g., loss of tokens or money)

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Example
EO
SD
Response
SR-
Child has 15
minutes of
recess on
schedule
every
morning.
Adult says,
Lets open
our books to
page 12. Each
of you should
read the first
paragraph to
your buddy.
Child pokes
his buddy
5 minutes of
the recess
time is
removed

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Poking a buddy
occurs less often in
the future when
the teacher gives a
classroom
instruction and
recess is available.
Desirable aspects of Response Cost

Produces rapid decreases in the target behavior
Convenient and easy to implement (can be incorporated into existing
token or allowance programs)
Is easily combined with other approaches (such as differential
reinforcement)

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Methods of Response Cost
Direct fine
Bonus response cost
Combined with positive reinforcement
Group arrangements

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Fines
Directly fine a specific amount of the positive
reinforcer
Consider legal and ethical appropriateness
e.g., denying access to food and free time may be
unethical or undesirable
Obtain permission from human rights review
committees

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Bonus Response Cost

Make additional reinforcers available to the individual, specifically for
removal during a response-cost contingency
This may relieve many of the legal and ethical dilemmas involved with
response cost

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Combining with Positive Reinforcement

Combine with point/token programs (differential reinforcement)
Advantages
If all points or tokens are not lost, they can be exchanged for back-up
reinforcers
The use of reinforcers reduce the legal and ethical concerns

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Combining with Group Contingencies

Contingent upon any member of a group, the entire group loses a
specified amount of reinforcement

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Effective Use of Response Cost

Specifically define the target behaviors that will
result in response cost, as well as the fines
Establish rules for refusals to comply with the
response-cost procedure, and explain these
Greater fines should be associated with more
severe forms of problem behavior
Be cautious of making fines so great that the individual
becomes bankrupt

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Fines should be posed immediately
Response cost vs. bonus response cost
Use least aversive initially (bonus response cost)
Increases acceptability
Decreases emotional outbursts
Ensure reinforcement reserve (decrease likelihood

of bankruptcy

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Be prepared for unplanned or unexpected outcomes
Response cost can reinforce rather than punish undesirable behavior
Individuals can refuse to give up positive reinforcers
Avoid overuse
Keep records to evaluate effectiveness

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Response Cost Considerations

Increased aggression may occur
Ignore emotional outbursts when possible
Either dont use response cost if this is expected
Or be prepared to ride out the storm
Avoidance of the person who administers response

cost or the setting may occur
These become conditioned aversive stimuli
Make sure positive reinforcement is available for
appropriate behavior to reduce the likelihood of this
outcome

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Response Cost Considerations

Collateral reductions of desirable behaviors may
occur
Response cost may unintentionally suppress other,
desirable behaviors, as well as the target problem
behaviors
Response cost calls attention to inappropriate

behaviors
Be prepared for unpredictability

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Chapter 16:

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Establishing Operations (EO)
Keller & Schoenfeld (1950)
Drive concept: relation between environmental variables
Reintroduced (Michael 1982): any environmental

variable that:
Alters the effectiveness of some object or event as a
reinforcer
Alters the current frequency of all behavior that has been
reinforced by that stimulus, object, or event

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EO commonly used applied behavior analysis
Motivating Operation (MO) suggested to replace
term EO along with the terms:
Value altering
Behavior altering
Describe the defining effects in the original
definition of EO

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Value-altering Effects
Value-altering effects:
An increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of some
stimulus, object, or event
MO = EO
A decrease in reinforcing effectiveness of some

stimulus, object, or event
MO = abolishing operation (AO)

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Behavior-altering Effects
Behavior-altering effects:
Evocative effect
Increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been
reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event
Abative effect
Decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been
reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event

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Behavior-altering Effects
Direct and indirect effects
Frequency of behavior result of:
Direct evocative or abative effect of the MO on response
frequency
Indirect effect on the evocative or abative strength of
relevant SDs
Value-altering effects may also occur for conditioned

reinforcers conditioned MOs

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Behavior-altering effects
Dimensions of behavior-altering effects
Not limited to frequency
Other examples:
Response magnitude
Response latency
Relative frequency

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Behavior-altering effects should not be interpreted
as a result of the organism encountering more or
less effective forms of reinforcement
Strong relating exists between MO level & responding
in extinction
MO should evoke the behavior even if it is not at

first successful

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Behavior-altering effects
Operate on the current frequency of the behavior
Antecedent variables (i.e. MOs, SDs )
Can evoke or abate responses, but not alter them
Function-altering effects
Operate on the future frequency of the behavior
Consequence variables (i.e. reinforcers, punishers,
extinction procedure, recovery from punishment
procedure)
Change repertoire of functional relations

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Antecedent variables
MOs and SDs
Alter the current frequency of the behavior
Operant variables
Control response frequency due to their relation to reinforcing or punishing
consequences

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Antecedent Variables
SD
Related to the differential availability of a currently
effective form of reinforcement for a particular type of
behavior
MO
Related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of a
particular type of environmental event

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Unconditioned Motivating Operations (UMOs)
Value-altering motivating effects that are unlearned
Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMOs)

Value-altering motivating effects that are a function of
a learning history

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Unconditioned Motivating Operations

(UMOs)
UMOs for humans:
Deprivation and satiation UMOs

UMOs relevant to sexual reinforcement
Temperature changes
Painful stimulation

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(UMOs)
Deprivation and satiation UMOs
Deprivation of food, water, oxygen, activity, & sleep =
reinforcer-establishing & evocative effects
Ingestion of food and water, oxygen intake, engaging in
activity, & sleeping = reinforcer-abolishing & abative
effects

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(UMOs)
UMOs relevant to sexual reinforcement
Learning plays a strong role in the determination of
sexual behavior (different from nonhuman mammals),
difficult to determine what is unlearned
For humans organisms:
Role of hormones & chemical attractants in unclear
Tactile stimulation of erogenous body areas
Passage of time since last sexual activity establishing &
evocative effects
Sexual orgasm abolishing & abative effects

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(UMOs) Temperature Changes

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Painful Stimulation
Increase establishes pain reduction as reinforcer & evokes escape behavior
Decrease abolishes effectiveness of pain reduction as a reinforcer & abates
behavior that has been reinforced by pain reduction
Evokes aggressive behavior toward another organism when in the presence of
that organism

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Important considerations:
Individuals do not have understand anything for an MO to have valuealtering & behavior-altering effects
Relevant MO must be in effect in future circumstances if behavior is to occur

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(UMOs)
Weakening effects of an EO may be necessary
Reinforcer-establishing & evocative effects of UMOs can
be temporarily weakened
Reinfocer-abolishing operations
Abative operations
Cannot permanently weaken value-altering effects of

UMOs
Behavior-altering effects are based on history of
reinforcement

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(UMOs)
UMOs for Punishment
Value-altering effect does not depend on a learning
history
Most punishers affecting humans are conditioned
involves a learning history
UMO-CMO relation
Same MOs for reinforcers as conditioned punishers
Reinforcer must be effective if deprivation or removal will
function as a punisher

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Behavior-altering effects are more complex in observing a
punishment effect than a reinforcement effect
Must consider the status of the variable responsible for the occurrence of the
punished behavior
Complex behavioral relations

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Environmental events will have both
Behavior-altering effects on current frequency of the behavior
Function-altering effects (as consequences) on future frequency of the
behavior that preceded the onset of the event

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Motivating variables that alter the reinforcing effectiveness of other
stimuli, objects, or events, only as a result of the organisms learning
history
Alter the momentary frequency of all behavior that has been
reinforced by those other events (like UMOs)

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Three types of CMOs
Surrogate (CMO-S)
Reflexive (CMO-R)
Transitive (CMO-T)
All are motivationally neutral stimuli prior to their relation with

another MO or to a form of reinforcement or punishment

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Surrogate CMO (CMO-S)
Accomplishes what the MO it was paired with accomplishes
Has the same value-altering and behavior altering effects as the MO it was
paired with
CMO-S
Can be altered in its effects by through pairing and unpairing

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Reflexive CMO (CMO-R)
Alters a relation to itself
Acquires MO effectiveness by preceding some form of
worsening or improvement
CMO-R
Exemplified by warning stimulus in a typical escapeavoidance procedure
Establishes its own offset as reinforcement and evokes all
behavior that has accomplished that offset

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Conditioned Motivating Operations

(CMOs)
Transitive CMO (CMO-T)
Makes something else effective as reinforcement
because of its relation or association to the
unconditioned reinforcer
Environmental variable that establishes or abolishes the
reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and evokes
or abated the behavior that has been reinforced by the
other stimulus
CMO-T

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All variables that function as UMOs also function as
CMO-T for the stimuli that are conditioned reinforcers
because of their relation to the relevant unconditioned
reinforcer

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Often confused with SD
Distinction between SD & CMO-T lies in the relation between reinforcer availability &
presence or absence of the stimulus
SD: if reinforcer is more available in the presence than in the absence of the stimulus
CMO-T: if reinforcer is just as available in the absence as in the presence of the stimulus

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Practical implications
Utilization in language training
Refinement of differences between SD & CMO-T

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Stimulus Control
Chapter 17
What is stimulus control?

Stimulus control occurs when
The rate, latency, duration, or amplitude of a response is altered
In the presence of an antecedent stimulus
Stimulus control is acquired when

Responses are reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus
Known as the discriminative stimulus (SD)
And not in the presence of other stimuli

Known as stimulus deltas (SD)
The Development of Stimulus Control

SD
Response
Telephone rings
Pick up
phone and
say
hello
SD
Response
Doorbell rings
Pick up
phone and
say
hello
SR+
Friendly
conversation
SO
Friendly
conversation
withheld
Not to be confused with respondent

conditioning
UCS
Response
Meat powder
Dog
salivates
Neutral S
Bell rings
UCS
Meat powder
Response
Dog
salivates
Not to be confused with respondent

conditioning
CS
Response
Bell rings
Dog
salivates
Notice the absence of any consequence stimuli in this example.

Salivating is a respondent behavior.
Also notice that here control is established by pairing specific antecedent
stimuli.
Stimulus Control and Motivating Operations

Similarities
Both events occur before the behavior of interest
Both events have evocative functions
However, they are different!
Remember, a motivating operation is something that changes the
value of a stimulus as a reinforcer
Establishing operation (EO) makes the reinforcer more valuable
Abolishing operation (AO) makes the reinforcer less valuable
MOs and Stimulus Control

EO
Difficult
Worksheet
EO
Difficult
Worksheet
SD
Teacher 1
SD
Teacher 2
Response
Student
displays
aggression
Response
Student
displays
aggression
SRTask break
provided
SO
Task break
withheld
Stimulus Generalization
Occurs when stimuli that share similar physical characteristics with
the controlling stimulus evoke the same behavior as the controlling
stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination
Occurs when new stimuli that are similar to the controlling stimulus
do not evoke the same response as the controlling stimulus
Stimulus Control and Stimulus

Generalization are a Continuum
Stimulus
Stimulus
Control
Generalization
Development of Stimulus Control

Stimulus discrimination training
Requires one behavior
Two antecedent stimulus conditions (the SD and the SD)
Responses that occur in the presence of the SD are reinforced (thus,

the response increases in the presence of the SD)
Responses that occur in the presence of the SDare not reinforced
(this, the response decreases in the presence of the SD)
Can also result in a lesser amount or quality of reinforcement
The Development of Stimulus Control

SD
Response
Telephone rings
Pick up
phone and
say
hello
SD
Response
Doorbell rings
Pick up
phone and
say
hello
SR+
Friendly
conversation
SO
Friendly
conversation
withheld
Concept Formation
Not a hypothetical construct or mental process
Complex example of stimulus control that requires
Stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli
Stimulus discrimination between classes of stimuli
Example: Concept of Red

Stimulus generalization across all red objects
Light red to dark red
Different objects (car, ball, pencil)
Stimulus discrimination between red and other colors

Red ball vs. yellow ball
Red dress vs. blue dress
Teaching Concepts
Requires discrimination training
Antecedent stimuli representative of a group of stimuli sharing a common
relationship (examples) are presented, along with
Antecedent stimuli from other stimulus classes (nonexamples)
So that the examples form a stimulus class
Types of Stimulus Classes

Feature stimulus class
Stimuli share common physical forms (i.e.,
topographical structures)
Stimuli share common relative relationship (i.e., spatial
arrangements)
Developed through stimulus generalization
Arbitrary stimulus class

Do not share a common stimulus feature
Limited number of stimuli
Developed using stimulus equivalence
Stimulus Equivalence
The emergence of accurate responding to
untrained and nonreinforced stimulus-stimulus
relations following the reinforcement of responses
to some stimulus-stimulus relations
Useful for teaching complex verbal relations
Reading
Language arts
Mathematics
Testing for Stimulus Equivalence

Must have a positive demonstration on 3 different behavioral tests
that represent the following mathematical statement:
If A = B, and
B = C, then
A = C
Tests for Stimulus Equivalence

Reflexivity
Occurs when in the absence of training and reinforcement, a participant
selects a stimulus that is matched to itself (A = A)
Matching to sample

Symmetry
Occurs with reversibility of the sample stimulus and the comparison stimulus
(if A = B, then B = A)
Teach spoken word bicycle =
Present and participant matches to
spoken word bicycle (as opposed to car or airplane)

Transitivity
Requires demonstration of three untrained stimulus-stimulus sequences
A = B relation (spoken name = picture)
Bicycle (spoken name presented)
(Child selects picture)

Transitivity
B = C relation (picture = written word)
(picture presented)
bicycle
(Child selects written word)
airplane
car

Transitivity
A = C relation (spoken word = written word)
bicycle
bicycle
(Child selects written word)
airplane
(spoken word presented)
car
Matching-to-Sample
Participant observes the sample stimulus
The comparison stimuli are then presented
Participant makes a selection response
Matches are reinforced
Nonmatches are not reinforced
Matching-to-Sample
Conditional discrimination training
Same selection must be correct with one conditional stimulus, but incorrect
with one or more other sample stimuli
Factors Affecting Stimulus Control

Consistent use of reinforcers contingent upon correct responding in
the presence of the SD is critical
Also important are:
Pre-attending skills
Stimulus salience
Masking and overshadowing
Pre-attending
A prerequisite skill for stimulus control
Looking at instructional materials

Looking at teacher when responses are modeled
Listening to oral instructions
Sitting quietly for short periods of time
These may need to be taught before stimulus

control procedures are implemented
Stimulus Salience
Prominence of the stimulus in the environment
Increased saliency facilitates efficiency of instruction
Masking and Overshadowing

Increase or decrease salience of stimuli
Competing stimuli may block the evocative function of an SD
To limit the negative effects of these:
Rearrange the environment
Make instructional stimuli more intense
Consistently reinforce behavior in the presence of instructionally-relevant
stimuli
Using Prompts
Supplementary antecedent stimuli used to occasion a correct
response in the presence of an SD (that will eventually control
behavior)
Response prompts operate directly on the response
Stimulus prompts operate directly on the antecedent task stimuli
Response Prompts
Verbal instructions
Vocal
Non-vocal (e.g., written)
Modeling
A demonstration of the desired behavior
Physical Guidance
Partially physically guide the students movements
Stimulus Prompts
Movement cues
Pointing, tapping, touching, looking at
Position cues
Place one stimulus closer to the student
Redundance
Stimulus or response dimensions are paired with correct choice
Transfer of Stimulus Control

Prompts should be used only during acquisition
Transfer stimulus control from prompt to naturally-existing stimuli
quickly using fading
Transferring from Response Prompts

Most-to-least prompts
Physically guide participant through entire performance
Gradually reduce amount of physical assistance
Modeling
Verbal instruction
Natural stimulus

Graduated guidance
Immediately fade physical prompts
Follow participant closely with hands
Gradually increase distance between hands and participant

Least-to-most prompts
Provide participant with an opportunity to perform the response with the
least amount of assistance on each trial
Participant receives greater degrees of assistance with each successive trial
without a correct response

Time delay
Varying the time interval between presentation of a
natural stimulus and the presentation of a response
prompt
Constant time delay
Begin with a 0-sec delay
Then use a fixed delay (e.g., 3 sec)
Progressive time delay

Begin with a 0-sec delay
Gradually and systematically increase delay (e.g., in 1-sec
intervals) according to some rule
Transferring from Stimulus Prompts

Stimulus fading
Highlighting a physical dimension of a stimulus and then gradually fading that
exaggerated dimension
Superimposing one stimulus on top of another and gradually fading it out
Transferring from Stimulus Prompts

Stimulus shape transformations
Use an initial stimulus shape that will prompt a correct response
This shape is gradually changed to form the natural stimulus, while
maintaining correct responding
Chapter 18:
Imitation

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Definition of Imitation
A model stimulus is presented in an effort to evoke the imitative
behavior
The imitative behavior follows immediately
The model and behavior must have formal similarity
The model must serve as a controlling variable for the imitative
behavior (SD)

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Types of Models
Planned models
Pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that help learners
acquire new skills
Shows the learner exactly what to do
Unplanned models
Occur in everyday social interactions

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Formal Similarity
The model and the behavior physically resemble each other

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Immediacy
The temporal relation between the model and the
occurrence of the imitative behavior is very
important
Imitation may also occur at later times and in the
context of everyday life situations
However, when this occurs in the absence of a model, it
is not imitation
The discriminative features of the environment are
different in this context (i.e., the model is not
controlling the behavior)

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Controlled Relation
The controlling relation between the model and
the imitative behavior is paramount
This is best evidenced when the model is novel
and it still evokes an imitative response
After this first occurrence, the new behavior has a
history of reinforcement
Becomes a discriminated operant

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Imitation Training
Some children with disabilities require instruction
in order to learn to imitate
Objective: to teach children to do what the
model does
Generalize a rule to imitate models
Also known as generalized imitation

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Steps to Imitation Training

(Striefel, 1974)
Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training

Select models for training
Pretest
Sequence models for training
Perform imitation training

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Assessing/Teaching Prerequisite
Skills
Prerequisite skills needed:
Attending (staying seated, keeping hands in lap, looking
at teacher when name is called, looking at objects
when prompted by teacher)
Problem behaviors that may interfere with training may
need to be decreased

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Selecting Models for Training

Begin with selecting about 25
Include gross and fine motor examples
Movement of body parts
Manipulation of physical objects
Use only one at a time (dont sequence them--save

sequences for later)

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Pretesting
Purpose: to determine if individual already
imitates some models
Procedures:
Get learner in ready position
If object to be used, please it in front of individual
Say learners name, and then do this
Present the model
Immediately praise all responses with formal similarity
to the model
Record learners response as correct or incorrect

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Sequencing the Selected Models for Training

Arrange from easiest to most difficult
First models for training are ones the individual
imitated correctly on some, but not all, pretest
items
Next, teach ones the learner approximated but did
incorrectly on pretest
Finally, teach items the learner did not perform or
performed incorrectly on pretest

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Performing Imitation Training

Pre-assessment
Purpose: evaluate learners current performance level
and determine progress in learning to respond to
model
Brief pretest prior to each training session
Use first 3 models currently selected for training
Present them 3 times in random order
If learner performs them correctly 3 times, remove
from training sequence

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Training
Use repeated presentations of 1 of the 3 models in preassessment
Use model most often responded to or responded to
with closest similarity during pre-assessment
Continue until learner responds correctly 5 consecutive
times
Use physical guidance if necessary to prompt the
response
Gradually fade prompts as quickly as possible

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Post-assessment
Purpose: to evaluate how well learner can perform
previously- and recently-learned behaviors
Present 5 previously learned models and 5 models still
in training
On 3 consecutive post-assessments
If child has imitated a model incorrectly on 14 of 15 trials,
remove it from training
Physical guidance may be used

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Probes for imitative behavior
Purpose: assesses for generalized imitation
Select 5 non-trained, novel models to check for
occurrence of imitation
Do at end of each training session or intermix in
training sessions
Use pre-assessment procedures (no antecedent or
response prompts)

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Guidelines for Imitation Training

Keep training sessions active and short (10-15
minutes, a couple times a day)
Reinforce both prompted and imitative responses
Pair verbal praise and attention with tangible
reinforcers
If progress breaks down, back up and move ahead
slowly
Keep a record
Fade out verbal response prompts and physical
guidance

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Chapter 19:
Shaping

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What is Shaping?
A process in which one
Systematically and differentially reinforces
Successive approximations to a terminal behavior
Used to help learners acquire new behaviors

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Differential Reinforcement
Some members of a response class are reinforced (responses that are
successively closer to the terminal behavior)
Other members of that response class (responses that are not closer
to the terminal behavior)

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Response Differentiation
Involves two components:
Differentially reinforce behaviors that resemble the
terminal behavior
Carefully changing the criterion for reinforcement
Result
Increase in behaviors successively closer to terminal
behavior
Decrease in behaviors that are not successively closer
to terminal behavior

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Shaping Diagrammed
Assume we want to teach a child to turn on the cold water tap in order to get
a drink of water.
Assume the child already walks to sink and looks at it when he/she is thirsty.
Shaping might proceed like this:
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Walk to
sink and
look at it
Cold water
presented
Walking to sink and
looking at it
maintains
Response already in
repertoire

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Shaping Diagrammed
Shaping step 1:
EO
SD
Response
SO
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Walk to
sink and
look at it
Cold water
withheld
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Point to
tap
Cold water
presented

Walking to sink and

looking at it when
deprived of water
decreases
Pointing to tap
when deprived of
water increases
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Shaping Diagrammed
Shaping step 2:
EO
SD
Response
SO
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Point to
tap
Cold water
withheld
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Touch tap
Cold water
presented

Pointing to tap
when deprived of
water decreases
Touching tap when

deprived of water
increases
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Shaping Diagrammed
Shaping step 3:
EO
SD
Response
SO
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Touch tap
Cold water
withheld
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Grasp tap
Cold water
presented

Touching tap when

deprived of water
decreases
Grasping tap when

deprived of water
increases
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Shaping Diagrammed
Shaping step 4:
EO
SD
Response
SO
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Grasp tap
Cold water
withheld
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Turn tap
Cold water
presented

Grasping tap when

deprived of water
decreases
Terminal
Behavior
Turning tap when

deprived of water
increases

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Dimensions of Behavior that can be Shaped

Topography
Form of the behavior
Frequency
Number of responses per unit of time
Latency
Time between onset of antecedent stimulus and the occurrence of the behavior
Duration
Total elapsed time for the occurrence of the behavior
Amplitude
Magnitude
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Successive Approximations
An intermediate behavior
Prerequisite for terminal behavior or
Higher order member of the same response topography

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Shaping Across and Within Response

Topographies
Across response topographies
Topography of behavior changes during shaping
Behaviors are still members of the same response class
Within response topographies

Topography of behavior remains constant
Another measurable dimension of behavior is changed (e.g., duration of the
behavior)

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Positive Aspects of Shaping

Teaches new behaviors
A positive approach to teaching
Can be combined with other procedures, such as chaining

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Limitations of Shaping
Can be time consuming
Progress is not always linear and may be erratic
Requires a skillful trainer, who can recognize subtly
closer approximations
Can be misapplied (problem or harmful behaviors
can be accidentally shaped)

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Shaping vs. Fading

Both change behavior gradually
Shaping via changing response requirements
Fading by changing antecedent stimuli

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Increasing Efficiency of Shaping

Combine with a discriminative stimulus (e.g., a prompt)
Verbal cues
Physical guidance
Models

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Guidelines for Implementing Shaping

Consider nature of behavior to be learned and resources available
How far away is current performance from terminal behavior?
This might influence how long shaping will take
What is the availability of staff and other resources?

Remember, this is a labor intensive procedure

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Select the Terminal Behavior
The ultimate criterion for selecting a behavior for
change:
How will the behavior change contribute to the learners
independence in gaining reinforcement?
Define the terminal behavior precisely

Then youll know when the behavior has occurred

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Determine Criteria for Success
How accurate, fast, long, or intensely should the behavior be performed?
Under what conditions should it be performed?
Establish norms by
Consulting literature
Observing similar peer group

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Analyze the Response Class
Identify the approximations that might be emitted
during training
Trainer is in a better position to stay ahead of his/her
subject
Can be done by:

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Consulting experts in the field

Use published literature
Use videotape of peers to analyze components of a behavior
Perform the target behavior yourself

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Identify the First Behavior to Reinforce
Behavior should already occur at some level
Behavior should be a member of the targeted response class

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Eliminate Interfering Stimuli
Eliminate distractions during training
Proceed in Gradual Stages

Be prepared for decrements in performance when you increase criteria

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Limit the Number of Approximations at Each Level
Lest the behavior become too firmly established
Continue Reinforcement When the Terminal Behavior is Achieved

The behavior will be lost if the terminal response is not reinforced

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Chapter 20:
Chaining

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Definition of a Behavior Chain

A specific sequence of discrete responses
Each associated with a particular stimulus condition
When components are linked together, they form a chain that
produces a terminal outcome

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Components in Chain Serve Dual Functions

Each response in the chain serves as a conditioned reinforcer for the
response that produced it
Each response in the chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for the
next response in the chain
(Exceptions: the first and last responses in the chain)

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Diagram of Response Chain

EO
SD
SD
Response 1
Absence of
food for 2
hours
Mom says Fix

yourself a bowl
of cereal.
Get cereal
from
cupboard
SD
SD
Response 4
Get spoon
from drawer
SR+
SD
Response 9
Take bowl and

spoon to
SR+ table
SR+
SD
SD
Response 2
Response 3
Get milk from

refrigerator
Get bowl
from
cupboard
SR+
SR+
SD
SD
Response 5
Response 6
Response 7
Pour cereal
into bowl
Pour milk into

SR+ bowl
Put milk away

SR+
SD
Response 8
Put cereal
SR+ away
SD
Response 10
Response 11
Sit down at
table
Eat
SR+
SR+
SR+
Food Presented
Fixing a bowl of cereal more likely
when hungry and told to Fix
yourself a bowl of cereal
Behavior Chains and Limited Hold

A sequence of behaviors that must be performed correctly and within
a specified time to produce reinforcement
Emphasizes both accuracy and proficiency

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Characteristics of Behavior Chains

A series of discrete responses
Performance of behavior changes the environment such that it
produces conditioned reinforcement for previous response and
serves as SD for next response
Behaviors must occur in sequence and in close temporal succession

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Rationale for Chaining

Teaches complex skills that allow individuals to function more
independently
A way to add new behaviors to an existing behavioral repertoire
Can easily be combined with other procedures (prompting,
instructions, reinforcement)

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Task Analysis
Breaking a complex skill or series of behaviors into smaller, teachble
units
The product of a task analysis is a series of sequentially ordered steps

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Constructing a Task Analysis

Notes:
Sequence one individual may use to perform skill may
not be the same as another individual
Must be individualized according to
Age
Skill level
Disability
Prior experience
Some task analyses have a limited number of steps, but

these steps may be broken down into subtasks

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Constructing a Task Analysis

Methods
Observe a competent individual perform the task
Consult with experts or persons skilled in performing
the task
Perform the task yourself
Can refine it as you use it, if necessary

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Assessing Mastery Levels

Single-opportunity Method
Give cue to begin task
Record learner performance with + or - for each step
Assessment stops as soon as a step is performed
incorrectly
Remaining steps are scored with a -

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Assessing Mastery Levels

Multiple-opportunity Method
Give cue to begin task
Record learner performance with + or - for each step
If a step is performed incorrectly, the trainer completes
that step for the learner
learner continues to next step
Do NOT co-mingle teaching with assessment

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Single vs. Multiple Method?

Single-opportunity Method
More conservative
Gives less information
Quicker to conduct
Reduces likelihood of learning taking place during
assessment
Multiple
Takes more time to complete
Provides trainer with more information
May make training more efficient by allowing trainer to
eliminate instruction on already-learned steps
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Behavior Chaining Procedures

Forward Chaining
Training begins the link with the first behavior in the
sequence
Training only occurs on the steps previously mastered
and current step (no training on steps after that)
Advantages
Can be used to link smaller chains to larger ones
Relatively easy

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Total-task Chaining
Training is provided for every behavior in the sequence during every training
session
Trainer assistance (prompting) is provided on every step

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Backward Chaining
Training begins the link with the last behavior in the
sequence
Trainer performs all by last step until learner masters
last step
Then trainer performs all but last two steps until
learner masters last two steps, and so on
Advantages
Natural reinforcement is produced immediately upon the
learners response
Learner contacts these natural contingencies of reinforcement
on every learning trial

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Backward Chaining with Leap Aheads
Follows same procedures as backward chaining, but not every step in the task
analysis is trained
Other steps are probed
If some steps are in learners repertoire, they are not taught
The learner is still required to perform those steps, however

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Which procedure to use?

No data to indicate one is more effective than
another
Choose total-task chaining if
Learner knows many of the tasks but needs to learn
how to do them in sequence
Has an imitative repertoire
Has moderate to severe disabilities
Task is not long or complex

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Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy

(BCIS)
Chain is interrupted at a predetermined step so
that another behavior can be emitted
Interruption may cause some distress
It momentarily blocks access to reinforcement
This is somewhat desirable because it creates

motivation to learn the new behavior in the chain
As long as it is not so distressful that it causes
emotional responding or self-injurious behavior

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Behavior Chain Interruptioin Strategy

(BCIS)
Collect baseline data
Direct person to start chain
At predetermined point, restrict learners ability to
complete next step
Prompt learner to engage in new targeted step
Then allow the individual to proceed with the
chain

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Breaking Inappropriate Chains

Determine initial SD and
Substitute an alternative, or
Extend chain and build in time delays within the chain
Examine potential sources of difficulty in the chain

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Examining potential sources of difficulty
Re-examine SDs and responses
Is sequence arbitrary? Would rearranging sequence help?
Determine whether similar SDs cue different responses

If so, can the sequence be rearranged to separate the two
similar SDs?

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Analyze the job setting to identify relevant and
irrelevant SDs
Do you need to implement discrimination training so that the
learner can discriminate the relevant from irrelevant SDs?
Determine whether SDs in the job setting differ from

training SDs
May need to conduct some training in job setting

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Identify presence of novel stimuli in the environment
Discrimination training might be necessary to teach the
learner to ignore novel, irrelevant stimuli

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Factors Affecting Performance

Completeness of the task analysis
More complete, detailed task analyses tend to produce
better learning
Time developing task analyses is well spent
Be ready/willing to modify it after it is constructed
Length/complexity of chain
Longer chains take more time to learn

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Schedule of reinforcement
Must use appropriate schedule (Ch. 13)
Consider number of responses in chain when
determining the schedule
Extinction
Responses performed further from the reinforcer may
become less likely
This interrupts the SD relation and can result in
withering performance of the chain
Lesson: adjust reinforcement schedule accordingly (use
intermittent schedules)
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Stimulus variation
Introduce all variations of the stimulus items to be
encountered later to increase generalization of the
chain
Response variation
Varied responses may be needed to deal with stimulus
variation
This may require some retraining of responses

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Chapter 21:
Extinction
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education,

Inc.
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Definition of Extinction
Extinction is a procedure in which reinforcement of a previously
reinforce behavior is discontinued; as a result, occurrences of that
behavior decrease in the future.

Inc.
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Diagram of Extinction
EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
water for a
long period of
time and
person has
history of
reinforcement
for getting
water when
turning the
C tap
Tap on faucet
marked with
blue dot or
letter C
Turn tap
with blue
dot or C
Cold water
withheld
Lets assume the tap is broken or the

water has been turned off to the tap.

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Turning tap marked

with blue dot or
C occurs less
often in the future
Extinction is a procedure that provides zero probability of
reinforcement
The effectiveness of extinction is dependent primarily on the
identification of reinforcing consequences and consistent application
of the procedure
Extinction does not require the application of aversive stimuli to
decrease behavior.

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The extinction procedure does not prevent occurrences of a problem
behavior.
The environment is changed so that the problem behavior will no
longer produce the maintaining consequences.

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Procedural and Functional Forms of Extinction

Procedural forms of extinction involve ignoring the problem
behavior.
Functional forms of extinction involve withholding the maintaining
reinforcers.

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Procedural and Functional Forms of Extinction

Applications of the procedural form of extinction are often
ineffective.
When the extinction procedure is matched to the behavioral function,
the intervention is usually effective.

Inc.
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Misuses of the Term Extinction

1) Using extinction to refer to any
decrease in behavior
2) Confusing forgetting and extinction
3) Confusing response blocking and
sensory extinction
4) Confusing noncontingent reinforcement and extinction

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Using extinction to refer to any decrease in behavior
Some use the term extinction when referring to any decrease response
performance, regardless of what produced the behavior change.
Labeling any reduction in behavior that reaches a zero rate of occurrence as
extinction is a common misuse of the term.

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Confusing forgetting and extinction
In forgetting, a behavior is weakened by the passage of time during which the
individual does not have an opportunity to emit the behavior.
In extinction, behavior is weakened because it does not produce
reinforcement.

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Confusing response blocking and sensory extinction
Response blocking is not an extinction procedure
Response blocking prevents the occurrence of the target behavior
With all extinction procedures the individual can emit the problem behavior.

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Confusing noncontingent reinforcement and extinction
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) does not withhold the reinforcers that
maintain the problem behavior.
Extinction diminishes behavior by changing consequence stimuli; NCR
diminishes behavior by changing antecedent stimuli

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Extinction Procedures
Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Positive Reinforcement
Behaviors maintained by positive reinforcement are placed on extinction
when those behaviors do not produce the reinforcer.

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Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Negative Reinforcement
Behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement are place on extinction
(escape extinction) when those behaviors do not produce a removal of the
aversive stimulus
The individual cannot escape from the aversive situation.

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Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement
Behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by
masking or removing the sensory consequence (sensory extinction)

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Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement
Not a recommended treatment option for problem behavior, even selfstimulatory behaviors that are maintained by social consequences or negative
reinforcement.

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Extinction Effects
Extinction effects have not been documented clearly in applied
settings.
Practitioners should view all of the following comments on the
extinction effects tentatively when the relate to behavioral
interventions or applied research.

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Extinction Effects
Gradual Decrease in Frequency and Amplitude
Extinction produces a gradual reduction in behavior
However, when reinforcement is removed abruptly, numerous unreinforced
responses can follow

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Extinction Effects
Gradual Decrease in Frequency and Amplitude
Often difficult for teachers and parents to apply because of the initial increase
in frequency and magnitude and the gradual decrease in behavior.

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Extinction Effects
Extinction Burst
An immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the removal of
the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement.
an increase in responding during any of the first three treatment sessions
above that observed during all of the last five baseline sessions or all of
baseline. (Lerman, Iwata, & Wallace, 1999)

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Extinction Effects
Extinction Burst
Before Extinction
(Reinforcement)
During Extinction
Extinction Burst
Spontaneous Recovery

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Extinction Effects
Problem behaviors can worsen during extinction before they show
improvement.
Extinction bursts usually suggest that the reinforcer(s) maintaining
the problem behavior was successfully identified, indicating that
there is a good chance of an effective intervention

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Extinction Effects
Spontaneous Recovery
The behavior that diminished during the extinction process recurs even
though the behavior does not produce reinforcement
Short-lived and limited if the extinction procedure remains in effect.

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Variables Affecting Resistance to Extinction

Resistance to extinction
Continued responding during the extinction process.
Behavior that continues to occur during extinction is said to have better
resistance to extinction than behavior that diminishes more quickly.

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Three tentative statements describing resistance to extinction as it
relates to continuous and intermittent reinforcement:
A) Intermittent reinforcement may produce behavior with greater resistance
to extinction than the resistance produced by continuous reinforcement

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B) some intermittent schedules may produce more resistant than others

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C) to a degree, the thinner the intermittent schedule of reinforcement is the
greater the resistance to extinction will be.

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Establishing Operations
All stimuli that function as reinforcers require a minimum level of an
establishing operation (i.e., motivation must be present).

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Establishing Operations
Resistance to extinction is greater when extinction is carried out under high
motivation than under low.
(Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950/1995, p.#75)

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Number, Magnitude, and Quality of Reinforcement
The number of times a behavior produces reinforcement may influence
resistance to extinction.
A behavior with a long history of reinforcement may have more resistance to
extinction than a behavior with a shorter history of reinforcement

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Number of Previous Extinction Trials
Successive applications of conditioning and extinction may
influence the resistance to extinction.

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Response Effort
The effort required for a response apparently influences its resistance to
extinction.
A response requiring great effort diminishes more quickly during extinction than a
response requiring less effort.

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10 Guidelines for Application of Extinction
Withholding all reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior
Withholding reinforcement consistently
Combining extinction with other procedures
Using instructions
Planning for extinction-produced aggression
Increasing the number of extinction trials
Including significant others in extinction
Guarding against unintentional extinction
Maintaining extinction-decreased behavior
When not to use extinction

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Using Extinction Effectively

Withholding all reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior
First step in using extinction effectively is to identify and withhold all possible
sources of reinforcement that maintain the target behavior

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Withholding Reinforcement Consistently
All behavior change procedures require consistent application, but
consistency is essential for extinction.
Consistency is the single most difficult aspect in using extinction.

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Combining Extinction with Other Procedures
The effectiveness of extinction may increase when it is combined with other
procedures.
Differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures hold promise for
reducing extinction effects such as bursting and aggression.

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Using Instructions
Behaviors sometime diminish more quickly during extinction when teachers
describe the extinction procedure to students.

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Planning for Extinction-Produced Aggression
Behaviors that occurred infrequently in the past will sometimes become
prominent during extinction by replacing the problem behaviors. Frequently,
these side effect replacement behaviors are aggressive (Lerman et al., 1999)

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Increasing the Number of Extinction Trials
An extinction trial occurs each time the behavior does not produce
reinforcement.
Whenever possible, applied behavior analysts should increase the number of
extinction trials for the problem behaviors.

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Including Significant Others in Extinction
It is important that other persons in the environment not reinforce
undesirable behavior.
All individuals in contact with the learner must apply the same extinction
procedure for effective treatment.

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Guarding against Unintentional Extinction
Desirable behaviors are often unintentionally placed on extinction.
It is common practice to give the most attention to problems the squeaky
wheel gets the grease and to ignore situations that are going smoothly.

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Maintaining Extinction-Decreased Behavior
Applied behavior analysts leave the extinction procedure in effect
permanently for maintaining the extinction-diminished behavior.

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When Not to Use Extinction
Imitation
Extinction can be inappropriate if the behavior placed on
extinction are likely to be imitated by others.
Extreme Behaviors
Some behaviors are so harmful to self or others or so destructive
to property that they must be controlled with the most rapid and
humane procedure available.
Extinction as a singular intervention is not recommended in such
situations.

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Chapter 22:
Differential Reinforcement

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Definition of Differential Reinforcement

Reinforcing one response class
When dealing with reducing problem behavior, this involves
Reinforcing a behavior other than problem behavior
Reinforcing a reduced rate of problem behavior
Withholding reinforcement for another

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Diagram of Differential Reinforcement

EO
SD
Response
SR+
Deprived of
one-on-one
attention for a
period of time
Play by your
self while I
wash the
dishes
Child plays
with toys
Praise
delivered

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Response
SO
Child tantrums
Praise
withheld

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Playing with toys

occurs more often in
the future when the
individual has been
deprived of attention
for periods of time
Tantrums occur less

often in the future
when the individual
has been deprived of
attention for periods
of time
DRI
DRI: Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior
Reinforce a behavior that cannot occur with problem behavior
Withhold reinforcement for instances of problem behavior

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DRA
DRA: Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
Reinforce occurrences of desirable alternative to problem behavior but that is
not necessarily incompatible
Reinforcement is withheld for problem behavior

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A note on terminology
Sometimes when reinforcer is a negative reinforcer:
DNRI
Differential negative reinforcement of incompatible behavior
DNRA
Differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior

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Guidelines for Implementing

DRI/DRA
Select incompatible/alternative behavior
Already exists in repertoire
Requires equal or less effort than problem behavior
Emitted at a rate that provides sufficient opportunities
for reinforcement
Likely to be reinforced in natural environment

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Guidelines for Implementing

DRI/DRA
Select potent reinforcers that can be controlled
Identify via stimulus preference assessment
Identify via functional behavior assessment
Use same consequence as is maintaining problem behavior for
appropriate/incompatible behavior

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Guidelines for Implementing DRI/DRA

Reinforce incompatible/alternative behavior immediately and
consistently
Withhold reinforcement for problem behavior
Some mistakes may be tolerable
Combine with other procedures

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DRO
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
Deliver reinforcer whenever the problem behavior has
not occurred for a specific time
Reinforcement for not responding

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Forms of DRO
Fixed-interval DRO (FI-DRO)
Omission requirement is applied at the end of
successive time intervals of equal duration
To apply:
Establish interval
Deliver reinforcement at end of interval if problem behavior
didnt occur during the interval
If problem behavior occurs, reset interval

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Forms of DRO
Variable-interval DRO (VI-DRO)
Omission requirement is applied at the end of
successive time intervals of variable and unpredictable
durations
To apply:
Establish variable interval schedule
didnt occur during the interval
If problem behavior occurs, reset interval

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Forms of DRO
Fixed-momentary DRO (FM-DRO) and Variablemomentary DRO (VM-DRO)
Omission requirement is applied only at the end of
successive time intervals of fixed or variable durations
(contingency not in place during interval)
To apply:
Establish interval
didnt occur at the end of the interval

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What type of DRO to use?

Interval more widely used than momentary
Interval more effective for more suppressing
problem behavior
Momentary may be most useful for maintaining
reduced levels of problem behavior

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Guidelines for Using DRO

Recognize limitations
Reinforcement provided if absence of target problem
behavior.
If another, nontargeted problem behavior occurs, it is
reinforced.
May need to shorten interval
May need to include other problem behaviors in definition

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With Momentary DROs, reinforcement is delivered if

problem behavior is not occurring at end of interval,
even if it occurred throughout the majority of the
interval
Change to interval DRO
Shorten interval

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Set initial DRO intervals that assure frequent
reinforcement
Calculate mean baseline interresponse time (IRT)

Set interval that is equal to or slightly less than mean
IRT
Do not inadvertently reinforce other undesirable

behaviors
Make rule: must have absence of target problem
behavior and other inappropriate behaviors

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Gradually increase the DRO interval
Three options:
Increase by constant duration of time

Increase intervals proportionately
Increase based on learners performance
Extend to other settings and times of day


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DRL
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding
Use to decrease the frequency of the occurrence of a behavior, but not
eliminate it all together

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DRL
Full-session DRL
Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session if during the entire session,
the target behavior occurred equal to or fewer times than a predetermined
criterion

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DRL
Interval DRL
Divide the total session into a series of equal intervals of time
Provide reinforcement at the end of each interval in which the number of
occurrences of target behavior is equal to or below predetermined criterion

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DRL
Spaced-responding DRL
Deliver reinforcer following an occurrence of a behavior that is separated by
at least a minimum amount of time from a previous behavior
In other words, reinforcement is contingent on increasingly longer IRTs

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Guidelines for Using DRL

DRL is slow and does not reduce a behavior quickly

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Choose most appropriate DRL procedure
Spaced responding is the only DRL procedure that
delivers reinforcement immediately following response
and maintains lower rates
Use full-session and interval DRO when it is okay to
have either no or low rates of target behavior
Spaced responding provides higher rates of
reinforcement

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Use baseline data to guide selection of initial
response or IRT limits
Set at mean baseline or slightly lower
Gradually thin the DRL schedule

Full-session DRL: set new criterion based on learners
current performance
Interval DRL: gradually decrease number of responses
per interval
Spaced-responding: adjust IRT criterion based on
performance
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Provide informational feedback to the learner
Enhance effectiveness by helping learner monitor performance

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Chapter 23:
Antecedent Interventions

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Conceptual Understanding of Antecedent

Interventions
Literature has classified all antecedent-based behavior change
strategies under single terms
e.g. antecedent procedures, antecedent control, antecedent manipulations,
antecedent interventions
Using the same terms may cause confusion or fail to recognize the different
functions

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Conceptual Understanding of Antecedent

Interventions
SDs evoke behavior due to past correlation with increased
availability of reinforcement
MOs increase current frequency of behavior when an effective
reinforcer is not available
Each has different implications for how behavior change strategies
should be implemented and manipulated

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Classifying Functions of Antecedent Stimuli

Categories for functions of antecedent stimuli
Contingency dependent
Contingency independent

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Contingency dependent
Antecedent event is dependent on the consequences of behavior for
developing evocative & abative effects
All stimulus control functions
Referred to as antecedent control

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Contingency independent
Antecedent event is not dependent on the consequences of behavior for
developing evocative & abative effects
Antecedent itself affects behavior-consequence relations
MOs are contingency independent
Referred to as antecedent intervention

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Antecedent Intervention
Antecedent interventions serve to have abolishing
operations
Used in isolation or in combination (i.e. treatment packages

Decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers that maintain
problem behavior
Effects of MOs are temporary (Smith & Iwata, 1997)
Will not produce permanent improvements in behavior

Can be used simultaneously to reduce problem behavior
Most often antecedent interventions serve as a component
of treatment package
Produce more maintaining effects

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Antecedent Intervention
Interventions with established experimental results
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR)
High-probability request sequence
Functional communication training (FCT)

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Noncontingent Reinforcement
NCR is an antecedent intervention
Stimuli with known reinforcing properties are
delivered on a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT)
schedule independent of the learners behavior
(Vollmer et al., 1993)

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May effectively decrease problem behavior because reinforcers that
maintain the problem behavior are available freely & frequently
Functions as an abolishing operation (AO)
Referred to as presenting stimuli with known reinforcing properties

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Uses three distinct procedures that identify & deliver stimuli with
known reinforcing properties
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Automatic reinforcement

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NCR with positive reinforcement
Kahng, Iwata, Thompson, and Hanley (2000)
Study demonstrated the use of positive reinforcement (i.e. attention & food)
for three individuals with developmental disabilities as an antecedent
intervention to decrease problem behaviors found during analysis to be
maintained by the positive reinforcement

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NCR with negative reinforcement
Kodak, Miltenberger, and Romaniuk (2003)
Study demonstrated the use of negative reinforcment (i.e. break from
instructional requests) for two individuals with autism as an antecedent
intervention t decrease problem behaviors found during analysis to be
maintained by negative reinforcement
Increased participants compliance & decreased problem behaviors

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NCR with automatic reinforcement
Lindberg, Iwata, Roscoe, Worsdell, and Hanley (2003)

Study demonstrated the use of automatic reinforcement
(i.e. physical manipulation of highly preferred leisure items)
for two individuals with profound mental retardation to
decrease SIB found during analysis to be maintained by
automatic reinforcement
Demonstrated that NCR object manipulation could
compete with automatic reinforcement to reduce SIB

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Using NCR effectively
Three key elements to enhance effectiveness
Amount & quality of stimuli with known reinforcing effectiveness
of NCR
Inclusion of extinction with NCR interventions
Vary the available stimuli with NCR intervention to reduce
problems of changing preferences
Proper utilization of information obtained through FBA

Correct identification of maintaining contingencies of
reinforcement

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Ringdahl, Vollmer, Borrero, and Connell (2001)

Study demonstrates the importance of the schedule under
which reinforcement is delivered in NCR
Similarities between baseline and initial NCR may be
ineffective
Denser reinforcement (than during baseline) during initial
NCR ensures discrepancy & better chances for intervention
to be successful

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Ringdahl et al. (2001) suggest three procedures for
emphasizing reinforcement during NCR intervention
Increase the delivery of stimuli with known reinforcing
properties
Use an obviously different schedule of reinforcement at
treatment onset
Combine DRO with the NCR treatment package

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Noncontingent Reinforcment
Time schedules for NCR
Typically most applications use a FT schedule
Also can be done using a VT schedule
Establishing the initial schedule is crucial & can impact the
overall effectiveness of the intervention
Recommendation is to start with a dense FT or VT schedule
Can be done arbitrarily
More effective to base it on the number of occurrences of
problem behavior

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To determine the initial NCR schedule
Divide the total duration of all baseline sessions by the total number of
occurrences of the problem behavior (during baseline)
Set the initial interval at or slightly below the quotient

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Thinning the time-based schedules
Completed by adding small time increments to the NCR interval
Best done after the initial NCR interval has produced reduction in problem
behavior
Can be accomplished using three procedures
Constant time increases
Proportional time increases
Session-to-session time increase or decrease

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Constant time increases
Increase the FT or VT schedule intervals by using a constant duration of time
Decrease the amount of time the individual has access to the SCR stimuli by a
constant duration of time

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Proportional time increase
Increase the FT or VT schedule interval proportionately
Each time the schedule is increased by the same amount of time

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Session-to-session time increase or decrease
Use the individuals performance to change the schedule interval on a
session-to-session basis

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Additional considerations for NCR
Establish a terminal criteria
Weigh the possible advantages against possible disadvantages before
deciding to utilize NCR with any indivdual

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Referred to as high-p request sequence
Delivery of a high-p request sequence involves
Presentation of a series of easy-to-follow requests for which the individual
has a history of compliance (i.e. high-p requests)
When individual complies with several high-p requests, provide individual
with target request (i.e. low-p)

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Behavioral effects of high-p request sequence
suggests the abative effects of an AO by
Reducing the value of reinforcement for non-compliance to

low-p requests
Reducing the aggression & self-injury typically associated
with low-p requests
Provides non-aversive procedure for improving

compliance by diminishing escape-maintained
problem behaviors
May decrease excessive slowness in responding to
requests & increase time used for completing tasks
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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Apply the high-p request sequence by
Selecting 2-5 short tasks with which the individual has a history of compliance
Present the high-p request sequence immediately before requesting the
target task (i.e. low-p request)
Present the low-p request following in the same manner that all high-p
requests were presented

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Engelmann and Colvin (1983)
One of the first formal descriptions of high-p request
sequence
Field has utilized a variety of terms to refer to this

intervention
Interspersed requests (Horner et al., 1991)

Pre-task requests (Singer et al., 1987)
Behavioral momentum (Mace & Belfiore, 1990)
Referred to by most as high-p request sequence

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Using high-p request sequence effectively
Select from the current repertoire

Present requests rapidly
Acknowledge compliance
Use potent reinforcers

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Selecting from the current repertoire
Behaviors selected for the high-p request sequence should be:
In the learners current repertoire
Occur with regularity of compliance
Have a very short duration of occurrence

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Presenting requests rapidly
High-p requests should be presented in rapid succession with short interrequest intervals
First low-p request should immediately follow reinforcer for high-p
compliance (Davis & Reichle, 1996)

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Acknowledging compliance
Individuals compliance should be acknowledged immediately
Use of praise

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High-Probability
Request Sequence
Use potent reinforcers
Social praise may not be enough to increase compliance if motivation for
escape behavior is high
Use of high-quality positive stimuli immediately following compliance may
increase effectiveness of the intervention

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Functional Communication Training

FCT establishes an appropriate communication behavior to compete
with problem behaviors evoked by an EO
Develops alternative behaviors that are sensitive to the EOs (in
contrast to NCR and high-p request sequence)

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Application of DRA
Develops alternative communication response an

antecedent to diminish problem behavior (Fisher et al.,
1998)
Alternative response produces the reinforcer that has

maintained problem behavior (Durand & Carr, 1992)
Alternative response can take a variety of forms
Vocalizations
Signs
Communication boards
Words or picture cards
Vocal output systems
Gestures

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Carr and Durand (1985) defined FCT as a two-step

process
Completing a functional behavior assessment to identify
the stimuli with known reinforcing properties that maintain
problem behavior
Using those stimuli as reinforcers to develop an alternative
behavior to replace the problem behavior
Very effective for problem behavior maintained by

social attention

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FCT interventions typically
Involve several behavior change strategies in addition to

teaching the alternative communication response

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Response prompting
Time-out
Physical restraint
Response blocking
Redirection
Extinction of problem behavior

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Effective use of FCT includes
Dense schedules of reinforcement

Decreased use of verbal prompts
Behavior reduction procedures
Schedule thinning

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Dense schedules of reinforcement
Alternative communication response should produce the reinforcers that
maintain the problem behavior on a continuous schedule of reinforcement at
first

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Decreased use of verbal prompts
When the alternative communication response is being taught initially verbal
prompts are often used
After the response is in the individuals repertoire the verbal prompts should
be reduced and eliminated (if possible)
Assists in removing any prompt dependence

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Behavior reduction procedures
Effectiveness of FCT can be increased with the use of other procedures (in a
treatment package to enhance the reduction of the undesired (problem)
behaviors
Extinction procedure
Time-out procedure

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Schedule thinning
Thinning of the schedule on which the established communication response is
reinforced is an important part of FCT
Should only be done after the alternative communication response is firmly in
the individuals repertoire

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Schedule thinning (continued)
Guidelines for schedule thinning are NOT the same as those

for NCR
Alternative communication response must remain sensitive to
evocative function of the EO to compete with problem behavior
Recovery of problem behavior could occur
Hanley et al. (2001) recommended using a procedure for

schedule thinning
Used dense FI schedule of reinforcement during initial teaching of
alternative communication response
After the response is established, gradually thin the FI schedule
Suggest use of external cues to indicate when reinforcement is
available

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Chapter 24:
Functional Behavior Assessment

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Functions of Problem Behavior

Getting something
Getting out of something
These functions can be

Socially mediated
Non-socially mediated (automatic)

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Social
Attention from others
Access to tangible stimuli
Automatic
Physical Stimulation

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Social
Escape from aversive or difficult tasks
Automatic
Escape from aversive stimulation

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Function vs. Topography

Topography = form of the behavior
Function = function of the behavior
Different topographies of problem behavior
Can serve the same function
Can serve different functions
Similar topographies of problem behavior

Can serve the same function
Can serve different functions
Function is more important for intervention than

form
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FBA and Intervention

When the function of problem behavior has been identified,
intervention can consist of:
Altering antecedent variables
Altering consequent variables
Teaching alternative behaviors

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Altering Antecedent Variables

Change and/or eliminate
Motivating operation for problem behavior
Discriminative stimuli that trigger problem behavior

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Altering Consequent Variables

Place problem behavior on extinction
Withhold identified reinforcer when problem behavior occurs

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Teaching Alternative Behaviors

Select appropriate behaviors that serve the same function
Provide reinforcer that previously maintained problem behavior
contingent upon the new, alternative behavior

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FBA and Default Technologies

Default Technologies
Intrusive, coercive, or punishment-based interventions
Often selected arbitrarily
Understanding why a behavior occurs suggests

how it can be changed
Conducting FBAs and understanding why a
behavior occurs decreases reliance on default
technologies

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FBA and Prevention of Problem Behavior

When default technologies are used, other problem behaviors may
emerge
The use of FBA for developing intervention may avoid the development of
new problem behaviors
FBA may identify conditions that pose risks for the development of
future problem behaviors

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Continuum of FBA Methods
Level of Difficulty
Level of Precision
Analog
functional
analysis
Direct observation in
natural routine
Indirect Assessments
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Functional (Experimental) Analysis

Antecedents and consequences are arranged so that their separate
effects on problem behavior can be observed and measured
Often referred to as analog
Similar to what is occurring in natural routine, but more systematic
Allows for better control

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Typical Conditions
Contingent attention
Contingent escape
Alone
Control (e.g., free play)
These are presented one at a time until a pattern
of problem behavior emerges

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Interpreting Functional Analyses:

Attention Function

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Escape Function

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Undifferentiated Pattern

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Advantages of Functional Analysis

Yields a clear demonstration of the variable(s) that relate to the
occurrence of problem behavior
Serve as the standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated
Enable the development of effective reinforcement-based treatment

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Limitations of Functional Analysis

May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior
May result in the behavior acquiring new functions
Acceptability may be low
Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors
If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify
idiosyncratic variables related to problem behavior
Requires time, effort, and professional expertise

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Descriptive FBA
Direct observation of problem behavior under
naturally occurring conditions
Events are NOT arranged in a systematic manner
Different Forms
ABC Continuous Recording
ABC Narrative Recording
Scatterplot

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ABC Continuous Recording

Record
Occurrences of targeted problem behaviors and

Selected environmental events
Within the natural routine
During a specified period of time

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Sample ABC Continuous Recording

Form

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Advantages of ABC Continuous Recording

Uses precise measures
Provides useful contextual information and correlations regarding
environmental events and the problem behavior, which can provide
useful information for later functional analyses
Does not require disruption of the individuals routine

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Limitations of ABC Continuous

Recording
Often, antecedents and consequences do not
reliably precede and follow problem behavior,
making correlations difficult to detect
May use conditional probabilities
Proportion of occurrences of problem behavior preceded by a
specific antecedent
Proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior followed by
a specific consequence
These may be misleading, however

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ABC Narrative Recording

Data are collected only when behavior(s) of interest are observed
Recording is open-ended
Thus, it is less time-consuming than continuous recording

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Sample Narrative Recording Form

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Limitations of ABC Narrative Recording

Utility in identifying behavioral function not established
May yield false positives because data are collected only when
problem behavior occurs
The same antecedent and consequent events may be present when problem
behavior is absent

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Limitations of ABC Narrative Recording

Reliability may be low
Unless trained, observers may report inferred states rather than
events
It is often difficult to discriminate which environmental events
actually occasion the problem behavior

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Scatterplot
Procedure for recording the extent to which a
target behavior occurs more often at particular
times than others
Divide day into blocks of time (e.g., a series of 30min segments)
For each time period, enter a symbol to indicate
whether problem behavior occurred a lot, some,
or not at all
Analyze for patterns to identify temporal
distributions of behavior and events that occur at
that time
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Sample Scatterplot

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Advantages of Scatterplots
Identify time periods during which the problem behavior occurs
Can be useful for pinpointing periods of the day when more focused
ABC assessments can be conducted

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Limitations of Scatterplots
Utility of scatterplots is unknown
Subjective in nature

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Indirect FBA
Structured interviews
Checklists
Rating scales
Questionnaires
These are all considered indirect because they
do not involve observing the behavior; rather they
involve soliciting anothers recollection of the
behavior

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Structured Behavioral Interviews

Goal: to obtain clear and objective information about the problem
behavior(s), antecedents, and consequences, as well as a plethora of
other information
Several published examples
Interview significant others
Interview student him/herself

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Behavior Rating Scales

Ask informants to estimate the extent to which
behavior occurs under specified conditions
Hypotheses about function of behavior are based
on scores associated with each condition
Those conditions with the highest score are
hypothesized to be related to the problem
behavior

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Advantages of Indirect FBA

Useful source of information for guiding
subsequent, more objective assessments
Contribute to hypothesis development regarding
the variables that may occasion or maintain
problem behavior
Very convenient because they do not require
direct observation of behavior

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Limitations of Indirect FBA

Informants may not be accurate
Informants may be biased
Little research exists to support the reliability of
information obtained from indirect assessments
Not recommended as principal means of
identifying functions of behaviors. Best used for
hypothesis development.

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Conducting an FBA
Gather information via indirect and descriptive
assessments
Interpret information and formulate hypotheses
Test hypotheses using functional analysis
Develop intervention options based on the
function of problem behavior

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Gathering Information
Conduct functional assessment interview with
individuals care providers
Use this information to define target problem
behaviors, identify and define potential antecedents
and consequences, and to determine what other
assessments are warranted
Conduct direct observations of the problem

behavior within the natural routine
Use this information to confirm/disconfirm information
obtained in interviews

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Interpreting Information and

Formulating Hypotheses
Write hypothesis statements in ABC format
Antecedent
When Tonisha
is prompted to
wash her hands
in preparation
for lunch,
Behavior
she screams
and tantrums,
which is
followed by
Consequence
termination of
hand washing
and lunch by
being sent to
time-out.
Hypothesized function = escape from hand washing or lunch

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Testing Hypotheses
Conduct a functional analysis
Always include a control condition
Select additional conditions depending upon
hypotheses
If positive reinforcement (attention) is a hypothesis, conduct
contingent attention
If negative reinforcement is a hypothesis, conduct contingent
escape
If automatic reinforcement is a hypothesis, conduct alone
condition
Alternate conditions in counterbalanced fashion until a

pattern emerges

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Brief Functional Analyses

Conducting a functional analysis in a short period
of time
Procedure
Implement one session of the control condition
Implement one session of each test condition
Implement a contingency reversal

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Contingency Reversal
Used to confirm hypothesis by:
Providing reinforcement for an alternative behavior
Problem behavior no longer produces reinforcement

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Sample Brief Functional Analysis with

Contingency Reversal
Control
Cont.
Attn.
Cont. Esc. for Cont.

Esc.
Esc.
Req.
Esc. for
Req.
Requests
3
2
1
Problem Behavior
0
1
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3
Sessions

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Developing an Intervention
FBA does NOT identify the interventions that will be effective
DOES identify powerful reinforcers that can be used in intervention

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Functional Equivalence
Intervention must match the function of the problem behavior
If problem behavior = escape function
Intervention should provide escape for alternative behavior
OR alter task demands to make escape less reinforcing

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Functional Equivalence
Intervention must match the function of the problem behavior
If problem behavior = gain function
Intervention should provide desired outcome (access to attention or
tangibles) for alternative behavior
OR alter antecedent conditions to make attention and/or tangibles less
reinforcing

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Alter the ABC Contingency

Antecedent
When Deshawn
is left alone with
toys or work

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Behavior
He hits others,
which is
followed by

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Consequence
Attention in the
form of a
reprimand and
discussion.
Alter the Antecedent

Antecedent
When Deshawn
is left alone with
toys or work
Deshawn is provided with

a peer buddy during
work/play periods

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Behavior
Consequence
He hits others,
which is
followed by
Attention in the
form of a
reprimand and
discussion.
These are irrelevant because problem

behavior is avoided.

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Alter the Behavior

Antecedent
When Deshawn
is left alone with
toys or work
Behavior
He hits others,
which is
followed by
Deshawn is
prompted to ask a
peer or adult to
play/help, which is
followed by
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Consequence
Attention in the
form of a
reprimand and
discussion.
Attention in the form

of socialization and
help.
Alter the Consequence

Antecedent
When Deshawn
is left alone with
toys or work
Behavior
He hits others,
which is
followed by
Consequence
Attention in the
form of a
reprimand and
discussion.
Neutrally blocking the hitting

and ignoring Deshawn.

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Summary
Prior to intervention
Identify the function
Escape
Gain (attention/tangible)
Automatic
When designing intervention

Modify the ABC contingency

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Summary
Assessment continues after intervention begins
Monitor effectiveness
Changes in function over time

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Chapter 25:
Verbal Behavior

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Verbal Behavior and Properties of Language

Form and Function of Behavior
The formal properties of language involve the topography (i.e., form, structure) of
the verbal response
The functional properties involve the causes of the response.

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Formal descriptions of language
(a) phonemes
(b) morphemes
(c) lexicon
(d) syntax
(e) grammar
(f) semantics

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The formal description of a language can be accomplished also by classifying
words as nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions,
and articles.

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A common misconception about Skinners analysis of verbal behavior is that he
rejected the formal classifications of language.
He did not find fault classifications or descriptions of the response, but rather
with the failure to account for the causes or functions of the classifications.

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Theories of Language
Theories of language can be classified into three categories: biological, cognitive,
and environmental.

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The basic orientation of the biological theory is that language is a function of
physiological processes and functions.

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Proponents of the cognitive approach to language propose that language is
controlled by internal processing systems that accept, classify, code, encode, and
store verbal information.
Spoken and written language are considered to be the structure of thgouht.

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Development of Verbal Behavior

Skinner published Verbal Behavior in 1957.
Skinner believed that Verbal Behavior would prove to be his most important work.
Noam Chomsky, an MIT Linguist who had published his own account of language
the same year as Skinners Verbal Behavior was an outspoken critic.
Skinner never responded to Chomskys review because the reviews condescending
tone and Chomskys clear misunderstanding of Skinners behaviorism.
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Defining Verbal Behavior

Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned behavior, and that it is acquired,
extended, and maintained by the same types of environmental variables, and
principles that control nonlanguage behavior (i.e., stimulus control, motivating
operations, reinforcement, extinction).
Verbal Behavior behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another
persons behavior.
Verbal behavior involves a social interaction between speakers and listeners.

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The Speaker and Listener
Verbal behavior involves social interaction between speakers and listeners,
whereby speakers gain access to reinforcement and control their environment
though the behavior of listeners.
Skinners verbal behavior is primarily concerned with the behavior of the speaker.

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The Speaker and Listener
The listener must learn how to reinforce the speakers' verbal behavior, meaning
that listeners are taught to respond to words, and interact with speakers.

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Verbal Behavior: A Technical Term
Verbal behavior has acquired a new meaning, independent from Skinners usage.
In the field of Pathology verbal behavior has become synonymous with vocal
behavior. In Psychology the term nonverbal communication was contrasted with
the term verbal behavior, implying that verbal behavior was vocal communication
and nonverbal behavior was non-vocal communication

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Verbal Behavior: A Technical Term
The term verbal has also been contrasted with quantitative as in GRE and SAT
tests.
Verbal behavior includes vocal-verbal behavior and nonvocal-verbal behavior.

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Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis of verbal behavior is the functional relation between a type of responding and
the same independent variables that control nonverbal behavior, namely:
(a) motivating variables
(b) discriminative stimuli
(c) consequences
Skinner (1957) referred to this unit as a verbal operant.
A set of such units of a particular individual is considered a verbal repertoire.
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The Elementary Verbal Operants

Skinner (1957) identified six different types of elementary verbal operants:
Mand
Tact
Echoic
Intraverbal
Textual
Transcription

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Mand
The mand is a type of verbal operant in which a speaker asks for (or states,
demand, implies, etc.) what he needs or wants.
The mand is a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the
functional control of motivating operations (MOs) and specific reinforcement.
Mands are the first verbal operant acquired by a human child.
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Mand
Skinner pointed out that the mand is the only type of verbal behavior that
directly benefits the speaker, meaning that the mand gets the speaker reinforcers
such as edibles, toys, attention, or the removal of aversive stimuli.
Mands often become strong forms of verbal behavior because of specific
reinforcement, and this reinforcement often satisfies an immediate deprivation
condition or removes some aversive stimulus.

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Tact
The tact is a type of verbal operant in which a speaker names things and actions
that the speaker has direct contact with through any of the sense modes.
The tact is a verbal operant under the functional control of nonverbal
discriminative stimulus, and it produces generalized conditioned reinforcement.

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Echoic
The echoic is a type of verbal operant that occurs when a speaker repeats the verbal behavior of
another speaker.
Repeating the words, phrases, and vocal behavior of others, which is common in day-to-day
discourse, is echoic also.
The echoic operant is controlled by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point
correspondence and formal similarity with the response.

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Echoic
Formal similarity occurs when the controlling antecedent stimulus and the
response or response produce (a) share the same sense mode (e.g., both
stimulus and response are visual, auditory, or tactile) and (b) physically resemble
each other.
The ability to echo the phonemes and words of others is essential for learning to
identify objects and actions.

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Copying a Text
Skinner also presented copying a text as a type of verbal behavior in which a
written verbal stimulus has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity
with a written verbal response.
Because this relation has the same defining features as echoic and imitation as it
relates to sign language, the three will be treated as one category, echoic.

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Intraverbal
The intraverbal is a type of verbal operant in which a speaker differentially
responds to the verbal behavior of others.
Intraverbal responses are also important components of many normal intellectual
repertoires, such as saying Sacramento as a result of hearing What is the
capital of California?

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Intraverbal
The intraverbal operant occurs when a verbal discriminative stimulus evokes a
verbal response that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the
verbal stimulus.
Like all verbal operants except the mand, the interverbal produces generalized
conditioned reinforcement.

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Collectively, mands, tacts, and intraverbals contribute ot a conversation in the
following ways:
(a) a mand repertoire allows a speaker to ask questions
(b) a tact repertoire permits verbal behavior about an
accutally present
object or event that is
(c) a intraverbal repertoire allows a speaker to answer questions and to talk

about (and think about) objects and events that are not physically present.
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Textual
Textual behavior is reading, without any implications that the reader understand
what is being read.
The textual operant has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity,
between the stimulus and the response product.

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Transcription
Transcription consists of writing and spelling words that are spoken.
Skinner also refers to this behavior as taking dictation.
Transcription is a type of verbal behavior in which a spoken verbal stimulus controls a written,
typed, or finger-spelled response.
There is point-to-point correspondence but no formal similiarity.

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The Role of the Listener

A verbal episode requires a speaker and a listener. The listener not only plays a critical role as a
mediator of reinforcement for the speakers behavior, but also becomes a discriminative stimulus
for the speakers behavior.
In functioning as a discriminative stimulus, the listener is a audience for verbal behavior.
An audience is a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which verbal behavior is
characteristically reinforced and in the presence of which, therefore, it is characteristically strong.

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The Role of the Listener

Verbal stimulus control may also evoike a listeners nonverbal behavior.
Skinner (1957) identified this type of listener behavior as understanding.
The listener can be said to understand a speaker if her simply behavior in an
appropriate fashion.

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Identifying Verbal Operants

1.
Does an MO control the response form? If yes, then the operant is at

least part mand.
2.
Does an SD control the response form? If yes, then:
3.
Is the SD nonverbal? If yes, then the operant is at least part tact.
4.
Is the SD verbal? If yes, then:
5.
Is there point-to-point correspondence between the verbal SD and the

response? If not, then the operant is at least part intraverbal. IF there is
point-to-point correspondence, then:
6.
Is there formal similarity between the verbal SD and the response. If

yes, then the operant must be echoic, imitative, or copying a text. If not,
then the operant must be textural or transcription.

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Analyzing Complex Verbal Behavior

Some behavior is strengthened or weakened, not be external consequences, but
by its response products which have reinforcing or punishing effects.
Skinner used the terms automatic reinforcement and automatic punishment.

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Verbal behavior can produce automatic reinforcement, and it has a significant role in the
acquisition and maintenance of verbal behavior.
2 stage conditioning history:
1. A neutral verbal stimulus is paired with an existing form of
unconditioned reinforcement.
conditioned or
2. A vocal response as either random muscle movement of the

vocal cords or
reflexive behavior produces an auditory
response that on occasion may sound
somewhat like
someones words, intonations, and vocal pitches.
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Tact Extensions
Generic Extension: The novel stimulus shares all of the
features of the original
stimulus.
relevant or defining
Metaphorical extension: the novel stimulus shares some but not all of the
relevant features associated with the original stimulus.

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Tact Extensions
Metonymical extension: verbal responses to novel
stimuli that
share none of the relevant
features of the original stimulus
configuration,
but some irrelevant but related feature has
acquired stimulus control.
Solistic extension: occurs when a stimulus property that is only indirectly related
to the tact relation evokes substandard verbal behavior such as malaprops.

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Private Events
What is commonly referred to as thinking involves overt stimulus control and private events (e.g.,
covert stimulus control).
The analysis of private stimulation and how it acquires stimulus control is complex because of two
problems:
(a) The participant can directly observe the private stimuli, bu thte
applied behavior analyst cannot and
(b) private stimulus control of verbal episodes in the natural
environment will likely remain private.
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Private Events
Public Accompaniment
Public accompaniment occurs when an observable stimulus accompanies a
private stimulus.

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Private Events
Collateral responses
Caregivers also teach young persons to tact their private stimuli by using
collateral responses (i.e., observable behavior) that reliably occur with private
stimuli.

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Private Events
Common Properties
Common properties also involve public stimuli, but in a different way. A speaker
may learn to tact temporal, geometrical, or descriptive properties of objects and
then generalize those tact relations to private stimuli.

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Private Events
Response Reduction
Most speakers learn to tact features of their own bodies such as movements and positions. The
kinesthetic stimuli arising from the movement and positions can acquire control over the verbal
responses. Then movements shrink in size (become covert), the kinesthetic stimuli may remain
sufficiently similar to those resulting from the overt movement that the learners tact occurs as
an instance of stimulus generalization.

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Multiple Control
Convergent Multiple Control
Identifies when the occurrence of a single verbal response is a function of more
than one variable.

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Multiple Control
Divergent Multiple Control
Multiple control also occurs when a single antecedent variable affects the
strength of many responses.

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Multiple Control
Thematic and Formal Verbal Operants
Thematic verbal operants are mands, tacts, and intraverbals and involve different
response topographies controlled by a common variable.
Formal verbal operants are echoic (imitation, copying a text), and textual (and
transcription,) and are controlled by a common variable, with point-to-point
correspondence.

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Multiple Control
Multiple Audiences
Different audiences may evoke different response forms.
A positive audience has special effects, especially a large positive audience (e.g.,
as in a rally for a certain cause) as does a negative audience.

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Multiple Control
Elaborating Multiple Control
Multiple sources of control can be any combination of thematic or formal
sources, even multiple sources from within a single verbal operant, such as
multiple tacts or multiple intraverbals.

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Autoclitic Relation
Autoclitic relations identify when a speakers own verbal behavior functions as
an SD or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior.
Verbal behavior about a speakers own verbal behavior.

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Autoclitic Relation
Primary and Secondary Verbal Operants
Primary (level 1) MOs and /or SDs are present and
affect the primary
verbal operant. The speaker has to something to say.
Secondary (Level 2) The speaker observes the primary controlling variables of
her own verbal behavior and
her disposition to emit the primary verbal
behavior.

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Autoclitic Relation
Autoclitic Tact Relations
Informs the listener of the type of primary verbal operant the autoclitic
accompanies.
Autoclitic tact relations informs the listener of some nonverbal aspect of the
primary verbal operant and is therefore controlled by nonverbal stimuli.

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Autoclitic Relation
Autoclitic Mand Relations
Speakers use autoclitic mands frequently to help the lstener present effective
reinforcers.
A specific MO controls the autoclitic mand, and its role is to mand the listener to
react in some specific way to the primary verbal operant.

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Autoclitic Relation
Developing Autoclitic Relations
Speakers develop autoclitic relations in several ways.
Skinner (1957) points out, An auoclitic affects the listener by indicating either a property of the speaker s
behavior or the circumstances responsible for that property (p. 329).
In the absence of any other verbal behavior whatsoever autoclitics cannot occur. It is only when [the
elementary] verbal operants have been established in strength that the speaker finds himself subject to the
additional contingencies which establish autoclitic behavior (p.330).

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Applications of Verbal Behavior

Language Assessment
Although information rendered from language assessments are helpful in may
ways, the tests do not distinguish among the mand, tact, and intraverbal
repertoires, and important language deficits cannot be identified.

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Language Assessment
The behavior analyst should examine the current effectiveness of each
verbal operant.
- Obtain information about the childs mand repertoire.
- What behavior does the child engage in to obtain the
reinforcement?
- When the reinforcement is provided, does the mand behavior
cease?
- What is the frequency and complexity of the various mand units?
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Language Intervention
Skinners analysis suggests that a complete verbal repertoire is composed of each
of the different elementary operants, and separate speaker and listener
repertoires.
Individual verbal operants are then seen as the bases for building more advanced
language behavior.

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Mand Training
Mands allow the subject to control the delivery of reinforcers when those
reinforcers are most valuable.
If mands fail to develop in a typical manner, negative behavior such as tantrums,
aggression, social withdrawal, or self-injury that serve the mand function
commonly emerge.

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Mand Training
During mand training, responses needs to be under the
functional control of the relevant MO.
The easiest mands to teach in an early language intervention
program are usually mands for items for which the MO is
frequently strong for the child and satiation is slow to occur
(e.g., food, toys, videos).

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Mand Training
Mand training should be a significant part of any intervention program designed
for children with autism or other severe language delays.

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Echoic Training
For an early language learner the ability to repeat words when asked to do so
plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants.
Many children with autism and other language delays are unable to emit echoic
behavior, special training procedures are required to develop the echoic
repertoire.

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Echoic Training
Goals of Echoic Training
1. Teach the child to repeat the words and phrases emitted by
teachers when asked to do so.
parents and
2. Establish a generalized repertoire the child can repeat novel

combinations.
words and
3. Transfer the response form to other verbal operants.

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Echoic Training
Initial Echoic Stimulus Control
The most common is direct echoic training in which vocal stimulus is presented and successive
approximations to the target response are differentially reinforced.
Involves a combination of prompting, fading, shaping, extinction, and reinforcement techniques.

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Echoic Training
Placing an echoic trial within a mand frame.
The MO is a powerful independent variable in language training and can be temporally used to
establish other verbal operants.

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Echoic Training
Increasing any vocal behavior may facilitate the ultimate establishment of echoic control.
Directly reinforce all vocal behaviors.

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Echoic Training
Automatic reinforcement procedures can be used by pairing a neutral stimulus with an established
form of reinforcement, the neutral stimulus can become a conditioned reinforcer.

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Tact Training
A child must learn to tact objectws, actions, properties of objects and actions,
prepositional relations, abstractions, private events, and so on.
The goal is to bring a verbal response under nonverbal stimulus control.

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Tact Training
A mand frame can be used to establish tacting
Teaching tacts of actions requires that the nonverbal stimulus of movement be
present and a response such as jump be brought under the control of the
action of jumping.
Teaching tacts involving prepositions, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, and so on,
also involves the establishment of nonverbal stimulus control.
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Intraverbal Training
Many children with autism, developmental disabilities, or other language delays
suffer from defective or nonexistent intraverbal repertoires, even though some
can emit hundreds of mands, tacts, and receptive responses.
In general, verbal stimulus control over verbal responding is more difficult to
establish than nonverbal control.

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Intraverbal Training
Formal training on intraverbal behavior for a language delayed child should not
occur until the child has well established mand, tact, echoic, imitation, receptive,
and matching-to-sample repertoires.

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Additional Aspects of Language Training
Although beyond the scope of this chapter, there several other components of a verbal
behavior program and curriculum such as:
receptive language training

matching-to-sample
mixing and varying trails
multiple response training
sentence construction
conversation skills
peer interaction
reading
writing

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Chapter 26:
Contingency Contracting, Token
Economy, and Group Contingencies

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Contingency Contract
AKA: Behavioral Contract
Definition:
A document that specifies a contingent relationship between
The completion of a specific behavior and
Access to a specified reinforcer

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Components
Description of the task
Who will perform the task/receive reward

What is the task to be performed
When the task must be completed
How well the task must be completed

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Components
Reward
Who will judge task completion

What is the reward
When the reward will be delivered
How much of the reward the person will receive

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Components
Task Record
A place to record progress
Sets occasion for regular review of the contract
Helps individual remain focused and gives feedback on performance

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How do they work?
Typically a package that involves:
Reinforcement
Rules
Response prompting
Can even be a self-contract

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Steps to developing one
Hold a meeting to discuss how contracts work, goals,
etc.
Identify tasks individuals can and already do perform
Identify potential contracting tasks
Identify potential rewards
Write the contract

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Things to consider
Is the behavior already in the learners repertoire?
Does the behavior result in a permanent product?
What is the reading ability of the learner?

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Evaluating Contracts
Focus on the objective measure of the target behavior

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Token Economy
Definition
A behavior change system with three major components
Specified list of behaviors to reinforce
Tokens or points for emitting those behaviors
A menu of back-up reinforcers for which the learner can exchange tokens/points
(Effectiveness of tokens as reinforcers depends upon the power of the back-up
reinforcers)

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Token Economy
Designing a Token Economy
Select tokens
Identify target behaviors/rules
Select menu of back-up reinforcers
Establish ratio exchange
Specify when/how tokens will be dispensed and exchanged
Field test

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Token Economy
Select Tokens
Washers, checkers, coupons, poker chips, tally marks,
holes punched in cards
Considerations

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Safe
Control counterfeiting and bootlegging
Durable
Accessible
Cheap
Token should not be a desirable object

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Token Economy
Identify Target Behaviors and Rules (see Ch. 3)
Select measurable/observable behaviors

Specify criteria for task completion
Start with a small number of behaviors
Ensure learners possess prerequisite skills
It is okay to individualizerules dont have to be the same for everybody

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Token Economy
Select a Menu of Back-up Reinforcers
Use naturally-occurring activities when possible

Privileges
Tangibles and edibles can be used as well
Follow ethical and legal rules

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Token Economy
Establish a Ratio of Exchange
Initial ratio should be small
After that, adjust ratio for maintenance
Procedure for Dispensation

May need storage containers
Procedure for Exchange

Usually a store of some sort
Initially, have store open frequently
Over time, this can be more intermittent
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Token Economy
Field Test the System
Tally tokens you would have given without actually giving them
Analyze data to determine if the system seems appropriate

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Token Economy
Tips
Avoiding Battles
Be matter of fact when learners dont earn tokens; dont nag
Stay neutral; avoid confrontation about tokens
Response cost included?
Most do include response cost

Learners need to be aware of behaviors resulting in response cost/procedures
Make the cost fit the severity of behavior
Avoid having learners go in the hole

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Token Economy
Implementation
Initial training
Describe the procedure to learners
Model the procedure for token delivery
Model the procedure for token exchange
Ongoing training
Booster sessions may be needed occasionally
Management issues
Teach students how/where to store tokens (secure location)
Discourage hoarding and encourage savings in some students
Chronic rule breakers deserve special consideration

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Token Economy
Implementation
Withdrawing the token economy
Plan for maintenance and generalization

Pair tokens with social approval
Gradually increase number of responses required to earn tokens
Gradually decrease length of time it is in place
Gradually increase number of natural reinforcers and fade out use of contrived reinforcers
Systematically increase price of more desirable items
Fade physical evidence of token over time

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Token Economy
Considerations
Can be intrusive and difficult to implement

Can be cumbersome
Can be so rewarding to interventionist that he/she doesnt want to remove it
Ensure it doesnt run counter to Federal mandates

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Group Contingencies
Definition
A common consequence is contingent on the behavior of
An individual member of the group,
Part of the group, or
Everyone in the group

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Group Contingencies
Rationale
Can be a time saver
Can be more practical
Capitalizes on peer influence and peer monitoring (can also be potentially
harmful)

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Group Contingencies
Applications
Independent group contingency
A contingency is presented to all members of a group, but reinforcement is only
delivered to those individuals who meet the criterion outlined in the contingency
Often combined with contracts or token systems

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Group Contingencies
Applications
Dependent group contingency, AKA Hero Procedure
The reinforcer for the group is dependent on the performance of an individual student or
small group of students

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Group Contingencies
Applications
Interdependent group contingency
All of the individuals in a group must meet the criterion of the contingency before any
member earns reinforcement
Total group meets criterion
Group average meets criterion
Good Behavior/Good Student games (competitions)

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Group Contingencies
Implementation
Choose a powerful reinforcer
Determine the behavior to change and collateral behaviors that might be
affected
Set appropriate performance criteria
Select the most appropriate group contingency
Monitor individual and group performance

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Chapter 27:
Self-Management

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Self as Controller of Behavior

Radical behaviorism
causes of behavior are found in the
environment
When causal variables are not readily apparent in the immediate
environment, tendency to point to internal causes of behavior
becomes stronger

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Skinner was the first to apply philosophy & theory of radical
behaviorism to actions typically considered to be controlled by the
self
Self-control
Two-response phenomenon
Controlling response
Controlled response

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Self-management
Target behavior the person wants to change (i.e. controlled response)
Self-management behavior (i.e. controlled response)

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Definition of Self-Management
Self-management
Personal application of behavior change tactics that produces a desired
change in behavior
Descriptive definition only
Broad & functional definition

Encompasses one time & long running self-management events
Desired change in target behavior must occur for self-management to be
demonstrated

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Definition of Self-Management
Self-management:
Is a relative concept
Occurs on a continuum
When used or implemented, all procedures should be described in detail
Terminology
Self-control vs. Self-management

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Applications of Self-Management
Live a more effective & efficient daily life

Break bad habits & replace with good ones
Accomplish difficult tasks
Achieve personal goals

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Advantages & Benefits of

Self-Management
Influence behaviors not accessible to external change agents

External change agents can miss important instances of behavior
Promote generalization & maintenance of behavior change
Small repertoire of self-management skills can control many
behaviors

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Self-Management
People with diverse abilities can learn self-management skills
Some people perform better under self-selected tasks & performance
criteria
People with good self-management skills contribute to more efficient
& effective group environments

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Self-Management
Teaching students to use self-management skills provides meaningful
practice for other areas of school curriculum
Ultimate goal of education
Benefits society
Helps a person feel good
Feels good

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Antecedent-Based
Self-Management Tactics
Primary feature is the manipulation of events of stimuli antecedent to
the target (controlled) behavior
Environmental planning
Situational inducement

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Antecedent-Based
Self-Management Tactics
Manipulating MOs to make a desired (or undesired) behavior more
(or less) likely
Providing response prompts
Performing initial steps of a behavior chain
Removing materials required for an undesired behavior
Limiting undesired behavior to restricted stimulus conditions
Dedicating a specific environment for a behavior

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Manipulating Motivating Operations

General strategy:
Behave in a way (controlling behavior)
that creates a certain state of motivation that, in turn
increases (or decreases as desired) the subsequent frequency of the target
behavior (controlled behavior)

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Providing Response Prompts

Wide variety of forms (e.g. visual, auditory, textual, symbolic)
Generic response prompt
Specific response prompt
Prompt repeated performance of a behavior in a variety of situations
& settings
Supplemental response prompts (provided by others)

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Performing the Initial Steps

of a Behavior Chain
Behaving in a manner that ensures being confronted
later with a SD that reliably evokes the target behavior
Performing part of a behavioral chain (the selfmanagement response) at one point in time, a person
has changed his environment with an SD that will
evoke the next response in the chain & will lead to
the completion of the task (self-management
response)

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Removing Items Necessary for an Undesired

Behavior
Alter the environment so that an undesirable behavior is less likely or
impossible to emit

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Limiting Undesired Behavior to Restricted Stimulus

Conditions
Decrease the frequency of an undesired behavior by limiting the
setting or stimulus conditions under which the person engages in the
behavior

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Dedicating a Specific Environment for a Desired

Behavior
Reserve or create an environment where the person will only engage
in that behavior
Special stimulus arrangement that ban be turned on & off in a
multipurpose setting

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Self-Monitoring
Procedure whereby a person observes his behavior

systematically & records the occurrence or
nonoccurrence of a target behavior
Also called self-recording or self-observation
Originally conceived as a method of clinical
assessment
For behaviors only the client could observe & record
Became a major therapeutic intervention because of the
reactive effects

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Self-Monitoring
Wide variety of applications in research
Difficult to isolate self-monitoring as a procedure usually entails
other contingencies

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Self-Evaluation
Comparison of persons performance by himself with a
predetermined goal or standard
Involves the use of self-monitoring with goal setting
Also called self-assessment

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Self-Monitoring with Reinforcement

Self-monitoring may be part of an intervention
package that includes reinforcement
For achieving self selected goals
For achieving teacher selected goals
Reinforcer may be
Self-administered
Teacher delivered

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Why does Self-Monitoring Work?

Behavioral mechanisms that account for its
effectiveness are not fully understood
Much of self-monitoring consists of covert behaviors
Confounded by other variables (e.g. part of a package with
other contingencies)
Some hypotheses:
Evokes self-evaluative statements that serve either to
reinforce desired behaviors or punish undesired behaviors
Guilt control (Malott, 1981)
Target behavior is strengthened through R- by escape & avoidance
of the guilty feelings that occur when ones behavior is bad

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Guidelines & Procedures

for Self-Monitoring
Provide materials that make self-monitoring easy

Provide supplementary cues or prompts
Self-monitor the most important dimension of the target behavior
Self-monitor early & often
Reinforce accurate self-monitoring

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Materials that Make

Self-Monitoring Easy
Materials should facilitate easy & efficient self-monitoring
Variety of mechanisms can be utilized to measure the target behavior
Paper & pencil
Wrist counters
Pennies in different pockets

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Supplementary Cues or Prompts

Variety of stimuli can prompt self-recording (e.g. auditory, visual, &
tactile)
Auditory: prerecorded tones or signals
Visual: written instruction or symbols
Tactile: Motivaider signals through vibration

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Most Important Dimension of the Target Behavior

A person should self-monitor the target behavior dimension that,
should desired changes in its value be achieved, would yield the most
direct and significant progress toward the persons goal for the selfmanagement program

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Self-Monitor Early & Often

Each occurrence of the target behavior should be self-recorded as
soon as possible
Act of self-monitoring should not disrupt the occurrence of the target
behavior
Self-monitoring should occur more often at the beginning of a behavior
change program
Frequency of monitoring can decrease if performance improves

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Reinforce Accurate Self-Monitoring

Accurate self-monitoring as a desired behavior
Especially when participants are utilizing self-recorded data for self-evaluation
& self-administered consequences

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Self-Administered Consequences
Self-reinforcement should not be considered synonymous with the
principle of operant behavior (Skinner, 1953)
Performance-management contingencies are best viewed as rulegoverned analogs of reinforcement & punishment contingencies
Response-to-consequence delay is too great

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Self-Administered Consequences
Self-administered consequences that increase desired behavior
Self-management analogs of R+
Self-management analogs of R-
Self-administered consequences that decrease undesired behavior

Self-management analogs of P+
Self-management analogs of P-

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Recommendations for Self-Administered

Consequences
Select small, easy-to-deliver consequences

Set a meaningful but easy-to-meet criterion for reinforcement
Eliminate bootleg reinforcement
Put someone else in control of delivering consequences (if necessary)
Keep it simple

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Other Self-Management Tactics
Self-instruction
Habit reversal
Self-directed systematic desensitization
Massed practice

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Self-Instruction
Self-generated verbal responses, covert or overt, that function as
response prompts for a desired behavior
Often used to guide a person through a behavior chain or sequence
of tasks

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Habit Reversal
Typically implemented as a multiple-component
treatment package
Self-awareness
Response direction
Procedures for identifying events that precede & trigger the
response
Competing response training

Motivation techniques
Self-administered consequences
Social support systems
Procedures for promoting generalization & maintenance

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Self-Directed
Systematic Desensitization
Substituting one behavior (generally muscle relaxation) for the
unwanted behavior (fear/anxiety)
Hierarchy of situations of least to most fearful is developed
Gradual exposure to each situation is then accomplished
First imagining each situation
Then actual real life (in vivo) situation

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Massed Practice
Forcing oneself to perform an undesired behavior again and again
Sometimes decreases the future frequency of the target behavior

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Conducting an Effective
Self-Management Program
Specify a goal & define the behavior to be changed

Begin self-monitoring the behavior
Contrive contingencies that will compete with natural contingencies
Go public with your commitment to change your behavior
Get a self-management partner
Continually evaluate your self-management program & redesign it as
necessary

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Chapter 28:
Generalization and Maintenance of
Behavior Change

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Generalized Behavior Change: Definitions and Key

Concepts
Generality of behavior change as one of the seven defining
characteristics of ABA (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968)
Generalization again defined and stressed three important facets (i.e.
time, settings, & behaviors) (Stokes & Baer, 1977)

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Concepts
Response maintenance
Extent to which a learner continues to perform the target behavior after a
portion or all of the intervention responsible for the behaviors initial
appearance in the learners repertoire has been terminated

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Concepts
Setting/situation generalization
Extent to which a learner emits the target behavior in a setting or stimulus
situation that is different from the instructional setting

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Concepts
Instructional setting
Total environment where instruction occurs, including any

aspects of the environment, planned or unplanned, that
may influence the learners acquisition and generalization
of the target behavior
Generalization setting
Any place or stimulus that differs in some meaningful way
from the from the instructional setting and in which
performance of the target behavior is desired

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Concepts
Response generalization
Extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally
equivalent to the trained target behavior

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Concepts
Generalized behavior change is a relative concept
Exist along a continuum
Some interventions produce a great deal of generalized behavior change
Some interventions produce a small amount of generalized behavior change

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Concepts
The three forms of generalized behavior change can occur:
Isolation of one another
In combination with each other

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Concepts
Overgeneralization
Outcome in which the behavior has come under the control of a stimulus
class that is too broad (descriptive term)
Learner emits the target behavior in the presence of stimuli that, although
similar in some way to the instructional examples or situation, are
inappropriate occasions for the behavior

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Concepts
Faulty stimulus control
Target behavior comes under the restricted control of an irrelevant
antecedent stimulus

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Other Types of
Generalized Outcomes
Stimulus equivalence
Emergence of accurate responding to untrained and

nonreinforced stimulus-stimulus relations following the
reinforcement of responses to some stimulus-stimulus
relations
Contingency adduction
Process by which a behavior that was initially selected and
shaped under one set of conditions is recruited by a
different set of contingencies and takes on a new function
in a persons repertoire

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Other Types of
Generalization across subjects
Changes in the behavior of people not directly treated by an intervention as a
function of treatment contingencies applied to other people
Also called vicarious reinforcement, ripple effect, & spillover effect

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Other Types of
Generalization map
Combination of four basic types of generalized treatment effects
Across time (i.e. response maintenance)

Across settings (i.e. setting/situation generalization)
Across behaviors (i.e. response generalization)
Across subjects

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Planning for
Generalized Behavior Change
Generalized outcomes requires planning
Selecting target behaviors that will meet natural contingencies of
reinforcement
Specifying all desired variations of the target behavior and the
settings/situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction
has ended

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Planning for
Target behaviors should be selected carefully
Numerous criteria have been suggested
Example: age appropriateness of a skills & degree to which it represents normalization
Most important criterion

A behavior is only functional to the extent that it produces reinforcement for the learner
Behaviors that are not followed by reinforcers on at least some occasions will not be
maintained

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Planning for
Relevance-of-behavior rule (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968)
Choose only those behaviors to change that will produce reinforcers in the
postintervention environment
Baer (1999) rule for practitioners:

A good rule is to not make any deliberate behavior changes that will not meet
natural communities of reinforcement

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Planning for
Naturally existing contingency
Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates
independent of the behavior analysts or practitioners efforts
Includes contingencies that operate without social mediation and socially
mediated contingencies contrived and implemented by other people in the
generalization setting

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Planning for
Contrived Contingency
Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed and
implemented by a behavior analyst or practitioner to achieve acquisition,
maintenance, and/or generalization of a targeted behavior change

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Planning for
List all the behaviors that need to be changed
List all the settings & situations in which the target behavior should
(or should not) occur
Pre-intervention planning
Six stated possible benefits (Baer, 1999)

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Strategies and Tactics for Promoting

Teach the full range of relevant stimulus conditions &
response requirements
Make the instructional setting similar to the
Maximize the target behaviors contact with
reinforcement in the generalization setting
Mediate generalization
Train to generalize

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Teach the Full Range of

Relevant Stimulus Conditions and Response
Requirements
Teach sufficient stimulus examples

Teach sufficient response examples
General case analysis
Negative teaching examples

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Requirements
Teach every desired form of a target behavior in every
setting/situation in which it may be needed
Would eliminate need to program for response
generalization & setting/situation generalization
Seldom possible & never practical

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Requirements
Teaching sufficient examples
Teaching the learner to respond to a subset of all of the
possible stimulus & response examples then assessing the
learners performance on untrained examples (referred to
as a generalization probe)

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Teach Sufficient
Stimulus Examples
General rule: more examples used during instruction,
more likely the learner will respond correctly to
untrained examples or situation
Actual number of examples needed varies as a
function of:
Complexity of the target behavior
Teaching procedures employed
Learners opportunities to emit the target behavior under
various conditions
Naturally existing contingencies of reinforcement
Learners history of reinforcement for generalized
responding
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Teach Sufficient
Response Examples
Practice with a variety of response topographies helps to ensure that
acquisition of desired response forms & promotes response
generalization in the form of untrained topographies
Multiple exemplar training
Usually incorporates both stimulus & response variations

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General Case Analysis

A systematic method for selecting teaching examples that represent
the full range of stimulus variations & response requirements in the
Also referred to as general case strategy

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Negative Teaching Examples

Explicit teaching of where and when not to use the target behavior
may also be necessary
Dont do it teaching examples provides practice for discriminating
stimulus situations in which the target behavior should not be
emitted
Sharpens stimulus control

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Instructional Setting Similar to the

Generalization Setting
Program common stimuli
Including typical features of the generalization setting into
the instructional setting
Teach loosely
Randomly varying noncritical aspects of the instructional
setting within and across teaching sessions

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Programming Common Stimuli

Benefits/advantages:
Conducting instruction in natural settings is not always
possible or practical
Community-based training may not expose learners to the
full range of examples they are likely to encounter later in
the same setting
Instruction in natural settings may be less effective &
efficient than classroom instruction because the trainer
cannot halt natural flow of events to contrive variety of
training trials
Instruction in simulated settings can be safer

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Programming Common Stimuli

Two step process
Identify salient stimuli that characterize the generalization setting(s)
Incorporating those stimuli into the instructional setting

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Teaching Loosely
Benefits/advantages:
Reduces the likelihood that a single or small group of noncritical stimuli will
acquire exclusive control over the target behavior
Including a wide variety of noncritical stimuli during instruction increases the
probability that the generalization setting will include at least some of the
stimuli that were present during instruction

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Teaching Loosely
Suggestions (Baer, 1999):
Use two or more teachers

Teach in two or more places
Teach from a variety of positions
Vary your tone of voice
Vary your choice of words
Show stimuli from a variety of angles
Have others present sometimes
Vary the reinforcers

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Teaching Loosely
Suggestions continued (Baer, 1999):
Teach in varying lighting conditions

Teach in varying noise level conditions
Vary decorations, furniture, & their locations
Vary times of day for training sessions
Vary the temperature of the training settings
Vary the smells in the training settings
Vary the content of whats being taught (within limits
possible)

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Maximize Contact with Reinforcement

Teach behavior to levels required by natural contingencies
Program indiscriminable contingencies
Intermittent schedules of reinforcement
Delayed rewards
Set behavior traps

Ask people in the generalization setting to reinforce the behavior
Teach the learner to recruit reinforcement

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Indiscriminable contingency
A contingency in which the learner cannot discriminate
whether the next response will produce reinforcement
Reinforcement is contingent on some, but not all, occurrences of
the target behavior in the generalization setting
The learner is unable to predict which responses will produce
reinforcement

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Intermittent schedules of reinforcement
Behaviors that have a history of intermittent schedules of reinforcement
often continue to be emitted for relatively long periods of time after
reinforcement is no longer available
All indiscriminable contingencies of reinforcement involve intermittent
schedules, but not all schedules of intermittent reinforcement are
indiscriminable

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Intermittent schedules and delayed reward are similar in that
Reinforcement is not delivered each time the target behavior is emitted
There is no clear stimuli to signal the learner which current responses will
produce reinforcement

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Classroom applications of indiscriminable contingencies involving
delayed rewards (also features interdependent group contingency)
Spinners and dice

Story fact recall game
Numbered heads work together
Intermittent grading

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Success of using delayed rewards depends on
The indiscriminability of the contingency
The learner understanding the relation between emitting the target behavior
at an earlier time and receiving a reward later

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Guidelines for programming indiscriminable
contingencies
Use CRF during initial acquisition or when strengthening
little-used behaviors
Systematically thin the schedule of reinforcement based on
the learners performance
Gradually increase the response-to-reinforcement delay
when using delayed rewards
Explain what the reward is for when using delayed rewards

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Behavior traps
Interrelated community of contingencies of reinforcement that can be
especially powerful, producing substantial and long-lasting behavior changes
Relatively simple response is necessary to enter the trap, yet once entered,
the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change

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Effective behavior traps share four features
Baited with virtually irresistible reinforcers that lure the
learner to the trap
Only a low effort response already in the learners
repertoire is necessary to enter the trap
Once inside the trap, interrelated contingencies of
reinforcement motivate the learner to acquire, extend, &
maintain targeted academic and/or social skills
Remains effective for a long time because learners show
few, if any, satiation effects

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Mediate Generalization
Arranging for some thing or person to act as a medium that ensures
the transfer of the target behavior from instructional setting to the
Contrive a mediating stimulus
Teach self-management skills

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Contrive a mediating stimulus
Must be made functional for the target behavior during instruction
Functional if it reliable prompts of aids the learner in performing the target behavior
Must be transported easily to the generalization setting

Transportable if it easily goes with the learner to all important generalization settings

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Teach self-management skills
The learner is one element that is always present in every
instructional and generalization setting
If the learner is taught a behavior (in this case a controlling
response) that serves to prompt or reinforce the target
behavior in all the relevant settings, at all appropriate
times, and in all of its relevant forms, then the
generalization of the target behavior is ensured

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Train to Generalize
Reinforce response variability
Emitting a variety of responses; valued behavior, viewed as novel or creative
Lag reinforcement schedule: reinforcement contingent on a response
different in some defined way from the previous response
Instruct the learner to generalize

Tell the learner about the possibility of generalization
Ask the learner to perform the behavior

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Modifying and Terminating Successful

Interventions
Withdrawal of a successful intervention should be
carried out in a systematic & careful fashion
When deciding how soon or how swiftly to withdraw
intervention components consider
Complexity of the intervention
Ease or speed with which the behavior changed
Availability of naturally existing contingencies of
reinforcement for the new behavior

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Modifying and Terminating Successful

Interventions
Shifting from intervention conditions to postintervention can be
accomplished by modifying one or more parts of the three-term
contingency
Antecedents, prompts, or cue-related stimuli
Task requirements and criteria
Consequences or reinforcement variables

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Guiding Principles for Promoting Generalized

Outcomes
Minimize the need for generalization as much as possible
Conduct generalization probes before, during, and after instruction
Involve significant others whenever possible
Promote generalization with the least intrusive, least costly tactics
possible
Contrive intervention tactics as needed to achieve important
generalized outcomes

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Chapter 29:
Ethical Considerations for Applied
Behavior Analysts

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Ethics
Behaviors, practices, and decisions that address
three fundamental questions:
What is the right thing to do?
What is worth doing?
What does it mean to be a good behavior analyst?
End goal: Further the welfare of the client

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What is the right thing to do?

Personal history influences our decision making
Personal experiences
Cultural/religious beliefs
Professional training and experiences
To ensure that personal experiences and
cultural/religious beliefs dont take over:
Consult research literature, case studies, supervisors, colleagues

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Social validity
Are the goals acceptable for the planned behavior
change intervention?
Are the procedures acceptable and aligned with best
treatment practices?
Do the results show meaningful, significant, and
sustainable change?

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Cost-Benefit Ratio
Does the potential benefit to the individual justify the
short- and long-term cost for providing the service?
Decisions should be made by committee
Person with highest stake in outcome should be given greatest
consideration

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Existing Exigencies
Behaviors that are more serious warrant intervention consideration before
behaviors that are less problematic
Must still consider long-term ramifications for treatments that result in quick
change

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The good behavior analyst

Follows the Golden Rule
Is self-regulating
Calibrates decisions over time to meeting changing cultural values
and contingencies

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Professional Standards
Written guidelines or rules of practice that provide direction for the
practices associated with an organization

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Professional Standards
See
APA: Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct
ABA: The Right to Effective Behavioral Treatment and
The Right to Effective Education
BACB: Guidelines for Responsible Conduct for Behavior
Analysts and The BCBA and BCABA Behavior Analyst
Task List

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Ensuring Professional Competence

Academic training that includes:
Formal coursework
Supervised practica
Mentored professional experience
Certification and licensure

Behavior Analyst Certification Board
Keep practice within your area of competence

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Maintaining and Expanding Professional

Competence
Continuing Educational Unit credits (CEUs)

Attending and presenting at conferences
Professional reading
Oversight and peer review opportunities

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Making and Substantiating Professional

Claims
Avoid making unsubstantiated claims (e.g., I am certain I can help
your son)
Maintain a healthy dose of humility
Only present yourself with valid credentials (never claim to have

certifications, licenses that you dont have)

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Informed Consent
The potential recipient of services or a participant in a research study
gives his or her explicit permission before any assessment or
treatment is provided
Permission must follow full disclosure and information has been
provided

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Three Tests for Informed Consent

Person must demonstrate capacity to decide
Persons decision must be voluntary
Person must have adequate knowledge of all salient aspects of
treatment

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Capacity to Decide
The person must have
Adequate mental process or faculty by which he/she
acquires knowledge
Ability to select and express his or her choices
Ability to engage in a rational process of decision
making
These are often fluid concepts

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Surrogate/Guardian Consent
When a person is deemed incapacitated, consent may be obtained
through a surrogate or guardian
Surrogate: a legal process by which another individual is authorized to make
a decision for the person deemed incompetent
Guardian: legal custodian of the individual

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Voluntary
Consent is given in the absence of coercion, distress, or undue
influence
Consent can be revoked at any time

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Knowledge of Treatment
Treatment must be presented in clear, nontechnical language
All important aspects of treatment
All potential risks/benefits
All potential alternative treatments

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Treatment Without Consent

Life-threatening emergency
Imminent risk of serious harm
Cannot be done when parents simply refuse; have recourse through
legal system

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Confidentiality
Information regarding an individual receiving services may not be
discussed with or made available to third parties (unless explicit
permission has been given)
Limits
Abusive situations
Imminent, severe harm to the individual

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Protecting Dignity, Health, and Safety

Do I honor choices?
Do I help the client select outcomes and behavior change targets?
Do I provide adequate space for privacy?

Do I look beyond the disability and treat the person with respect?

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Advocating for the Client

Is the problem amenable to behavior treatment?
Ensure the problem is not medical
Ensure the problem is the clients and that there is, indeed, a problem
Ensure other interventions have been attempted and that the problem cant
be solved informally or by another discipline

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Advocating for the Client

Is the proposed intervention likely to be successful?
Client, caregivers willing to participate

Research support for treatment
Public support for treatment
Behavior analyst skilled in treatment
Contingencies of reinforcement can be controlled

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Embracing the Scientific Method

In science keeping an open mind is a virtue, but not so open that
your brains fall out (James Oberg)
When selecting interventions, behavior analysts should rely on
Peer-reviewed scientific reports published in reputable outlets
Direct and frequent measures of behavior

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Conflict of Interest
Occurs when a principal party, alone or in
connection with family, friends or associates, has a
vested interest in the outcome of the interaction
Direct and frequent observations puts behavior
analysts in close contact with the client and family
members in natural settings
Must be cautious not to develop personal
relationships that cross professional boundaries

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Applied

John O. Cooper, Timothy E. Heron, and William L. Heward

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Each level contributes to the overall knowledge base in a given field

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Characteristic of Science

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Attitudes of Science: Experimentation

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Behavior is shaped through the consequences that immediately follow it

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward

Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.