Fused curriculum gives emphasis on the integration of the related subject only.

In this curriculum a
single subject can replace several related subject. For example General Psychology, which includes
Biology, Physics, Chemistry and Social Studies, is the result of the fusion of subjects like economics,
civics, geography and history.

CHAPTER
ORGANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM
Types of Curriculum Organization
The word curriculum includes in its scope all of the experiences
pupils may have while under the direction or supervision of the
school, or all of those for which the school is responsible. It
includes extra-classroom activities, such as Play Days, excursions,
club work, and so on, as well as classroom activities.
There are many types of curriculum plans, among which the fo11owing
will be discussed briefly here:
1. The subject matter curriculum
2. The correlated curriculum
3. The fusion curriculum
4. The core curriculum
5. The experience curriculum
These will be summarized here, since curriculum organization is a
topic of wide discussion, and any discussion of the secondary school
curriculum as a whole necessarily involves the place of English
language in the curriculum.

. Subject Matter Curriculum

Until recently the secondary schools of our country have used
essentially the subject matter approach in curriculum
organization. The secondary education course was divided in
different compartments, called subject. The middle school boy,
for instancemight be taking as many as twenty subject at one
time. There was little if any planned relationship between the
work in one subject and the others. Each subject was generally
taught in an isolated way, and the mastery of subject matter in
a certain narrow compartment was an aim in itself. The entire
secondary education program was divided into specific separate

curriculums, usually offered in different schools. The higher

school preparatory curriculum was offered in the boys' middle
school, the preparation-for-home-life curriculum in the girls'
high school, and the separate agricultural, industrial and
fishery curriculums in four different types of vocational
schools.

. Correlated Curriculum
The words correlation and interrelation mean practically the
same thing. Correlation is the recognition and establishment of
relationships among the various subject areas or fields.
Sometimes the term correlation is used to indicate planning a
proper sequence of experiences in one subject field; for
instance, in planning relationships between 7th-grade National
Language and 8th-grade National Language. A better term for that
is articulation, and it is of course essential in every subject
field under any type of curriculum organization, since pupil
experiences must follow a psychologically determined
sequence. Correlation refers to horizontal
relationshipsrelationships on the same grade level between two
subjects, or among all the subjects. One may correlate English
with Music, Mathematics, History, and other subjects. Teachers
of Japanese Language and English Language in the first year of
the lower secondary school may attempt to correlate their work
to some degree, as they teach Romaji by taking up certain
fundamental questions of writing and punctuation. Another
illustration may be found in the attempt to correlate the
material and activities in logic and English in the upper
secondary school classes. Correlation, in short, is our first
logical step toward relating classroom activities and topics to
real life. The big handicap in Japan to the development of this
method has been the retention of too rigid subject matter
division.
The necessity for correlation is implied in the present
arrangement of subjects. This arrangement, or any other
arrangement, was brought about because of the necessity of
organizing the curriculum, not because there is a natural or
inevitable way to divide pupil experiences among subjects.
Subject organization might be regarded as described below.
The secondary schools have certain major aims. In order to
achieve these aims pupils should be provided an opportunity to
engage in certain planned experiences, designed specifically to
achieve the aims. Let us assume that the three major aims of the
secondary schools are:

(1) To discover the needs, interests, and capacities of

each individual, and on that basis to seeK to develop the
individuality of the pupil to the maximum degree
(2) To develop the individual as a desirable social being
and a good citizen of the home, school, community,
prefecture, nation, and the world
(3) To discover vocational needs, interests, and
aptitudes, to assist the pupil in a wise choice based on
these needs, interests, and aptitudes, and to help him
prepare for the vocation of his choice
Now suppose we broke each of these major aims down into several
hundred smaller and more manageable aims. The next step would be
to list all of the experiences that would help in the
achievement of the aims. After listing the hundreds or thousands
of experiences, and trying to classify them, we would find that
some could be conveniently grouped together and called
Mathematics. Others would be so closely related that we might
group them together and call them Science. Others we could group
loosely together and classify as National Language, still others
as English Language. But we would find, in trying to assign
experiences to one field or another, that there would be great
overlappings. We would often be troubled about whether to assign
one certain experience to Science or to Social Studies. If we
were to go through this detailed experience, as many educators
have, we should find that the divisions between subject areas
are artificial, and that in many hundreds of instances there are
no clear criteria as to which subject field a certain experience
should be assigned to. We should find that the boundaries
between subject fields are in fact very slight, and we should
decide that in order to be sure that pupils had all of the
experiences considered necessary, we should have to assign some
types of experiences to several different subject areas. What
this means, in effect, is that there can be no rigid inflexible
boundaries between subjects. Education will be more realistic
if, in each subject, the borderlines between it and other
subject are considered very flexible, so that pupils'
experiences in accordance with their needs can be planned
without undue attention being paid to whether or not the
territory of another field has been invaded. The implications of
this philosophy for English language curriculum are that
materials for English should be drawn from whatever fields that
seem necessary. In other words, English language textbooks and
other curriculum materials may draw upon stories, poems, essays,

articles, and other types of presentations from History, Social

Studies, Science, Art, Music, or any other field.
Correlation implies, indeed makes it essential, that teachers
must work closely together to plan pupil experiences designed to
achieve the major aims of education. English language teachers
cannot set themselves apart, as a distinct group, but must know
what their pupils are doing in all of the other fields of study.
In order to secure really effective correlation, it is necessary
to provide a free period each day during which teachers may meet
together to discuss the work their classes have done, to plan
and prepare future project, and to plan correlation in every
aspect of their teaching.

. Fusion Curriculum
Fusion implies disregard of subject matter lines. It involves
the teaching of two or more subject areas together in one class
without special regard for the old subject matter lines. The
lower secondary school curriculum involves quite a lot of
fusion, when compared with the old curriculum. All of the
separate subject in the Social Studies field, with the exception
of Japanese History, were fused together into General Social
Studies for grades 7-10. All of the separate science subjects
were fused into a course called General Science, grades 7-9. All
of the former subjects in the field of National Language were
fused together into a course called National Language, grades 712. Separate subject in the field of Mathematics were fused
together into General Mathematics, offered in grades 7-10. The
former subjects titled History of the West and History of the
Orient were fused together recently into World History. At the
12th-grade level a subject called Current Problems uses
materials from the separate fields of Sociology, Economics,
Civics, History, and Geography.
Fusion thus far has been carried out only in distinct subject
fields, separately. It is possible to carry this further by
fusing subject in separate subject fields. For instance, the
teaching together of English and American History in one class,
with activities centered around the English-American History
area, should be called fusion. At Aoyama Gakuin Girls' High
School, cooking is taught in English by an American teacher.
This cannot be done in every school, but it may well deserve
special mention as a case of fusion attempted in Japan. There
might be fusion of the National language and Social Studies
areas, in some cases.

If carried to its logical conclusion, the fusion of classes in

the end amounts to the pupils' fusing the areas of his interest.
A pupil interested in English and Mathematics would experience a
great thrill in attempting to work out the problems in English.
Pieces of formal knowledge would thus became pieces of human
experience.
The fusion of English language study with other subject is
difficult. At the time when quite a lot of fusion took place,
during the reorganization of the curriculum in 1946-47, English
was left as a separate subject for what were and are considered
good and educationally justifiable reasons. Suppose 7th-grade
English and Social Studies were fused. It is necessary in Social
Studies to read very widely about social problems. During one
year pupils would read not only the textbook, but they would
search for data from pamphlets, library books, newspapers,
magazines, reference books, and community institutions, among
others. Since they do not, at the beginning of the 7th grade,
have any knowledge of English, they obviously could not do all
of the necessary work in the foreign language, or scarcely any
of it. The learning of a foreign language, in its early stages,
must inevitably follow a rather fixed, more or less inflexible,
sequence. It becomes obvious that fusion of the two subjects
would result in failure to achieve the aims of education. Fusion
might be attempted under circumstances such as those
cited(Aoyama Gakuin) where the teacher is very well qualified.
Some fusion might be attempted in the upper secondary school
after pupils have achieved a considerable degree of proficiency
in speaking, reading, and writing the language. Because, at both
school levels, English is essentially a subject requiring a
carefully planned series of experiences arranged in a sequence
and form more inflexible than that in the case of subjects
taught in the native language, experience seems to indicate that
better result are obtained in English when it is not fused with
other subjects, and better result are obtained in the other
subjects when they may go ahead and study materials freely in
the native language without being impeded by a foreign language.
Where fusion has been attempted in the United States, foreign
languages have in almost all cases been left separate.

. Core Curriculum
Spears defines the core curriculumas a provision for
children of a common body of growth experiences, taking for
granted that certain specific types of learning experiences are
fundamental for all pupils".1

Core curriculum commonly refers to a type of curriculum

organization in which there is a core course which takes the
place of two or more of the traditional subject fields. However,
the core course is not simply a fusion of existing subjects. It
is based upon an assumption that young people have certain basic
needs in common, and in addition to these each individual has
certain special needs. The core course or core is that part of
the curriculum which takes as its major task the meeting of the
common needs. The subjects remaining outside the core are
intended primarily to serve special, individual needs.
In the core curriculum organization, some of the subject
matter fields, as currently organized, disappear. The personal
and social problems of young people become the basis of the
curriculum. The core course is organized to meet the common
needs that young people have in order to solve problems of
social living. Subject matter lines are ignored, and the
materials are taken from many of the traditional subject fields
as necessary. A theme may be adopted for an entire year of work,
and around this theme are organized a number of resource units,
each using as its specific theme one of the major contemporary
problems of the community. Using these resource units as an
outline, teachers and pupils draw upon all of the curriculum
materials available as necessary and desirable. Within the core
no subjects as such exist. In order to meet the special needs of
students, subject such as Music, Art, Homemaking, vocational
subjects, and foreign languages remain outside the core as
special subject, organized more or less as they now are.
Organization of the core curriculum differs in various places,
but a common practice is to devote half of the school day to the
core course in the 7th and 8th grades, two to three continuous
periods in the 9th and 10th grades, and one or two class periods
in the 11th and 12th grades. The area, in point of time, covered
by the core course becomes less and less with advancing grade
levels, and the special subjects occupy an increasingly larger
amount of the total area of the curriculum. The core class is a
group of pupils meeting together every day for the entire amount
of time scheduled for the core course.
No attempt can be made here to give the merits or demerits of
the core curriculum organization. Here it should be pointed out
that wherever the core organization exists, it includes only the
experiences which are common to pupils. Foreign languages are
left out because they are electives, not taken by all pupils,

and also because they are considered a special subject, not

meeting common needs but special needs of pupils. Pupils may
take their choice of foreign languages offered by the school:
English, French, German, Korean, Chinese, Hindustani. Since
learning of a foreign language meets special instead of common
needs, and there are differences in the language chosen because
of different needs, foreign language subjects do not fit easily
or naturally into a core curriculum organization.

. Experience Curriculum
A new term which has appeared fairly recently in educational
circles is the experience curriculum. This is not necessarily a
distinct type of curriculum organization, since almost all of
the others mentioned have some elements of the experience
curriculum in them. However, the experience curriculum, as
presently discussed, differs from others in that it is based
more directly upon the pupil than any of the others. This
curricular approach is based upon the experiences which the
pupils will be interested in, normally and naturally, during his
growth and development. It is in a sense the fusion idea carried
to its natural and normal extreme. It discards the idea that a
pupil can be helped to grow most effectively by treating him as
one growing in Mathematics for one period a day, in English for
another period, in Japanese for another period, in History for
another period, etc. It takes into account, in other words, the
growth of the whole individual.
As practiced in a few experimental schools, the pupil has
great freedom in selecting learning activities for the
accomplishment of his own educational goals. In the experience
curriculum, the development of objectives and activities in
advance or trying to organize them is discarded. The student
chooses his own area of interest in which to work. He tells the
teacher what he wants to do. The teacher helps him work out the
scope of his problem and goes over with him the work that will
need to be done in solving it. The pupil surveys the whole field
of materials available and tries to plan the selection and use
of these materials. The teacher helps in this, suggests
important materials the pupil has overlooked, and supplies
materials. The pupil collects data, organization it, engages in
activities, formulates conclusions, and reports the results to
the teacher and to the class. The plan assumes that each teacher
must have a very deep understanding of the factors of pupils'
growth and development and has had a broad preparation in many
subject fields.

In the experience curriculum, the big problem for the teacher

is one of helping pupils individually in planning and providing
the right situation which will continue to stimulate and drive
them forward to active participation and learning. Sometimes the
pupil may wish to take part in activities and experiences which
may not be most economical of time or wisest for him to do.
Pupils in the seventh grade, for instance, may propose to study
American talkies as a part of their experience in English. The
stories might interest them, but the kind of English they hear
usually proves to be too difficult. The expert teacher,
therefore, surveys in advance the pupil's problems and interests
and needs, so that he may plan in advance to see that reasonable
scope and sequence is maintained in the pupil's learning
process. He will thus avoid duplications and abnormal sequences
in the pupil's course of study.
In the experience approach, the pupils select their activities
and center of interest as much as they can, and then under the
proper guidance of the teacher decide and plan their
experiences. All subject matter fields which they need for the
solution of their problems are then brought to bear.
There is some question whether the experience curriculum
approach fits into the ordinary classroom. Since each pupil's
experiences are planned separately, a very favorable pupilteacher ratio is required. Some proponents feel that no teacher
can adequately guide more than 20 pupils in one class under this
plan. Furthermore, the experience curriculum, as advocated by
some of its champions, discards totally the idea of any planning
in advance. There appears to be great danger that the social
aims of education may be entirely or largely neglected, and
important areas of social development overlooked.

. Relationship of Types of Curriculum Organization to English

Language Program
These various types of curriculum organization have been
discussed briefly because various movements are under way to
apply them, sometimes without understanding their nature and
purpose, to the English language program. The following comments
are made, in summaryin regard to these various types of
organization, since they affect the English language program:
(1) So far as the correlated curriculum is concerned,
certainly every attempt should be made to correlate
English with experiences in other subjects. This
correlation must be p1anned in such a way as to benefit

the pupils in their growth and development. Correlation

for the sake of correlation should not be a goal, but
correlation to enable pupils to integrate their
experiences more easily and better into their whole
pattern of growth.
(2) The fusion curriculum applies to English to the extent
that all English language experiences, at any given grade
level, should be grouped into or organized under one
subject, and not be offered separately in such different
subjects as English Grammar, English CompositionEnglish
Literature, etc. In other words, at the 7th-grade and
other grade levels, there should be one subject offered
titled English Language. Except under very exceptional
circumstances, it is not considered advisable to attempt
to fuse English Language with some other field.
(3) The core curriculum, as pointed out, has little
application to the foreign language field. Since
the core includes only those areas common to all pupils,
and different pupils study different foreign languages,
and all foreign language courses are electives, it is
impracticable to include English in any core course.
(4) The experience curriculum has some application to all
subjects, so far as its philosophy is concerned. Certainly
pupils should help determine aims and experiences and
participate in evaluation. Every educational activity
ought to be planned and carried out as a real
pupil experience. But in a foreign language it is
impractical to attempt to plan each pupil's curriculum
separately. The present pupil-teacher ratios, for one
thing, forbid this. For another, teaching a foreign
language is a highly technical process requiring a
carefully planned series of experiences arranged in a
fairly definite sequence. Closer teacher guidance is
required in this field than in any other field. It is
evident that a foreign language is better taught as a
separately organized series of experiences under a subject
title, particularly in the early years.
The Unit Method of Organization

. What Is a Unit?
Consideration should be given by educators interested and
concerned with English language curriculum to the possibility

that the unit system of organization may be of value in the

field. Thus far the unit system has been applied most commonly
in the fields of National Language, Mathematics, Science, and
Social Studies, and to a much less extent in the field of
English language. However, possibility of its adaptation to the
field of foreign languages should not be overlooked.
The unit system is an attempt to group related experiences
together under one central problem, theme, or topic. The usual
procedure in teaching is to plan a year's work as a whole, then
plan each 1esson as a part of the year's work, attempting to
keep each day's lesson in line with the aims of year's work and
to keep the lessons arranged in a desirable sequence. This is so
difficult that many teachers follow the path of least
resistance, which is following the textbook exactly in day-byday procedure throughout the school year, without paying much
attention to aims, assuming that the textbook author has
arranged the lessons in such a way that the aims will more or
less automatically be achieved.
Morrison, who did much of the early work in unit organization
and was, perhaps to a greater extent than any other individual,
responsible for the introduction of the unit method, defines the
unit asa comprehensive and significant aspect of the
environment, of an organized science, of an art, or of conduct,
which being learned results in adaptation in personality."2 W.C.
Ruediger defines it asany division of subject matter, large or
small, that, when mastered, gives one an insight into, an
appreciation of, or a mastery over some aspect of life".3 Lorena
B. Stretch suggests thatunits are organized subject matter and
experiences brought together because of relationships, and
presented to the pupils in such a manner as to develop within
them the right attitudes, and skills..."4

Discarding the idea that subject matter is an aim or an end in

itself, we may summarize various definitions and say that the
unit method is an attempt to group experiences so that they will
be meaningful to the pupil, in terms of his own needs or
purposes. Under the unit system of organization some major pupil
need is made the basis of the unit, and is incorporated into its
title. The unit title often is stated in the form of a problem,
and all of the experiences of the unit are arranged and planned
so that they are a part of an attempt to solve the problem.
Subject matter is not neglected; indeed, as much or more of it
is used than under the traditional method of organization. But

under the unit approach, subject matter is used as and when it

is needed to solve the central problems which are based upon
pupil needs, and is not brought in in an unrelated way
meaningless to the pupil.
Prior to the organization of work into units, materials
followed one another throughout a school year without any
relationships to a central theme or problem, so that pupils
tended to learn or memorize materials in an isolated way without
seeing relationships which could lead to generalization and
often without seeing relationships between these materials and
their own lives. The introduction of the unit system gave
impetus to a movement to relate the materials of education
directly to pupils' lives. Under the early approach to the unit
system of organization, the subject was broken down into a
number of units, and each unit was concerned with some central
thought or problem. The materials and subject matter were then
all related to the central problem in a given unit, which tended
to motivate pupils to learn materials not for the sake of the
materials themselves but because they helped in understanding
and solving a problem. Subject matter is not learned
indiscriminately, but is limited at any given time to those
materials related to the problem.
This approach was a considerable improvement over the straight
subject matter approach, but still had limitations in that it
did not insure that the needs of pupils would be met. In
determining what units are to be taught, it is better, in the
first stages, to disregard subject matter as such, and determine
titles and content of units according to the needs, purposes,
and experiences of the pupils. In other words, the unit begins
with the learner, and not with what is to be learned. The
individual has certain needs, which are determined largely by
his own individuality interacting with and conditioned by his
physical and social environment in which he lives. It may be
said that all pupils of a certain degree of maturity living in a
given social and physical environment have many needs in common,
while at the same time each individual has special needs.
Fulfi11ing these needs, consciously or unconsciously, is a
purpose of the individual. Thus if learning experiences are
definitely planned so that they fulfi11 the needs of the
individual, they will become his purposes and he will then
consciously strive to learn in order to fulfi11 his own needs.
This works as a very powerful motivation in learning. In order
for the learner to accomplish his purposes, he will find that he
has a need for certain kinds of experiences. It is these
experiences, chosen on the basis of pupil needs, arranged in a

desirable psychological sequence, that constitute the unit. Thus

a unit may be said to be the sum total of related experiences
which carry out the purposes of the learner in fulfi11ing one or
more of his own needs. In building units, rather than taking a
subject and trying to divide it into parts or units, the
approach should be to build up units one by one, all of the
units planned for one year's work constituting a subject.
Under the unit system of organization, related experiences are
grouped together under a central problem, theme, or topic, and
the problem, theme, or topic is based upon a need which is
common to all of the pupils of the class. Each unit has its
aims, andd pupil experiences are planned specifically and
directly to enable each pupil to achieve the aims. Evaluation of
the unit is conducted specifically in accordance with the stated
aims, to determine the degree of achievement of the aims. Since
the pupil experiences in a given unit will run for two weeks, a
month, or perhaps two months, the immediate aims are constantly
before the pupils and the teacher, instead of being remote.
Units throughout a year are arranged in a desirable
psychological sequence, one unit merging into another. The aims
of all units are related to the aims of the year's work, and
those in turn to the aims of the subject, and those in turn to
the major aims of the secondary school.

. The Resource Unit and the Teaching Unit

There are in general two types of units: (1) The resource unit
and (2) the teaching unit. The resource unit is a reservoir of
ideas for the teacher; the pupils never see it. It provides for
the teacher, in a convenient form, suggestions in regard to
titles of units, and in connection with each title, suggested
aims, content of the unit, pupil experiences, methods of
evaluation, and a bibliography of reference materials for both
pupils and teachers. The teaching unit is planned cooperatively
by the pupils and teacher. While the resource unit contains many
suggested aims, in the teaching unit the teacher and pupils list
those they consider desirable. The resource unit covers a
considerable scope of content, the teaching unit a much smaller
one. The resource unit contains many suggestions as to pupil
experiences; the teaching unit those actually practicable and
desirable for the class. The resource unit contains many
suggestions as to methods of evaluation; the teaching unit
restricts evaluation techniques to those which are useful in
evaluating the specific aims selected by the class. Several
teaching units may be made from one resource unit. As an author
has suggested in the publication, General Methods of Teaching

in the Lower and Upper Secondary Schools,5 the resource unit

isthe mother of teaching units". Resource units may be
developed by educators on the national level and printed in
Courses of Study. They may be developed by prefectural educators
and made available for use by teachers. They may be developed by
groups of teachers in a local community or in school. After
development, they can be used by each teacher as a source of
ideas for the development of teaching units.

There are several ways of organizing a resource unit. Perhaps

the most common way is to have (1) an overview of the unit; (2)
a statement of objectives or anticipated outcomes; (3) an
analysis of the problem or scope and sequence arragement; (4) a
list of suggested pupil activities; (5) suggestions in regard to
evaluation; and (6) a list of references and materials which
will be useful in the unit.
The overview is a statement of the significance of the problem
or topic around which the unit is centered. It states why the
problem is important to the pupils of the grade for which it is
intended, and how the problem is related to the needs of the
pupils. It shows how the unit may contribute to the three major
aims of the secondary schools. Certain significant information
about the problem is given here.
The section on objectives, or anticipated outcomes, lists
objectives which the compilers suggest. These need not be and
should not be accepted by the class as they are. Learning is the
modification of behavior for the better, according to standards
set up by the society in which learning takes place. The pupil
experiences in any unit must be based on aims, which may be
desirably stated as changes in pupil behavior that are
anticipated as a consequence of the experiences provided by the
unit. The term behavior, as used here, does not refer merely to
covert or outward forms or behavior, but to the thinking
process, the attitudes and the entire personality of the
individual. The statement of aims should be specific and be
written in terms of knowledge, understandings, skills,
abilities, attitudes, appreciations, habits, and ideals.
The scope and sequence section of the unit is the sum total of
problems or topics into which the major topic or problem is
divided, or analyzed. The central problem is likely to be too
broad in its scope to be attacked as it is. Hence the large
problem must be analyzed into a number of basic problems which

will be useful to pupils in their study. The sequence is a

suggested arrangement of these subsidiary problems for study,
according to psychological principles of organization, the
nature of the learner, the nature of the learning process, and
the nature of the subject.
The list of suggested pupil activities or experiences is
usually, or often, the largest part of the unit. Here are listed
many possible type of pupil activities which might serve to
accomplish the aims of the unit. There are different ways of
listing these activities, but they often are listed as being
initiatory, developmenta1, and culminating. The purpose of the
initiatory activities, of course, is to introduce the unit in
such a way as to challenge the interest of the class and to get
the unit activities organized. The developmental activities are
concerned with collecting data about the problem or the topic,
analyzing it, discussing, or considering it, or, in the case of
language and some other subject,, engaging in necessary study of
the data or drill in connection with it. The culminating
activities are those in which the pupils reach what conclusions
they can, apply the conclusions to their lives, sum up what they
have learned, and concentrate on sharpening the experiences they
have had in the unit for long retention. This section of the
unit lists many more activities than any one class could or
should use.
The evaluation section of the unit lists suggested techniques
for evaluating the achievement of the knowledge, understandings,
attitudes, appreciations, skills, abilities, and ideals which
were listed as objectives. It is essential to evaluate the
degree of accomplishment of each of these aims in the case of
each pupil. Evaluation should always be based on the listed
aims.
The bibliography section contains lists of books, magazine
articles, motion pictures, newspapers, slides, recordings,
community resources, and other materials which will be useful in
developing the unit. This is usually a very inclusive list, and
more materials are likely to be listed than will be available to
any one class, or could be used by any one class even if they
were available. These references are of varying degrees of
difficulty, in order to meet the needs of all students. They are
of many kinds, and locating them will teach pupils the
techniques of locating information. Separate lists of materials
for use by the teacher and the pupils may be included.

There is no essential difference between the resource unit and

the teaching unit in organization. A teaching unit may have
exactly the same sections as the resource unit. The difference
is that the teacher would use, from the resource unit, only
those items which were applicable to the local situation or
which are considered desirable.

. Developing a Teaching Unit

In developing a teaching unit, the following principles are
pertinent:
(1) The teacher should engage in considerable amount of
planning in advance. He should, using the resource unit,
tentatively plan the overview, scope and sequence,
objectives, pupil activities, and evaluation. He should
prepare an extensive list of all useful materials which
are available. But this advance planning is for the
teacher's background, to aid him in guiding the
experiences of pupils. The teacher's plan should not be
handed to the pupils as it is. In fact, pupils should not
see the resource unit at all.
(2) The teacher should work out a plan to introduce the
unit skilfully to the class, to make the pupils feel that
the unit is a problem of their own, and to create in them
a desire to engage in the experiences or activities which
are a part of the unit. Pupils should recognize each of
the problems of the unit as their own, and be able to
state it in their own terms. This should not be difficult
if the unit actually is based upon a careful study of
pupil needs.
(3) The pupils and the teacher should set up the
objectives cooperatively, through discussion. The teacher
has some aims in mind, gained from the resource unit or
his own work, but pupils should be encouraged first to
suggest aims of their own. The teacher should ask
questions which will stimulate pupils to make suggestions
as to aims. The teacher can make suggestions when
important aims have been overlooked. As aims are
suggested, they should be listed on the blackboard, be
discussed, and when the list is complete, be consolidated
and arranged in a desirable sequence.
(4) The next step is to analyze the problem into its
component parts. This also should be done cooperatively by

pupils and the teacher. Pupils can make suggestions as to

problems which are a part of the main problem or topic,
and the teacher can suggest those which the pupils have
omitted. The teacher should not arbitrarily announce that
certain problems must be added, but make the suggestion in
some such way as this:We may have forgotten an important
problem. What do you think about listing this as a
problem? (Give statement of problem)"
(5) The pupils and the teacher cooperatively can and
should plan the activities of the unit. All of them should
be related to the aims. Pupils should be asked to suggest
types of activities, and to discuss thoroughly all
suggestions made.
The teacher can suggest certain important ones which seem
to be omitted, and point out reasons why some of the
activities suggested are not practical or will not achieve
the aims of the unit. Pupils and teachers together should
plan interesting culminating activities.
(6) The teacher should conduct his own separate evaluation
of the degree to which each pupil has achieved the aims of
the unit. The class as a whole can conduct its evaluation,
and each pupil can evaluate his own progress.
This is only a brief discussion of unit organization. It is
suggested that before proceeding further each reader refer to
Chapters and IV of the professional book General Methods of
Teaching in the Lower and Upper Secondary Schools, published by
the Ministry of Education in 1950 and the book The Course of
Study in Social Studies, I, to be published in 1951.

. Applicability of the Unit System to Foreign Languages

The structure of units varies according to subjects. In the Social
Studies, for instance, each unit is based on a major social problem
which is of significance to pupils because they are members of
society. For example, a typical unit in the Social Studies may be
titled:How Do We Cooperate through Government to Provide for the
General Welfare?" The Social Studies course would consist of a number
of such units, each based on a major social, economic, or political
problem, arranged in a desirable sequence. Science units are based on
phases or aspects of the physical environment of the pupil, and also
are usually stated as problems. For example, a typical Science unit
might be titled:How Are We Helped By Plant and Animal Life?" It
becomes immediately apparent that in the field of foreign languages a

basis for unit organization which is different from that used in

Science and Social Studies is required. In Social Studies and Science
the basis for the unit is a problem of the social environment or the
physical environment. In language the unit should be based upon a
problem in the field of language. In other words the unit should use
as its basis a language function. Obviously 7th grade pupils, who are
just beginning to learn English, are not in a position to undertake
the solution of content problems in English, since as yet they have,
in the beginning, no knowledge of the language, no vocabulary, no
ability to use it in speaking, reading, and writing. Therefore, units
in the language field should be based upon some subdivided function
of hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. The best approach is to
go back and study the nature of teaching a foreign language, and
derive the type of units that would be useful from that study.
It has been noted that during the first few years of a language the
primary aims are functional in nature. The pupil may also
accomplish cultural aims as he learns the language, and especially
after a certain degree of proficiency in using the language is
acquired. The cultural aims may be of great importance, but it is
evident that they cannot be accomplished at all without prior
achievement of some of the functional aims. From this we may gather
that the organization of the work in English language must be
functional, and this in turn means that unit organization must be
functional.
Below are given a number of sample units. No attempt is made to
cover the entire six grades of work by any means. Those schools and
teachers which choose to use the unit method of organization should
work out their own units, or perhaps they can be developed by a group
of English teachers working together in a community or area.
In regard to the unit system of organization it is significant that
there is little, if any, material on the subject in the field of
foreign language teaching that is comprehensive. This is due in large
measure to a lack of experimentation in this field and apparently to
an arbitrary assumption that the unit system of organization is not
suited to the field of foreign languages. This may mean that its
merits are doubted and or that the technical difficulties are
considered as too great to make the use of the system advisable.
Wherever the unit system is used, therefore, utmost attention must be
paid to the problem of gradation and progression and to all other
factors pertinent to effective teaching. Any system is good only if
it produces good results.

. Sample Units

Sample Unit-7th-Grade

Becoming Acquainted with the English Language

. OBJECTIVES

1. To develop an understanding of the position that English

occupies in the world, and to identify the peoples of the world to
whom it is the native language.
2. To develop an understanding that in many ways English differs
greatly from the Japanese language, and to acquire a knowledge of
some points of difference which can be understood at this time.
3. To become acquainted with the kind of language English is by
hearing it spoken.
4. To develop interest in learning English for practical and
cultural use.
5. To have pupils express, and so identify, their reasons for
studying English. 6. To develop the ability to listen to and
understand simple expressions in English spoken by the teacher.
7. To habituate pupils to the English language and to make them
feel familiar with it by hearing it spoken.
8. To develop the ability to respond to simple directions in
English by physical action without speech, and by action combined
with speech.

. SCOPE AND SEQUENCE OF EXPERIENCES

1. Place English holds
a. Where and by whom English is used.
b. The importance of English to the pupil.
c. The importance of English to Japan, and the situations
where it is used.
2. Silent assimilation of English intonation and pronunciation.
3. Responding by physical action without speech to directions
given in spoken English.
4. Responding by physical action combined with speech to
directions given in spoken English.

. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. The pupils listen to the teacher, who explains in Japanese the

use and place of English in the world today.
2. The pupils locate on a wall map of the world the places where
English is spoken as the native language.
3. The pupils recount the occasions on which they have heard
English used, and the occasions on which they have desired to use
English.
4. The pupils and the teacher together make a list of the
situations in which one meets with the use of English in Japan.
5. The pupils and the teacher together develop, on the blackboard,
a list of common words adopted into the Japanese language from
English.
6. The pupils suggest specific reasons why they want to study
English. These are listed on the blackboard by the teacher as they
are suggested, and each item is subsequently discussed by the
class. The teacher may suggest for consideration significant
reasons which the pupils omit. Through this procedure the class
ultimately arrives at a joint declaration of its purposes, or
aims, and these are copied by each pupil.
(Note: The above is all done in Japanese. The activities listed
below are done mostly in English.)
7. The pupils listen to complete or elliptical simple expressions
in English spoken by the teacher. It is important that at this
early stage they be introduced to the language by hearing it
spoken. They do not, at this time, react by any physical action or
speech. This may be called silent assimilation, and it must
precede active production. The teacher pronounces and the pupils
silently listen to such expressions as:
This is a door.
I'm opening the door.
I'm closing the door.
(For discussion of silent assimilation and further examples of
expressions, see Chapter IV, 7th Grade (1).)
8. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the
teacher, and react by performing the indicated action, without
speaking. The teacher first gives out commands and orders and
carries them out himself. After this process has been repeated
with a number of commands, orders, or requests, till there is
reason to believe that there has been sufficient assimilation on
the part of the pupils, the teacher then asks his pupils to carry

out his commands, orders, or requests. Some of them may be carried

out by the whole class or whole groups, and others by individuals.
Commands such as the following might be given:
Stand up.
Sit down.
Open your books.
Close your books.
(For further discussion of this sort of procedure and many
examples, see Chapter IV, 7th Grade (2).)
9. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the
teacher, and react with speech accompanied by action. In one form
of this activity, the teacher may give tips by telling the pupils
what to do in the case of each action. In a later form, the
teacher withdraws his tips and allows the pupils to do things
through memorizing a chain of actions psychologically related to
one another.
(For further information concerning this type of activity and
numerous examples, see Chapter , 7th Grade (3).)
10. The teacher makes a statement in English such as:I am
opening the window". He then explains in Japanese that if what he
is doing corresponds to what he is saying, the pupils are to nod
their heads, that otherwise they are to shake their heads. He then
performs a series of actions and the pupils react affirmatively or
negatively.
(Note: This might be an interesting variation in teaching
procedures, but it should not be used regularly.)
11. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the
teacher, then react by nodding or shaking their heads.
Sample: Open the door.
(Note: The teacher or an assistant either opens the door a does
something else. If the person does the correct thing, the pupils
nod their heads; if he does the wrong thing, they shake their
heads.)
12. The teacher brings object into the classroom and relates his
speech to the object. This can be used in connection with many of
the preceding activities.

13. Each pupil may be given an English name, and at times be

expected to answer when his English name is called.
14. The class listens to phonograph records prepared for
beginners.
15. The class listens to radio broadcasts in English, not with any
intention of understanding what is said, but to get the feel of
the rhythm and the sound flow of the language.
16. A native English-speaking person is invited to the classroom
to assist with the pronunciation of the expressions taken up
during this unit. Such a resource person should be cautioned not
to go beyond the scope of the, unit and its aims.17. The class
begins to create an English language atmosphere in the classroom.
The individual pupils start bringing to class pictures of scenes
in America or Britain or other English-speaking nations, and mount
them on the bulletin board. They begin to collect candy wrappers,
labels, and other materials in English. No attempt is made to
learn to read them at this time.

IV. REFERENCES AND MATERIALS

1. References for the Teacher:

The First Six Weeks of English (Eigo Nyumon Kyoju-ho),

Institute for Research in Language Teaching,
Kaitakusha1948
Harold E. and Dorothee Palmer, English Through Actions,
Institute for Research in Foreign Language Teaching,
Kaitaku-sha1925
2. Materials for Use in the Classroom:
Phonograph records in beginning English and record player
Wire recorder
Picture cards
Object related to the words used by the teacher during the
unit

. EVALUATION
Up to this point no elaborate system of evaluation is possible or
desirable. The aims should be taken up one by one, and some method of
measuring the degree of accomplishment of each pupil, in terms of the

aims, should be adopted. The following procedures are given by way of

suggestion:
1. Each pupil lists in the left-hand column of a page the aims
decided on by the class at the beginning of the unit. He then
indicates in the right-hand column, opposite each aim (1) the
degree to which he feels that he has accomplished it, (2) the
reasons for any failure to accomplish it as well as he would have
liked, and (3) measures he thinks he can take to improve himself.
All of this is done, of course, in Japanese.
2. There is a class evaluation of the unit based on the
selfevaluation. This is done orally in Japanese.
3. The teacher hands out blank, mimeographed outline maps of the
world. Each pupil colors in some selected shade those countries of
the world where English is spoken as a native language.
4. The pupils are tested, one at a time, on their ability to
engage in action upon hearing a spoken command, order, or request.
If possible, each pupil should be given the same number of
commands, and of similar degree of difficulty. The number of
satisfactory responses out of the number given constitutes the
score.
Because of the great limitation in the matter learned at this
stage, it would be advisable to distribute this type of evaluation
over a period, or else to test each pupil individually in a
separate room. Otherwise, those tested first would be
handicappedA better way however, would be to evaluate the pupils
without their knowing about it, since nervousness and selfconsciousness could easily make the results of evaluation more
unreliable than they might be.
5. At this time it is suggested that the teacher begin an
anecdotal record for each pupil. This is a great deal of trouble,
but aconscientious teacher will take as much trouble as is
required. On this record is kept the teacher's observations of the
English language behavior of the pupil and his growth and
development in the use of the language, over a long period of
time. The teacher notes down (1) areas of weakness which have been
observed, (2) what needs to be done to overcome them, and (3)
attitudes toward learning, degrees of enthusiasm and
participation, and (4) other factors which condition learning.
These are not jotted down simply for purposes of recording, but
they are used for purposes of improving instruction. For example,
if the record shows that a certain pupil participates
infrequently, the teacher makes it a point to encourage him to
participate more frequently, not by lecturing him, but by
specifically (and in a friendly way) calling on him from time to
time, being sure not to embarrass him. Also, friendly, personal
interviews may be held with the pupils from time to time in an
attempt to help them overcome their difficulties.

Sample Unit-9th or 10th Grade

Developing Good Manners and Having Consideration for Other People in
Preparing for and Having a Party

. OVERVIEW
In learning any language an indispensable criterion is to relate it to
the social life of which it is a part. Because language and social
relationships are inseparable, language behavior and social behavior of
a people depend on and influence each other for good or for bad.
Consequently, it is possible to use the English language, or for that
matter any other language, in a disagreeable way to antagonize and
offend others, or in an agreeable way to gain friends and to become
efficiently functioning members of groups to which people may belong.
It is, needless to say, essential that in the learning of English good
language manners are developed. For this reason the manners learned
should not be merely formal but should be based on a real consideration
for the feelings, opinions, and rights of others that is becoming to a
democracy.
The fundamental purpose of this unit is to help pupils learn and
understand what good manners are as recognized among an English-speaking
community, to help them develop the ability to apply their knowledge
through vicarious experiences, to develop among them an acceptable
attitude of consideration, and to help them behave in such a way as to
cause both them and the English-speaking people with whom they may
associate feel perfectly at home.

OBJECTIVES
. Cultural and Genera1 Educational Objectives
a. To develop a sense of responsibility toward one's own
language behavior.
b. To develop good manners in social life such as would be
acceptable among English-speaking people.
c. To develop tolerance and understanding in listening to
others' opinions.
d. To develop the ability to express one's ideas and
feelings in a pleasant manner.
e. To develop consideration for other people both in
cooperative work and play.

. Functional Language Objectives

a. To develop the ability to ask and answer simple

questions.
b. To develop the ability to speak fluently with reasonable
speed.
c. To develop the ability to use and to respond to simple
greetings.
d. To develop the ability to carry on a simple conversation.
e. To develop the ability to perform introductions.
f. To develop the ability to make announcements.
g. To develop the ability to react orally to remarks and
statements.
h. To help pupils attain proficiency in the use of relative
pronouns in complex sentences through and in life-like
activities.
i. To help pupils understand and attain proficiency in using
temporal and conditional clauses in spoken and written
language through and in life-like activities.
j. To develop the ability to participate in a meeting in
which simpl parliamentary procedures are used.
k. To develop the ability to read silently matter in books
and magazines appropriate to the grade level.
l. To develop the ability to read silently for information
in general, and to use reference books.
m. To develop the ability to use a library.
n. To develop the ability to use the telephone for practical
purposes.
o. To develop the ability to participate in games in which
easy English is used.
p. To develop the ability to take part in memorized
dialogues and plays.
q. To develop the ability to dramatize simple stories.
r. To develop the ability to entertain in English by using
the kamishibai.

s. To develop the ability to sing songs.

t. To develop the ability to write invitations and letters
in English, and to address them.
u. To develop the ability to draw maps lettered in English.
v. To develop the ability to prepare place cards written in
English.
w. To develop the ability to write out menus in English.
x. To develop the ability to write and contribute articles
to magazines and newspapers.

. SUGGESTED PUPIL ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES

. Let the class elect a president, vice-president, secretary,
and a treasurer, using parliamentary procedures.
. Let the class select committees to plan a party. Much of this
may have to be done in the vernacular, but much will be gained if
the teacher and the leaders will use and encourage the use of
English as far as it is possible. The class may want to select the
following committees:
a. Invitations Committee
b. Refreshments Committee
c. Games Committee
d. Drama Committee
e. Kamishibai Committee
f. Songs Committee
. These committees would meet separately to plan their
particular part of the program. The vernacular might be used in
the discussions when it is beyond the capacity of the students to
use English, but the program would be planned so that at the party
only English will be used.
. The Invitations Committee prepares in English an invtation to
the party, making full use of the blackboard for this purpose. The
class will be invited to offer comments. When everything is in
final form, the committee will address the invitations and post
them.

. The Refreshments Committee works out a menu, all in English.

Sample menus can be obtained from first-class restaurants or
shipping companies for a study of the wording and form. The
intended menu is written on the blackboard by the committee,
explained to the class, and the class is invited to make comments.
When it is in final shape, a sufficient number are prepared for
the party.
. The Games Committee reads from the available textbooks and
other books about games that may be played at the party. When a
sufficient number of games has been selected, the committee writes
summaries of how the games are played and reads these to the
class. Those games accepted as being suitable are practiced by the
class, with the committee members acting as coaches.
. The Drama Committee reads and selects a short story for
dramatization. They then get it into simple dramatic form,
rehearse the drama, and give a preliminary performance before the
class for their suggestions and criticisms.
. The Kamishibai Committee select a story suitable for
presentation as Kamishibai. This committee draws the appropriate
panels and plans the dialogue to go with each panel. A
demonstration is presented before the entire class, which is
invited to offer comments and suggestions. The relative pronouns
and temporal and conditional clauses come in naturally in
describing people and incidents. For instance:
John, who happened to be younger than Jim, came running
down the road."
If Eric had been there, what would he have done, do you
think?"
Well, when John reached the bottom of the road, he hid
himself behind a tree."
. The Songs Committee selects a number of appropriate songs for
the entire class to sing during the party. Copies of the words are
placed on the bulletin board and copied and memorized by all
members of the class.
10. The plan is to invite members of another class to the party.
In order to be able to carry introductions properly, the entire
class spends one or two periods reading about how to perform
introductions and in practicing the technique.
11. The entire class searches for information in the textbook and
other available books on table manners. The English of questions
and answers and expressions leading to and in the teaching of
manners should be given full practice, and simple discussions on
the subject introduced.

12. A committeeprobably the Invitations Committee, draws maps,

lettered in English, showing the route to the party. In order to
help students who may find difficulty in locating the place, the
class has drill on asking for and giving directions.
13. The entire class searches for materials in the textbook or
other sources on the subject of how to receive visitors, make a
call, and oonversational etiquette. As each student finds
something that pertains to the subject, he reads it aloud to the
entire class. The class then practices receiving visitors, making
social calls, and carrying on conversation.
14. The class makes many arrangements for the party by telephone.
It would be a good thing for the entire class to reach any
available materials on using the telephone, then to practice using
the telephone in turn. If possible, a telephone,dummy or real,
should be installed in the classroom.
15. The class members adopt English names for purposes of the
party, and make place cards listing the English names. Each person
present will be expected to find his place by means of the place
cards.
16. The entire class reads any materials available on making
announcements. Each member writes out an announcement regarding
the program, and reads it to the class.
17. The class discusses the general order in which the various
activities may be carried out in the party and studies the amount
of time it may take to carry them out.
18. A rough program is worked out so that there may be no
embarrassing breaks or confusion in the course of entertainment.
19. Have the party that was planned. Carry out all the main
proceedings in English, remembering to pay particular attention to
good manners and consideration for other people throughout the
activities.
20. In looking for information necessary to the conducting of the
party, it would be desirable to make full use of the library,
which should be provided with textbook. and other reading
materials of the same grade level. Facility in locating materials
can be developed among studens as they have recourse to the
library.
21. After the party is over, let the class as a whole write brief
articles describing the event and have them published in the
English language newspaper or other newspaper or magazine. Have
each writer read his article to the assembled class, and have them
decide which should be presented for publication.

IV. REFERENCES AND MATERIALS

. The textbook in use
. Other textbooks for the same grade level, if available
. Any library materials on the subject of manners and behavior
that are on the students' reading level
. Glenn F. Baker, Western Manners and English Conversation, 3rd
edition, Sanseido, Tokyo, Copyright 1950. Japanese translation by
Tatsukuchi Naotaro Obei-jin no Shako Joshiki, Sanseido, Tokyo,
Copyright 1946
. Materials for making Kamishibai

. EVALUATION
A few methods of evaluation are listed. The teachers, however, are
expected to develop additional methods.
. Develop a brief check test to determine knowledge each pupil
has gained of good manners. This test may precede made as well as
follow the unit to show the amount of progress made as a result of
the learning experience. The test may consist of true and false
statements, in simple English, concerning good manners. The pupils
are to enter the symbol T in blanks provided for the purpose in
front of the statement that are true, and the symbol F against
statements that are not true.

Sample:
1. A woman holds the door open for a man to proceed through
first.
. Develop a check-list, in simple English, of rules of good
manners. Against each item on the list, let each pupil rate his
own manners as (1) Excellent (5 points), (2) Above Average (4
points), (3) Average (3 points), (4) Below Average (2 points), and
(5) Poor (l point) Then have each pupil total his score for all of
the points.

Sample:
5432
1

1. Performing introductions

2. SayingThank you" when a favor

is done.

3. Etc.

. The teacher may make a check-list of his own, similar to the above,
and make notes concerning pupil behavior in regard to good manners
throughout the weeks of the unit. Later a discussion is held concerning
the good and bad aspects of pupil behavior.
. The best way to evaluate the achievement of the
underCultural and General Educational objectives"
anecdotal record. See the following publication for
the use of the cumulative record, Pupil Guidance in
Secondary Schools, Ministry of Education, 1949.

five aims listed

is through an
details concerning
the Lower and Upper

. Use a multiple choice type test to check usage of relative pronouns

and syntactical knowledge acquired. See the chapter on Evaluation for a
full description of this technique.
. Have each pupil in the class, at some time during the unit, perform
an introduction, and have the class evaluate the way in which it was
done. The teacher should give the class full guidance and assistance in
all such activities.

Sample Unit-12th Grade

English in Experiences Preparatory to and in Getting out a Class
English Language Newspaper

. OVERVIEW
The newspaper has become such an important means of communicating and
acquainting oneself with current affairs in one's community, the nation,
and the world at large, that it is impossible for anyone to keep in pace
with the times withoutrecourse a newspaper for any length of time. An
English language newspaper is an excellent means of keeping in touch
with current affairs, opinions, and problems through the medium of the
English language. It is particularly suitable for acquainting oneself
with straightforward, colorless style of English of an informative type.
Its added suitability from the point of view of teaching lies in the
fact that the student is to an extent already familiar with tHe matter
because of his knowledge of its nature through radio broadcasts and
newspapers in the vernacular. Most students, after leaving school, will
probably read newspapers only in their own language, but there is an
advantage in learning to read an English language newspaper apart from

the gain made in the knowledge of the language. From English language
newspapers, especially those published abroad, students can get a slant
on the news and expressions of opinion and viewpoints which they could
not obtain through the Japanese press. For purposes of understanding
English-speaking peoples, it is highly desirable that they come in touch
with their viewpoints through reading their newspapers.
The purpose of this unit is principally to provide experiences
necessary to the getting up of a class English language newspaper
including functional experiences conducive to and related to
understanding and expressing oueself in English. This would mean that
the students will on the one hand be provided with opportunities for
learning to co-operate with others, to behave in such a way as is
becoming to good citizens, and to do things efficiently, and on tne
other hand be taught how to read an English language newspaper with
understanding, discrimination, and appreciation, and to get up a paper
of their own.
Because of the large scope such an experience offers, the students
will necessarily engage in many types of hearing, speaking, reading,
writing experiences. The experiences should lead to a better ability to
engage in interesting and intelligent conversation on matters relating
to the times and result in greater proficiency in reading, and in
writing clearly, intelligently, and in an interesting manner.
Newspapers are often accused of carelessness in grammar and style; but
an efficient teacher should be able to spot such faults. Because of the
close relationship between the essay and the newspaper, as evidenced by
the history of the essay and essayists, a study of a few essays whose
style lends itself to journalism should be of value in meeting this
defect. The vocabulary of newspapers is paricularly useful in that it is
intended for the masses, and the choice of words and expressions is
therefore less likely to be onesided or influenced by idiosyncrasies.

OBJECTIVES
. Cultural and General Educational Objectives
a. To develop the ability to plan a project efficiently.
b. To develop the ability to co-operate with others in a
project.
c. To develop the habit of observing a press code.
d. To develop the ability to observe etiquette necessary to
interviewing and negotiating with others in obtaining matter
for publication in a newspaper.
e. To acquaint the pupils with features that are similar or
different between English language and Japaness papers.

f. To develop the ability to find matter suitable for a

newspaper.
g. To develop the ability to select matter for publication
with discretion and fairness.
h. To develop the habit of searching for different
viewpoints and using critical judgment in reading.
i. To develop the habit of utilizing newspapers for
expression of opinion in theLetters from the People"
column.
j. To acquaint the pupils with British and American
differences in the get-up of newspapers.
k. To develop the ability to discriminate between newspapers
that treat news in a sensational way and those that treat it
in a conservative, factual way.
l. To develop the ability to observe parliamentary
procedure.
. Functional Language Objectives
a. To develop language skills of all types necessary to
creating a readiness for publishing a newspaper or to ensure
that such skills are present.
b. To develop the ability to write letters asking for
newspapers and other reference materials.
c. To develop the ability to engage in language activities
necessary to making arrangements for a visit to an English
language newspaper plant.
d. To develop language skills necessary to carrying out
press interviews.
e. To develop the ability to read an English language
newspaper intelligently
f. To develop the ability to read and write headlines.
g. To develop the ability to read news at a reasonable
speed.
h. To develop the ability to write news so that its
structure follows journalistic practice, such as giving the
gist of the news in the opening lines.

i. To develop the ability to expand on a news item.

j. To develop the ability to write a concise, accurate
account of an event.
k. To develop the ability to discuss news.
l. To develop the ability to rewrite detached notes in
smooth, readable English.
m. To develop the ability to detect repetitions in matter to
be rewrittien for publication and to correct such faults.
n. To develop the habit of enlarging one's vocabulary by
familiarizing oneself with the meanings of new words.
o. To develop the ability to summarize or to write a precis
for purposes of condensation.
p. To develop the ability to abridge matter for publication
by eliminating the less important parts.
q. To develop the ability to write on matter read in a
newspaper.
r. To develop the ability to translate matter in Japanese
into English for publication in an English language
newspaper.
s. To develop the ability to paraphrase matter so that the
style may be suitable for insertion in a newspaper.
t. To develop the abiiity to read editorials intelligently.
u. To develop the ability to write editorials of 12th-grade
level through reading editorials and through practice in
writing.
v. To develop skills necessary to effective advertising.
w. To develop the ability to draw or to make use of cartoons
with captions in English.
x. To develop the ability to write letters to the Editor.
y. To develop the ability to do proof-reading.

. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
. Secure copies of

English language papers published in Japan, such as

the Nippon Times, the Mainichi, and the Japan News. Back
numbers may be obtained, if they are cheaper and just as
serviceable. It is suggested that a considerable number of
copies of each edition be obtained, so that the students may
be well supplied. Divide the class into as many committees
as there are kinds of papers and elect a chairmnan for each
committee. With the help of the teacher, the students read
and classify the newspapers into different parts. Colored
pencils or numerals might be used to mark the different
types of materials read, the matter read being classified
into:
Editorials (British: Leading articles, or Leaders)
Foreign news
Domestic news
Local news (prefectural and community)
Society news
Economic news
Scientific news
Theater news
Feature articles
Women's activities
Sports news
Radio news and program
Comic strips
Cartoons
Illustrations (photographs)
Large advertisements
Want ads
Etc.

Determine the amount of space devoted in each newspaper to

the different types of matter.
English language newspapers from British and American
sources, including the New York Times and the London Times.
Letters should be written to publishing companies well in
advance of working out the unit to allow sufficient time for
their arrival. When the copies are in hand, study them in
the same way as the local English language newspapers,
noting down those features that are similar and those that
are different iu the get-up between British and American
newspapers.
School newspapers from schools in the United States, her
territory, and the British Commonwealth of Nations including
the United Kingdom. These should also be asked for well in
advance of the time set for beginning the unit. Study these
also in the way suggested in 1. A. above, and make a
comparadvi study between ordinary and school newspapers.
. English language school newspapers fram Japnese schools,
where such papers are published, in various parts of the
country. Study these also in the way suggested above.
. Study differences between English language and Japanese
newspapers, such as carry-overs of news to another page, a feature
strange to Japanese papers.
. Try to arrange a visit to a plant where an English language
newspaper is published. Study
the organization of the plant,
the manner in which news is obtained,
the editorial work,
the making up of the newspaper,
the printing,
the circulation.
. Prior to the visit, let the entire class discuss how to
conduct an interview. List on the blackboard things observe in
making an appointment, and in conducting the interview. Plan and
arrange for an interview with a member of the editorial or
managerial staff, selecting a small committee to conduct the
interview which will take with them a prepared list of questions
to be asked.

. Study as a class the art of reading an English language

newspaper and of discussing and writing on what is read. Then
choose and read by groups selections in which the members are
interested, and have each group read them to other groups and
share with them the results of what has been learned.
. Make a study of headlines in regard to their style of language
and the technique used in attracting the attention of readers.
Clip headlines from various English newspapers, classify them, and
post them on the bulletin board for study. Have each member of the
class attempt to write headlines concerning local evets.
. Study news items and note how the gist of the news is given in
the opening lines and the details follow in such a way as to make
it possible to delete lines, beginning from the end, for reasons
of space without causing the news to become unreadable or
unfinished. In short, note how a news story must becomplete in the
newspaper sense at whatever point the reader may stop reading.
Also, aquaint the pupils with the who, when, where, what,
why style of writing, and with the manner in which all the main
points are stated first in a nutshell.
. Have the pupils select a local news event which they think is
of interest and (1) work together with one student at the
blackboard in composing a news story, and (2) select local news
events of interest separately and work independently in composing
news stories.
If it is thought that preparatory to such activities the
students will profit by engaging in work requiring translation or
paraphrasing, have them (1) translate Japanese news items of
interest into English (a) together, (b) individually, or (2)
paraphrase news written in English into some other style.
. Practice writing original news stories, selecting suitable
topics from among school events, (1) together, (2) by groups, and
(3) individually.
10. After completion of the news stories, have some students read
their work to the class. Mimeograph selected stories and make them
available as class reading materials.
11. Have the studenra read selected editorials to the class. lf
there are not enough copies for everybody, mimeograph various
types of these editorials so that there might be enough Copies for
everybody.
12. Read essays by modern essayists in which the style approaches
that of the editorial, since many of the essayists were engaged in
journalism, and their fame is the result of their superior style
and their excellent treatment of a subject. The activity should
serve to acquaint the students with the very best models for

writing editorials and articles. Study the history of the essay in

its relation to journalism.
13. Practice writing editorials, choosing as topics those things
that are closely related to school or student life. It is a
mistake to try and write on a subject which would be difficult
even in the vernacular, such as, Japan and the United Nations. It
would be much more suitable for English language students to write
on a topic such as, Lets Put More Life into Our Club
Activities,or How We Can Improve Our School Grounds.
14. Clip advertisements of all types from newspapers, classify
them, and post them on the bulletin board for study by the entire
class during an informal period.
15. Have the students write want ads, read them to the class, and
post them on the bulletin board for study and discussion.
16. Divide the clss into committees, each of which includes one
person who is able to do illustrative work. Try to develop
quarter-page advertisements with suitable illustrations after the
manner of the best samples studied. Post the results on the
bulletin board for oomment by all the class.
17. Find many samples of cartoons with captions in English and
discuss the purpose of cartoons in newspapers. Post the best ones
on the bulletin board and discuss the meaning of each cartoon by
studying the relation between the drawing and the caption.
18. Divide the class into groups and have each group draw cartoons
with captions in English.
19. Study differences between those papers that treat news in a
conservative way and those that treat it in a sensational way.
20. After all the basic activities have been completed the
teacher, together with the students, might make an interim
evaluation of the work done according to the methods suggested in
chapter entitled,Evaluation of Pupil Progress in English
Language." The teacher would do well to provide drills in written
work designed to overcome some of the weaknesses and errors
discovered in the course of evaluation.
21. Discuss and formulate a press code, including such points as:
a. strict adherence to the truth
b. non-disturbance of the public tranquility
c. exclusion of libelous matter

d. factual and objective treatment of news

e. balanced treatment of news stories so that false
impressions might not result because of undue stress on any
single point
and discuss reasons for inclusion or omission of clauses.
22. Discuss and list on the blackboard qualifications necessary to
the members of a newspaper staff, the division of work being
assigned to:
a. editor-in-chief
b. assistant editors
c. business manager
d. art editor
e. sports editor
f. society editor
g. advertising manager
h. reporters
and discuss their respective responsibilities.
23. Elect by parliamentary procedure members of the staff, and
assign reporting duties to all those not elected to staff
positions, the fields of reporting being such as: student council
activities, club activites, sports activities, etc.
24. Develop definite plans for getting out the first edition of
the paper. Decide in class the kind and size of paper to be used,
the number of pages, whether it is to be mimeographed or printed,
how much matter it can contain, and the amount of space to be
allotted to each type of matter.
25. Decide on the freuency of publication, the deadline date for
the first edition, and make definite assignments.
26. Provide training in interviews, such as the art of making
appointments, appropriate etiquette, and efficiency.
27. Provide training in taking notes, so as to allow for division
of work in an interview that will help a reporter engaged in
conversation to proceed uninterrupted in his talks while one or
two jot down notes.

28. Provide practice in writing letters to the editor for

publication in the column set aside for this purpose. The students
should learn that inclusion of any letter in the column is left to
the discretion of the editor and that there is no place in a
respectable paper for libelous or nasty letters.
29. Provide training and work in proof-reading. Consult a big
dictionary or an encyclopedia for symbols used by proofreaders and
use the proper symbols.
30. In the preparation of a paper, check end-of-line
syllabications, since proper syllabication is very important in
English.
31. Publish the first edition of the newspaper, after which,
publication of the paper once a month or so may be carried on as a
side activity, while the class goes on to some other unit.

REFERENCES AND MATERIALS

English language newspapers published in Japan
. English language newspapers from British and American sources
abroad
. School newspapers from British and American schools
. English language school newspapers from Japanese schools
Japanese newspapers
. Code for Japanese press (Nihon Shimbun Koryo)

EVALUATION
A few methods of evaluation are given below by way of suggestion. To
these the teacher may add others which he may think necessary or
valuable.

. Prepare and give a multipe-choice type pre-test to determine

the students' knowledge and judgment in regard to (1) a press
code, (2) manners to observe when conducting an interview, (3)
sensational and conservative treatment of news, and (4) recent
history and current events.
. Prepare and give a pre-test to determine the students'
proficiency in their use of English by providing (1) a
comprehension test on some matter of a nature and standard similar
to that of the matter contemplated in the class paper to be
published, (2) a ccmprehension test on some matter taken from an
English language newspaper, (3) tests involving completion,

conversion, substitution, and translation, and (4) a matching test

with prepared written answers to fit questions given orally by the
teacher, against which the students are required to enter figures
corresponding to the order in which the questions are given.
. Repeat tests of kind and standard given before beginning the
unit after completion of the unit to determine the amount of
progress made in the things to be tested.
. Evaluate the students' ability to co-operate with others
through observation, and get the students to evaluate themselves,
too, through the use of a check-list, a sample of which appears in
the section on Evaluation in the Sample Unit for the 9th or 10th
grade.
. Evaluate ability to read news or other matter in a newspaper
at a reasonable speed by setting a time limit for the actual
reading and setting a few questions to test ability to grasp
matter during the reading.
. Evaluate ability to write news from notes taken during an
interview by assessing the results. The method will necessarily be
subjective, but the teacher should be careful not to include
handwriting, keeping of a reasonable margin, etc., if these things
are not pertinent. A teacher must plan what things are to be
evaluated and what not, and determine the exact weight to be given
each aspect; and the students should know what is expected of
them.
. Evaluate the students' ability to avoid repetitions and to
exclude impertinent matter in news writing by providing material
full of repetitions and impertinent matter to be rewritten in a
presentable manner. Such material for improvement may contain
repeated names and things and the separating of what can be said
in one sentence into two or three sentences. The use of pronouns
and participial phrases and dependent clauses is one of the means
of correcting faults of this kind.

1 J. Minor Gwynn, Curriculum Principles and Social Trends,Macmilan Co., New

York, Copyright, 1943, p. 366. Quoted by permission of the publishers.
2 J. Minor Gwynn, Curriculum principles and Social Trends, Macmillan Co., New
York, Copyright, 1943, p. 173. Quoted by permission of the publishers.
3 W.C. Ruediger,Teaching procedures, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1932, p.
244. Quoted by permission of the publishers.
4 Lorena B. Stretch, The Curriculum and the Child, Educationa1 Publishing
Corporation, Darien, 1939, p. 71. Quoted by permission of the publishers.

5 General Methods of Teaching in the Lower and Upper Secondary

Schools, Ministry of Education, 1950, p. 215