St/G/2004

Study Skills Guide

Disability Support Service
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

www.ncl.ac.uk/disability.services/

Study Skills Guide

Disability Support Service
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

www.ncl.ac.uk/disability.services/
1

Index
Learning Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Science Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Learning Styles Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Report Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Study Strategies for

Analyse the Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Different Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Look at the Methods Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Multi-Sensory Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Question the Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Other Points to Remember . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Time Management and Organisation . 7

Key Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Problems and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Study / Revision Planner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Dissertation Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Writing a Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Making and Using Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

General Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

A Critical Approach to Writing . . . . . . 31

Note Taking Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

General Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Lectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Signal Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Making Notes from Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Organising Your Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

A Basic Guide to Referencing . . . . . . . 33

Harvard System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Reading Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

British Standard System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Information Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Plagiarism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

SQ3R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Clue Words to Help You Read . . . . . . . . . . 15

Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Essay Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Timed Examinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Identifying Key Verbs in Essay Questions . . 18

Research Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Preparing for Oral Presentations . . . . 37

Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Spelling, Grammar and Punctuation . . . . . . 38

Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Multi Sensory Techniques for Spelling . . . . . 39

Useful Words and Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Basic Rules of Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Punctuation Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Report Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Planning a Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Information Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

TextHelp Read & Write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Report Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Inspirations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Learning Styles
At University you will be expected to be an independent learner. Therefore, it is advisable to
think carefully about your learning style and how best you can use your learning strengths to
support your academic studies. Use this part of the guide to help you:

To think about the different ways you perceive and understand information;
Consider your most appropriate learning environment;
To identify how you process information most effectively;
To identify different strategies and skills that will benefit you as a learner;
To understand multi-sensory techniques.

Learning Styles Questionnaire

Tick the response which best suits you.
1. Do you usually remember more from a lecture when:
a) You do not take notes, but listen very carefully
b) You sit near the front of the room and watch the lecturer
c) You take notes
2. Do you usually solve a problem by:
a) Talking to yourself or a friend
b) Using an organised, systematic approach like lists, etc.
c) Walking, pacing or some other physical activity
3. Do you remember phone numbers (when you cant write them down) by:
a) Repeating the numbers orally
b) Seeing or visualising the numbers in your mind
c) Writing the numbers with your finger on the table or wall
4. Do you find it easier to learn something new by:
a) Listening to someone explain how to do it
b) Watching a demonstration of how to do it
c) Trying it yourself
5. When you try to remember something do you:
a) Try to see it happen in your mind
b) Hear in your mind what was said or the noises that occurred
c) Feel the way it reacted with your emotions

6. If you dont know how to spell a word, do you:

a) Sound it out
b) Try to see it work in your mind
c) Write the word in several ways and choose the one that looks right
7. Do you enjoy reading most when you can read:
a) Dialogue between characters
b) Descriptive passages that allow you to create mental pictures
c) Stories with lots of action in the beginning (because you find it difficult to
concentrate early on)
8. Do you remember people you have met by their:
a) Names
b) Faces
c) Mannerisms, movements, etc.
9. Are you distracted mainly by:
a) Noises
b) People
c) Environment (temperature, comfort of furniture, etc.)
10.Do you have problems sitting still to read? If so, do you:
a) Talk with a friend
b) Watch TV or look out of the window
c) Fidget in your chair, or cant lie still in bed
Count the total number which fall into the following categories
a) Auditory (by hearing)
b) Visual (by seeing)
c) Kinaesthetic (by touching, doing or moving)

Study Strategies for different learning styles

Auditory
If you are an auditory learner, it means you will learn best by hearing information. Consider
making use of sound in the following ways:

Talk or read aloud to yourself as you learn information;

Talk through and/or review information with friends;
Record information on to tape or disc to enable you to listen back over information;
Ask a friend to read text or lecture notes aloud to you;
Have music playing in the background while you read or write;
Work in a silent room.

Visual
Visual learners often learn best from seeing information presented in diagrams, charts or
pictures. Try using some of the following visual techniques:
Plan work using spider diagrams, lists or tables, pictograms and mind maps;
Write down all information;
Use coloured pens to highlight important information when reading and to link similar ideas
and arguments as you identify them (But only if you are using your own text);
Use coloured paper for different modules or subjects;
Use large wall charts or planners to organise your work;
Try to visualise information and ideas in your mind;
Vary the environment or position in which you work as this may create a link between your
visual setting with a particular subject area.

Kinaesthetic
A kinaesthetic learner will learn best by touching, doing or moving. Try to think physically by:
Discussing ideas with friends;
Putting different arguments and ideas on separate pieces of paper when planning essays,
allows you to physically organise your answer;
Going over information in your mind while walking, jogging or swimming;
Using colour or draw pictures and diagrams alongside written notes;
Moving around your environment during independent study time.

Multi-sensory Learning
It doesnt matter how you learn as long as you use the methods which suit you. However, a
combination of the use of all the senses is the best way to learn.
It appears that on average you will remember:

20%
30%
40%
50%
60%

of
of
of
of
of

what
what
what
what
what

you
you
you
you
you

read;
hear;
see;
say;
do.

But you will remember 90% of what you say, hear, see and do.
Multi-sensory learning can help anyone to enhance the experience of learning and improve
recall of important information. Information is received by the brain through the sensory
channels. These channels are:

Visual
Auditory
Kinaesthetic
Olfactory
Taste

(seeing information)
(hearing information)
(touching, moving or doing)
(smelling and making associations related to smell)
(what we experience from the mouth and tongue)

Consider how strongly a smell, taste or hearing a piece of music can remind you of a previous
situation or event. This is because all your sensory channels have worked simultaneously to
link into your emotions to create that experience.
Multi-sensory learning involves activating as many of the senses as possible at the same time to
aid understanding and recall.

Other study tips for effective learning

Remember to take regular breaks.
Create or choose an environment which suits your learning needs:
- limit noise and distraction;
- room temperature is not too hot or too cold;
- comfortable seating arrangement;
- good lighting.
Break large tasks into smaller manageable chunks.
Eat regularly and drink plenty of water.
Use technology to help you:
- Personal Computer;
- Tape, digital or minidisk recorders;
- Assistive software.

Time Management and Organisation

Misuse of time is probably the most common form of sabotage that students use to
undermine their attempts to study. However, planning your time makes you think about it
strategically and, even if you have to alter your study plans, you will benefit from having
previously defined your tasks and prioritising your activities.
Common Time Problems
Are you disorganised and
frequently misplace things?

Possible Solutions
Organise your learning space.Take control of where
you work and you can then control how you work.
Keep a clear desktop
Place pens, pencils etc in a desk tidy or jar
Organise your notes by using a separate ring
binder for each subject
Use coloured dividers to separate lecture notes
into date order
File handouts with the appropriate lecture notes

Put off doing coursework and

assignments

Use a diary or wall planner to clearly mark

assignment deadlines for every module
Start tasks sooner rather than later
Be realistic about how long things will take and
set appropriate time slots for specific tasks e.g.
planning an essay will take longer than reading
a short extract
Break tasks down into manageable parts and
allow time to tackle some of it every week

Easily distracted

Negotiate study time with friends and flatmates

so that they know when you are not to be
disturbed
Be aware of the times of day you can learn and
concentrate
Set clear start and finish times for each study
session
Take regular short breaks

Over commitment and leaving

things to the last minute

Try not to over commit your time

Plan social time into your week and mark clearly
in a diary or wall planner
Prioritise tasks; do the most urgent tasks first

Remember you are expected to be an independent learner at university.

Therefore, make sure that you take control of your time and use it effectively.

Study / Revision Planner

Week beginning ./ ./ .
Time
8-9 a.m.
9-10 a.m.

10-11 a.m
11-12
12-1p .m.
1-2 p.m.
2-3 p.m.
3-4 p.m.
4-5 p.m.
5-6 p.m.
6-7 p.m.
7-8 p.m.
8-9 p.m.
9-10 p.m.
10-11 p.m.

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Making and Using Notes

Being able to make good notes efficiently is a key skill for studying at university.
You will need to make notes in different situations: in lectures, seminars and tutorials; when
working in groups; when planning and writing essays; on field trips and placements and when
revising for exams.
Putting into practice suggestions in this guide will help you to:
Note important information for use in your academic studies including essay
writing and revision;
Keep a record of your learning and where you obtained your information from;
Plan and organise essays, assignments and presentations;
Focus on a specific subject and remember key facts;
Revise effectively for your exams.

General note taking tips

Note the date, subject and page number at the top of each page;
If you are in a lecture, seminar or tutorial, note the name of the lecturer or tutor;
If you are making notes when working in a group, note the names of your colleagues
in the group;
It is important to note the sources of your information;
Use A4 paper. Put different headings for main subject areas on separate sheets of A4 paper.
You can then file these notes straight away (or when you have made notes on these sheets
you can file them straight away);
Use the margin. You can put references in the margin, note keywords, indicate if you have
handouts on the subject or add information later;
Leave blank spaces on your page; after each note for example. The visual image of notes
and blank spaces may help you remember the information you have recorded. If necessary
you can use the space to note information you wish to add later;
Use a system. Number and/or label your notes with headings and subheadings. Use
indentations and bullet points. The visual image you have of your notes may help you to
recall the information they contain;
Try using highlighters to pick out key words and phrases. Write main points with a
coloured pen or underline them with colour. Some people draw pictures or diagrams
to aid their recall;
Link related notes by using arrows, lines, brackets, enclosing them in a rectangle or any
other technique you find helpful.

Note taking methods

It is important that you choose a note taking method which suits your learning style.
Consider whether you prefer linear methods or visual formats such as spider diagrams.

Linear methods
29.8.03 Note taking

Mr Smith

Two
column
method

Linear note taking

Main idea Place the main

idea or heading in the left
hand column

1. use a number strategy

2. list key information
3. dont try to write down
every word

write the further details

in the right hand column

4. use abbreviations
5. use the margin to make
a note of the date
Subject

6. use the margin to list

key words and references

Spider diagrams
Link notes
by using arrows

Use A4 paper

Use the margin

It is important to
note the source of
your information

General note
taking tips

Use a system
Number notes
Draw picture
or diagrams
Use colour

10

Lectures
When making notes in lectures, dont try to write down everything the lecturer says, not
even whole sentences. Note phrases, main points and key words;
Use symbols and common abbreviations, your own abbreviations and subject
specific abbreviations;
Do take down quotations and phrases exactly;
Be aware of a lecturer signalling an important point by use of body language and emphasising
or using particular words or phrases by standing up, looking up, pausing, using a louder or
quieter voice. By saying eg:
There are a number of theories as to the possible
causes of dyslexia. They are..
The important factors are.
If you are unsure that what you have noted is correct or if you do not understand a
particular point, put a ? in the margin and check with the lecturer, in your books or with a
fellow student later.

Making notes from books

The key is not to copy down chunks of text from a book. Your aim is to make clear notes
using a few of your own words. You may also wish to note your own ideas that have been
stimulated by text you have read;
Be selective.Write down the main subject and important headings before you start, then fill
in notes on these areas;
Focus on the essay title. Keep referring back to this and make sure your notes are relevant;
If you come across information you think may be useful in a different subject or essay, make a
separate note of the reference and return to it later, at the appropriate time;
Dont write the same information down twice. If more than one author makes the same or
a similar point, note down the references for the work of the 2nd, 3rd author in the margin
next to your notes on the work of the 1st author;
It is useful to read through specific chapters, handouts or other information before a lecture.
Note down obvious subject headings and leave blank spaces to fill in with your lecture notes.

11

Organising your notes

Read through and check your notes soon after you have written them, preferably on the
same day. Follow up any points you need to; information you may have missed out or did
not understand. Check references and key spellings;
File notes as you have made them;
Use colour codes: different coloured files for different subject areas, coloured file dividers for
sub-sections of a subject;
File related information with your notes: handouts, photocopies of journal articles,
newspaper and magazine cuttings, and references to notes from different but linked areas of
study;
Develop a filing system that is easy for you to use and refer to when planning and writing
essays, and revising for exams.

Other useful tips

Use a visual image or picture on the front of your files/notebooks relating to your topic area.
This will help you quickly identify the subject area in the file;
If you save information to CD or disk try to use a coloured CD or disk that matches the
colour of your file. For example, if notes for Latin American studies are filed in a red folder,
use a red CD or disk.
(Kate Henderson, 2004)

Use this space for noting your own tips and strategies

12

Reading Skills
Aim to develop your reading skills to help assimilate information and understand ideas.
Reading is simply a tool which helps you access the thoughts of others.

Academic reading will require you to:

Identify arguments;
Recognise whether they support or oppose the main premise;
Identify the evidence;
Identify conclusions and whether the evidence supports the conclusions;
Be a critical thinker.

Information Searching
Reading for study is time consuming and tiring. Therefore, before you begin reading ask
yourself:
What information do I need to find?
Will this text provide the information I need?
To decide if a text book contains the information you need use the clues provided in:
Contents page;
Preface;
Index;
Introduction;
Chapter headings;
Illustrations and diagrams;
Section headings;
Summaries;
Reference section.
Authors Name
Surname and first
letters of forename

Publisher

Cottrell, S. The Study Skills Handbook, Palgrave, 1999

Title
Often it can be
underlined or in italics

Date of Publication

13

SQ3R
To improve reading comprehension the SQ3R technique is recommended. Applying SQ3R will
slow you down when reading but with practice you can establish good, productive habits
which will improve your recall and comprehension. Remember, effective reading is not fast
reading.

Survey
Skim the whole book or relevant chapter to get an overview of the text. This will provide
your brain with a frame of reference for the information it will be receiving.

Question
Is this really the information you need? Are there any words, technical terms or phrases that
you do not understand? Check unknown meanings at this stage to avoid a break in your
concentration when you read the full text.

Read
Read slowly and be aware when your concentration goes. Read in short bursts with frequent
short breaks if necessary. Try to visualise what you are reading or close your eyes and picture
the layout of the page.

Recall
Stop at the end of each paragraph or page and say out loud, in your own words, what you have
just understood from what you have just read. This will help monitor your comprehension of
the subject.

Review
Take notes. Note taking is an active form of memory and ensures you make a connection with
what you are reading and understanding.

14

Annotate your text with your own notes;

Label or reference key chapters and pages;
Underline or highlight key words or facts on each page;
Use coloured highlighters to identify the different arguments;
Summarise out loud and then make notes using your own words;
As you find the answers to questions, write them down.

Clue words to help you read

Continuation signals
warning! There are more
ideas to come

and
again
furthermore
secondly
last of all
a final reason

and finally
likewise
first of all
in addition
similarly
one reason

Change of direction
signals watch out we
are doubling back

although
however
conversely
in spite of
in contrast
but

despite
nevertheless
yet
on the contrary
the opposite

Sequence signals there

is an order to these
ideas

First, second
last
ABC
for one thing

next
in the first place
before
after

Illustration signals here

is what that principle
means in reality

For example
For instance
Such as

to illustrate
much like
similar to

Emphasis signals this is

important

A major development
A key feature
A distinctive quality
Important to note
a primary concern
a central issue

a significant factor
a major event
especially important
the basic concept
the chief outcome
especially relevant

Cause, condition or
result signal

because
therefore
consequently

so that
thus
yet

Spatial signals answers

the where question

between
opposite
next to
alongside

here
beyond
right
adjacent

Comparison or contrast
signals compare idea A
with idea B

either
or
less
rather
analogous to
more than
but
same

less than
much as
different from
better
but
opposite
however
half

Conclusion signals
ends the discussion and
may be important

As a result
From this we see
Last of all
Consequently

Hence
in summary
in conclusion
finally

Fuzz signals idea not

exact or author wishes
to qualify statement

almost
maybe
except
seems like
sort of

was reported
probably
purported
looks like
alleged

15

Many learners, particularly those with dyslexia, may experience the following difficulties when
reading. Some suggested solutions are given in the following table.

Problem

To alleviate the problem

Glare from white paper or text blurs,

distorts or jumps about

Try using a coloured acetate or coloured

plastic folder over the text to remove glare.

Print size makes it difficult to concentrate

or focus on reading

Use a photocopier to enlarge text

Scan text onto a PC and enlarge

Difficulties understanding a particular

section of text

Read the section aloud

Ask a friend to read it aloud to you
Scan text into PC and use read back facility
in TextHelp Read & Write to listen to the
words.

16

Essay Writing
Essay writing is time consuming, may be frustrating and is generally hard work.This section has
been devised to help you to develop your essay planning and writing skills.
Essay writing requires:
Analysis and an understanding of the question;
Research reading and collating relevant evidence;
Evaluation to ensure identification of the main arguments has been made;
Planning creating a logical structure of information and ideas;
Writing;
Referencing;
Proof reading.

The essay title

Essay titles include key verbs and words which inform you of how the question must be
answered. It is therefore important that you understand the question before you begin to
write.
Key verbs are the instructional words which tell you how the question must be answered;
Key words provide the framework for your answer.

Sample question:
Discuss the relevance of class in the analysis of recent social movements in Latin America.
Key Verb
Discuss.This word instructs you to investigate or examine by argument or debate.
A list of key verbs often found in essay titles is provided on the next page with a description
of how each one should be interpreted.
How to identify key words
The subject word
(class)
Look for place/location
(Latin America)
Look for a time element (recent)

17

Identifying Key Verbs in Essay Questions

Identifying the key verbs in a question is essential before planning your answer. The following
list shows subtle, but important differences between the common key verbs.
Analyse

Break up into parts, investigate.

Compare

Similarities and differences perhaps reach a conclusion to

show your preference.

Contrast

Show differences.

Define

Set down meaning of word or phrase.

Describe

Give detailed account.

Discuss

Investigate or examine by argument or debate.

Distinguish Show the differences between.

Evaluate

Give your judgement back by discussion of evidence.

Examine

Look closely into.

Explain

Make plain interpret. Give reason for something.

Interpret

Make clear show the meaning of.

Justify

Show adequate grounds for decisions and conclusions.

Outline

Give main features or general principles.

Leave out minor details. Emphasise structure and inter-relations.

State

Present in a brief, clear form.

Summarise Give a concise account of the main points.

Leave out details and examples.
Trace

18

Follow the history or development of a topic from

point of origin.

Research Skills
Researching information can seem an impossible task. Therefore, knowing how and where to
find relevant information are the key steps to acquiring good research skills.

Where to find relevant information

Course reading lists;
Journals and periodicals;

Internet;
Special text collections.

How to select the most relevant information

Check to see if there are any texts on your reading list that have been marked
as essential reading;
Check the date of publication;
Scan contents, reference sections and introductions to check if the book contains
information you need and to look for the most relevant chapters;
Use Library catalogues to find the most recent journals in your subject area;
Use reliable sources, e.g. well known journals;
Select the most up-to-date material;
If uncertain, clarify information with your lecturer or supervisor.

Navigating in the library

All texts books and journals in the library are shelf referenced using the Dewey system.You
will find journals and books are stored in separate areas. Once you know the shelf reference
for your book use the guides at the end of each row to help you locate the correct shelf.

Politics

Economics

Journals

Books

Politics

Economics

Per 320C-H

331.409-333.7

Row 9

Row 51

If you have difficulty locating texts, journals and periodicals and using computerised catalogue
systems, staff on the information desks are always willing to assist you. If you cannot find the
shelf location for books and journals, dont be afraid to ask a member of staff to take you
there.

19

Planning
It is advisable to break down the large, complex tasks of producing a long piece of writing into
manageable, smaller chunks.
Use the following checklist to help you keep track of your progress.
Examine the question
This should include your first thoughts, asking yourself what you already know
about this topic.
Re-examine the question
Do you really understand all the terms used and have you highlighted the key verbs?
Identify gaps
What else do you need to know or to find out before you are able to answer the question?
Prioritise tasks
How long will it take you to get the information you need? Do you need to work with
others or see your lecturer to clarify information at this stage? Act now to keep your
attitude positive dont let little snags become reasons for not working.
Set realistic targets
You will not write a good essay quickly. It is also very unlikely that you will be able to write
coherently without a plan. Remember, give yourself enough time to think and organise your
thoughts before you start to write.
Complete reading and note taking
Set yourself a deadline for completion of background reading and research. Make sure you
take adequate notes and make a note of references for your bibliography or reference
section.
Devise your plan
Use any method you wish to provide yourself with a framework for your writing. Make sure
you are aware of word limits. Before you start to write you should have a good idea of the
main topic of every paragraph or section.

Remember, do your thinking before your writing.

20

Structure
Remember, the rule is one idea per sentence and one topic per paragraph. Also keep referring
back to your plan to make sure that what you are writing is relevant and answers the
question.

Introduction
The purpose of an introduction is to provide the reader with an outline of the main
arguments.
Outline the main theme or premise;
State the purpose of the essay;
Summarise background information.

A Guide to Paragraph Structure

The guide to paragraph structure below may help you to produce a logical flow of information
in your written work.
1.Your first sentence should outline the topic of the paragraph.
2.Then add detail.
3. Include relevant examples or evidence.
4. End the paragraph with a brief concluding sentence.
Example
1 It has always been thought that the main diet of grey seals was cod, but what do they really
eat? 2 In the UK the Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU) funded by the Department for the
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has a statutory duty to provide scientific advice
to the government on the management of seal populations. Commissioned research carried
out by Hammond et al., (1994) in the Inner and Outer Hebrides found sandeels to form the
major part of grey seal diet, while other prey such as cod played a smaller role, salmon
consumption was found to be insignificant.
3 It was estimated that 1000,000 tons of fish are removed by the effort of man and marine
mammals in these areas. Estimates for seabird predation are 70,000 tons, seals 120,000 tons
and cetacean predation 160,000 tons. Man harvests the rest but shockingly, indigenous local
fleets take only 25,000 tons, whilst the European Union (EU) fleets and discard make up the
rest of the figures (Scottish Sea Fisheries Statistical Tables, 1980 97 cited in Thomson).
4 With competition intense for these limited resources the government through the SMRU,
has to be seen to be doing something to appease the fishing industry.

Writing Conclusions
Summarise the main arguments;
Try not to repeat what you have already written;
Show how your arguments and/or examples are relevant to the essay title. Make sure you
end your conclusion with a strong sentence, giving your final view.

21

Useful Words and Phrases

It can sometimes be difficult to think of the correct word or phrase to start a new sentence
or paragraph. The words and phrases listed below may help.

22

To introduce a similar
idea

Also
Besides
Furthermore
In addition
Too

Moreover
Another
An additional
Supplementary evidence
suggest

To compare things

Also
Similarly
And both
But also
Similar to

Likewise
Too
And not only
Neither, nor

To introduce an opposite
idea

However,
Instead
Nonetheless
On the contrary
Whereas
Despite

This differs from

In contrast
Nevertheless
On the other hand
Although

To introduce an example

For example
Such as
An example of

For instance
Like

To emphasise

In fact
Indeed

To reiterate

To introduce an
alternative

Otherwise
If

Or
Unless

To signal chronological
order

First
First of all
Next
Gradually
Finally

Second
Then
Meanwhile
Last

To indicate order of
importance

Above all
Most importantly
Primarily
Significantly

The most important

First and foremost
A more important

To introduce a cause or
reason

For
Since
Because of
Due to

The consequence of
The effect of
As a result

To introduce an effect or
result

Accordingly
As a consequence
Hence
Therefore

As a result
Consequently
Thus

To conclude

In conclusion
Indeed
All in all
In summary

In brief
It is clear that
The evidence suggests
These examples show that

Report Writing
A report is a formal piece of written work and presented in a different style from an essay.
Reports are usually written for a clear and specific purpose and are likely to be aimed at a
particular person or group of people. A report may need to make recommendations for
action. The structure of a report is more detailed than an essay with the use of headings and
sub-headings to introduce pieces of information.You may find it helpful to consider the
following areas when report writing: Planning, Research, Structure,Writing and Language.

Planning
Answering these questions will help you in planning your report and organising your work:

Who

Who has requested you produce the report?

Who is it aimed at/will be reading it?
Who might be required to follow up any suggestions or recommended
actions in the report?

Why

Why is the report being produced?

Think about the purpose of the report and possible outcomes.

What

What are the terms of reference or aims of the report?

The terms of reference or aims will identify what the report should be
about, the range of what it should cover.
It is likely that the terms of reference or aims may be defined by whoever
is requesting the report eg. Supervisor or tutor.
What are the objectives of the report? What might be expected as a
result? It may be a conclusion, recommendations and/or suggested actions.

When

Timescale keep in mind your deadlines

Identify a realistic timetable.
Schedule deadlines for obtaining information from external sources eg.
interviews, data provided by others, as well as from your own research.

How

The structure of your report may be governed by your subject. Scientific,

medical, laboratory, engineering, management, business and placement reports
(and others!) may require different formats and are likely to require different
types of information.
Your report will need to follow a logical sequence with clearly identified
sections for different subject areas/parts of the report.
You will need to use headings and sub-headings and possibly a numbering
system. An example is given below:
1 Introduction
1.1 The problem
1.2 The purpose of the Research
1.3 Objectives
You do not need to write each section in the order of the planned
structure of the report. Write different sections as you have the
appropriate information, you can order it later.
Be aware that the format of your completed report may change from
your original planned format.

23

Research
Method(s) of research
- Interviews
- Questionnaires
- Tests
- Experiments
- Audio-visual material
- Accessing information from books and journals

How to conduct research

- collecting appropriate and sufficient evidence
- writing style and conventions

Aim to achieve:
- accuracy
- objectivity
- reliability
- validity

24

Report structure
Your course handbook or tutors may provide guidance on the structure of reports for your
field of study. If this information is not provided follow the order below.
Title Page
Acknowledgements
Contents Page
List tables and illustrations
Abstract -

briefly outline your report with the conclusions

Introduction -

outline research in this area and its significance within the

content of your report.

Literature Review - discuss the most important/relevant and up-to-date research linked
to your research and introduce arguments supporting or opposing
research opinion.
Methodology -

a description of the research methods you used

Results -

state the main findings

Analysis of results - discuss the main findings, analysing results against the research
covered in your literature review. Do the findings agree or disagree
with those findings?
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendices
References -

a list of authors or sources cited directly in your text.

Bibliography -

a list of the general reading material you have used.

Glossary

25

Science Writing
Producing a piece of written work for a science-based subject usually requires a particular
style and use of language. The aim is to be factual and report observations and conclusions
based on a logical evaluation of research. Avoid using descriptive or potentially ambiguous
language.

Report format

Aims
Introduction
Method
Results
Analysis
Discussion
Conclusion

You should also consider the following points when assessing results
from existing research:

Analyse the arguments:

Are the arguments based on theory or experiments?

Can the sources used be easily identified?
Are the concepts defined?
Look for evidence to support each of the arguments;
Identify strengths and weaknesses in arguments.

Look at the methods used and consider:

26

Sample size;
The control of variables;
Reliability of evidence/results;
Validity;
The adequacy and accuracy of techniques used;
Was the methodology objective?

Question the conclusions:

Are the conclusions logical?
Is there adequate evidence to support the results?
Do the results lead to any important or significant findings?

Other points to remember

Be concise - put down the facts and avoid irrelevant details;

Use diagrams - these can reduce the amount of words you need to use;
Split the text into sections under headings;
Read other science reports for your subject to gain an understanding of the tone, style and
presentation required;
Check that you have used the guidelines or examples provided by lecturing staff - especially
referencing style;
Start practical work as soon as possible to allow sufficient time to observe and collate your
information and to consider the significance of the results.

27

Key Verbs
Sometimes changing the wording in a sentence can help you to express what you mean
more clearly.
Example:
There was not a big change in weight can be expressed more
effectively as There was no significant change in weight.
The following verbs may be useful when you are writing a science report.
Indicate
The figures indicate that
Represent
The blue line on the chart represents
Illustrate
The test illustrates the importance of
Prepare
The solutions was prepared for the test
Produce
The machine was produced by
Compose
The solution composed of X and Z
Form
The fossils were formed inside
Process
The information was processed
Determine
The right density will be determined
Operate
The battery operated the device
Calculate
The numbers were calculated
Maintain
The solution maintained its temperature
Monitor
The experiment was monitored
Sample
Solution A was sampled
Stabilise
The temperature was stabilised
Measure
The correct height was measured
Removed
The impurities were removed
Apply
The gel was applied to the side
Suggest
The result suggested that
Estimate
The figure for that year was estimated
Observe
The change in colour was observed
Absorb
The material absorbed the liquid
Require
The research required more funding
Release
The rat was released from the cage
Modify
The formula was modified
Preserved
The remains were preserved in the lab
Specimen
A good specimen was chosen for
Substance
These substances were tested
Property
The rocks unusual properties are
Compound
It was a compound of materials
Quantity
The quantity of materials was measured

28

Dissertation Structure
Your course handbook or tutors may provide guidance on the structure of your dissertation
for your area of study. If this information is not provided follow the order below.
Title Page
Abstract - briefly outline the content of your dissertation and the main conclusions
Acknowledgements
Index
Introduction -

outline the aim of your dissertation, the main research in this area and
its significance which supports your reasons for investigating the
subject.

Literature Review - discuss the most important/relevant and up-to-date research linked
to your research and introduce arguments supporting or opposing
research opinion.
Methodology -

a description of the research methods you used

Results -

state the main findings

Discussion -

discuss the main findings, analysing results against the research

covered in your literature review. Do the findings agree or
disagree with those findings?

Conclusions
References -

a list of authors or sources cited directly in your text.

Bibliography -

a list of the general reading material you have used during

your research of this topic .

Appendices

29

Writing a Literature Review

A literature review should be:
Analytical, critical, important, evaluative and relevant to your area of study

A literature review should cover:

Recent or relevant research in your area of study;
Identify contrasting views;
Describe research methods used in previous studies.

Make sure that you:

Critically evaluate previous research;

Determine the strengths and weaknesses of previous research;
Decide whether previous research results are valid;
Discuss the relevance of previous research to your area of study.

Sources of information

Books
Journal articles
On-line data bases
Web pages

Skills required

Knowledge of how to search using computer data bases;

Knowledge of data collection methods;
An understanding of the research methods used in your area of study;
To be able to identify comparisons and list them;
To organise the arguments;
Awareness of plagiarism;
Accurate referencing.

Try to avoid

Adding too much detail;

Writing long, rambling sentences which may confuse the reader;
Making it too vague;
Including irrelevant information.

The volume of reading required for a literature review may be high.Therefore you might find
the information on making notes and reading skills covered in this guide helpful.

30

A Critical Approach to Writing

At University you will be expected to critically evaluate existing research knowledge. To show
you understand how different arguments are constructed you should:
Look at the date of the publication. This may help you decide if the literature is up-to-date
and relevant to your area of study;
Look for the main argument;
Look at the reasoning behind the argument;
Does the argument support the authors conclusions?
Look at the type of evidence the author has used to support their argument;
Is the evidence strong or weak?
You should state why the evidence is strong or weak;
Compare and contrast the different arguments;
Compare the conclusions. Do different authors agree or disagree?
Be prepared to state why different authors have reached different conclusions.

To help detect hidden bias in texts you should be aware when you are reading that opinions
can be communicated by:
Strong visual imagery;
Reference to leading authority;
Use of convincing language.

You should
Make sure your own opinion is supported by reliable evidence and/or authority.

31

Signal Words
Make sure your own opinion is supported by reliable evidence and/or authority.
It is important that you develop your own arguments and conclusions.

Signal words to show your own opposing opinion:

argued

asserted

claimed
It may be/ could be/ might be

that
contended

maintained

said

Signal words to use to show opposing opinion from another source:

argued

asserted

claimed
It has been / It is

that
contended

maintained

said

32

A Basic Guide to Referencing

It is important that you accurately reference your academic work both within the text and in a
bibliography or reference section at the end of your work to avoid losing marks and
accusations of plagiarism.

How to reference using the Harvard system

Book

Journal

- Name of author(s)/ Editor(s)

- The year of publication
(placed in parentheses)
- The title of the book
- The name of the publisher

- Name of author(s)/ editor(s)

- The year of publication
(placed in parentheses)
- Title of the article
- Title of the journal
- Volume/ issue number
- Pages

Cottrell, S (1999) The Study Skills

Handbook. PALGRAVE

Chinn, S (2003) Does Dyscalculia Add Up?

Dyslexia Review, 14 (3), pp. 4 - 8
Referencing in Text

When referring directly to an author:

In her book, Cotrell (1999) advises...
When referring to a particular issue/argument put forward by an author:
It is argued that references (Cottrell, 1999) are needed

How to reference using the British Standard

Book

Journal

- Name of author(s)/ editor(s)

- Title
- Publisher
- Year of publication

- Name of author(s)
- The article title
- The journal title
- Volume/ issue number
- Year of publication
- Page number(s)

Cottrell, S.The Study Skills Handbook.

PALGRAVE, 1999.

Chinn, S. Does Dyscalculia Add Up?

Dyslexia Review, 14 (3), 2003, pp. 4 - 8

Referencing in Text
You should use the authors name and then number the order it appears in your text in
one of the following ways:
- In her book, Cottrell (1) advises
- In her book, Cottrell [1] advises
- In her book, Cottrell 1 advises
The complete reference should then appear at the foot of the page or end of a chapter.
1
. Cottrell, S.The Study Skills Handbook. PALGRAVE, 1999.

33

You will also find referencing less time consuming if you make an accurate note of the
reference on a separate piece of paper or index card as you read and research information for
essays and assignments.

You must also remember to:

Put references in alphabetical order;

Note the order of information;
Note the use of punctuation;
Note the type face and style;
Group together referencing sources in your list, e.g. all books then journals etc.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is defined as the unacknowledged use of another persons ideas, words or works
either verbatim or in substance without specific acknowledgement.

You might be accused of plagiarism if you:

Do not correctly reference your sources;

Copy the work of others word for word;
Use other peoples ideas without acknowledgement;
Copying another students work;
Using words or sentences from other peoples work. Even if you have changed the order it
will still be plagiarism;
Submit work you have asked someone else to write for you.

Tips to help you avoid plagiarism:

Use your own words, no matter how poor you believe your written skills to be;
Avoid using too many quotations;
Accurately reference your sources;
Do not copy down information word for word;
Use a different coloured pen to copy quotes or when writing any other information down
word for word. It will help you to identify the extent to which you are copying;
Write your notes in your own words. Read a passage and then cover the page and
summarise out loud in your own words, then make your own notes;
If you omit words from a direct quote indicate this by using three dots inside
parentheses ().

34

Examinations
Failure in examinations can be attributed to exam nerves or as a result of the negative effects
of stress. However, it is usually poor preparation and planning which results in exam failure. It
is therefore important that you take control and organise your time and employ strategies to
ensure better performance in examinations.

Revision
Getting started:
Draw up a realistic revision timetable this should include some social time to allow
you to relax;
Organise your notes by module or topic if you have followed advice in the Note Taking
section, you will find getting started on revision easier;
Decide what topics to revise;
Use past exam papers to guide your revision;
How many questions do you have to answer for each paper?
Use past papers to practice writing answers to exam questions;
Be positive about your learning;
Ask tutors for help or to clarify information if necessary.

Memory
Recall of information is essential for successful performance in examinations. Better recall can
be achieved by time management of study periods and regular over learning.
Try to keep concentrated study to no more than 40 minutes at one time;
Take regular short breaks;
Over learning is essential for recall of information:
- After each break spend 10 to 15 minutes reviewing
work covered in the previous study period
- Review again after 24 hours
Be aware of when your concentration slips it may be shorter than 40 minutes;
Find a quiet place to work to avoid being distracted during revision periods;
Make sure you drink plenty of water to keep your body hydrated and eat regularly.

35

Try one of the following techniques to help

make information memorable

Use multi-sensory methods write it, say it, see it, hear it;
Use Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review, when reading through text;
Summarise key information onto one page using coloured paper;
Use mind maps;
Put key information into poster format and stick on your wall;
Use coloured pens to highlight important facts, to link ideas or to separate arguments;
Use technology TextHelp Read & Write programme allows you to hear and read
information simultaneously;
Record your revision notes or answers onto to tape or disc. Hearing the information may
help you to remember it;
Group revision you may find it helpful to spend some time revising with friends.

Timed examinations
Make certain you know where all of your exams are being held in advance of the start time;
Organise pens, pencils, rulers etc. the night before;
Dont let other people panic you and if necessary avoid them.

In the exam
Before you turn over the exam paper, write down key dates, definitions, quotes names or
other information you feel you may forget;
Read the instructions on the question paper carefully. They will tell you if there is a
compulsory question and how many questions you must answer;
Scan through the paper and tick all questions you could answer;
Calculate the time needed to answer each question and the order you wish to attempt them;
Read each of your selected questions carefully underlining key words or phrases. Also check
how many parts there are to each question;
Plan your answer to the first question and write it. Keep to the plan and avoid including
information which is not relevant;
Plan your answers for all the remaining questions to avoid panic towards the end of the exam.

Remember
Write in short clear sentences;
If you forget a word, spelling or chunk of information, leave a gap and come back to try to fill
in the detail later;
Make your writing legible;
Less information and evidence is needed in comparison to course work;
Essays are shorter;
Allow time for proof reading.

36

Preparing for Oral Presentations

Factors to consider when you are preparing and delivering oral presentations:

Audience
Who are your audience?
How many will be in the audience?
What knowledge might the audience already have?

Material
Time restrictions shape the content of your presentation. Therefore, divide your information
into the following categories:
Information the audience must have;
Information the audience should have;
Information that is not essential but which might be useful in addition to main points.

Preparation and Speaking from notes

Write key words or phrases on prompt cards;

Bullet point main heading and write brief notes beside each point;
Use coloured card or paper for each main point (colour being a strong visual memory aid);
Make sure your writing is large and clear.

Finally
Rehearsal - practice your presentation.

How are you going to present your information?

If you use overheads (OHTs) or powerpoint stop talking for a few seconds and give your
audience time to read each slide;
Speak clearly;
Dont rush or speak too fast. Pause and moderate the tone and volume in your voice;
Eye contact is important.Therefore, dont be afraid to look at your audience. (tip - look just
above their heads);
Dont stand with your hands in your pockets; fiddle with your hair or any other mannerisms
which might distract audience attention.

37

Spelling, Grammar and Punctuation

The following is intended as a brief guide to basic spelling and grammar rules and punctuation.

Basic Spelling Rules

The building blocks of English words are the vowels

These vowels have 2 sounds long and short

u
acorn/ ant
evening/ egg
iron/ ink
open/ on
university/ up

But y is unusual because it can be used both as a vowel and a consonant. The letter y is used
to replace the letter i in words of English origin that end with a long or short vowel i sound as
in happy, cry, baby. But for words such as yellow, yolk, yacht the y is used as a consonant.
The simple word no, contains a consonant (n) and a vowel (o). The vowel in this word sounds
long because it is not blocked in by a consonant coming after it.
The word not, contains a consonant (n) vowel (o) and consonant (t). The vowel in this word
sounds short because it is blocked in by a consonant coming after it.
However, if you want to say note, you need a way of lengthening the vowel sound whilst
keeping the (t) sound at the end of the word. We add an (e) to the end of the word to enable
the vowel (o) to sound long. Therefore, if there is only one consonant separating 2 vowels
then the first one will sound long.
Examples of this rule are:

Hope/ Hop
Scrape/ Scrap
Dine/ Dinner

Using the ie rule

The standard rule is i before e except after c.This rule creates a long e sound as in niece and
receive.
Words using the ei letter combination creates a long a sound as in eight, weight, sleigh, foreign,
vein, their, freight, neighbour.

Using the -ce/se rule

The rule is c for a noun as in advice and practice.
Use s for a verb as in advise and practise.

38

Multi-sensory techniques for spelling

If you regularly experience difficulty with a particular spelling or course-related words try
employing the following multi-sensory technique. Remember by activating all four senses at
the same time will help you to be able to learn and recall spellings. Strategies should employ
the use of colour, shape or symbol representation to help make the word more memorable.
Word

Strategy

Meaning

Picasso

Pic / ass / o

Artists name

though

though

Despite the fact that

through

th / r / ough

thought

though / t

Going in at one side and

coming out another
Past tense of to think

Key stages
Look at the word and say the strategy;
Say the word and then say the strategy;
Cover the word and the strategy;
Say the word, say the strategy and picture the strategy;
Write the word, saying the strategy as you write it;
Check letter by letter to make sure you have written what you intended.
(Adapted from the Multi-sensory Spelling Programme devised by Jenny Lee)

Basic Rules of Grammar

The base rule is that each sentence must contain a subject and verb element. A basic example
of this is:
The world consists of many different cultures.
subject

verb

The subject element is who or what the sentence is about.

The verb element provides the action or process in a sentence.
Information can be expanded in a sentence by using commas, and, but, or.
Examples:

A novel makes the reader see connections among various phenomena and look
at something in a way never thought about before.
Data was collected in early February 2003, during mild winter conditions.

39

Punctuation Guide

40

Full Stop .

Identifies the end of a sentence

Semi-colon ;

Indicates a break or in place of and

Used to separate items in a list

Colon :

Used to separate a statement from an explanation

Used to introduce a list

Comma ,

Used to break clauses in a sentence or mark a list

or run of phrases

Bracket () and [ ]

( ) Used in place of commas or for

referencing
[ ] Used by you, the writer, to clarify
or comment

Hyphen

Used to connect compound words e.g. multi-sensory

Dash _

Used in place of brackets

To separate dates or numbers, 1999 2002, 40 50%

Apostrophe

To show possession (the mans hat) plural (the managers

reports)
Used when words are contracted (cant)

Information Technology
Using information technology is an important part of study at university. To support computer
based learning for students with dyslexia, dyspraxia or other Specific Learning Difficulties the
University of Newcastle has networked the following specialist software packages:

textHELP Read & Write

Inspiration
The University Computing Service (UCS) recommends that you go to the website
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/iss/software to check the location of all UCS managed software.

How textHELP! Read & Write and Inspiration can help you in your studies.
textHELP Read & Write is a specialised tool bar that works within Windows based
applications such as word processing, Email, spreadsheets and the Internet. Read & Write has
the following facilities:
Speech - It can be set to read out loud as you type each word, sentence or paragraph. It also
provides full screen reading of text, menus and icons.
Spell Checking - An advanced phonetic spell checker can help the user correct the most
complex errors and notify you when a mistake is made.
Homophones Support - homophones are colour coded to help to proof read and correct
text. Descriptions of like sounding words are provided to ensure the correct word is selected.
Word Prediction - phonetic and grammar based word prediction will offer suggestions as
you type.
Thesaurus - provides synonyms for words with descriptions and sample sentences to aid
understanding.
Word Wizard - is a step-by-step process linking the word you know, to the word you are
searching for.

41

Inspirations is a software tool that will help you to develop and organise your ideas. The
programme allows you to create both a visual map and linear outline of your ideas as well as
providing templates for essay planning, report writing and organisation of presentations.
The programme is easy to use and you can make use of colour and symbol representation to
visually display and organise your ideas.

Diagram

Origination
Problems

Over
Commitment

Planning

Disorganised

Plan social time

into your week

Use a
wall chart

Keep a clear
desk top

Linear
Organisation problems
I. over commitment
A. plan social time into your week
II. planning
A. use a wall chart
III. disorganised
A. negotiate study time with flat mates
B. take regular short breaks

42

Easily
distracted

Negotiate
study time with
flat mates

Take regular
short breaks

Symbol integration

Monuments and
investigation into
design & purpose

You can use

different shaped
boxes

religious

ancient

Insert
ideas in
text format

How to access textHELP and Inspiration

Click on the Start menu and look for the Accessibility icon (a blue disability symbol in a white
box). Right click on the Accessibility icon to display the Read & Write and Inspiration menus.
Double click on the selected programme to open.

43

References
Buzan,T. (2000), Use Your Head Millennium Edition, BBC Worldwide Ltd.
Cottrell, S. (1999), The Study Skills Handbook, Palgrave Macmillan.
Lee, J. et al (1999), Get SUSSED: strategy, understanding and solutions education and dyslexia,
University of Sunderland: Learning Development Service.
Stott, R. and Chapman, P. (2001), Grammar and Writing, Pearson Education Ltd.
Copyright version 4.1 (2004) held by Neil D. Flemming, Christchurch, New Zealand and
Charles C. Bonwell, Green Mountain Falls, Colorado 80819 U.S.A, VARK, a guide to learning
styles

Websites
Brunel guide, Study Skills Writing Papers and Reports.
URL: sol.brunel.ac.uk/~jarvis/bola/study/skills9.htm, [28 July 2003]
Cite them Right.
URL: http://www.unn.ac.uk/central/isd/cite/index.htm [12 July 2004]
critical/analytical thinking skills.
URL: www.palgrave.com/skills4study/html/studyskills/critical.htm [16 July 2004]
Oral Presentations.
URL: www.abdn.ac.uk/phsyics/Guide/talks [16 July 2004]
The University of Reading Study Support.
URL: www.rdg.ac.uk/Counselling/Studyskills/notetaking.htm [9 July 2004]
Understanding your Learning Style.
URL: www.studyskills.soton.ac.uk/studyguides/Learning%20Styles.doc [16 July 2004]
University of Leeds Institute of Communication Studies
Study Skills Guide to Note Making.
URL: www.leeds.ac.uk/ics/study2.htm [9 July 2004]
www.hope.ac.uk/gnu/stuhelp/pres2 [9 July 2004]
www.mantex.co.uk, [9 July 2004]
www.palgrave.com/skills4study/html/studyskills/critical.htm [16 July 2004]
Your Guide to Effective Study
Student Services Study Skills Centre.
URL: http://online.northumbria.ac.uk/central_departments/student_services/study_skills/
Study%20Guide2.doc [12 August 2003]

Teaching and Learning Materials

Severs, S. (2002), Study Skills, Disability Support Service, University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Murray, R. (2004) Centre for Academic Practice, University of Strathclyde

44