Communism and Islam

Author(s): Bernard Lewis

Reviewed work(s):
Source: International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Vol. 30, No. 1
(Jan., 1954), pp. 1-12
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Royal Institute of International Affairs
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2608416 .
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COMMUNISM
BERNARD

AND ISLAM
LEWIS

/[Y purposehereis to tryto see how farIslam and Communism

are compatible-howfar,that is, Islam predisposesthosewho
have beenbroughtup in it to acceptor to rejectthe Communist
and
teaching. I shall not attemptto examineCommunistinfiltration
propagandain Islamiccountriesor thedegreeoftheirsuccessor failureskillsand sourcesofinformation
other
thatis a taskcallingforprofessional
thanthosewhichare at mydisposal. RathershallI tryto considerwhat
qualitiesor tendenciesexist in Islam,in Islamic civilizationand society,
whichmighteitherfacilitateor impedetheadvanceofCommunism.
The obviousobjectionwill no -doubtat once be raised that Islam is
afterall a religionbased on revelation,beliefin whichis clearlyincomtrue,and the same
patible with Marxistideology.That is undoubtedly
could be said with equal truthof Orthodox,Catholic,or Protestant
ofJudaism,oranyotherreligionworthyofthename. NeverChristianity,
has not preventedmany former
theless,that doctrinalincompatibility
followersof these religionsfrombecomingCommunists.No doubt,the
the
devoutand piousMuslimtheologianwhohas studiedand understands
will
that
materialism
but
of
dialectical
such
a
creed,
reject
implications
of
is
not
common
nor
of circumstances
occurrence, likelyto
combination
be of far-reaching
significance.The questionbeforeus shouldratherbe
betweentheWesterndemocracies
put thus: in the presentcompetition
forthesupportoftheIslamicworld,whatfactors
and SovietCommunism
orin thepresentstateofIslamic
orqualitiesare therein Islamictradition,
and politically
societyand opinion,whichmightpreparetheintellectually
and
methods
of governto
Communist
embrace
principles
activegroups
them?
to
rest
accept
ment,and the
I feelthat a writeron a subject of this
Beforeproceeding
anyfurther
nature owes his reader some definitionof his own politicalattitude.
whichnowadays
Let me confessrightaway that I lack one qualification
both authorityand respectability-I
is generallyacceptedas-conferring
circumI can howeverplead as an extenuating
am notan ex-Communist.
affected
was
which
a
in
I
by what
deeply
stancethat grewup
generation
speaking,that,withall
was happeningin Russia,and whichfelt,generally
it nevertheless
and crimesoftheRussianrevolution,
reprethebrutalities
forhumanity-'blisswas it in
valuable and significant
sentedsomething
thatdawn to be alive'-and I am therefore
perhapsable to understand
ofthe attractionas well as of the repulsionof the Communist
something
creed. Of my own politicalattitudelet me say this,that I believethat

INTERNATIONAL

AFFAIRS

[JAN.

parliamentary
democracyas practisedin the West,withall its manifest
faults,is stillthe best and mostjust formofgovernment
yet devisedby
man. But at thesametimeI believeit to be themostdifficult
to operate,
requiring
certainqualitiesofmindand habit,ofinstitution
and tradition,
perhapseven ofclimate,forits effective
working.It has takenfirmroot
only amongthe peoples of the northernand north-western
fringesof
Europe,and in theterritories
colonizedby theirdescendantsoverseas. It
has maintained,or maintains,a precariousexistencein a few other
regions,and is showingsignsofpromising
but stillimmature
growthin a
fewmore-but otherwiseit is unknownto therestofthe humanrace,in
mostoftheworld,and throughmostofrecordedhistory.
Knowing,then,that parliamentary
democracyis farfrombeingthe
ofmankind,I am, to myregret,by no meanscertain
commonexperience
the commondestinyof mankind,and I shall therefore
thatit represents
tryto avoid the too frequentpractice,whichhas the faultof beingboth
inaccurateand inexpedient,of representing
the world'sdilemmaas a
and parliamentary
straightchoicebetweenCommunism
democracy;of
making,therefore,an appearance of parliamentarygovernmentthe
universaltestof politicaland evenmoralvirtue-in otherwords,of makingourownpresentwayof lifethesole patternofgoodness,all deviations
fromwhichare necessarilyevil, all alternativesto whichare lumpedtogetherin a mass ofundifferentiated
wickedness.This principle,
noteven
consistently
applied,leads us to such logicaland politicalabsurditiesas
simultaneouslycourtingthe favoursof some slave-owningand polywhilesnubbingthe Government
gamousautocraton anothercontinent,
of Spain-because of theirdisregardof civil liberties.The unfortunate
and unpalatablefactis thatit is we whoare the exceptionin bothhistory
and thatauthoritarian
and notrepresentative
and geography,
government
approximatesmost closelyto the commonexperienceof mankind. In
mostoftheworldautocracy,ifless attractive,
is morefamiliarand more
and even the arbitrary
thandemocracy,
and capriciousdictaintelligible
as repellentto much
torshipofMoscowis neitheras strangenortherefore
ofAsia and Africa-evenmuchofEurope-as it is to us. We shouldcertainlydo our best to encouragethe growthof freeinstitutions
wherever
possible;but at thesametime,we woulddo wellto recallthatfora great
part of the human race, parliamentary
democracyremainssomething
an objectsometimes
ofwonderment,
remote,alien,and incomprehensible,
and hatred,whichwe mustconcede
evenenvy,moreoftenalas ofmistrust
whenwe recallthe examplesof democracyby
is not entirelyunjustified
whichalonetheycan judgeit. If thepeoplesofIslam are forcedto make
in favourofeitherComa straight
choice,to abandontheirowntraditions
thenwe are at a greatdisadvantage.
munismor parliamentarianism,
bothforIslam and forthe Westernworld,
It is, however,fortunate,
is
not
restricted
to thesetwo simplealternatives,
choice
thatthe
forthe
stillremainsforthe Muslimpeoplesof restoring,
possibility
perhapsin a

I954]

COMMUNISM

AND

ISLAM

modifiedform,theirown tradition;of evolvinga formof government

and perhapsevenautocratic,is nevertheless
which,thoughauthoritarian,
dictatorship.I
farremovedfromthe cynicaltyrannyof European-style
do not wishto be misunderstood-Iwouldmuchpreferto see all Islam
democraticliberty,and
government,
enjoy the benefitsof constitutional
the freedevelopmentof the individual,and I by no meansexcludethe
which in a few favoured
possibilityof this desirable consummation,
countriesis alreadyin sight-but I wishto make clear my view that in
is not in prospectand,
largeareasoftheIslamicworldthisconsummation
and indeed the ancient
that the presentcircumstances,
furthermore,
contain
traditionsof Islam,do notwhollyfavourus but,on thecontrary,
muchwhichmightinclinetheMuslimindividual,class,ornation,whichis
readyto abandontraditionalvaluesand beliefs,to accepttheCommunist
ratherthanthedemocraticalternative.
I proposenowto selectand discussa fewofwhatseemto me to be the
moreimportantelementsfavouringthe success of Communismin the
Islamicworld,and to deal withthemundertwoheadings:first,the accidentals,thosethat are part of the presenthistoricalsituation,and then
the essentials,thosewhichare innateor inherentin the veryqualityof
and ideas.
Islamicinstitutions
The firstand mostimportantof the accidentalsis the anti-Western
are againstthe West and forthatreasoncan at
motif.The Communists
elementsofsupportin theIslamicworld,just as
oncecounton important
extentthesame
theNazis wereable to do in theirtime-to a considerable
elementsof supportand forthe same reasons. Like the Nazis, the Comin the double sense-they are against the
munistsare anti-Western
WesternPowersand theyarealso againsttheWesternwayoflife,Western
and ideas. Underbothheadingstheyhave a strongappeal.
institutions
reactionin the Islamic worldis obviousand
The presentanti-Western
well known. Afterthe periodof admirationand imitationof the ninethereis now a generaland growing
teenthand earlytwentieth
centuries,
revulsion.Public attentionhas been focusedin the main on a seriesof
specificgrievancesof the Islamic worldagainstthe West-Morocco and
Tunisia,Suez and the Sudan,Palestine,Abadan,and the rest,of which
now one, now another,has been adduced as the main cause of antiWesternfeeling.There are always those in the West who will seek to
all troublesto the misgrindan axe ortitillatea prejudiceby attributing
deedsoftheirfavourite
scapegoats-theFrenchortheJews,theAmericans
or the British-and theywill always findenthusiasticagreementfrom
somebodyin the Orient. Muslimstend to stressthe importanceof any
in it-Westerners,
specificissuein the measureof theirowninvolvement
of their own freedomfrominvolvement.In reality,all of them are
and universalrevulsionfromall
symptomsor aspectsof a fundamental
thatis Westernand, as we have seen oflate, even the removalof one or

INTERNATIONAL

AFFAIRS

[JAN.

alleviaanothergrievancecannotbringmorethana local and temporary

I may
of
which
of
is
various
made
strains,
up
tion. This movement
mentionthe reactionagainst colonialism,whichgrowsstrongeras the
latter is manifestlydying; against Westernprivilegeand arrogance,
economic,social,political;againstthe dislocationsand upheavalsresultingfromtheimpactoftheWest,the changesbroughtaboutby Western
by no meansall ofwhichare-as we liketo flatter
and activities,
influence
ourselves-beneficial.
movementsin the Islamic countries,
The liberaland constitutional
such
with
high hopes in the nineteenthcentury,
whichwerelaunched
and frustrahave,withfewexceptions,endedin failure,disappointment,
tion. The local leadershave all too oftenrelapsedinto a cynicismand
thathas outragedthe moralsense of thosewhomtheyproopportunism
fessedto lead, or else have soughtcomfortin a rabid and xenophobe
all and everything
thathas comeout
damningindiscriminately
fanaticism,
theblindprotestof themassesagainstthe
of the West. They expr'essed
forcesthathad dislocatedtheirtraditional
way oflife,
alienand powerful
and
new
social
problems
posed
equilibrium,
destroyedtheirtraditional
forwhichthey offeredno effectiveanswer. It is no doubt unjust of
Muslimsto blame the West forthe exuberantand destructivehaste of
and selfishness
oftheirown
and fortheincompetence
theirownreformers
But we mustadmitthat therecordof the Westin its
parliamentarians.
dealingswiththe Islamic worldand forthat matterin its own internal
rebuttal.
materialforany verystriking
does notfurnish
affairs
can
therefore
West
the
alwayscount
against
propaganda
Communist
the
when
drum.
striking anti-imperialist
on a readyresponse,especially
It mayseemstrangeto us thattheSovietempire,stillaudiblyeructating
as
afterhavingboltedhalfofEurope,shouldbe able to pose successfully
thechampionoftherightsofoppressedpeoplesagainsttheimperialiststhattheStatewhichruleswithno lighthandoverso manyMuslimsubject
be able to carryoffthispose amongtheother
peoples,shouldnevertheless
peoplesof Islam. Yet so it is. For mostIslamic peoplesthe notionof
'imperialist'-andI am speakinghereofcourseof thepopularimage-is
precise. The imperialistis always
ratherrestrictedand surprisingly
Western-infact,'Westernimperialist'is a naturaland normalcollocationofterms,likeGermanmeaslesor Spanish'flu. The Arabwhoprotests
againstimperialismdoes not thinkforone momentthat his putative
ancestorswhoconqueredan empirefromthe Pyreneesto the Oxus were
northe Persianthat the vauntedgloriesof Cyrusand
also imperialists,
Darius were also of an imperialquality. Even the modernJapanese,
exceptofcourseamongtheirimmediatevictims,are somehowregardedas
amongthesheepratherthanthe
and as belonging
fundamentally
different
ofthepopular
goats-black sheepperhaps,butstillsheep.Theimperialist
in the
politicaldemonology
the stockfigureof contemporary
prototype,
Orient,is Western,and is moreoveralways maritimeand commercial.

I954]

COMMUNISM AND ISLAM

is a man whocomesacrossthesea in a ship,lands on the

The imperialist
coast,buysand sells,workshiswayinland,and finally,
byvariousdevices,
establisheshis rule.
mostlydishonest,
and in somemeasurea distortion
This is ofcoursea distillation
of the
experienceof mostofAsia and Africaof Portugueseand Dutch,French
and Britishexpansionsincethe sixteenthcentury.It is in factthe sole
in the last fewcenturies,
directexperienceof mostof thesecountries,
of
of imperialism.The otherkind,overlandmilitaryexthe phenomenon
pansion,is notreallygrasped,exceptagainby thosewhohaveexperienced
it directly.Turkey,forexample,has forcenturies
action
foughta defensive
againstthesuccessivestagesoftheRussianoverlandadvance,firstto the
Black Sea, then down throughthe Balkans and the Caucasus. Turkey
is relatedby languageand originto theTartarpeopleswho are
moreover
nowunderSovietyoke. Hencethegreaterdegreeofawarenessamongthe
and thevastlydifferent
TurksofthenatureofSovietimperialism,
attitude
adoptedby Turkeyto the presentworldproblems.In the rest of the
IslamicworldSovietimperialism
mayperhaps,in somecircles,be apprebut it failsto evoke any real emotionalresponse.
hendedintellectually,
howIslamicopiniongenerallyrefusesto accordto ancient
It is remarkable
MuslimcentresofculturelikeBukharaand Samarkandone hundredth
of
theinterestand attentiongivento,say,Casablanca,Ismailia,andAbadan.
willoftensay-most ofus musthave
Even thosewhoare anti-Communist
heardit-'At least,the Russiansare notimperialists'-andreallybelieve
thattheSovietregime,despiteits otherfaults,is somehowfreefromthat
particularstigmawhichrendersthe WesternPowersso odious. Here it
mustbe stated that the Russiansare greatlyhelpedby Westernracial
and colourprejudiceand by theirownapparentfreedomfromit. This is
an immenseasset to them,both in Asia and Africa,and one that is
wantonlypresentedto them.
The secondaccidentalwithwhichI shalldeal is thepresentdiscontent
the social and economicdisof the Islamic world,and morespecifically
content.The abjectpovertyofthemassesand thecallousirresponsibility
as sourcesofpossibledanger.
ofthepossessingclassesare oftenmentioned
are unlikely
Quiteclearly,warningsofthe threatto libertyand property
to movethosewhopossessneither;on thecontrary,
Communist
ideasand
for
a
attraction
have
will
promises
ready
importantgroupsin a society
which,as has oftenbeen pointedout, in manyways resemblesthat of
Russiaon theeve oftheRevolution.
and has oftenbeen made, and thereis no
This pointis self-evident
needforme to dwellon it. I would,however,like to mentionthreefacts
whichwe mightbear in mindwhenwe speak of the immemorial
poverty
of the Orient. The firstis that thispoverty,at any
and irresponsibility
ratein its presentform,is in factnot immemorial.Obviously,the gap
betweenrichand poorhas alwaysexisted,but as faras we can ascertain,
as it is now.
it has not in earliertimesbeen as wide and as unbridgeable

INTERNATIONAL

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[JAN.

In its presentform,thisgap is largelythe resultof the Westernimpact,

theeffectofwhichhas been to makethe richricher,and thepoorpoorer
than theywere before.The economiceffectsof Westernization
and of
contactwiththeWestare a complexproblem;I proposehereto mention
to amasswealthafforded
onlytwoaspects. One is thegreateropportunity
by Westernindustrial,
commercial,
atndfinancialtechniques,and theconsequent growthof fortuneson a scale unknownin earlierand simpler
economies;theotheris therapidincreaseofpopulation,made possibleby
but unaccompanied
Westernhygieneand security,
by any corresponding
increasein foodsupplies.
thedisparitybetweenrichand pooris notonlygreaterthan
Moreover,
is morevisible,thanksto the
before,but,whatis perhapsmoreimportant,
introduction
of Westernamenitiesand the flowof Westernconsumer
forthe public display
goods,whichaffordvastly greateropportunities
and enjoyment
ofwealth. Thesechangesare notdue to thevillainyofthe
ofWesterners;
Westoreveninanygreatmeasureto thedirectintervention
they are ratherthe consequencesof the process of Westerncontact,
and Westernization
Westerninfluence,
generally.The West is now doing
to remedythem,and can do verymuchmore.
something
I havesaid thatthepovertyofthe Orientwas not,in its presentform,
immemorial.Nor forthat matteris the irresponsibility
of the Oriental
rulingclasses. Beforethe impactof Westernization
from,say, the late
eighteenthcenturyonwards,the corporativestructureof traditional
was stillstanding,and the complex
Islamic society,thoughworm-eaten,
systemofsocial and moraldutiesassociatedwithit was stillfunctioning.
Then the old orderwas shattered,not by thewickedimperialists,
but by
men of the stamp of MahmudII in Turkeyand Munativereformers,
betterthantheybuilt. Nothinghas
hammadAli in Egypt,whodestroyed
cometo replacetheold bonds. That is thecause ofthesocialand political
formlessness
which has struckso many observersof modernIslamic
societies,the absenceof any but purelypersonaland familyloyaltiessocialunitwithanyreallifeormeansincethefamilyis theonlysurviving
ing. So that, we might remember,what we condemnas the vice of
nepotismis,forthosewhopractiseit,thevirtueoffamilyloyalty,theonly
formof loyaltythat remains. The disappearanceof the old
intelligible
social ethos and the breakdownof the old social cohesionhave lefta
have failedto
dangerousgap whichWesternsocialideals and institutions
fill.

Mythirdpointis thatthecentreofdangeris notthestarvingpeasantry

whoare themain
so oftenreferred
to, but ratherthe aspiringmechanics,
cause. The peasantryarestill,to a largeextent,
to theCommunist
recruits
integratedin theirtraditionalsocial units,and sustainedby the loyalty
and cohesionof the familyand villagegroup. It is thesemi-skilled
orunskilledlabourerswhoare uprootedfromtheirtribaland villagecommunities,deprivedof the supportof theirusual systemof social relationships

1954]

COMMUNISM AND ISLAM

and mutualaid, and placed in alien and unfamiliar

surroundings.In the
Communist
cell the transplantedproletarianor mechanicmay hope to
findsomesubstitute
forhislostsocialarmature,as wellas encouragement
in the ambitionsand resentments
thathe acquirestogetherwithhis new
skills.
I turnnow fromthe accidentalto the essentialfactors,to thosederivingfromthe verynatureof Islamic society,tradition,and thought.
The firstof theseis the authoritarianism,
perhapswe may even say the
oftheIslamicpoliticaltradition.It is by nowlamentably
totalitarianism,
clearthatany totalitariangovernment,
howeveranti-Communist
its professedcreedmaybe, doesin factprovidethestarting-point
fora swiftand
easy transitionto Communistdictatorship.The democraticFinns,
isolated and abandoned to the merciesof Russia, have nevertheless
succeededin maintainingtheir democraticlibertiesthroughlong and
difficult
years. The moreor less Fascist regimesof Easternand Central
weresoon transformed
Europe,by a fewsimpleadjustments,
into CommunistStates,forwhichthe machinery
and personnelofrepression,
and
thehabitofacquiescencein it,werereadyto hand. The politicalexperiofIslam,thoughverydifferent
enceand traditions
fromthoseofEastern
containelementswhichmight,in certaincircumEurope,do nevertheless
stances,preparethe way forCommunism.
Manyattemptshave beenmadeto showthatIslam and democracyare
identical-attemptsusually based on a misunderstanding
of Islam or
sort
of
or
both.
This
a
democracy
argumentexpresses need of the uprootedMuslimintellectualwho is no longersatisfiedwithor capable of
traditionalIslamic values, and who tries to justify,or
understanding
faithin termsofthe fashionable
rather,re-state,his inherited
ideologyof
the day. It is an exampleoftheromanticand apologeticpresentation
of
Islam thatis a recognizedphasein thereactionofMuslimthoughtto the
impactof the West. Thereare of courseelements,even importantelements,in Islam, especiallyin the earlyperiod,whichwe mightnot unjustlycall democratic,but on the wholethe tendencywhichis usually
adducedin supportof thisthesisis equalitarianratherthan democratic;
at least as
a verydifferent
thing,and one that goes withauthoritarian
institutions.In pointoffact,exceptfortheearly
wellas withdemocratic
caliphate,when the anarchicindividualismof tribal Arabia was still
the politicalhistoryof Islam is one of almostunrelievedautoeffective,
I
cracy. say autocracy,not despotism,sincethesovereignwas boundby
and subjectto the Holy Law, and was acceptedby thepeopleas rightful
oftheHolyLaw. But
and maintainedby theauthority
ruler,maintaining
sometimestyrannical.There
oftenarbitrary,
still,it was authoritarian,
or representative
assembliesof any kind,no councils
are no parliaments
no chambersofnobilityor estates,no municipalities
in the
or communes,
historyof Islam; nothingbut the sovereignpower,to whichthe subject

INTERNATIONAL

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[JAN.

obedienceas a religiousdutyimposedby
owedcompleteand unwavering
the Holy Law. In the greatdays of classicalIslam this dutywas only
on earthand
owed to the lawfullyappointedcaliph,as God's vicegerent
and thenonlyforas longas he upheld
head ofthetheocraticcommunity,
thelaw; but withthe declineofthe caliphateand the growthofmilitary
Muslimjuristsand theologiansaccommodatedtheirteachdictatorship,
ingsto the changedsituationand extendedthereligiousdutyofobedience
howeverimpious,howeverbarbarous.For the
to anyeffective
authority,
ofIslamhas beendominatedby
last thousandyears,thepoliticalthinking
than
anarchy'and 'whose poweris
such maximsas 'tyrannyis better
of
established,obedienceto himis incumbent'.The classicalformulation
Islamic politicalquietismmaybe foundin an oftencited passage from
the SyrianjuristIbn Jama'a,whobecameChiefQadi ofCairoand diedin
I333:

in a timeof
Forcedhomage.Thishappenswhena chiefseizespowerby force,
to recognize
himin orderto avoid
and it becomesnecessary
civildisorders,
ofsovereignty,
troubles.Thathe mayhavenoneofthequalifications
further
thathe be illiterate,
unjustorvicious,thathe be evena slaveor a woman,is
infact,untilsuchtimeas another,
He is a sovereign
stronger
ofnoconsequence.
andseizespower.He willthenbe sovereign
thethrone
thanhe,driveshimfrom
inordernottoincrease
strife.Whobythesametitle,andshouldbe recognized
fora government,
eventhe
everhaseffective
powerhas therightto obedience,
andoftwoevilsoneshouldchoosethelesser.
worstone,is betterthananarchy,
orflatterer
It willbe clearthatthesearenotthewordsofa time-server
tryingto makehis careerat an autocraticcourt.They are thewordsofa
piousand devoutbeliever,puttingbluntlyand sadlyan unpalatabletruth
thatthewriteris a doctoroftheHoly
as he sees it. It willbe remembered
Law and speakingin termsoftheHoly Law. Whenhe prescribes
recognition and obedience,he is layingdownthe dutyof the believerunderthe
a rulethe violationofwhich
Holy Law-that is to say, he is formulating
a sinas wellas a crime,involving
hell-fire
as wellas
is,in ourterminology,
as thesovereignmightsee fitto imposein
chastisement
suchanticipatory
thisworld. 'Even a slave or a woman'says Ibn Jama'a; onlyone thing
worsecan be imagined-an infidel,and thatstagetoo was reachedwhen,
afterthe NormanconquestofSicilyfromtheMuslims,a Muslimjuristof
rulermustbe acceptedand obeyed,
Mazaralaid downthatevena Christian
providedhe accordsreligioustolerationto the Muslims. A community
willnotbe shockedby Communist
disregard
broughtup on suchdoctrines
ofpoliticallibertyor humanrights;it mayevenbe attractedby a regime
in the serviceof a causewhichoffersruthlessstrengthand efficiency
of
the
ineptitude,corruption,and
anyway in appearance-in place
whichin theirmind,one may even say in theirexperience,
are
cynicism
government.
inseparablefromparliamentary
doctrinethattheState mustdirecteconomiclife
Even theCommunist
is he accustomed
is notas aliento theMuslimas mightbe thought-rather
to look to the State fordirectionand controlofcertaincentralaspectsof

COMMUNISM AND ISLAM

I9541

economiclife. The classicalIslamicsocial orderwas evolvedin Iraq and

society. In
Egypt,and conform
ed to the ancientpatternof river-valley
based on
thoselands of littlerainfalltherewas an intensiveagriculture,
fromthe river. This requiredarmiesof engineersand
artificial
irrigation
whosetask it
officials,
employedand controlledby a centralauthority,
ofdykes,dams,canals,and other
was to maintaintheelaboratestructure
irrigation
works,by whichalonetheeconomiclifeofthecountrycouldbe
maintained.For thissystema strongcentralauthoritywas a paramount
necessity,
and one does not have to look farto findexamplesof the ruin
ofthecentralauthority
whichfollowed
thebreakdown
andimpoverishment
in timesofpoliticalweaknessand theconsequentneglectoftheirrigation
works. In countriesblessedwithrainthe farmercan look to God forhis
in otherrespects.In theriverwaterand maintaina certainindependence
valley societieshe must look to the centralauthorityto maintainthe
stream,and he knowshimselfto be at
systemand to supplythelife-giving
thatwe findthetypeofsocialorder
itsmercy. It is in suchcommunities
has called'thehydraulicsociety',wheretheregimeand the
thatWittfogel
rulingclass are based on the supplyof waterforirrigation.Its characare wellknown:a docileand helplesspeasantry,
at themercyofa
teristics
and
centralizedand bureaucraticauthorityand a rulingclass of officials
in unchallenged,
and indeedunchallengeable,
controlof the
land-owners
of politicalpower. The same basic
sourcesofeconomiclifeand therefore
of India,
type of societyexistsin Egypt and Iraq, in the river-valleys
of Russia.
in China, and, one may perhaps add, in the river-valleys
Whetherthe historicRussiansocietyis 'hydraulic'in thissense I would
similarities.
The
not pretendto say; thereare, however,certainstriking
the
traditionalIslamicautocracyrestson threepillars:the bureaucracy,
hierarchy-andI mayrecallinpassingtheinterestarmy,and thereligious
made in this Journalby MrAlbertHourani,that
recently
ingsuggestion
we may be witnessinga returnto this patternin the recentchangesin
need be
Egypt. In this pattern,onlythe third,the religioushierarchy,
State.
changedin orderto preparetheway fora Communist
isbyno meansunimportant.Quiteobviously,the
Thatthird,however,
of
are
fromtheCommunist
'Ulama Islam
Party. Nevertheverydifferent
we findcertainuncomfortable
resemblances.
less, on closerexamination,
Both groupsprofessa totalitariandoctrine,with completeand final
in
answersto all questionson heavenand earth;the answersare different
and in theconand completeness,
everyrespect,alikeonlyin theirfinality
ofWesternman. Bothgroups
withtheeternalquestioning
trasttheyoffer
the agreeablesensationofbelonging
offer
to theirmembersand followers
of believers,who are alwaysright,as againstan outer
to a community
who are alwayswrong.Both offeran exhilarating
worldof unbelievers,
feelingofmission,of purpose,ofbeingengagedin a collectiveadventure
to acceleratethe historically
inevitablevictoryofthe truefaithoverthe
infidelevil-doers.The traditionalIslamicdivisionofthe worldinto the
B

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House of Islam and the House of War, two necessarilyopposed groups,of

which-the firsthas the collective obligation of perpetual struggleagainst
the second, also has obvious parallels in the Communist view of world
affairs. There again, the content of belief is utterly different,but the
aggressive fanaticism of the believer is the same. The humorist who
summedup the Communistcreed as 'There is no God and Karl Marx is his
Prophet' was laying his fingeron a real affinity.The call to a Communist
Jihad,a Holy War for the faith-a new faith,but against the self-same
Western Christianenemy-might well strikea responsivenote.
I have referredto collective obligations. Here too there is a possible
point ofcontactbetweenCommunismand Islam, the collectivisttendencies
of whichhave struckmany observers.A good deal has been writtenabout
the innumerable religio-Communisticsects and movements that have
arisen all over Islam, almost since its beginning. Let me quote froman
almost contemporaryArabic chronicle, describing the activities of an
agent of one such sect in Iraq, in the neighbourhoodof Kufa, about the
middle of the ninthcentury. This agent, we are told, having convertedthe
inhabitants of some villages to his doctrine,imposed on them an everincreasingseries of taxes and levies and finally:
all theirgoodsin one place and
The dutyofUlfa.. .; thisconsistedofassembling
which
anypersonalproperty
enjoyingthemincommonwithoutanyoneretaining
mightgive him an advantageoverthe others. He assuredthemthat theydid
not need to keep any propertybecause all the land belongedto themand to no
one else. That, he told them,is the test by whichyou are provedso that we
mayknowhowyou willbehave. He urgedthemto buy and preparearms. The
man to assembleall that
missionariesappointedin each village a trustworthy
the people of the village ownedby way of cattle,sheep,jewellery,provisions,
etc. He clothedthe naked and metall theirneeds,leavingno poorman among
them,norany needyand infirm.Everyman workedwithdiligenceand emulation at his task in orderto deservehighrankby the benefithe brought.The
womanbroughtwhat she earnedby weaving,the childbroughthis wages for
scaringawaybirds. Nobodyamongthemownedanythingbeyondhisswordand
his arms.
This is no doubt an exaggerated descriptionof the proceedingsof these
groups,but it is not untypical. And this is but one of many such movementsrecordedin Islam, and in Persia also long beforeIslam. All of them
failed and were duly condemnedby the orthodoxas heresy,but theyreveal
the recurringtendency in Islam to throwup such ideas and groups, and
they also help to explain the otherwisemystifyingconnexionswhich are
reported fromtime to time between certain extremistIslamic religious
organizationsand Communism. It was precisely in organizationsof this
sort, the popular, semi-secret,mystical brotherhoods,of dubious orthodoxy and mistrustedby the regular'Ulama, that these religio-Communistic
tendenciesusually appeared. Nor is this collectivismlimited to what one
might call the 'popular sub-stratum' of Islam. It is also discernible in

I954]

COMMUNISM AND ISLAM

II

manyaspects of orthodoxIslamic life and thought,in the attitudeto

societyand government,
whichI have alreadymentioned,
even in literature. The classicalArabicbook is oftenpresentednot as an individual
and personalcreationoftheauthor,but as a linkin thechainoftradition,
the authoreffacing
his ownpersonalitybehindthe prestigeof authority
and theranksofprevioustransmitters.
ManyofthegreatworksofArabic
literatureare as impersonaland as collectiveas a medievalcathedral.
Thiscollectivism
is perhapsclearestin theMuslimidea ofthePerfectMan
and thePerfectState as given,immutablepatternsexternally
applied,to
whichall mustin theoryattemptto conform
by imitation,
insteadof,as
in theWesternideal,by developingtheirownpotentialities
fromwithin.
But all this,it maybe objected,couldequallywellbe said ofanyother
religionas ofIslam,and amountsto no morethansayingthatCommunism
is itselfa religion.I concedethatsomeofthe comparisons
I have made,
thoughby no meansall, also applyto someotherreligions.I wouldadd
thathad thesereligionsretainedthe same formative
and determinative
powerovertheiradherentsas Islam stillhas, the observation
mighthave
somepracticalrelevance.But I cannotaccept the statementthat Communismis a religion,
I wouldsuggest,illustrates
moreclearly
and nothing,
thedecayedstateofreligionin ourWesternworld,thanthatsucha comare at firstsight
parisoncan be madeat all. Admittedly,
theresemblances
In
striking. Communism,
as in mostreligions,
we findritualand hierarchy,
revelationand prophecy,scriptureand exegesis,orthodoxyand heresy,
excommunication
and persecution.Even some of the deeper spiritual
ofreligiousfaithseemsto fortify
thetrueconvincedCommunist.
strength
Despitehis professedmaterialism,
he has objectivesbeyondhis ownselfinterest,and beyondhis own lifetime.He is filledwith an evangelic
fervourand a messianicfaith. It is this qualitywhichhas givenCommunismits specialstrength-thedangerousfascination
whichit exercises
in so many orientalcountries.Fascism and Nazism,withtheirnaked
appealto greed,hate,pride,and envy,couldin thelongrunaddressthemselvesonlyto theevilinstinctsofman,and werecorrespondingly
limited.
whileexploitingtheseto the full,has also pervertedto its
Communism,
servicesomeofthenoblestaspirationsofthehumanrace-as peace,social
of man-and has used themwithdeadlyeffect.
justice,the brotherhood
ifwe do
We shall failto understandand meetthe threatof Communism
notrecognizeits attractionforthebest,thoughnotthebrightest,
as well
as fortheworstspirits.
Communism
thus has many featuresin commonwith religion,but
thosethat are lackingare perhapsthe mostimportant.I wouldlike to
whosays:
quotea passagefromtheDanish writerVilhelmGr0nbech,
Thetrouble
is thatweconfuse
withreligion.Justbecausepeopleare
religiosity
so devoutintheirpersonal
a religion
whichis
way,theyareunableto conceive
thesoulofsociety,
theobverseofthepractical,
a livingand realreligion,
the
of thepeopleto God,souland eternity,
thatmanifests
practical
relationship

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in
powerin politicsand economics,
itselfinworship
andworksas a life-giving
Statehasno
craftsandcommerce,
inethicsas inlaw. In thissensethemodern
religion.
In thissense,one may add, Communism
is not and cannotbe a religion,
stillis; and thatis the coreof
whileIslam,forthegreatmass ofbelievers,
ideas. Thoughtheirbeliefin liberty
the Islamicresistanceto Communist
be.tooweakto sustainthem,theirbeliefin Godmayyetbe strongenough.
The Islamic peoples are still profoundly
religiousin the sitnplestand
deepestmeaningof the word. Islam as a religionis no moreanti-Comratherless so. But
in fact,as I have suggested,
munistthanChristianity;
it is morepotentas a forceaffecting
the lives and thoughtsof its adare pious-will not long
herents. Pious Muslims-and most Muslimns
toleratean atheistcreed,norone that violatestheirtraditionalreligious
moralprincipleswhich,because theydo not tallywithour own,are too
oftenoverlooked
by Westernobservers.The presentrevoltoftheMuslims
oftheirownand ofsomeWestern
and opportunistn
againsttheimmorality
withtheirappearance
favourthe Communists,
leadersmay temporarily
when
of selflessdevotionto an ideal,but will workagainstCommunism
Muslimscome to see the realitiesbehindthe propaganda. Let us hope
thattheywillnottaketoo longoverit.
In anycase,thereis nota greatdeal thatwe can do aboutit. Ourown
public and politicalmoralityis undoubtedlybetterthan that of the
but the difference
is apparentlynotlargeenoughor striking
Communists,
enoughto make any notableimpressionon the rest of the world. The
people who representWesterndemocracyin its dealingswithIslam are
work,but as
certainlyestimablemen,doingimportantand meritorious
promoters
of moraland religiousrevivaltheyare unlikelyto carryconviction.We oftheWestcan do muchto promotethematerialwell-being
and raise the materialstandardsof the lands of Islam. We can also
to encourage-and that meansto justify-a more
perhapsdo something
towards
ourselves,ourideas,and ouraspirations;but in
positiveattitude
thepresentcrisisit is fromwithinthatIslam mustfindthemoralstrength
and spiritualresourcesto resistthe greatsecularheresyofour time. We
can do no morethanrefrainfromoffering
impediments.
Addressat ChathamHouse
6 October
I953