STABILITY AND DUCTILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES

D. Camotim et al. (Eds.)

Lisbon, Portugal, September 6-8, 2006

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF STEEL BEAMS:

A GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR THE MOMENT GRADIENT FACTOR
Aitziber Lpez, Danny J. Yong and Miguel A. Serna
TECNUN - University of Navarra, Spain
e-mails: alopez@tecnun.es, djyong@tecnun.es, maserna@tecnun.es
Keywords: Elastic lateral-torsional buckling, Equivalent uniform moment factor, Moment gradient
factor, End restrictions.
Abstract. The assessment of buckling resistance of beams and beam-columns requires the computation
of the elastic critical moment, which strongly depends on both bending moment diagram and end support
restrictions. These two effects are usually considered as uncoupled: bending moment distribution is taken
into account by an equivalent uniform moment factor (EUMF), and end support restrictions are
introduced through buckling length. Some modern steelworks design codes provide closed form
expressions to compute the EUFM for any bending moment distribution, but changes in the moment
factor due to end support restrictions are not considered. The paper first presents a general review of
moment factor values offered by modern steelworks standards. Then these values are compared with
those provided by recent and traditional technical papers. Finally a new general closed form expression
to compute the EUMF for any moment distribution and support conditions is presented.

1 INTRODUCTION
Because of its importance in the design of beams and beam-columns [1], lateral-torsional buckling
continues to attract the attention of many researchers. Solutions for simple cases may be obtained from
traditionally accepted books such as Timoshenko and Gere [2], Chajes [3] and Trahair [4]. With the
advent of computer-aided numerical techniques, such as finite differences and finite elements, new
solutions to complex lateral-torsional buckling problems were presented. Summary papers that give quite
precise panoramas on the research performed at the time are those written by Nethercot [5, 6].
The elastic critical moment is directly affected by the following factors [7]: material properties, such
as the modulus of elasticity and shear modulus; geometric properties of the cross-section, such as the
torsion constant, warping constant, and moment of inertia about the minor axis; properties of the beam,
such as length of the beam, and lateral bending and warping restrictions at supports; and, finally, loading,
since lateral-torsional buckling is greatly affected by moment diagram and loading position with respect
to the section shear centre. As a theoretically based and generally accepted procedure, consideration of
the bending moment diagram is taken into account by means of the equivalent uniform moment factor
(EUMF), also called the moment gradient correction factor. The elastic critical moment for any bending
moment diagram is obtained by multiplying this factor by the elastic critical moment of the simply
supported beam with uniform moment.
In spite of the extensive research reported in the literature, some important discrepancies on the
equivalent uniform moment factor still remain unsolved. A major comprehensive effort to offer a general
procedure to determine the elastic critical moment of beams was presented by Nethercot and Rockey [8].
In their work, they considered four types of supports (simply supported, warping fixed, lateral bending
fixed and completely fixed) and three loading levels (top flange, shear centre and bottom flange) resulting
in 41 different cases. More recently, Suryoatmono and Ho [9] have reported the results of an elaborate
study using finite differences technique to solve the governing differential equation. They have shown

A. Lpez et al.

how equivalent uniform moment factors provided by AISC [10, 11, 12] are very conservative for most
moment diagrams but may be non-conservative in particular cases. Their paper provides closed-form
expressions which match numerical results of each one of the loading cases presented, among which they
have also considered nonlinear moment diagrams. Their closed-form expressions are the result of
applying a polynomial of degree 6 to the numerical results. However, this study does not consider lateral
bending and warping prevention as situations that need a specific analysis. Using both the BubnovGalerkin approach and the Finite Element Method, a research team from South Korea [13] has conducted
an extensive investigation into elastic buckling in I-beams. Even though their study focuses on linear
moment diagrams only, lateral bending prevention and warping prevention are also considered. In their
paper they proposed new equations to be used in determining the moment gradient correction factor for
those particular cases. Finally, in the context of the ECCS-Validation Group, which is in charge of
reviewing specifications for members in bending to be used in the Eurocode for steel structures, Greiner
et al [14] and Salzgeber [15] provide equivalent uniform factors for a very complete set of moment
diagrams. Results for monosymetric beams may be found in the work of Balz and Kolekov [16] and
Helwig et al [17]. Moreover, beams with top bracing and bottom bracing have been considered in Park
and Kang [18], Park et al [19] and Greiner et al [14].

2 ELASTIC CRITICAL MOMENT

With the nomenclature used in Eurocode 3 [20], where (x-x) is the axis along the member, (y-y) is the
major axis of cross-section and (z-z) is the minor axis of the cross-section, the governing differential
equation for the lateral torsional buckling is:

EI w

d 4
dx

d 2

1
1
M y2 +
M yM z = 0
EI z
EI z

(1)

dV y
dV z
dM z
= q z ;
= V y ;
=0
dx
dx
dx

(2)

GI t

dx

with

dM y
dx

= Vz ;

where qz is the distributed load acting on the beam, Vy and Vz are the shear forces, My and Mz are the
bending moments, and is torsion deformation. In order to be able to impose appropriate boundary
conditions at supports, the internal shear forces and the bending moment components in Eq. (1) and Eq.
(2) are referred to the axis in the undeformed configuration.
An exact solution for Eq. (1) is obtained for a double symmetric beam with simply supported
conditions, free warping and subjected to a uniform moment diagram. The elastic critical moment for this
basic situation is:
M cr =

2 EI z
2

I w L2 GI t
+
I z 2 EI z

(3)

Once the elastic critical moment for the basic case has been obtained, it is multiplied by the
equivalent uniform moment factor, C1, to take into account the actual bending moment diagram. Thus, the
value of Mcr may be computed by the expression:

M cr = C1

2 EI z k z I w ( k z L )2 GI t
+

( k z L )2 k w I z
2 EI z

(4)

A. Lpez et al.

where the lateral bending coefficient kz and the warping coefficient kw are introduced to consider support
conditions different from the simply supported beam. These coefficients are equal to 1 for free lateral
bending and free warping, and 0.5 for prevented lateral bending and prevented warping.

3 CLOSED FORM EXPRESSIONS

Based on the limit state concept, modern steel structures codes, such as AISC [10, 11, 12], BS 5950-1
[21] and Eurocode 3 [20], provide design procedures to asses lateral-torsional buckling resistance of
beams. As a first step, these procedures generally require the determination of the elastic critical buckling
moment. Initial imperfections, residual stresses and inelastic buckling are taken into account through the
use of buckling curves [22]. This section presents a schematic overview of the procedures proposed by
some steelwork standards to obtain the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling and of the
values they give for the moment gradient factor.
3.1 AISC LRFD
AISC [10, 11, 12] specifications define the nominal elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment as:

M cr = C b

Lb

E
IzIw
EI z GI t +

Lb

(5)

where Lb is the lateral buckling length and Cb is the moment gradient coefficient.
Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) are identical when the lateral buckling length Lb is made equal to kzL and the
lateral bending coefficient kz and the warping coefficient kw have the same value, i.e., when the beam has
the same degree of prevention for lateral bending as for warping at each of its supports. Apart from this, it
should be noted that AISC LRFD does not consider the possibility of kz being different from kw.
Consequently, values of Cb for any support condition are the same regardless of the value of lateral
bending and warping coefficients.
Following the research work performed by Salvadory [23], values for Cb were given in the AISC
LRFD [10] for the case of linear moment distribution by the following closed-form expression:
Cb = 1.75 1.05 + 0.3 2

with

Cb 2.3

(6)

The latest editions of AISC [11, 12] incorporates, with minor modifications, the closed form
expression proposed by Kirby and Nethercot [24] which is valid for any moment distribution. With
reference to Figure 1, the nonlinear moment gradient coefficient is given by:

Cb =

L/4

L/4

12.5 M max
2.5 M max + 3 M 2 + 4 M 3 + 3 M 4

L/4

Mmax=M5

L/4
L/4

M1
M2

(7)

L/4

L/4

M4

M3

M4

M5
M1

M2

M3

Mmax

Figure 1: Moment diagrams and moment values for Eq. (7)

L/4

A. Lpez et al.

where Mmax is the maximum moment, and M2, M3 and M4 are the values of the moment at L/4, L/2 and
3L/4 of the length respectively. All the moments in Eq. (7) are absolute values, i.e., positive values
regardless of the sign of the bending moment.
3.2 BS 5950
The 2000 edition of the British code for steelworks in buildings (BS 5950-1, [21]) incorporates a
formulation very similar to Eq. (7) of AISC [11, 12]. The two formulations only differ in the weight
coefficient given to the midspan moment.
3.3 Eurocode 3
Lateral-torsional buckling of beams is considered by Eurocode 3 [20] as an ultimate limit state related to
member buckling resistance. The buckling resistance is obtained by multiplying the resistance of the
cross-section by a reduction factor LT. This reduction factor is a function of two other parameters: the
imperfection factor and the non-dimensional slenderness LT. The parameter takes into account the
initial member imperfection, residual stresses and other nonlinear effects. The non-dimensional
slenderness LT depends on the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling, Mcr. However,
Eurocode 3 [20] does not provide information on how to compute Mcr.
Case B

Case A
wL2/12

Case C

wL2/8

wL2/12

M
1 2
2
wL 1

8
3

Case D

1 2

wL 1
8
4

Case E

M0

M0: Moment at mid span

M/M0<0 when as in the figure

M0

Figure 2: Moment diagrams.

4 NEW NUMERICAL RESULTS

Previous research [25] has made clear that the moment gradient factor depends not only on the
moment diagram but also on support conditions. New numerical results are required for a better
consideration of those effects on the value of C1. Using finite differences techniques to solve the
governing differential equation, the lateral-torsional buckling of an IPE500 cross-section beam with two
different lengths has been studied. Four different support conditions resulting from all the possible
combinations of free or prevented lateral bending and warping at each end have been considered. Free
lateral bending and warping at the left end is represented by k1 = 1, prevented support conditions at the
left end by k1 = 0.5. k2 is the corresponding support condition coefficient for the right end. Figures 3 to 6
show the numerical results for beams under five different moment diagrams (Figure 2), together with the
values provided by Eq. (4) from the AISC [11, 12]. Values from BS 5950-1 [21] have not been plotted
because they are very close to those in AISC.
Numerical values for the beams of 8 and 16m length are represented by the dotted curves. Although
both curves are very close, the results for the longer beam are slightly lower. When lateral bending and
warping are free (k1 = k2 =1), Figure 3 shows that curves given by AISC [11, 12] have very conservative
values. However, for the cases when one or the two ends have prevented lateral bending and warping,
AISC [11, 12] overestimates the values of C1 and, consequently, of the elastic critical moment.

A. Lpez et al.

Case A
0
-1.0

5
4
3
2
1

Case B
0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

Case C
0

0.5

Coefficient

1.5

0.5

Coefficient

1.5

Coefficient

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Case D
0

AISC LRFD
Proposed C1

Numerical results
L = 8m and L = 16m
1

Case E
0

-2

-1

-2

-1

Coefficient M/Mo

Coefficient M/Mo

Figure 3: C1 for free lateral bending and warping at both ends (k1 = k2 = 1)

5 PROPOSED CLOSED FORM EXPRESSION

A general closed-form expression for computing moment gradient factors, C1, is very useful in a
strongly based computer-based design process, as it can be directly incorporated in the check routines.
Even though further research might provide more exact matching, a new formulation in proposed here for
the equivalent uniform moment factor, which can take into account situations with prevented lateral
bending and warping at one or both ends.
For a general moment diagram, the coefficient C1 may be obtained by:
2

C1 =

( 1 k )
(1 k )
k A1 +
A2 +
A2
2
2

A1

(8)

where k depends on the lateral bending and warping condition coefficients k1 and k2:

k = k1 k 2

(9)

and A1 and A2 are given by:

A1 =

2
M max
+ 1 M 12 + 2 M 22 + 3 M 32 + 4 M 42 + 5 M 52
2
(1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 )M max

A2 =

M 1 + 2 M 2 + 3M 3 + 2 M 4 + M 5
9 M max

(10)

(11)

where:

1 = (1 k 2 ) ; 2 = 5

k 13
k 22

1
k3
1
; 3 = 5
+
; 4 = 5 22 ; 5 = (1 k 1 )
k

k1
1 k2

(12)

A. Lpez et al.

In Eqs. (10) and (11), Mmax is the maximum moment, and M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5 are the values of the
moment at different sections of the beam as indicated in Figure 1, each of them with the corresponding sign.
Values derived with Eq. (7) are compared to the AISC [12] and the numerical results in Figures 3 to
6. In most cases, the new closed expression produces better results than those obtained by the AISC [12]
and it does not overestimate the moment gradient factor.
7

Case A
0
-1.0

5
4
3
2
1

Case B
0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

Case C
0

0.5

Coefficient

1.5

0.5

Coefficient

1.5

Coefficient

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Case D
0

AISC LRFD
Proposed C1

Numerical results
L = 8m and L = 16m
1

Case E
0

-2

-1

-2

-1

Coefficient M/Mo

Coefficient M/Mo

Figure 4: C1 for prevented lateral bending and warping at both ends (k1 = k2 = 0.5)

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Case A
0
-1.0

Case B
0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

0.5

1.5

Coefficient

5
4
3
2
1

Case C
0

0.5

1.5

Coefficient

Moment gradient factor C1

Coefficient

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Case D
0

6
5

AISC LRFD

Proposed C1

Case E

Numerical results
L = 8m and L = 16m

2
1
0

-2

-1

Coefficient M/Mo

-2

-1

Coefficient M/Mo

Figure 5: C1 for free support conditions at the left end and prevented at the right one (k1 = 1; k2 = 0.5)

A. Lpez et al.

Case A

Moment gradient factor C1

0
-1.0

Moment gradient factor C1

Moment gradient factor C1

Case C
0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

Coefficient

1.0

Case E
0

0.5

Coefficient

1.5

-2

-1

Coefficient M/Mo

Figure 6: C1 for prevented support conditions at the left end and free at the right one (k1 = 0.5; k2 = 1)

6 CONCLUSIONS
When dealing with lateral-torsional buckling, modern design standards require the computation of the
elastic critical moment, which greatly depends on the moment distribution along the beam and the
conditions at end supports. The review of moment gradient factors for lateral torsional buckling (C1)
proposed in the literature shows that enough information is available for beams with no prevention to
both lateral bending and warping at end supports. For these situations, there is quite good agreement
between the values given by the design codes and the numerical results of the finite differences
approaches. However, for the few available cases with prevented lateral bending and warping, design
codes values are either very conservative or non-conservative.
Using finite differences approach, this work has presented new results for the following cases: linear
moment distributions; uniform distributed loading, with two and one end moments; and concentrated
load, with two and one end moments. All these cases have been solved considering all possible
combinations of free or prevented lateral bending and warping at each end.
Finally, the paper has presented a closed-form expression for the equivalent uniform moment factor
C1 applicable to any moment distribution. The proposed formula incorporates the end support conditions
through a parameter related to the lateral torsional buckling length of the beam In most cases, this new
expression renders values that are significantly closer to numerical results than those provided by the
similar expression contained in AISC [11, 12] and BS 5950 [21].

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of this research by the Arcelor Chair of the
University of Navarra.

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