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Crystal
t l St
Structure
t
An
Analysis
l i
X-ray Diffraction
Electron Diffraction
Neutron Diffraction
Essence of diffraction
diffraction: Bragg Diffraction
Reading: Basic West 3
West 5
A/M 5-6
G/S 3
217
REFERENCES
Elements of Modern X-ray Physics, by Jens Als-Nielsen and Des McMorrow,
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2001 (Modern x-ray physics & new developments)
X-ray Diffraction, by B.E. Warren, General Publishing Company, 1969, 1990
(Classic X-ray physics book)
Elements of X
X-ray
ray Diffraction
Diffraction,2nd
2nd Ed
Ed., by B
B.D.
D Cullity
Cullity, Addison
Addison-Wesley,
Wesley 1978
(Covers most techniques used in traditional materials characterization)
High Resolution X-ray Diffractometry and Topography, by D. Keith Bowen
and Brian K. Tanner, Taylor & Francis, Ltd., 1998 (Semiconductors and thin
film analysis)
Modern Aspects of Small-Angle
Small Angle Scattering
Scattering, by H
H. Brumberger
Brumberger, Editor
Editor, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1993 (SAXS techniques)
Principles of Protein X-ray Crystallography, by Jan Drenth, Springer, 1994
(C t ll
(Crystallography)
h )
218
SCATTERING
Scattering
g is the p
process in which waves or p
particles are forced to deviate from a
straight trajectory because of scattering centers in the propagation medium.
X-rays scatter by interaction with the electron density of a material.
Neutrons are scattered by nuclei and by any magnetic moments in a sample
sample.
Electrons are scattered by electric/magnetic fields.
Momentum transfer:
p' p q
p
Elastic (E = E)
Rayleigh ( >> dobject)
Mie ( dobject)
Geometric ( << dobject)
(X-rays)
rays)
Thompson (X
E E h
E'
For X-rays: E pc
Energy change:
El i scattering
Elastic
i geometry
Inelastic (E E)
Compton (photons + electrons)
Brillouin (photons + quasiparticles)
Raman (photons + molecular vib./rot.)
p
q 2 sin
2
COMPTON SCATTERING
Compton
Collimator
(selects angle)
Crystal
(selects
wavelength)
Graphite
Target
Detector
COMPTON SCATTERING
Classical
Cl
i l picture:
i t
oscillating
ill ti electromagnetic
l t
ti fifield
ld causes oscillations
ill ti
iin positions
iti
of charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and
wavelength as incident radiation (Thompson scattering).
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically
Before
After
scattered photon
Incoming photon
Electron
pe
scattered electron
COMPTON SCATTERING
B f
Before
Aft
After
scattered photon
Incoming photon
Electron
pe
Conservation of energy
h me c h p c m c
2
2 2
e
2 4 1/ 2
e
scattered electron
Conservation of momentum
h
p i p p e
c 1 cos 0
c Compton wavelength
h
2.4 1012 m
me c
222
COMPTON SCATTERING
Note that there is also an
unshifted peak at each angle
angle.
This comes from a collision
between the X-ray photon and
the nucleus of the atom.
h
1 cos 0
mN c
since
mN me
223
COMPTON SCATTERING
C t ib t to
Contributes
t generall b
background
k
d noise
i
Diff
Diffuse
background from
Compton
emission by
gamma rays in
a PET scan.
Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F)
224
X-RAY SCATTERING
(in
(i ) = 12400/E (in
(i eV)
V)
X
X-rays:
100 eV (soft) 100 keV (hard) photons
12,400
,
eV X-rays
y have wavelengths
g
of 1 ,,
somewhat smaller than interatomic distances in solids
elastic (Thompson, E = 0)
Roentgen
R
t
1901 Nobel
wide-angle
id
l diffraction
diff
i ( > 5)
small-angle diffraction ( close to 0)
X-ray reflectivity (films)
inelastic (E 0)
Compton X-ray scattering
resonant inelastic X-ray
X ray scattering (RIXS)
X-ray Raman scattering
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction refers to the apparent bending of waves around small objects and the
spreading out of waves past small apertures.
In our context, diffraction is the scattering of a coherent wave by the atoms in a
crystal.
t l A diff
diffraction
ti pattern
tt
results
lt ffrom iinterference
t f
off th
the scattered
tt d waves.
Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave due to a change in its speed.
C
Crystal
l diffraction
diff
i
I. Real space description (Bragg)
II Momentum (k) space description
II.
(von Laue)
OPTICAL INTERFERENCE
perfectly in phase:
= n,
n = 0, 1, 2,
: phase difference
n: order
perfectly out of phase:
= n, n = 1/2, 3/2,
B
Bragg
provided
id d a simple,
i l iintuitive
t iti approach
h tto diff
diffraction:
ti
Regard crystal as parallel planes of atoms separated by distance d
Assume specular
p
reflection of X-rays
y from any
y given
g
plane
p
Peaks in the intensity of scattered radiation will occur when rays
from successive planes interfere constructively
228
AC d sin
ACB 2d sin
n ACB
Braggs Law:
n 2d sin
i
When Bragg
Braggss Law is satisfied
satisfied, reflected
reflected beams are in phase
and interfere constructively. Specular reflections can
229
occur only at these angles.
DIFFRACTION ORDERS
1st order:
2d sin 1
2nd order:
2 2d ssin 2
By convention,
convention we set the diffraction order = 1 for XRD
XRD.
For instance, when n=2 (as above), we just halve the d-spacing to make n=1.
2 2d sin 2
2(d / 2) sin 2
e.g. the 2nd order reflection of d100 occurs at same as 1st order reflection of d200
Uses:
phase identification
crystal
y
structure determination
radial distribution functions
thin film quality
crystallographic texture
percent crystalline/amorphous
crystal size
residual stress/strain
defect studies
in situ analysis (phase transitions,
thermal expansion coefficients, etc)
superlattice structure
crystallite
Transmission
geometry
233
DEBYE-SCHERRER METHOD
235
DIFFRACTOMETERS
237
THETA-2THETA GEOMETRY
X-ray
X ray tube stationary
sample moves by angle theta, detector by 2theta
238
THETA-THETA GEOMETRY
239
POWDER DIFFRACTOGRAMS
In powder XRD, a finely powdered sample is probed with monochromatic X-rays of a
known wavelength in order to evaluate the d-spacings according to Braggs Law.
Cu K radiation: = 1.54
1 54
peak positions depend on:
d-spacings
spacings of {hkl}
systematic absences
increasing , decreasing d
Minimum d?
d min / 2
240
Cu K = 1.54
Intensiity
powder pattern
200
111
210
211
220
311
2 Theta
Th t
2 = 28.3 d = 1.54/[2sin(14.15)]
= 3.13 = d111
d-SPACING FORMULAS
242
EXAMPLE 2: La2CuO2
Layered Cuprate Thin film,
film growth oriented along c axis
2d 00l sin
(00l)
c = 12.2
12 2
2 theta
(hkl)
7.2
12.1
((001))
14.4
6.1
(002)
22
4.0
(003)
243
POWDER DIFFRACTION
Peak positions determined by size and shape of unit cell
(d-spacings and systematic absences)
Peak intensities determined by the atomic number and
position of
p
f the various atoms
m within the unit cell
Peak widths determined by instrument parameters,
temperature, and crystal size, strain, and inhomogeneities
244
GENERATION OF X-RAYS
X-rays
y beams are usuallyy g
generated by
y colliding
g high-energy
g
gy electrons with metals.
X-ray emission
spectrum
2p3/2 1s
+ HEAT
Siegbahn notation
Generating Bremsstrahlung
246
GENERATION OF X-RAYS
Side window Coolidge X-ray
Side-window
X ray tube
E h hc /
Moseleys Law:
1/ 2
C (Z )
Co K1 : 1.79
C K1 : 1.54
Cu
1 54 ((~8
8k
keV)
V)
Mo K1 : 0.71
247
ROTATING ANODES
100X higher powers possible by spinning the anode
at > 6000 rpm to prevent melting it brighter source
248
249
MONOCHROMATIC X-RAYS
Filters (old way)
A foil of the next lightest element
(Ni in the case of Cu anode) can
often be used to absorb the
unwanted higher-energy radiation to
give a clean K beam
Monochromators
Use diffraction from a curved
crystal (or multilayer) to select
X-rays of a specific wavelength
250
DETECTION OF X-RAYS
Detection principles
g
gas ionization
scintillation
creation of e-h pairs
Point detectors
Strip detectors
Area detectors
251
DETECTION OF X-RAYS
Point detectors
S i till ti counters
Scintillation
t
252
X-RAY DETECTORS
Area detectors
film
imaging plate
CCD
multiwire
Charge-coupled devices
253
X-RAY DETECTORS
Imaging plates
photostimulable phosphor
254
255
PLANE WAVES
A wave whose surfaces of constant phase are infinite parallel planes of
equal spacing normal to the direction of propagation.
(r ) Ae
|k|=2/
iik
k r
r1
45
45
origin
r2
wavefront
kr1 = kr1
k 2 = kr
kr
k 12(cos45)
2(
45) = k
kr1
iK R
Reciprocal lattice: The set of all wave vectors K that yield plane waves
with the periodicity of a given Bravais lattice.
Direct lattice position vectors:
Reciprocal lattice vectors:
where the primitive vectors
of the reciprocal lattice are:
a2 a3
a1 a 2 a 3
b 2 2
a 3 a1
a1 a 2 a 3
b 3 2
a1 a 2
a1 a 2 a 3
iK R
a1 a 2 a 3
a2 a3
a1 2
2
b1 a1 2
a1 a 2 a 3
a1 a 2 a 3
a 3 a1
b 2 a1 2
a1 0
a1 a 2 a 3
a1 a 2
b 3 a1 2
a1 0
a1 a 2 a 3
iK R
What is K?
a wave vector of a plane wave that has the periodicity of the direct lattice
The direct lattice is periodic (invariant under translation by R)
(r + R ) e
iK ( r+R)
iK R
iK r
(r )
Reciprocal lattice vectors = wave vectors of plane waves that are unity
259
at all direct lattice sites
e.g., simple
i l cubic
bi di
direct llattice
i
a1 ax
a 2 ay
a 3 az
a2 a3
a2
2
2 3 x
b1 2
x
a1 a 2 a 3
a
a
2
b2
y
a
2
p cubic reciprocal
p
lattice
b3
z simple
with lattice constant 2/a
a
b1 parallel to a1, etc.
260
a1 ax
b3
reciprocal
i
l llattice
tti
a3
b2
direct lattice
a2
b1
a1
a 2 by a 3 cz
2
b1
x
a
2
b2
y
b
2
b3
z
c
261
b1 2
b2
a2 a3
a1 a 2 a 3
4 1
(z + x - y )
a 2
a2
(y z - x )
4 1
2 4 3
(y z - x )
a
a 2
(2)
8
b3
4 1
(x + y - z )
a 2
262
a2
(2y 2z )
a2 a3
4 1
b1 2
2 4 3
(y z )
a
a 2
a1 a 2 a 3
(4)
8
4 1
4 1
b2
b3
( z + x)
(x + y )
a 2
a 2
263
RECIPROCAL LATTICES
simple orthorhombic simple orthorhombic
FCC BCC
BCC FCC
simple hexagonal simple hexagonal (rotated)
264
r. l.
= b1
= b2
= b3
90
d. l.
265
,,
,, 90
266
267
1st
d.l. FCC
r.l.
. . BCC
Brillouin zone:
1st
d.l. BCC
r.l. FCC
Brillouin zone:
truncated octahedron
rhombic dodecahedron
268
X (2a 0 0)
269
Greek letters: p
points within the FBZ
Roman letters: points on the FBZ surface
270
271
K = 2n / d
here, g = K
hk in 2D
hkl in 3D
272
a2
k
1
a
By vector addition,
b3
b2
ABK = (h
l
h
= 2 2 0
AB
b1
a3
a1
AB
a1
h
3
a
(hkl)
etc.
t
So the reciprocal vector formed by using the Miller indices of a plane as its
components forms a vector in space that is normal to the Miller plane.
1
a
In the figure above, the spacing between the planes is the projection of
d hkl
K h 2 2
K
h K h K
2
K
K0
d hkl
a1
on
K
:
K
274
p' p q
scattering vector
p' p p
p
q 2 sin
2
2
2d sin n n
k
2
nK 0 K
2k sin n
d
since scattering is elastic and p k ,
p
q 2 sin 2k sin K
2
qK
So, k' - k = K
i ( k' -k ) R
=e
i 2 n
Diffraction
Diff
ti occurs when
h th
the change
h
in
i
wave vector, k-k, is a vector of the
277
reciprocal lattice.
K = k' k
k-space Bragg plane
Laue condition
Alternatively
Alternatively,
k K = K / 2
radius = k
Laue condition:
K = k' k
direction of
diffracted beam
(-2,-1)
real space
origin of diffraction
reciprocal lattice
279
K = k k
'
(-2,-1)
K = 2 / d 210
-In this case, hkl = -2,-1,0 so diffraction occurs from the (210) planes
and
d the
h diff
diffracted
db
beam moves off
ff along
l
k
k.
280
281
283
LAUE METHOD
fixed crystal
y
& angle,
g , variable wavelength
g
284
285
k
k
k
http://escher.epfl.ch/x-ray/diff.mpeg
286
287
every point in
reciprocal space
traces out a shell
of radius K
PEAK INTENSITIES
Peak intensities depend on (in large part):
1) intensity scattered by individual atoms (form factors)
2) the resultant wave from atoms in unit cell (structure factor)
In many cases, the intensity from certain planes (hkl) is zero
Possible reasons: symmetry of crystal causes complete cancellation of beam
systematic absences
happenstance
scattering angle
multiplicities
temperature factor
absorption factor
preferred orientation
289
MONOATOMIC BASES
up to now w
we have
ha considered
cons r diffraction
ffract on only
on y from Bravais
ra a s lattices
att c s
with single atom bases (i.e., atoms only at the lattice points R).
We f
found the diffraction
ff
condition:
which is the same as:
ei (k' -k ) R = ei 2 n 1
iK R
e
=1
FK f R (K )eiK R
R
where fR(K) is the atomic form factor for a given atom (disc. later).
The scattered intensity is proportional to the absolute square of the
amplitude:
2
I K I 0 FK
n-ATOM BASES
Crystals
rysta s with
w th multiple
mu t p atoms in
n each
ach primitive
pr m t
cell
c must be further
furth r
analyzed into a set of scatterers at positions d1, d2 dn within each
primitive cell.
The positions of the atoms are:
making the scattering amplitude:
A(R ) R d j
FK f j (K )e
R
L e iK R
iK ( R+d j )
e iK R f j ( K ) e
R
iK d j
Lattice sum
K f j (K )e
iK d j
STRUCTURE FACTOR
The
h structur
structure factor g
givess the
th amplitude
amp tu of a scattered
scatt r wave
wa arising
ar s ng
from the atoms with a single primitive cell.
K f j (K )e
iK d j
For crystals composed of only one type of atom, its common to split
th structure
the
t
t
factor
f t into
i t two
t
parts:
t
K f (K ) S K
atomic form factor
SK e
iK d j
STRUCTURE FACTORS
The amplitude of the rays scattered at positions d1, , dn
are in the ratios:
iiK
K d1
iiK
K dn
SK e
iK d j
-Adds up scattered
waves from unit cell
j 1
j
I ( hkl ) SK
-In particular, no
peak when SK = 0
293
SIMPLE CUBIC
For simple cubic: one atom basis (0,0,0)
SK e
iiK
K 0
1
294
MONO-ATOMIC BCC
For monoatomic BCC:
we can think of this as SC with two point basis (0,0,0), (,,)
2
SK e
iK d j
eiK 0 e
a
iK ( x y z )
2
j 1
For SC,
2
(hx ky lz )
K
a
1 ei ( h k l )
1 (1)
h k l
S = 2,
2 when h + k + l even
S = 0, when h + k + l odd, systematic absences
295
Why?
(100)
( 00)
(200)
d100
d200
Strong reflection b/c all atoms lie on
200 planes and scatter in phase 296
MONO-ATOMIC FCC
For monoatomic FCC:
SC with four point basis (0,0,0), (,,0), (0,,), (,0,)
4
SK e
iKd j
a
iK ( x y )
2
eiK0 e
a
iK ( y z )
2
a
iK ( x z )
2
j 1
j
For SC,
2
K
(hx ky lz )
a
SK 1 ei ( h k ) ei ( k l ) ei ( h l )
S = 4 when h + k, k + l, h + l all even (h, k, l all even or all odd)
S = 0 otherwise
297
POLYATOMIC STRUCTURES
Atoms of different Z in the unit cell have different scattering
powers, so we explicitly include the form factors:
Total
structure
factor
K f j (K )e
iK d j
298
CsCl STRUCTURE
Cesium Chloride is primitive cubic
Cs (0,0,0)
Cl (1/2,1/2,1/2)
K f j (K )e
iK d j
K fCs fCl e
i ( h k l )
(hkl)
(100)
(110)
(111)
(200)
(210)
(211)
(220)
(221)
(300)
(310)
(311)
CsCl
CsI
300
Na: (0,0,0)(0,1/2,1/2)(1/2,0,1/2)(1/2,1/2,0)
Add (1/2,1/2,1/2)
Cl: (1/2,1/2,1/2) (1/2,1,1)(1,1/2,1)(1,1,1/2)
301
K [ f Na fCl e
i ( h k l )
][1 e
][
i ( h k )
i ( h l )
i ( l k )
(hkl)
(100)
(110)
(111)
(200)
(210)
(211)
(220)
(221)
(300)
(310)
(311)
NaCl
KCl
303
DIAMOND STRUCTURE
Diamond: FCC lattice with two
two-atom
atom basis (0,0,0,),
(0 0 0 ) (,,)
( )
2
Sdiamond SFCC e
j 1
iKd j
1
iK ( x y z )
4
SFCC[eiK0 e
( )
(hkl)
(100)
(
(110)
)
(111)
((200))
(210)
(
(211)
)
(220)
(
(221)
)
(300)
((310))
(311)
FCC
diamond
Al
Si
S
What about
zinc blende?
306
condition
diti ffor peak
k tto occur
any h,k,l
h + k + l = even
h,k,l all even or all odd
h k l all
h,k,l
ll even,
or all odd if fA fB
h k l all
h,k,l
ll even andd twice
t i an even #,
#
or all odd
any h,k,l
h k l except when h + 2k = 3n
and l is odd
di
diamond
d
HCP
K f j (K )e
j
iK d j
307
h k l
2
SC: 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,11,12,
BCC: 2,4,6,8,10,12,...
FCC: 3,4,8,11,12,16,24,
, , , , , , ,
SC
FCC
BCC
Observable diffraction
peaks for monoatomic
crystals
1
sin 2
d hkl
2d sin n
d hkl
a
h2 k 2 l 2
sin
i (h k l )
2
sin 1st
1 peakk
2
(h k l ) nth peak
2
(h k l )1st
1 peakk
2
309
e is
s cub
cubic.
c Is
s itt FCC
CC o
or BCC?
CC
110
BCC!
sin 2 2 sin 2 33
2
2
2
sin 1 sin 22
211
200
1.33
2
2
sin 1
sin 19
200
FCC!
311
220
222
331 420
400
310
theta
sin
40
58
73
86.8
100 4
100.4
114.7
20
29
36 5
36.5
43.4
50 2
50.2
57.35
0.117
0
117
0.235
0 3538
0.3538
0.4721
0 5903
0.5903
0.7090
normalized
h k l
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
(hkl)
(110)
(200)
(211)
(220)
(310)
(222)
BCC, a =3.18 W
311
Particle picture:
zero phase
h
diff
difference f
for f
forward/backward
d/b k
d scattering
i
scattering factor (form factor, f ) proportional to atomic number, Z
increasingly destructive interference with larger scattering angle
for a given angle, intensity decreases with decreasing X
X-ray
ray wavelength
Thomson equation:
q
1
I ((1 cos 2 2 )
2
max scattering intensity at 2 = 0 & 180
gradual decrease to 50% as 2 approaches 90
scattering vector q
f j (q) j (r )e
iq r
dr
Cl-
Cl
K+
with,
4 sin
O
= 37
1
( xyz )
V
hkl
hkl e
i 2 ( hx ky lz )
PEAK WIDTHS
Peak
a shap
shape iss a Vo
Voigt
gt function
funct on (m
(mixture
tur of Gauss
Gaussian
an and
an Lorentzian)
Lor ntz an)
Gaussian component arises from natural linewidth and strain
Lorentzian component arises from coherent domain size
Pure
Gaussian
Pure
Lorentzian
315
316
317
SIZE BROADENING
Small crysta
Sma
crystallites
t s ((< 200 nm) show broadened
roa n diffraction
ffract on lines
n s
Nanocrystal X-ray
Diffraction
318
319
Intensity (a.u.)
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
2 (deg.)
2
(
)
These diffraction patterns were produced from the same sample!
Two different diffractometers, with different optical configurations, were used
The apparent peak broadening is due solely to the instrumentation
320
B1
2
at Bragg angle,
angle B
phase lag between two planes =
perfectly in phase, constructive
At some angle
1
2
3
4
j-1
j
j+1
T = (2j-1)d
2j-1
2j
1 B
Ph
Phase
llag bbetween
t
two
t planes:
l
At (j+1)th plane:
Phase lag:
j 2
B1
2
B1
2
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
j-1
j
j+1
j-1
j
j+1
2j 1
2j+1
2j+2
2j 3
2j-3
2j-2
nonzero intensity at 1
322
2 B
323
Lets derive the relation between crystal thickness T and peak width B:
2d sin
Considering the path length differences between X-rays scattered from the front
and back planes of a crystal with 2j+1 planes and total thickness T:
2T sin
i 1 (2 j 1)
2T sin 2 (2 j 1)
If we subtract them:
Using trig identity:
Since
1 2
2
2T (cos B )(
T (sin 1 sin 2 )
2T (cos(
1 2
2
and
1 2
2
sin(
))
) sin(
1 2
2
. But,
But
1 2
2
2
1 2
2
sin
1 2
2
))
1 2
B 2(
1 2
) , so
B cos B
324
SCHERRER FORMULA
A more rigorous
g
treatment includes a unitless shape
p factor:
Scherrer Formula
m
(1918)
(
)
K
T
B cos B
T = crystallite thickness
(X-ray wavelength, )
K (shape factor) ~ 0.9
B, B in radians
B B B
2
2
M
2
R
SCHERRER CONSTANT
K
T
B cos B
00.94
94
T
B cos B
Incomplete
p
destructive interference
at angles slightly off the Bragg angles
327
328
CRYSTALLITE SHAPE
Most applications
pp
of Scherrer analysis
y
assume spherical
p
crystallite
y
shapes
e.g., a nanowire
329
STRAIN EFFECTS
Strain:
330
SOURCES OF STRAIN
331
Intensity (a.u.)
2(deg.)
332
333
334
335
Dan Connelly
336
NTNU
337
338
For every set of planes, there will be a small percentage of crystallites that are
properly oriented to diffract (the plane perpendicular bisects the incident and
diffracted beams).
Basic assumptions of powder diffraction are that for every set of planes there is
an equal number of crystallites that will diffract and that there is a statistically
339
relevant number of crystallites, not just one or two.
Uniaxial
t t
texture
Biaxial
texture
(growth on Al2O3)
341
ROCKING CURVES
342
ROCKING CURVES
343
344
Thickness, composition, and strain state of epitaxial single crystal films
(1 = 3600 arcsec)
Thi k
Thickness,
composition,
i i
and
d strain
i state of
f epitaxial
i
i l single
i l crystall fil
films
345
PHI SCANS
sit on a reflection,
fl
then spin in-plane
346
k-SPACE GEOMETRY
for rotation around [001]
of cubic crystal:
two possibilities:
monitor {011}: expect 4 peaks separated by 90 rotation.
monitor {111}: expect 4 peaks separated by 90 rotation.
(ignoring possible systematic absences)
347
(1011)
(002)
p scan proves
phi
p
bi-axial texture (epitaxy)
348
349
phi
p
omega
Epitaxial YBa2Cu3O7 on Biaxially
Textured Nickel (001):
An Approach to Superconducting
Tapes with High Critical Current Density
Science, Vol 274, Issue 5288,
755-757 , 1 November 1996
350
351
POLE FIGURES
P
Preferred
f
d orientation
i t ti off crystallites
t llit can create
t a
systematic variation in diffraction peak intensities
can qualitatively analyze using a 1D diffraction pattern
a pole figure maps the intensity of a single peak as a
function of tilt and rotation of the sample
this can be used to quantify the texture
10.0
(111)
00-004-0784> Gold - Au
Intensity(C
Counts)
8.0
(311)
(200)
60
6.0
(220)
4.0
(222)
2.0
(400)
3
x10
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Two-Theta (deg)
352
(b)
Random in-plane
p
alignment
g
353
354
355
Small Angle
y Diffraction
X-ray
HCP
358
UCI XRD
Rigaku SmartLab XRD
0D,
0D 1D,
1D 2D detectors
In-plane & Out-of-plane
Thin
Thin-film
film XRD
High resolution XRD
SAXS
-XRD
Capillary transmission
1500C heating stage
1100C dome stage
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
360
361
amorphous solids
362
363