Laboratory Hand Book - Bchem Lab II-student Version (2016) - 060916 Updated

[SEGi University]
Bachelor Degree of Chemical Engineering

Chemical Engineering Laboratory II
Hand Book
SEGi University
Prepared by Yishee.Chan
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction (Flow Chart)

Safety
Laboratory Report
3.1
Writing
3.2
Template
Marking Scheme
4.1
Rubric for Lab Report
4.2
Rubric for Lab Practical
Penalties
5.1
Late in Class
5.2
Report Late Submission
List of Experiments
Lab manuals
Prepared by Ms. Y.S. Chan
The objective of this manual is to introduce the basic principles and methods of
experimental engineering to the lecturer who is allocated to teach Chemical Engineering
Laboratory II in Chemicall Engineering Department.
This section consists of three flow charts that indicate the procedures to conduct lab
investigations.
Figure 1.1 shows sequence of procedures to be taken if a lecturer is assigned to teach lab
investigations subject.
Figure 1.2 shows organisation chart in Chemical Engineering Department which will
assist the assigned lecturer to acquire relevant theory and lab skills according to their disciplines.
Figure 1.3 indicates the activities which are needed to be performed in the first lesson of
Lab Investigations. As an introductory class, regulation of lab, list of experiment/syllabus,
report writing skill and template, marking scheme and penalty has to be clearly explained to
students.
Figure 1.4 explains the procedures of activities during experiment. Lecturer has to
ensure the students are overall well prepared and have satisfactory knowledge of the expected
task in the laboratory.
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p e r s l o a nb - i n ie xn pv ee rs i t mi g a t i o
brc e he l fa e o r v gr a ne e n s ft o r
eclr ae no bl tn e s dv ua cn t i t
md i as cn i u p a l il n e
Figure 1.1 Actions Taken if Allocated to Teach Lab Investigations
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E
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A
S
D
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A
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Figure 1.2 Organisation Chart in Chemical Engineering
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Figure 1.3 Activities in First Lesson of Lab Investigations
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sse tt x uu p dd e ee r nn i mtt ss 'e t no t a l
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'dcm or e n ts dh s uo cd t a t hn ed
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aces atox t f dpa e een t ryd i am e n t
rt he se u n l te s x t l a b
np cr o e c e d u r e s
Figure 1.4 Activities during Conducting Experiment
Safety is of the most importance in the laboratory. Because students will be working with
hydraulic machinery powerful enough to pull apart thick steel rod, at temperatures high enough to
melt metallic alloys, at voltages large enough to induce dielectric breakdown in insulators, and
frequently with hazardous chemicals dangerous enough to suffocate and/or burn human body
instantly, safety is essential. If students have any doubt and questions about safety, stop immediately
what have been doing and consult Teaching Assistants/Coordinators. In order to avoid or at least
minimize the risk of an accident the followings are requested. Students not complying with these
simple rules will be asked to leave the session.
(1) Know where the fire extinguisher is located in the laboratory.
(2) Must wear shoes.
(3) Do not wear loose clothing.
(4) Long hair should be tied behind the head.
(5) Safety goggles must be worn around testing equipment, rotating machinery, and
chemicals.
(6) Do not consume food or drink, in the laboratory.
(7) All experiment must be performed within the allocated time. Students are not allowed to
work in the laboratory without proper supervision
3.1
Writing Skill
Each student is required to prepare a written report at the conclusion of every
experiment. The reports must always be brief, but yet provide sufficient information to convey to
the reader that you understood the principles and techniques involved. The reports for this course
should never exceed 5-10 equivalent typed pages. Note that the largest percent of your final
grade will be determined by the report of each student's laboratory experiment.
A plagiarized report (whether in part or in full) including copying from other sources,
from reports prepared by other groups, including another student in particular, will not be
allowed and will result in a zero grade. All reports MUST be handed in to the Teaching Assistant
in charge by the days of the week following the experiments. These reports should conform to
acceptable standards of report writing. The type of information
in your reports will vary from one experiment to another, but your reporting style should always
state the purpose, background, technique, and results as clearly as possible. Your reports should
always contain a cover page, short abstract, brief introduction, main body, and
summary/conclusions.
(1) Cover sheet:
Contains the course title, experiment number and name, name of teaching assistant in
charge, group number, names and ID numbers of students, dates of experiment and submission,
etc.
(2) Abstract:
A "report in miniature" that gives a sampling of the contents.
(3) Introduction:
States the purpose of experiment and provides preliminary material and motivation.
(4) Main body:

Normally splits into subheadings including,
(a) Experimental plan.
(b) Experimental and/or analytical techniques with sketches and diagrams.
(c) Sections to explain discuss and/or prove special problems, e.g. hypothesis, dynamic
response, etc.
(d) Results including graphs of your data.
(5) Discussion, Conclusions and/or Summary:

Discusses the principle results and how they conform to the expectations.
(6) References:
List of supporting documents used and cited in the report.
(7) Appendices:
Contains information necessary to the report but not important enough to include in the
main body; examples may include sample calculations, mathematical derivations and lemmas,
error analysis and data tabulation. Your suggestions on how the experiment might be modified to
improve the clarity of illustration of principles, the functionality of the experiments are always
welcome. You may include your feedback in the Appendices part of the report.
All reports should be written up in the way used in scientific literature. A good lab report
does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's comprehension of the concepts behind
the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should also
identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, and
shows your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to examine. Bear in
mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and organized writing. You
still need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently.
A typical format for laboratory reports is given below:

1.
The Title Page
The experimental title needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab
partners/group, and the date of submission, name of marker, name of college and the institution.
Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words.
2.
The Abstract/ Summary
A tightly written abstract summarizes four essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the
experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report), key findings, significance and
major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology.
The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole
report. The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words.
3.
The Introduction/ Theoretical Background
This is to place the work in the perspective of prior work including key literature survey. It states
the objective of the experiment and provides the reader with background to the experiment. State
the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences. A good introduction also
provides whatever background theory, previous research, or formulas the reader needs to know.
Usually, an instructor does not want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own
comprehension of the problem.
4.
Experimental Methods and Materials (or Equipment)
An account of how experiment was carried out. It can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is
accurate and complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or
standard procedure. Always use the third person and the past tense to describe what was done.
Do not copy from the handbook, which, in any case, is not an account of the method, but a set of
instructions. Do not waste time drawing elaborate sketches of the
equipment unless it is vital to what you are trying to describe. A simple line drawing is
sufficient.
5.
Results and Analysis
This should include a complete listing of your experimental readings, any data
manipulation, required graphs, etc. Calculations, tables and figures usually dominate
results; however, you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form.
Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled. An important strategy for making
your results effective is to draw the reader's attention to them with a sentence or two, so
the reader has a focus when reading the graph. All columns and axes should be labeled
with the variable name and its units.
6.
Discussion
This is the most important and crucial part of your report, because here, you show that
you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain.
Analyze. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the "subjective" part of the report.
By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. You should not confined
yourself just to these points, but consider other aspects of the experiment.
7.
Conclusions
The conclusions represent a summary of the important findings in the experiment. It can
be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. There can be more detail than in the
summary at the front of the report, but any conclusions should be clearly and concisely
stated. Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab. Do not introduce
any new material here; any conclusions must refer to material that already discussed in
the earlier report.
8.
References
Any reference used must be mentioned in the main report and as part of a complete list at
the end of the reports. The reference list should give the author, the title of the publication
and the date of publication.
3.2
Report Template
This section consists of report writing template. A softcopy of report template should be provided
to students.
Font format for the lab report:

Font type: Times New Roman
Font size: 12
Font colour: Black
Spacing: Line spacing 1.5, before and after 0 pt
[SEGi University]
[Chemical Engineering Laboratory #]
SEGi University
EXPERIMENT TITLE
Candidates Name:
Student ID:
Group Members Name:
Lecturer/ Supervisor:
Date of Submission:
1. Abstract
2. Introduction/ Theoretical Background
2.1. ABCDEF
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condimentum dolor. Curabitur et eros tellus. Aliquam varius, eros venenatis porta
vestibulum, lacus leo tempor odio, at congue tellus magna quis lacus. Vivamus
Suspendisse imperdiet eros eu sapien aliquam sed aliquam ipsum condimentum. Nam
suscipit euismod libero ac lobortis.
2.2. ABCDEFG
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. In vel diam erat, vel
condimentum dolor. Curabitur et eros tellus. Aliquam varius, eros venenatis porta
vestibulum, lacus leo tempor odio, at congue tellus magna quis lacus. Vivamus
Suspendisse imperdiet eros eu sapien aliquam sed aliquam ipsum condimentum. Nam
3.
4.
5.
6.
suscipit euismod libero ac lobortis.

2.3. ..
Experimental Method
3.1. Equipments
3.2. Cautions
3.3. Method/steps
Results and Analysis
4.1. Pressure versus flow rate graph
4.2. Flow rates versus coefficient
4.3. .
Discussion
5.1. .
5.2. ..
Conclusion
7. References ( Following Havard Referencing)

1. Long, PE (ed.) 1991, A collection of current views on nuclear safety, Penguin,
Harmondsworth.
2. Baron, D. P., 2008. Business and the organisation. Chester: Pearson.
3. Allouche, J. ed., 2006. Corporate social resposibility, Volume 1: concepts,
accountability and reporting. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
This section prepares marking schemes to evaluate students lab report and lab practical
performance. Students lab report is evaluated by using Rubric 1; lab practical performance is
evaluated by using Rubric 2.
4.1. Rubrics for Lab Report
(Overall Score Ratio: 80/100)
No
Evaluated
Items
Mark
Weight
Factor
0
General
Layout
Title
Abstract/
Summary
0.05
Does not
follow
guidelines.
Follows
guidelines
poorly.
Follows
guidelines
satisfactorily
Follows
guidelines
well
Follow
guideli
extrem
0.05
Not
indicated.
Does not
follow
guidelines.
Topic is
indicated
poorly.
Topic is
indicated
satisfactorily
Topic is
indicated
well.
Topic i
indicat
extrem
well.
0.1
No
summation
is
provided.
Summation
is
incomplete.
Poor
summation.
Satisfactoril
y
summation.
Good
summation.
Very g
summa
Neither
purpose
nor scopes
are
provided.
Purpose and
scope are
incomplete.
Purpose and
scope are
defined
poorly.
Background
information
provided is
irrelevant.
Purpose and
scope are
defined
satisfactorily
. Provide
background
without
context.
Purpose
and scope
are defined
well.
Provide
adequate
background
and
context.
Purpos
scope
defined
extrem
well.
Thorou
backgr
and co
No
procedure
has been
provided.
Not written
in past tense.
Steps are
illogical
Not written
in past
tense.
Missing key
steps.
Written in
past tense.
Missing key
steps.
Introduction/
0.2
Background
Experimenta
l Procedure
0.1
Written in
past tense.
Missing
minor
steps.
Written
tense.
Experi
details
compr
.
Results:
Figures,
graphs,
tables, etc
Discussion
Conclusion
References
0.2
0.2
No Results
have been
provided.
No
informatio
n is
provided.
0.05
No
conclusion
s are
drawn.
0.05
No
references
are
provided.
Total
4.2. Rubrics for Lab Practical
(Overall Score Ratio: 20/100)
Disorganize
d
presentation
of data.
Missing
essential
support data.
Slightly
organized
presentation
. Missing
essential
support
data.
Data is
organized
well.
Missing
some major
support data.
Data is
organized
well.
Missing
some minor
support
data.
Exemp
presen
suppor
data. N
format
No relevant
information
is provided
Information
lacks clear
direction.
Information
does not
relate to
topic. No
Sources of
error
Paragraphs
have
direction but
are too
broad for the
scope of the
paper. Some
sources of
error.
Paragraphs
are relevant
and support
purpose.
Ideas are
not fully
developed.
Good
sources of
error.
Paragr
relevan
suppor
purpos
are ful
develo
Exemp
source
error.
Conclusions
are
incomplete.
Conclusions
are illogical.
Topic is
summed up
poorly.
Conclusions
are logical.
Topic is
summed up
satisfactorily
.
Conclusion
s are
logical.
Topic is
summed up
well.
Conclu
are log
Topic i
summe
extrem
well.
References
are
incomplete.
References
are
provided in
wrong
format
Refere
provid
proper
No
Evaluated
Items
Attendance
and
promptness
Carry out
experiments
by following
steps given in
the
instruction
sheets.
Comply with
safety
procedures in
workshops
and
laboratories.
Weight
Factor
Ability to
work in group
Analysis of
data
Total
Mark
0
0.1
Late for 21 mins

and
above or absent
w/o reason.
0.2
Do bring lab
Does not bring lab
manual but do not
manual during the
use it during the
experiment.
experiment.
0.2
Not comply with

safety procedure
at all. Does not
dress proper for
lab.
Do not dress
proper for lab but
often comply with
the other safety
procedures.
Extremely
difficult to work
with.
Often hindered
group progress but Sometimes
occasionally
hindered group
promoted
progress.
progress.
Always had a
cooperative
attitude.
Data collecting
method is not
completely
accurate and there
are a number if
error in the data.
Use correct
method to coll
data, recogniz
human error o
technical error
any) and corre
them on the sp
Data collected
mostly correct
0.2
0.3
All data collected

are wrong due to
the
misunderstanding
of experimental
method.
Late for 20 mins
Late for 10 mins
Punctual
Do bring lab
manual and use it
during the
experiment.
Do bring lab
manual, have r
it beforehand a
use it fully dur
the experimen
Dressed proper
for lab and follow
safety procedures
most of the time.
Dress proper f
lab and is fully
complied with
safe procedure
laboratories or
workshop.
Data collecting
method is correct
and data are
mostly accurate.
5.1
Late in Class
Punctuality is evaluated in Rubric 2. However, the student who late more than 20 minutes is
considered absent for the lesson and cannot submit lab report.
5.2
Report Late Submission
Lab report is evaluated by using Rubric 1. However, the following penalties will be applied for
reports submitted after the deadline.
On time
No penalty
1 day late
Minus 25%
2 day late
Minus 50%
3 day late
Minus 75%
4+ day late
Minus 100%
6.0
List of Experiments
Year 1/
Semester 2
Chemical
Engineering Lab
2/
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 1:
Bernoullis
Principle
To investigate
Bernoullis law and
pressure distribution
along venture tube.
HM150.07 Bernoullis
Theorem Demonstration
(i) Fluid
Mechanics
(ii)
Thermodynamic
s
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 2:
Friction along a
pipe
Lab unit: Test pipe, Air valve,

Bleed screws, Mercury U-tube,
Isolating tap, Needle valve
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 3:
Impact of jet
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 4:
Centrifugal pump
characteristics
To demonstrate the
change in the law if
resistance and to
establish the critical
value of R (Reynolds
number).
To verify the momentum
equation experimentally
through impact of jet
experiment.
To study the
characteristics of a
centrifugal pump
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 5:
Series and parallel
pumps
-Single pump operation

with variable flowrate
-Series pump operation
27
HM150 impact of jet.
The unit is constructed on a

stable stainless steel base plate,
comprises of a fixed speed
centrifugal pump, a water
sump tank and all required
pipe works
Pumps, Circulation Tank
Transparent acrylic water tank,
Flowrate and pump head,
Process piping.
28
Fluid
Mechanic
s
Experiment 6:
Orifice discharge
Thermody
namics
Experiment 7:
Marcet Boiler
-Parallel pump operation

a)Determination of the
contraction and velocity
coefficients.
b)Calculation of the
discharge coefficient.
To demonstrate the
relationship between the
pressure and temperature
of saturated steam in
equilibrium
To demonstrate of the
vapour pressure curve
A cylindrical tank with water

enters from top of the tank and
is distributed to the bottom of
the tank through a diffuser
A stainless steel pressure

vessel fitted with high pressure
immersion electrical heater,
safety relief valve, temperature
and pressure measuring
devices.
29
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SUBJECT: ECE2332 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB PRACTICE
EXPERIMENT 1: BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To investigate Bernoullis law and pressure distribution along venture tube.
2.0 THEORY/INTRODUCTION
Consider first a simple device to measure the local velocity in a fluid stream along the venture
tube. At the same level, there are several narrow tubes inserted into the venture tube. Friction is
negligible along the streamline through the venture tube, so that the Bernoullis equation for the
constant head, h:
2
P1 V1
P V
2 2
g 2 g 2 g
constant
Allowance for friction losses and conversion of the pressure, P1 and P2 into static pressure
heads, h1 and h2 yields:
2
V
V
h1 1 h2 2 h f
2g
2g
Where,P1 = pressure at cross-section, A1

30
h1 = pressure head at cross-section, A1

V1 = flow velocity at cross-section, A1
P2 = pressure at cross-section, A2
h2 = pressure head at cross-section, A2
V2 = flow velocity at cross-section, A2
= density of medium
hf = pressure loss head
Figure 1 Conditions in venturi tube with 6 measurement points
Figure 2 Mass flow conditions in venturi tube
The mass flow is constant in closed systems:
31
m1=m2
Given, m=V
V 1 =V 2
V 1=V 2
Given, V = A w
A 1 V 1=A 2 V 2=constant
For dynamic pressure head:

hdyn =htot h stat
Figure 3 Zero-point difference of 80mm between the pressures gauges
32
If there is a zero-point difference of 80mm between the pressures gauges, 80mm must be
subtracted:
hdyn =htot h stat
The velocity, Wmeans was calculated from the dynamic pressure:
Vmea 2 ghdyn.
3.0 APPARATUS
i.
HM150.07 Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration which shown in Figure 4
33
a.
Assembly board
b.
Single water pressure gauge
c.
Discharge pipe
d.
Outlet valve
e.
Venturi tube with 6 measurement points
f.
Compression gland
g.
Probe for measuring overall pressure
h.
Hose connection (water supply)
i.
Valve at water inlet
j.
6-fold water pressure gauge (pressure distribution in venture tube)
Figure 4 HM150.07 Bernoullis theorem demonstration
Figure 5Detail view X
34
Figure 6 Detail view Y
Figure 7 Six measurement points
Table 1 shows cross section area of venturi tube in the six measurement points.
Table 1 Cross Section Area
35
Point, i
A, (mm2)
A, (10-4 m2)
338.6
3.386
233.5
2.335
84.60
0.8460
170.2
1.702
255.2
2.552
338.6
3.386
4.0 PROCEDURES
1. Perform a quick inspection to ensure that the unit is in proper operating condition.
2. Make a hose connection and connect the unit to the nearest power supply.
3. Open the discharge pipe.
4. Set the cap nut (1) of probe compression gland such that the slight resistance is felt on
moving probe.
5. Open inlet and outlet valves.
6. Switch on pump and slowly open main cock.
7. Open vent valves (2) on water pressure gauge and carefully close outlet cock until
pressure gauges are flushed.
8. By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet cock, regulate water level in pressure gauges
such that neither upper nor lower range limit (UL, LL) is overshot or undershot.
9. Record pressures at all measurement points. Then, move overall pressure probe to
corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
10. Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time required for
raising the level in the volumetric tank from 20 to 30 liters.
11. Repeat steps 8,9 and 10 for different flow rate.
5.0 RESULTS
Table 1 Flow Rate and Pressures at all measurement points
.
h1
(mmWs)
h2
h3
h4
h5
h6
(mmWs) (mmWs) (mmWs) (mmWs) (mmWs)
Time, s
(10L)
(L/s)
hstat.
htotal
36
hdyn.
Wmeans
Wcalc.
hstat.
htotal
hdyn.
Wmeans
Wcalc.
hstat.
htotal
hdyn.
Wmeans
Wcalc.
i.
ii.
Prepare a graph with flow velocity (w) versus measurement points.

Prepare a graph pressure (total, static and dynamic) distribution along venture tube.
6.0 DISCUSSION
i.
ii.
Explain in details regarding the trend of flow velocity versus measurement points.
Explain about graph pressure (total, static and dynamic) distribution along venture tube.
7.0 CONCLUSION
i.
ii.
Conclude on pressure measurement along venture tube with Bernoullis principle.

Comment on the accuracy of the experiment and ways of improving it.
8.0 REFERENCES
i.
R.K. Bansal 1983, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 1st Edition,
ii.
Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd, India.

Rama Durgaiah, 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1st Edition, New Age
International (P) Ltd, India.
37
38

SUBJECT: ECE2332 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB PRACTICE
EXPERIMENT 2: FRICTION LOSS ALONG A PIPE
1.0 OBJECTIVE
The objective of the study is to verify the Darcy Weisbach equation by determining the pressure
loss along a horizontal pipe.
The frictional resistance to fluid as it flows along a pipeline results in continuous loss of energy
or total head loss of the fluid. Figure A illustrates that the frictional loss along a horizontal pipe
with length, l , is equals to the difference in levels between piezometers A and B, h .
Figure A: Diagram illustrating the frictional loss in terms of pressure head.
39
The frictional loss (
hf
) also can be determined by Darcy Weisbach equation (1).
f lV2
hf =
(1)
2 gD
where f
is the friction factor, l
the velocity of the fluid, and
and
are the length and diameter of the pipe,
is
is the acceleration of gravity in 9.81 m/s 2. Friction factor is
affected by the type of flows; laminar transition and turbulent, as well as the relative roughness
of the pipe.
Figure B shows the motions of different type of flows by introducing a filament of dye into
the flow of the water along a glass pipe. At low velocities, the filament appeared as a straight
line, which passed down the whole length of the tube indicating laminar flow. At intermediate
velocities, transitional flow is observed where the filament is found to be fluctuated in the water.
At higher velocities, the filament mixed with the surrounding water randomly after passing a
little way along the pipe. The motion has now becomes turbulent.
This flow is laminar,
transitional or turbulent is depends on the value of the Reynolds number, Re.
Figure B: Experiment to illustrate laminar, transitional and turbulent flows

3.0 APPARATUS
40
Figure C shows the set up for friction loss experiment. Water is supplied from a flexible hose to
the inlet (4) of the 3 mm ID smooth bore pipe, and discharged at the outlet (3). Water manometer
(1) and mercury manometer (2) are used to measure the frictional loss between the inlet and the
outlet of the pipe. The rate of flow along the pipe is controlled by a needle valve at the pipe exit
(3), and is measured by timing the collection of water in a measuring cylinder.
Figure C: Diagrammatic arrangement of apparatus for measuring friction loss along a pipe
4.0 PROCEDURES
1. Adjust the inlet valve to obtain a flow of water through the required test pipe.
2. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
3. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
4. Measure head loss between the tapping using the mercury manometer or pressurised
water manometer as appropriate.
5. Obtain the pressure head readings (at the inlet,
41
h1
and outlet,
h2
) on test section.
6. Repeat step 1 -5 to obtain at least three sets of data for laminar, transitional and turbulent
flows.
5.0 RESULTS
Table 1: Flow Rate and Pressure Head
No of Run
Volume
Time
h1
h2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
I.
II.
III.
Prepare a graph head loss,
h1h2
versus velocity,
V and identify the laminar,
transition and turbulent zones on the graph. Explain your observation.

h
1h
log(
2)
Plot graph of
versus log V and determine the relation between these
two parameters.
hf
Calculate the
42
using Darcy Weisbach equation.
6.0 DISCUSSION
I.
II.
Discuss relationship between

Discuss the difference of
h1h2
hf
and V .
by and comparing the experimental data with the
calculated data.
7.0 CONCLUSION
I.
II.
Correlation between experimental results and hypothesis.

8.0 REFERENCES
1.
Bansal, R. K., 1983, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 1st Edition,
2.

Rama Durgaiah, D., 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1st Edition, New Age
3.

Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T. H., 2002, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. United Stated of America.
43

SUBJECT: ECE3421 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB II
EXPERIMENT 3: Impact of Jet
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To verify the momentum equation experimentally through impact of jet experiment.
The impact forces are measured using a lever mechanism and loading weights. The impact forces
of water jet are set via flow rate. Normally, the jet of water with average velocity W from the
nozzle impinges straight on the impact surface and turns to flow radially outward from the axis
of the impact surfaces. Thus, the theoretical jet force can be calculated from the principle of
linear momentum. And the density of the water is = 1 kg/L.
i.
For Plate:
Fth
= V (W1 W2)
If W2 = 0 then,
44
ii.
For Hemisphere:
Fth
= V (W1 W2)
If W2 = -W1 then,
iii.
For Slope:
Fth
= V W1 cos
If
= 45 then,
Fth
= Fx cos
= V W1 cos2
iv.
For Cone:
Fth
= V (W1 W2x)
If
= 45 then,
W2
= - W1 cos
The velocity, W1 of the jet from the nozzle is calculated from the volumetric flow V and the
cross-sectional area, AD of the nozzle:
45
W 1=
where,
4V
V
=
2
AD
d
A D=
d2
4
Nozzle diameter, d = 10mm
3.0 APPARATUS
i.
HM150 impact of jet as shown in Figure 1
a.
Loading weights
b.
Lever mechanism
c.
Deflector
d.
Nozzle
e.
Perspex vessel
f.
Drain connection
g.
Base plate
h.
Inlet connection
ii.
Various deflectors
Plate
Hemisphere
Slope
Cone
iii.
A set of weights
iv.
Stop watch
46
Figure 1 HM150 impact of jet
47
Figure 2 Detail view X
Figure 3 Detail view Y
4.0 PROCEDURES
12. Perform a quick inspection to ensure that the unit is in proper operating condition.
13. Make a hose connection and connect the unit to the nearest power supply.
14. Open the discharge pipe.
15. Assemble one of the deflectors (plate, hemisphere, slope or cone). Loosen the 3 screws
(3) on the cover (4). Remove the cover together with the lever mechanism.
16. Fit appropriate deflector. Do not forget to tighten lock nut (2) on the rod. Screw cover
back onto vessel.
17. Use adjusting screw (5) to set pointer to zero (7). When doing so, do not place any
loading weights on measurement system (8).
18. Apply desired loading weight: 0.2N, 0.3N, 1N, 2N, and 5N.
48
19. Close main clock.

20. Switch on the pump and carefully open main cock until pointer is on zero again.
21. Close drain cock and determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish
time required for raising the level in the volumetric tank from 20 to 30 liters.
22. Switch off pump and open drain.
5.0 RESULTS
Table 1.1 Results of Measurement for 90 deflection
Deflector
Force F in N
Plate (90 deflection)

Measuring time in second
Measured volume: 10 L
49
Flow rate in liter per second

Deflector
Hemisphere (180 deflection)
Force F in N
Table 1.3 Results of Measurement for 45 and 135 deflection

Deflector
Force F in N
Slope (45 and 135 deflection)


Deflector
Force F in N
50
Cone (45 deflection)

Table 2.1 Results of Force Calculation for 90 deflection

Deflector
Flow rate V in
liter per second
51
Plate (90 deflection)

Velocity w1 in m/s
Calculated force
Measured force
Fth in N
F in N

Deflector
Flow rate V in
liter per second
Hemisphere (180 deflection)

Velocity w1 in m/s
Calculated force
Measured force
Fth in N
F in N
Table 2.3 Results of Force Calculation for 45 and 135 deflection

Deflector
Flow rate V in
liter per second
52
Slope (45 and 135 deflection)

Velocity w1 in m/s
Calculated force
Measured force
Fth in N
F in N

Deflector
Flow rate V in
liter per second
i.
Cone (45 deflection)

Velocity w1 in m/s
Calculated force
Measured force
Fth in N
F in N
List down the measured values for deflectors with Plate, Hemisphere, Slope and Cone
face in table 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 respectively.
ii.
The velocity w1 of the jet from nozzle is calculated from volumetric flow and cross
sectional are AD of the nozzle as discussed in section 3.0. Complete the table 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
and 2.4 with the values for the 4 deflectors.
6.0 DISCUSSION
i.
Compare the theoretical and measured force for each for the deflectors.
ii.
7.0 CONCLUSION
i.
Write down your observation and make your conclusion.
8.0 REFERENCES
1. R.K. Bansal 1983, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 1st Edition,
2. Rama Durgaiah, 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1st Edition, New Age
53

SUBJECT: ECE3421 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY II
EXPERIMENT 4: CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of a centrifugal pump
Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to
produce the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive displacement
and dynamic. In the experiments, students are able to operate Horizontal Single Stage
Centrifugal Pump.
2.1 Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the
velocity of the fluid. Figure 2 shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most
commonly used type of dynamic pump
54
Figure 2: Construction features of a centrifugal pump
2.2 Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps have two major components:

1. The impeller consists of a number of curved blades (also called vanes) attached in a
regular pattern to one side of a circular hub plate that is connected to the rotating
driveshaft.
2. The housing (also called casing) is a stationary shell that enclosed the impeller and
supports the rotating drive shaft via a bearing.
A centrifugal pump operates as follows. The prime mover rotates the driveshaft and
hence the impeller fluid is drawn in axially through the center opening (called the eye) of the
housing. The fluid then makes a 900 turn and flows radially outward. As energy is added to the
fluid by the rotating blades (centrifugal action and actual blade force), the pressure and
velocity increase until the fluid reaches the outer tip of the impeller. The fluid then enters the
volute-shaped housing whose increased flow area causes the velocity to decrease. This action
results in decrease kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.
The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the
direction of flow to produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of
housing and discharge opening.
Although centrifugal pumps provide smooth, continuous flow, their flow rate output (also
called discharge) is reducing as the external resistance is increase. In fact, by closing a system
valve (thereby creating theoretically infinite external system resistance) even while the pump
is running at design speed, it is possible to stop pump output flow completely. In such a case,
no harm occurs to the pump unless this no-flow condition occurs over extended period with
55
resulting excessive fluid temperature build up. Thus pressure relief valves are not needed. The
tips of the impeller blade merely shear to through the liquid, and the rotational speed maintains
a fluid pressure corresponding to the centrifugal force established. Figure 3 shows the cutaway
of a centrifugal pump.
Figure 3: The Cutaway of a Centrifugal Pump
3.0 APPARATUS
The unit is constructed on a stable stainless steel base plate, comprises of a fixed speed
centrifugal pump, a water sump tank and all required pipe works. It is installed with pressure
gauges and flow meter for pump characteristic studies. The pump casing is made of transparent
material; therefore the pump mechanism can be clearly visualized.
56
Figure 1: Equipment Assembly
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Make sure that the circulation tank is filled with water up to at least the end of the
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
pipe output is submerge with water.

Make sure that the suction valve is open.
Switch on the power supply to the pump.
Regulate the delivery valve to achieve the desired operating condition.
Slowly regulate the delivery valve until the flowrate reaches 90 LPM.
Observe the pressure reading on the pressure gauges. Record flowrate and
pressure values when stable condition is achieved.

7. Repeat observation by decreasing the flowrate as follows.
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

(a)
Rotameter
57
Suction Pressure (P1)
Delivery Pressure
(FI1) LPM
cmHg
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
kgf/cm2
(P2)
kgf/cm2
Q P
(b) Calculate the hydraulic power, Pi =
(W)
Q = Water Flowrate (m3/s)
(c) Calculate the pump efficiency,
Pi
100 %
P
Pi = Hydraulic power (watt)

P = Motor power (watt)= 180 Watt
(d) Plot pressure difference versus flowrate
(e) Plot the pump efficiency versus flowrate
Conversion Factors
1 kgf/cm2 = 98.0665 kPa
Density of Mercury
= 13600 kg/m3

58
EXPERIMENT 5: SERIES AND PARALLEL PUMP
1.0 OBJECTIVE
i.
To demonstrate the basic operation and characteristic of centrifugal pumps.
ii.
To differentiate the flow rate and pressure head of a single pump and of two identical
pumps that is run in series or parallel.
Pumps are used in almost all aspects of industry and engineering from feeds to reactors or
distillation columns in chemical engineering to pumping storm water in civil and environmental.
They are an integral part of engineering and an understanding of how they work is important for
any type of engineer.
Centrifugal pump is one of the most widely used pumps for transferring liquids. This is for a
number of reasons. Centrifugal pumps are very quiet in comparison to other pumps. They have a
relatively low operating and maintenance costs. Centrifugal pumps take up little floor space and
create a uniform, non-pulsating flow. This equipment illustrates the basic operation and
characteristics of centrifugal pumps. The equipment will explore flow rates and pressure head of
a single pump and of two identical pumps that are run in series or in parallel. In this equipment,
there are two pumps connected through a pipe work that allows for them to be operated
individually, in series or in parallel. When identical pumps are in series the pressure head is
doubled but the flow rate remains the same. This is useful when a high pressure is needed but the
same flow rate as of a single pump is sufficient. When pumps are run in parallel the flow is
increased and the pressure head produced is around the same as a single pump.
59
Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to
produce the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive displacement
and dynamic. In the experiments, students are able to operate Horizontal Single Stage
Centrifugal Pump (PI) and (P2) in different arrangement-single, parallel and serial.
2.1 Dynamic Pumps

Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the
velocity of the fluid. Figure 1 shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most
commonly used type of dynamic pump.
Figure 1 Construction features of a centrifugal pump
2.2 Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps have two major components:
1. The impeller consists of a number of curved blades (also called vanes) attached in a
regular pattern to one side of a circular hub plate that is connected to the rotating
driveshaft.
2. The .housing (also called casing) is a stationary shell that enclosed the impeller and
supports the rotating drive shaft via a bearing.
60
A centrifugal pump operates as follows. The prime mover rotates the driveshaft and hence
the impeller fluid is drawn in axially through the centre opening (called the eye) of the housing.
The fluid then makes a 90 turn and flows radially outward. As energy is added to the fluid by
the rotating blades (centrifugal action and actual blade force), the pressure and velocity increase
until the fluid reaches the outer tip of the impeller. The fluid then enters the volute-shaped
housing whose increased flow area causes the velocity to decrease. This action results in
decrease kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.
The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the direction
of flow to produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of housing
and discharge opening.
Although centrifugal pumps provide smooth, continuous flow, their flow rate output (also
called discharge) is reducing as the external resistance is increase. In fact, by closing a system
valve (thereby creating theoretically infinite external system resistance) even while the pump is
running at design speed, it is possible to stop pump output flow completely. In such a case, no
harm occurs to the pump unless this no-flow condition occurs over extended period with
resulting excessive fluid temperature build up. Thus pressure relief valves are not needed. The
tips of the impeller blade merely shear to through the liquid, and the rotational speed maintains a
fluid pressure corresponding to the centrifugal force established. Figure 2 shows the cutaway of
a centrifugal pump
61
Figure 2 The Cutaway of a Centrifugal Pump
2.2.1 Pump Head versus Flow rate Curves for Centrifugal Pumps
Figure 3 shows pump head versus flow rate curves for a centrifugal pump. The solid curve
shows the rate for water, whereas the dashed curve is for a more viscous fluid such as oil. Most
published performance curves for centrifugal pumps are for pumping water. Notice from Figure
3 that using a fluid having a higher viscosity than water results in a smaller flow rate at a given
pump head. If the fluid has a viscosity greater than 300 times that of water, the performance of a
centrifugal pump deteriorates enough that a positive displacement pump is usually
recommended.
Figure 3 Pump Head versus Flow rate Curves for Centrifugal Pump for water and for a more
viscous liquid
The maximum head produced by a centrifugal pump is called pump shutoff head because an
external system valve is closed and there is no flow. Notice from Figure 4 that as the external
system resistance decrease (which occurs when a system valve is opened more fully), the flow
rate increases at the expense of reduced pump head. Because the output
62
Flow rate changes significantly with external system resistance, centrifugal pumps are rarely
used in fluid power systems. Zero pump head exists if the pump discharge port were opened to
the atmosphere, such as when filling nearby open tank with water. The open tank represents
essentially zero resistance to flow for the pump. Figure 4 shows why centrifugal pumps are
desirable for pumping stations used for delivery water to homes and factories. The demand for
water may go to near zero during the evening and reach a peak during the daytime, but a
centrifugal pump can readily handle these large changes in water demand. Since there is a great
deal of clearance between the impeller and housing, centrifugal pumps are not self-priming,
unlike positive displacement pumps. Thus if a liquid being pumped from a reservoir located
below a centrifugal pump, priming is required. Priming is the prefilling of the pump housing and
inlet pipe with the liquid so that the pump can initially draw the liquid and pump efficiency.
Priming is required because there is too much clearance between the pump inlet and outlet ports
to seal against atmospheric pressure. Thus the displacement of a centrifugal Pump is not positive
where the same volume of liquid would be delivered per revolution of the driveshaft.
The lack of positive internal seal against leakage means that the centrifugal pump is not
forced to produce flow when there is a very large system resistance to flow. As system resistance
decrease, less of the fluid at the discharge port slips back into the clearance spaces between the
impeller and housing, resulting in an increase in flow. Slippage occurs because the fluid follows
the path of least resistance.
2.2.2 Performance Characteristic Curves for Centrifugal Pumps
When Centrifugal Pump manufacturers test their pumps, they typically produce (for a given
geometry and speed) performance curves of head, overall efficiency, and input shaft power
versus flow rate of the specified fluid. Figure 5 shows these three curves plotted on the same
graph. Note that as the flow rate increases from zero, the efficiency increases from zero until it
reaches maximum, and then it decreases as the maximum flow rate is approached. The point
where the maximum efficiency occurs is the best efficiency point (BEP), and the corresponding
63
flow rate is the design flow rate. When selecting a pump for a given application, it is usually
desirable to use a pump that will operate near its efficient point. Maximum efficiency values for
centrifugal pumps typically range from 60% to 80%.
2.3 Centrifugal pump connected in Parallel

If a single pump does not provide enough flow rate for a given application, connecting two
pumps in parallel as shown in Figure 4, can rectify the problem. The effective two-pump
performance curve is obtained by adding the flow rates of each pump at the same head. As
shown, when two pumps are connected in parallel, the operating points shift from A to B,
providing not only increased flow rate as required but also greater head. Figure 6 shows identical
pumps, but the pumps do not have to be the same.
Figure 4 Two centrifugal pumps connected in parallel
2.4 Centrifugal pump connected in series
On the other hand, if a single pump does not provide enough head for a given application, two
pumps connected in series, as shown in Figure 5, can be a remedy. The effective two-pump
64
performance curve is obtained by adding the head of each pump at the same flow rate. As,
shown, the operating point shifts from A to B, thereby providing not only increased head as
required but also greater flow. Figure 5 shows identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be
the same.
Figure 5 Two centrifugal pumps connected in series
3.0 APPARATUS
Figure 6 Equipment Assembly
65
3.1Specifications
Before operating the unit, students must familiarize themselves with the unit. Please refer to
Figure 7to understand the process. The unit consists of the followings:
a) Pumps v
2 units of Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump (PI) and (P2) Flow rate : 20-90
LPM Head : 20.7-15 m Max. Head: 22 m
b) Circulation Tank
Transparent acrylic water tank is provided to supply water to PI and P2.
c) Flow rate and pump head
All gauges and meters are provided in a way for easy viewing and data collection.
d) Process piping
The process piping is made of industrial PVC pipes. Valves used are non-ferrous to
minimize rust and corrosion.
Overall Dimensions
Height: 700 mm Width: 650
mm Depth: 1100 mm
General Requirements
Electrical: 240 VAC, 1-phase, 50Hz Water : Clean tap
water.
66
P1
Figure 7 Process Diagram for Serial / Parallel Pump Test Unit
3.2 Installation Procedures

2. Unpack the unit and place it on a table close to the single phase electrical supply.
3. Place the equipment on top of a table and level the equipment with the adjustable
feet.
4. Inspect the all parts and instruments on the unit and make sure that it is in proper
condition.
5. Connect the equipment to the nearest power supply.
3.3 Commissioning Procedures
1. Install the equipment according to Section 3.1.
2. Make sure that all valves are initially closed.
3. Fill up the sump tank with clean water until the water level is sufficient to cover the
return flow pipe.
4. Then test the pumps according to Section 5.1.
5. Check that pumps, flow meter and the gauges are working properly. Identify any
leakage on the pipe line. Fix the leakage if there is any.
6. Turn off the pumps after the commissioning.
7. The unit is now ready for use.
67
4.0 PROCEDURES
4.1 General Start-up Procedures
Before conducting any experiment, it is necessary to do the following checking to avoid any
misused and malfunction of equipment.
1. Make sure that the circulation tank is filled with water up to at least the end of the pipe
output is submerge with water.
2. Make sure that the V5 is in partial open position.
3. Switch on the main power supply.
4. Refer to Table 1, select the appropriate pump and check for following valve position.
Table 1 Valve Position for General Start-up
Pump Operation
Running Pump
Open Valve
Close Valve
Single
Pump 1, PI
1,4
2,3
Serial
Both Pump, PI &P2
1,3
2,4
Parallel
Both Pump, PI &P2
1,2,4
5. Turn on pump and slowly open V5 until maximum flow rate is achieved as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2 Flow Rates of Pump

Orientation
Single
Minimum Flow Rate(LPM) Maximum Flow Rate(LPM)

20
90
Series
20
90
Parallel
40
180
4.2 General Shut-down Procedures

1. Turn off the pump.
68
2. Make sure valve V5 is in fully close position.

3. Switch off the main power supply.
4.3 Experiment 1: Single Pump Operation

Objective:Single pump operation with variable flow rate
Table 3 Equipment Set Up of Experiment 1

Fully Close valve
Fully Open Valve
Variable parameter
Pump ON
2&3
1& 4
Valve 5
Pump 1
Procedures:
1. Follow the basic procedure as written in section 3.2.
2. Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.
3. Slowly open valve V5 until the flow rate reaches 20 LPM.
4. Observe the pressure reading on the pressure indicator. Record flow rate and
pressure value when stable condition is achieved.
5. Repeat observation by increasing the flow rate with increment by 10 LPM until
the flow rate reaches 90 LPM
4.4 Experiment 2: Series Pump Operation

Objective: Series pump operation with variable flow rate
69
Table 4Equipment Set Up of Experiment 2

Fully Close valve
Fully Open Valve
X4
1,3
Variable parameter
Valve 5
Pump ON
Both Pump
Procedures:
4.5 Experiment 3: Parallel Pump Operation

Objective: Parallel pump operation with variable flow rate
Table 5Equipment Set Up of Experiment 2

Fully Close valve
3
Fully Open Valve

1,2 & 4
Variable parameter
Valve 5
Procedures:
70
Pump ON
Both Pump
5.0 RESULTS
Table 6 Result of Experiment 1
Rotameter
(FI1) LPM
Pressure Gauge 1
(PI1) kgf/cm2
Pressure Gauge 2
(PI2) kgf/cm2
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Rotamete r
(FI1) LPM
20
30
40
71
Pressure Gauge 1
(HI) kgf/cm2
Pressure Gauge 3
(PI3) kgf/cm2
Pressure Gauge 4
(PI4) kgf/cm2
50
60
70
80
90

Rotameter
(FI1) LPM
Pressure Gauge 1
(PI1)kgf/cm2
Pressure Gauge 2
(PI2) kgf/cm2
Pressure Gauge 4
(PI4) kgf/cm2
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
i.
Plot pressure different vs. flow rate for three experiments
6.0 DISCUSSION
i.
Compare the pump head of single pump with series and parallel pump operation.
ii.
Compare volumetric flow rate of single pump with series and parallel pump operation.
7.0 CONCLUSION
i.
Conclude the experiment process and results.

72
ii.
8.0 REFERENCES
2. Rama Durgaiah, 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1st Edition, New Age International
(P) Ltd, India.
73

EXPERIMENT 6: ORIFICE DISCHARGE
1.0 OBJECTIVE
i.
Determination of the contraction and velocity coefficients.
ii.
Calculation of the discharge coefficient.
A fluid passing though an orifice constriction will experience a drop in pressure across the
orifice. This change can be used to measure the flow rate of the fluid.
To calculate the flow rate of a fluid passing through an orifice plate, enter the parameters
below. (The default calculation involves air passing through a medium-sized orifice in a 4" pipe,
with answers rounded to 3 significant figures.)
74
Figure 1
As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently subsonic (V < mach 0.3), the incompressible
Bernoullis equation describes the flow reasonably well. Applying this equation to a streamline
travelling down the axis of the horizontal tube gives,
p p1 p2
1
1
2
2
V2 V1
2
2
where location 1 is upstream of the orifice, and location 2 is slightly behind the orifice. It is
recommended that location 1 be positioned one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice, and
location 2 be positioned one-half pipe diameter downstream of the orifice. Since the pressure at 1
will be higher than the pressure at 2 (for flow moving from 1 to 2), the pressure difference as
defined will be a positive quantity.
From continuity, the velocities can be replaced by cross-sectional areas of the flow and the
volumetric flow rate Q,
75
A
1
1
p Q 2 2 1 2
2
A2
A1
2
Solving for the volumetric flow rate Q gives,
2p
A2
2
A
1 2
A1
The above equation applies only to perfectly laminar, inviscid flows. For real flows (such as
water or air), viscosity and turbulence are present and act to convert kinetic flow energy into
heat. To account for this effect, a discharge coefficient Cd is introduced into the above equation
to marginally reduce the flow rate Q,
Q CD
2p
A2
2
A
1 2
A1
Since the actual flow profile at location 2 downstream of the orifice is quite complex, thereby
making the effective value of A2 uncertain, the following substitution introducing a flow
coefficient Cf is made,
C f AO C D
A2
A
1 2
A1
where Ao is the area of the orifice. As a result, the volumetric flowrate Q for real flows is given
by the equation,
76
2p
Q C f AO
The meter coefficient Cf is found from experiments and is tabulated in reference books; it
ranges from 0.6 to 0.9 for most orifices. Since it depends on the orifice and pipe diameters (as
well as the Reynolds Number), one will often find Cf tabulated versus the ratio of orifice
diameter to inlet diameter, sometimes defined as
AO
Ainlet
The mass flow rate can be found by multiplying Q with the fluid density,
Qmass Q
This experiment allows us to detect the effect of friction on water flow. There are three
coefficients that are useful in determining the performance of water through a jet and the effect
of friction on that performance. Cd, Cv, and Cc give us insight into the effects of friction on water
flow. Each of these coefficients is ratio of the actual performance to ideal performance as related
to discharge, velocity, and contraction. Without friction, each of these coefficients would be 1.
With the presence of friction, the actual performance is less than the ideal performance and
therefore, each coefficient is less than 1.
The coefficient of discharge is heavily related to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid flow
and the cross sectional area of the orifice. It is also related to the gravitational constant and the
head pressure. The coefficient of discharge is a ratio of the actual discharge divided by the ideal
discharge. The actual discharge is the discharge that occurs and which is affected by friction as
77
the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal discharge would be the discharge achieved without
friction. Thus,
CD
QC
QO
Where,
Qc
Actual Volumetric Flow Rate
Qo
Ideal Volumetric Flow Rate
Q A V , thus
CD
Qc
Ao Vo
Actual Velocity, VC
VC 2 gH C
Ideal Velocity, VO
VO 2 gH O
Cross Sections, A
DO 2
AO
4
AC
DC 2
4
Theoretical Discharge, Q
78
= Ideal Velocity x Orifice Area
Q = VO x Orifice Area
Actual Discharge, QC
QC
V
1000 t
Coefficient of Velocity, CV
CV
VC
VO
Coefficient of Contracta
CC1
CD
CV
CC 2
AC DC2
AO DO2
where,
DO = Orifice Diameter
DC = Contraction Diameter
All three of these coefficients are a measure of energy loss. From this particular relationship
it is evident that energy loss in the system can be directly related to the difference in head levels
between ideal and actual conditions.
The Coefficient of Contraction is a ratio of the actual diameter of the jet divided by the ideal
diameter of the jet. The actual diameter is the diameter that occurs and which is affected by
friction as the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal diameter would be the diameter of the
79
orifice. The narrowing of the water jet is the direct result of friction on the jet as it passes through
the sharp edge orifice. The place at which the majority of narrowing has occurred is known as
the Vena Contracta.
Figure 2
The Vena Contracta is generally considered to occur at a distance downstream from the
orifice equal to one half the diameter of the orifice. The Coefficient of Contraction can be
derived from a relationship with the Coefficients of Discharge and Velocity.
Cc
CD
Cv
The Coefficient of Contraction can also be derived from direct measurement if adequately
precise tools are available. This can be done using the blade attachment as described in the
experimental procedures section.
80
3.0 APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical tank with water enters from top of the tank and is
distributed to the bottom of the tank through a diffuser. There is an orifice at the bottom of the
tank that allows water to flow from the tank to the hydraulic bench below. A total pressure tube
with a wire by the side is installed under the cylindrical tank. The wire can be placed at one side
of the water jet and moved through the water jet to measure the diameter of the vena contracta.
The total pressure tube can be placed directly inside the jet of water coming from the bottom of
the tank. Two single tube manometers are provided to indicate the water head in the cylindrical
tank and the total pressure tube.
3.1
Specifications
Standard Orifice: sharp-edged, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 15mm and 16mm

Triangular Orifice
Square Orifice
Maximum Head: 365 mm
Traverse mechanism: Manually adjusted, calibrated 0.1 mm per division
3.2
Connecting to the digital instrumentations (Optional)
The Flow Through Orifice is installed with optional digital pressure transmitters for water head
measurements and comes together with a separate control panel. To read the measurements,
simply connect all the pressure transmitters to the correct connectors and switch on the main
power supply.
81
3.3
Connecting to the digital instrumentations and the SOLDASTM software (Optional)
The Flow Through Orifice unit also comes together with the optional SOLDAS TM software. This
software provides real time measurements, data logging function and experimental data analysis.
To operate the SOLDASTM software, the unit must be connected to the digital instrumentations
according to Section 4.3, then connect the interface cable between the control panel and the
computer. Finally, turn on the computer and start-up the software.
82
3.4
Parts Identification
Figure 1 Parts of Identification
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Manometer
Pressure Transmitter
Water Inlet
Overflow
Traverse Total Head Tube
Orifice
Adjustable Feet
Control Panel
4.0 PROCEDURES
83
4.1
General Start-up Procedures
The Flow through Orifice unit (Model: FM 100) is supplied ready for use and only requires
connection to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM 110) as follows:
1. Ensure that the unit is placed on top of the Hydraulic Bench and the equipment is set up
properly, then level the unit using the adjustable feet.
2. Fill water into the sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench until approximately 90% full.
3. Connect the water supply from Hydraulics Bench to water inlet using a flexible hose.
4. Connect a flexible hose to the overflow outlet and make sure that it is directed into the
sump tank.
5. Install an orifice provided at the discharge opening of the cylindrical tank which is
located at the bottom of the tank.
6. Fully close the bench flow control valve.
7. Connect the main power supply and then switch on the pump.
8. Gradually open the Flow Control Valve for inlet flow and allow the piping and the
cylindrical tank to fill with water until all air has been expelled from the system.
Note:
Water flow into the unit may be adjusted by operation of outlet flow control valve.
84
4.2
Flow Through Orifice Study
1. Turn on the hydraulic bench on and allow water flow to enter the cylindrical tank. Adjust
the flow until the water level in the tank is just above the overflow.
2. Using the adjustable inlet pipe, raise the level of the diffuser till it is just below water
level. For the best results, the level of the diffuser should always be adjusted to meet this
condition.
3. Record the water level (Ho) in the tube connected to the bottom of the cylindrical tank.
Make sure there are no bubbles in the tube.
4. Move the Pitot tube onto position directly underneath the exiting water jet. Once
equilibrium is reached, record the water level (Hc) in the tube connected to the Pitot tube.
5. Make sure that there is no bubble in the tube. The level Hc should be less than the level
Ho. It may be a very small difference, but it is important to make this distinction.
6. Record the diameter of the exiting water jet using the wire.
7. Move the wire through the water jet until it passes completely through the water jet and is
barely touching the water jet. Record the distance traversed by the wire to determine the
diameter of the vena contracta.
5.0 RESULTS
Table 1:
SET
Ho
(m)
1
2
3
85
Hc
(m)
P
(m)
V
(L)
T
(s)
Do
(m)
Dc
(m)
Table 2.
Ideal
Actual
velocity, velocity,
V0(m/s) Vc(m/s)
Orifice
crosssection
,
Ao(10-4
m2)
Contractil
e crosssection,
Ac(10-4
m2)
Ideal
flowrate
, Qo(10-4
m3/s)
Actual
Velocity
flowrate coefficient,
, Qc (10-4
Cv(-)
3
m /s)
Discharge
coefficient
,
Cd(-)
Variation
coefficient
,
CC(-)
Crosssection
area
coefficient,
Ca(-)
2.6391
2.6466
2.6650
6.0 DISCUSSION
i.
Discuss relationship between vena contracta and flow rate
ii.
Discuss about the discharge coefficient
7.0 CONCLUSION
i.
Correlation of hypothesis and results from experiment.
ii.
8.0 REFERENCES
2. Rama Durgaiah, 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1st Edition, New Age
86

EXPERIMENT 7: MARCET BOILER
1.0 OBJECTIVE
i.
To demonstrate the relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam
in equilibrium with water
ii.
To determine the vapour pressure curve.
An ideal gas obeys the equation of state that relates the pressure, specific volume or density, and
absolute temperature with mass of molecule and the gas constant, R.
PV
Where,
P= Absolute pressure
V= Volume
n= Amount of substance (moles)
R= Ideal gas constant
T= Absolute temperature (K)
87
mRT
M
However, real gas does not absolutely obey the equation of state. A few changes on the ideal
gas equation of state allow its application in the properties of real gas.
When energy increases within water, the increasing of activities among the molecules
enables the increase in the number of molecule escape from the surface until an equilibrium state
is reached. The state of equilibrium depends on the pressure between the water surface and
steam. At lower pressure, the molecules become easier leaving the water surface while less
energy required in achieving the state of equilibrium (boiling point). The temperature where
equilibrium occurs at a given pressure level is called saturated temperature.
The Marcet Boiler is used to investigate the relationship between the pressure and
temperature of saturated steam in equilibrium with water at all temperature levels between the
atmospheric pressure and 10 bars. The experimental slope (dT/dP)SAT obtained is compared to the
theoretical value determined through calculation from the steam table. Clausius-Clapeyron
states:
dT
dP
dT
dP
Where,
h f +hfg =hg
h fg =hg h f
88
SAT
SAT
Tv fg
h fg
T (v f v g )
h f hg
dT
dP
T (v f v g )
SAT
h fg
Tv g
h fg
as vg >> vf
In which,
vf = specific volume of saturated liquid
vg = specific volume of saturated vapor
hf = enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg = enthalpy of saturated vapor
hfg = latent heat of vaporization
3.0 APPARATUS
ii.
HE169 Marcet boiler which shown in Figure 1

a.
Pressure transducer
b.
Temperature controller/Indicator
c.
Pressure indicator
d.
Control panel
e.
Bench
f.
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
g.
Temperature sensor
h.
Pressure relief valve
i.
Water inlet port & valve
j.
Heater
89
Figure 1: HE169 Marcet boiler
4.0 PROCEDURES
23. Turn on the power supply switch.
24. If the boiler is initially filled with water, open the valves at the level side tube to check
the water level. Pour in additional distilled water if necessary. Then, close the valves.
25. Set the temperature controller to 185C, which is slightly above the expected boiling
point of the water at 10 bar (abs).
26. Open the valve at feed port and turn on the heater.
Important: Always make sure that the valves at the level sight tube are closed before
turning on the heater as the sight tube is not designed to withstand high pressure and
temperature.
27. Observe the steam temperature rising as the water boils.
28. Allow steam to come out from the valve for about 30 seconds, and then close the valve.
This step is important to remove air from the boiler as the accuracy of the experimental
results will be significantly affected when air is present.
29. Record the steam temperature and pressure when the boiler is heated until the steam
90
pressure reaches 10 bar (abs).

Warning: Never open the valves when the boiler is heated as pressurized steam can
cause severe injury.
30. Then, turn off the heater and the steam temperature and pressure will begin to drop.
Allow boiler cool down to room temperature.
31. Record the steam temperatures at different pressure readings when the boiler is heated
and cooled.
32. Switch off the heater and allow the boiler temperature to drop.
Note: Do not open the valve at the water inlet port as it is highly pressurized at high
temperature.
5.0 RESULTS
Atmospheric pressure
: _____________ bar
Atmospheric temperature
: _____________ (0C)
Table 1 Data Collected and Calculated Results
Pressure, P (bar)
Temperature, T
Measure
d
absolut
e
1.0
1.5
91
Gauge
Increase
Decrease
Average
Average
(0C)
(0C)
Tavc (0C)
Tavc (K)
Slope,
dT/dP
Calculated
Slope,
Tvg/hfg
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
iii.
iv.
v.
Prepare a graph with temperature, T against absolute pressure, P.

Measure/calculate the slope of the graph using certain points.
Tv fg
dT
h fg
dP SAT
Plot
versus P and
versus P on a same graph.
6.0 DISCUSSION
iii.
Give the reason why it is necessary to remove air from the boiler at the beginning of the
iv.
experiment.
Compare the graph plotted from experiment data to that of the calculated data with
v.
vi.
explanation.
Comment on any discrepancy and sources of error of the experiment.
Discuss the liquid and vapor behavior observed through the experiment and list some
examples of its industrial applications.
92

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[SEGi University]

Bachelor Degree of Chemical Engineering

Introduction (Flow Chart)

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Figure 1.2 Organisation Chart in Chemical Engineering

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7. References ( Following Havard Referencing)

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Lab unit: Test pipe, Air valve,

-Single pump operation

HM150 impact of jet.

The unit is constructed on a

-Parallel pump operation

A cylindrical tank with water

A stainless steel pressure

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

To investigate Bernoullis law and pressure distribution along venture tube.

Where,P1 = pressure at cross-section, A1

h1 = pressure head at cross-section, A1

Figure 1 Conditions in venturi tube with 6 measurement points

Figure 2 Mass flow conditions in venturi tube

The mass flow is constant in closed systems:

For dynamic pressure head:

Figure 3 Zero-point difference of 80mm between the pressures gauges

HM150.07 Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration which shown in Figure 4

Single water pressure gauge

Venturi tube with 6 measurement points