Definition

Diagenesis is the change of sediments or existing sedimentary rocks into a different

sedimentary rock during and after rock formation (lihification) at temperature and
pressure less than required for formation of metamorphic rock. It does not include
changes from weathering. It is any chemical, physical, or biological change
undergone by sediment after its initial deposition, which is after its lithification. This
process exclude surface alteration (weathering) and metamorphosism. These changes
happen at relatively low temperatures and pressures and result in changes to the rocks
original mineralogy and texture. It is hard to extinguish between diageneis and
metamorphosis, but metamorphosis occur at higher temperatures and pressures than
diagenesis. Among the influential factors are hydrothermal solution, meteoric
groundwater, porosity, permeability, solubility and time.
After deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried beneath successive
layers of sediment and cemented by minerals that precipitate from solution. Grains of
sediment, rock fragments and fossils can be replaced by other minerals during
diagenesis. Porosity usually decreases during diagenesis except in rare cases such as
dissolution and dolomitization.
The study of diagenesis in rocks is used to understand the geologic history they have
undergone and the nature and type of fluids that have circulated through them. From
economic point of view, this will help in assessing the likelihood of finding various
economical viable minerals and hydrocarbon deposits. Not only that, process of
diagenesis also important in the decomposition of bone tissue.
The Role of Diagenesis in Hydrocarbon Generation
When animal or plant matter is buried during sedimentation, the constituent organic
molecules such as lipids, protein, carbohydrates and lignin compounds break down
due to increase in temperature and pressure. This transformation occurs in the first
few hundreds metres of burial and results in the creation of two primary products
which are kerogens and bitumen.

It is generally accepted in oil and gas industry that hydrocarbons are formed by
organic process, which is by the thermal alteration of these kerogens. In this way,
given certain conditions under influenced of temperature, kerogens will break down to
form hydrocarbon through a chemical process known as cracking, or catagenesis.
Diagenesis has been divided into three stages based on hydrocarbon and coal genesis.
The early stage is called eodiagenesis, middle stage is called mesodiagenesis, and late
stage is called telodiagenesis. During the early or eodiagenesis stages shales lose pore
water, little to no hydrocarbons are formed and coal varies between lignite and subbituminous. During middle or mesodiagenesis stages dehydration of clay mineral
occurs, the main development of oil genesis occurs and high to low volatile
bituminous coals are formed. During telodiagenesis organic matters undergoes
cracking and dry gas is produced because semi-anthracite coals develop.
Early diagenesis in newly formed aquatic sediments is mediated by microorganism
using different electron acceptors as part of their metabolism. Organic matter is
mineralized, liberating carbon dioxide in pore water, which can diffuse into water
column depending on condition. Various processes of mineralization in this phase are
nitrification and denitrification, manganese oxide reduction, iron hydroxide reduction,
sulphate reduction and fermentation.
Factors That Influenced Diagenesis
Important factors that influenced the coarse of diagenesis are classified as either
sedimentary or environmental. Sedimentary factors include particle size, fluid content,
organic content and mineralogy composition. Environmental factors are temperature,
pressure and chemical conditions.
Particles in a layer of sediment may be subjected to:
1. Compaction particles are moved into closer contact with their neighbours by
pressure.
2. Cementation particles become coated or surrounded by precipitated material.
3. Recrystallization particle change size and shape without changing composition.
4. Replacement particle change composition without changing size or form.

5. Differential solution some particles are wholly or partially dissolved while

others remain unchanged.
6. Authigenesis chemical alterations causes changes in size, form and composition.
Any one of these transformations can significantly impact porosity and permeability
hence modifies reservoir volume and flow rate.
Sandstone Diagenesis
Freshly deposited sand contains an assemblage of minerals that vary with local rock
source and depositional environment. Sand-sized grains create a self-supporting
framework at the time of deposition, finer particles form detrital matrix and the
remaining volume is pore space. Frameworks grains are detrital particles commonly
composed of quartz, feldspars and rock fragments. The detrital matrix consists of
mechanically transported fines that are predominantly clay minerals. The constituent
minerals of this accumulation were formed under a specific range of temperature,
pressure, pH and oxidation-state conditions unique to each mineral. These conditions
will have a bearing on physiochemical stability of the mineral accumulation.
Diagenetic processes are initiated at the interface between the depositional medium
and the previous layers of sediments. These processes are modified as the layer is
buried beneath sedimentary overburden. With time, the sand responds to changing
pressure, temperature and pore-fluid chemistry that will emerge as sandstone, minus
some of its original porosity but increase secondary porosity.
All sand has intergranular porosity that changes with diagenesis. Macro pores become
micro pores where minerals dissolve and create voids. Other minerals dissolve, then
precipitate as cements that can partially or completely block pore space.
Porosity and permeability are important parameters both for diagenetic development
and its effects on reservoir rock. Amount of water or other fluids and their rate of flow
through the pore oversee the amount and types of minerals dissolved and precipitated,
which will alter flow path and rates.
Diagenetic processes by which sandstone porosity is lost or modified are:
1. Penecontemporaneous porosity loss.
Penecontemporaneous occur after deposition but before consolidation of the
enclosing rock. Although this process may not be important on a large scale, they
can be responsible for local reduction in sand porosity. Examples of the processes

are bioturbation, slumping and the formation of soil. The activities of flora and
fauna can disturb the original fabric or sediment. Bioturbation have more impact
in marine environments than in other settings. Slumping (mass downslope
movement) can result in a homogenization of sediments. This newly formed
mixture of sand and clay has less porosity than the original sand layer. Soil
creation can be an important diagenetic agent in environments such as alluvial
fans, point bars and delta plains. Soil coverings contribute to the acidity of
meteoric waters that percolate downward to underlying rock. Clay particles
generated through the formation of soil may be carried in suspension by meteoric
water to infiltrate previously deposited sand layers. There, individual clay particle
may disperse throughout sandstone, accumulate to form thin laminae or attach as
clay coatings on framework sand grains.
2. Porosity loss during burial.
Deeper burial is accompanied by the primary causes of porosity loss, which are
compaction and cementation. Compaction can reduce pore space or hinder sand
compaction and dissolution at grain contacts. During compaction, sand grains
move closer together under the load of overburden or tectonic stress, destroying
existing voids and expelling pore fluids in the process. Chemically and
mechanically unstable grains, such as clays and volcanic rock fragments, tend to
compact faster than more stable grains such as quartz. Compaction mechanisms
include grain rotation and slippage, deformation and pressure dissolution. Grain
slippage and rotation are typical responses to loading in which a slight rotation of
grains permits edges of nondeformable grains to slip past adjacent grain edges,
creating a tighter packing arrangement. The amount of porosity that can be lost
depends on grain sorting, roundness and overburden pressure.
3. Ductile grain deformation.
As ductile grains deform under load, they change shape or volume. Originally
spherical or ovoid at the time of deposition, ductile grains are squeezed between
more-resistant framework grains and deform into adjacent pore spaces. This
reduces porosity while decreasing stratal thickness. The extent of compaction and
porosity loss depends on the abundance of ductile grains and the load applied.
Sandstone containing ductile grains undergo relatively little compaction if they are
cemented before burial of more than a few metres or are strongly supported by
pore fluid pressure in an overpressured subsurface setting.
4. Pressure dissolution.

Points of contact between mineral grains are susceptible to dissolution in response

to weight of overburden. Mineral solubility increases locally under the higher
pressures present at grain contacts. Pressure dissolution can reduce bulk volume
and hence porosity. Grain composed of calcite, quartz, dolomite, chert and
feldspar are commonly subjected to pressure dissolution.
5. Replacement.
Involves simultaneous dissolution of one mineral and precipated another. In order
to interstitial physicochemical conditions, dissolved mineral is no longer in
equilibrium with pore fluids, while the precipated mineral still in equilibrium.
This substitution changes mineral composition of original sediment by removing
unstable minerals and replacing them with more stable minerals. This process of
equilibrium can occur over the course of succeeding generations, whereby one
mineral creates another as environmental conditions changes. Replacement opens
the way to an assortment of porosity and permeability modifications. Come
minerals are susceptible to replacement. The degree of susceptibility to
replacement normally follows an ordered mineral stability series in which
minerals removed from their zone of stability are readily replaced. However, even
the most stable minerals such as muscovite or quartz are not immune to
replacement.
6. Cementation.
Cements consist of mineral materials precipated chemically from pore fluids.
Cementation affects nearly all sandstone and is the major method by which sands
lithify into sandstone. Cementation can sustain porosity if it supports the
framework before the sandstone is subjected to further compaction. Remaining
porosity is not lost to compaction and excellent reservoir properties can be
preserved to considerable depth. Cementation can lock fine-grained particles in
place, preventing their migration during flow that might block pore throats and
reduce permeability.

Amount and type of cement is

sandstone depend on

composition of the pore fluids and their rate of flow through the pores, as well as
time available for cementation. It is common for certain minerals to form cements
in sandstone but the most common are calcite, quartz, anhydrite, dolomite,
hematite, feldspar, siderite, gypsum, clay minerals, zeolites and barite.
All sands initially have intergranular pores. Primary porosity present when the
sediment is deposited and frequently destroyed during burial. Porosity that develops

after deposition is known as secondary porosity. Secondary porosity can be important

from a petroleum system perspective. Most hydrocarbon generation and primary
migration take place below the depth range of effective primary porosity. Primary
migration path and the accumulation of hydrocarbons are commonly controlled by the
distribution of secondary porosity. It may develop during any of the three stages of
diagenesis. However, burial diagenesis is responsible for most secondary porosity.