Ore genesis

Not to be confused with Orogenesis.

1.1.1 Magmatic processes
The various theories of ore genesis explain how the
Fractional crystallization: separates ore and non-ore
minerals according to their crystallization temperature. As early crystallizing minerals form, they
incorporate certain elements, some of which are
metals. These crystals may settle onto the bottom
of the intrusion, concentrating ore minerals there.
Chromite and magnetite are ore minerals that form
in this way.
Liquid immiscibility: sulde ores containing copper, nickel or platinum may form from this process.
As a magma changes, parts of it may separate from
the main body of magma. Two liquids that will not
mix are called immiscible; oil and water are an example. In magmas, suldes may separate and sink
below the silicate-rich part of the intrusion or be injected into the rock surrounding it. These deposits
are found in mac and ultramac rocks.

High-grade gold ore from the Harvard Mine, Jamestown, California, a wide quartz-gold vein in Californias Mother Lode.
Specimen is 3.2 cm wide.

various types of mineral deposits form within the Earths

crust. Ore genesis theories are dependent on the mineral 1.1.2 Hydrothermal processes
or commodity.
Ore genesis theories generally involve three components: These processes are the physicochemical phenomena and
source, transport or conduit, and trap. This also applies reactions caused by movement of hydrothermal water
to the petroleum industry, which was rst to use this within the crust, often as a consequence of magmatic
intrusion or tectonic upheavals. The foundations of hymethodology.
drothermal processes are the source-transport-trap mechanism.
Source is required because metal must come from
Sources of hydrothermal solutions include seawater and
somewhere, and be liberated by some process
meteoric water circulating through fractured rock, forma Transport is required rst to move the metal-bearing tional brines (water trapped within sediments at deposiuids or solid minerals into the right position, and tion) and metamorphic uids created by dehydration of
refers to the act of physically moving the metal, as hydrous minerals during metamorphism.
well as chemical or physical phenomenon which enMetal sources may include a plethora of rocks. However
courage movement
most metals of economic importance are carried as trace
Trapping is required to concentrate the metal via elements within rock-forming minerals, and so may be
some physical, chemical or geological mechanism liberated by hydrothermal processes. This happens because of:
into a concentration which forms mineable ore
incompatibility of the metal with its host mineral,
for example zinc in calcite, which favours aqueous uids in contact with the host mineral during
diagenesis.

The biggest deposits are formed when the source is large,

the transport mechanism is ecient, and the trap is active
and ready at the right time.

1
1.1

solubility of the host mineral within nascent hydrothermal solutions in the source rocks, for example mineral salts (halite), carbonates (cerussite),
phosphates (monazite and thorianite) and sulfates
(barite)

Ore genesis processes

Endogenous
1

3 GENESIS OF COMMON ORES

elevated temperatures causing decomposition reac- 1.2
tions of minerals

Transport by hydrothermal solutions usually requires a

salt or other soluble species which can form a metalbearing complex. These metal-bearing complexes facilitate transport of metals within aqueous solutions, generally as hydroxides, but also by processes similar to
chelation.
This process is especially well understood in gold metallogeny where various thiosulfate, chloride and other
gold-carrying chemical complexes (notably telluriumchloride/sulfate or antimony-chloride/sulfate). The majority of metal deposits formed by hydrothermal processes include sulde minerals, indicating sulfur is an important metal-carrying complex.
Sulde deposition:
Sulde deposition within the trap zone occurs when
metal-carrying sulfate, sulde or other complexes become
chemically unstable due to one or more of the following
processes;
falling temperature, which renders the complex unstable or metal insoluble

Sedimentary or Surcial processes (exogenous)

Surcial processes are the physical and chemical phenomena which cause concentration of ore material within
the regolith, generally by the action of the environment.
This includes placer deposits, laterite deposits and residual or eluvial deposits. The physical processes of ore deposit formation in the surcial realm include;
erosion
deposition by sedimentary processes, including
winnowing, density separation (e.g.; gold placers)
weathering via oxidation or chemical attack of a
rock, either liberating rock fragments or creating
chemically deposited clays, laterites or supergene
enrichment
Deposition in low-energy environments in beach environments

2 Classication of ore deposits

Ore deposits are usually classied by ore formation processes and geological setting. For example, SEDEX de loss of pressure, which has the same eect
posits, literally meaning sedimentary exhalative are a
reaction with chemically reactive wall rocks, usu- class of ore deposit formed on the sea oor (sedimentary)
ally of reduced oxidation state, such as iron bearing by exhalation of brines into seawater (exhalative), causrocks, mac or ultramac rocks or carbonate rocks ing chemical precipitation of ore minerals when the brine
cools, mixes with sea water and loses its metal carrying
degassing of the hydrothermal uid into a gas and capacity.
water system, or boiling, which alters the metal carrying capacity of the solution and even destroys Ore deposits rarely t snugly into the boxes in which geologists wish to place them. Many may be formed by one or
metal-carrying chemical complexes
more of the basic genesis processes above, creating ambiguous classications and much argument and conjecMetal can also become precipitated when temperature ture. Often ore deposits are classied after examples of
and pressure or oxidation state favour dierent ionic their type, for instance Broken Hill type lead-zinc-silver
complexes in the water, for instance the change from sul- deposits or Carlintype gold deposits.
de to sulfate, oxygen fugacity, exchange of metals beClassication of hydrothermal ore deposits is also
tween sulde and chloride complexes, et cetera.
achieved by classifying according to the temperature of
formation, which roughly also correlates with particular
mineralising uids, mineral associations and structural
1.1.3 Metamorphic processes
styles. This scheme, proposed by Waldemar Lindgren
(1933) classied hydrothermal deposits as hypothermal,
Lateral secretion:
Ore deposits formed by lateral secretion are formed by mesothermal, epithermal and telethermal.
metamorphic reactions during shearing, which liberate
mineral constituents such as quartz, suldes, gold, carbonates and oxides from deforming rocks and focus these 3 Genesis of common ores
constituents into zones of reduced pressure or dilation
such as faults. This may occur without much hydrother- As they require the conjunction of specic environmental
mal uid ow, and this is typical of podiform chromite conditions to form, particular mineral deposit types tend to
deposits.
occupy specic geodynamic niches,[1] therefore, this page
Metamorphic processes also control many physical pro- has been organised by metal commodity. It is also poscesses which form the source of hydrothermal uids, out- sible to organise theories the other way, namely accordlined above.
ing to geological criteria of formation. Often ores of the

3.3

Gold

same metal can be formed by multiple processes, and this

is described here under each metal or metal complex.

3.1

Iron

Main article: Iron ore

Iron ores are overwhelmingly derived from ancient
sediments known as banded iron formations (BIFs).
These sediments are composed of iron oxide minerals deposited on the sea oor. Particular environmental conditions are needed to transport enough iron in sea water to High-grade (bonanza) gold ore, brecciated quartz-adularia rhyform these deposits, such as acidic and oxygen-poor at- olite. Native gold (Au) occurs in this rock as colloform bands,
partially replaces breccia clasts, and is also disseminated in the
mospheres within the Proterozoic Era.
Often, more recent weathering is required to convert
the usual magnetite minerals into more easily processed
hematite. Some iron deposits within the Pilbara of West
Australia are placer deposits, formed by accumulation of
hematite gravels called pisolites which form channel-iron
deposits. These are preferred because they are cheap to
mine.

3.2

matrix. Published research indicates that Sleeper Mine rocks represent an ancient epithermal gold deposit (hot springs gold deposit), formed by volcanism during Basin & Range extensional
tectonics.[2] Sleeper Mine, Humboldt County, Nevada.

Plate tectonics is the underlying mechanism for generating gold deposits. The majority of primary gold deposits fall into two main categories: lode gold deposits or
intrusion-related deposits.

Lead zinc silver

Lode gold deposits are generally high-grade, thin, vein and

fault hosted. They are primarily made up of quartz veins
Main articles:
Sedimentary exhalative deposits, also known as lodes or reefs, which contain either naCarbonate hosted lead zinc ore deposits and tive gold or gold suldes and tellurides. Lode gold deVolcanogenic massive sulde ore deposit
posits are usually hosted in basalt or in sediments known
as turbidite, although when in faults, they may occupy inLead-zinc deposits are generally accompanied by silver, trusive igneous rocks such as granite.
hosted within the lead sulde mineral galena or within the Lode-gold deposits are intimately associated with
zinc sulde mineral sphalerite.
orogeny and other plate collision events within geoLead and zinc deposits are formed by discharge of deep logic history. Most lode gold deposits sourced from
sedimentary brine onto the sea oor (termed sedimentary metamorphic rocks because it is thought that the
exhalative or SEDEX), or by replacement of limestone, majority are formed by dehydration of basalt during
in skarn deposits, some associated with submarine vol- metamorphism. The gold is transported up faults by
canoes (called volcanogenic massive sulde ore deposits hydrothermal waters and deposited when the water cools
or VMS) or in the aureole of subvolcanic intrusions of too much to retain gold in solution.
granite. The vast majority of SEDEX lead and zinc de- Intrusive related gold (Lang & Baker, 2001) is generally
posits are Proterozoic in age, although there are signi- hosted in granites, porphyry or rarely dikes. Intrusive recant Jurassic examples in Canada and Alaska.
lated gold usually also contains copper, and is often asThe carbonate replacement type deposit is exemplied sociated with tin and tungsten, and rarely molybdenum,
by the Mississippi valley type (MVT) ore deposits. MVT antimony and uranium. Intrusive-related gold deposits
and similar styles occur by replacement and degrada- rely on gold existing in the uids associated with the
tion of carbonate sequences by hydrocarbons, which are magma (White, 2001), and the inevitable discharge of
these hydrothermal uids into the wall-rocks (Lowenthought important for transporting lead.
stern, 2001). Skarn deposits are another manifestation
of intrusive-related deposits.

3.3

Gold

Gold deposits are formed via a very wide variety of

geological processes. Deposits are classied as primary,
alluvial or placer deposits, or residual or laterite deposits.
Often a deposit will contain a mixture of all three types
of ore.

Placer deposits are sourced from pre-existing gold deposits and are secondary deposits. Placer deposits are
formed by alluvial processes within rivers, streams and
on beaches. Placer gold deposits form via gravity, with
the density of gold causing it to sink into trap sites within
the river bed, or where water velocity drops, such as
bends in rivers and behind boulders. Often placer de-

3 GENESIS OF COMMON ORES

posits are found within sedimentary rocks and can be billions of years old, for instance the Witwatersrand deposits
in South Africa. Sedimentary placer deposits are known
as 'leads or 'deep leads.

or mac rock which has a sulde phase in the magma may

form nickel suldes. The best nickel deposits are formed
where sulde accumulates in the base of lava tubes or
volcanic ows especially komatiite lavas.

Placer deposits are often worked by fossicking, and panning for gold is a popular pastime.

Komatiitic nickel-copper sulde deposits are considered

to be formed by a mixture of sulde segregation, immiscibility, and thermal erosion of suldic sediments. The
Laterite gold deposits are formed from pre-existing gold
deposits (including some placer deposits) during pro- sediments are considered to be necessary to promote sullonged weathering of the bedrock. Gold is deposited fur saturation.
within iron oxides in the weathered rock or regolith, Some subvolcanic sills in the Thompson Belt of Canada
and may be further enriched by reworking by erosion. host nickel sulde deposits formed by deposition of sulSome laterite deposits are formed by wind erosion of the des near the feeder vent. Sulde was accumulated near
bedrock leaving a residuum of native gold metal at sur- the vent due to the loss of magma velocity at the vent inface.
terface. The massive Voiseys Bay nickel deposit is conA bacterium, Cupriavidus metallidurans plays a vital role sidered to have formed via a similar process.
in the formation of gold nuggets, by precipitating metallic gold from a solution of gold (III) tetrachloride, a compound highly toxic to most other microorganisms.[3] Similarly, Delftia acidovorans can form gold nuggets.[4]

3.4

Platinum

The process of forming nickel laterite deposits is essentially similar to the formation of gold laterite deposits,
except that ultramac or mac rocks are required. Generally nickel laterites require very large olivine-bearing
ultramac intrusions. Minerals formed in laterite nickel
deposits include gibbsite.

Platinum and palladium are precious metals generally

found in ultramac rocks. The source of platinum and
palladium deposits is ultramac rocks which have enough
sulfur to form a sulde mineral while the magma is still
liquid. This sulde mineral (usually pentlandite, pyrite,
3.6 Copper
chalcopyrite or pyrrhotite) gains platinum by mixing with
the bulk of the magma because platinum is chalcophile
and is concentrated in suldes. Alternatively, platinum Main articles: Porphyry copper, Manto ore deposits and
occurs in association with chromite either within the Iron oxide copper gold ore deposits
chromite mineral itself or within suldes associated with
it.
Copper is found in association with many other metals
Sulde phases only form in ultramac magmas when and deposit styles. Commonly, copper is either formed
the magma reaches sulfur saturation. This is generally within sedimentary rocks, or associated with igneous
thought to be nearly impossible by pure fractional crys- rocks.
tallisation, so other processes are usually required in ore
genesis models to explain sulfur saturation. These include The worlds major copper deposits are formed within the
contamination of the magma with crustal material, espe- granitic porphyry copper style. Copper is enriched by
cially sulfur-rich wall-rocks or sediments; magma mix- processes during crystallisation of the granite and forms
as chalcopyrite a sulde mineral, which is carried up
ing; volatile gain or loss.
with the granite.
Often platinum is associated with nickel, copper,
Sometimes granites erupt to surface as volcanoes, and
chromium, and cobalt deposits.
copper mineralisation forms during this phase when the
granite and volcanic rocks cool via hydrothermal circulation.
3.5 Nickel
Sedimentary copper forms within ocean basins in sediMain articles: Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore mentary rocks. Generally this forms by brine from deeply
deposits and Lateritic nickel ore deposits
buried sediments discharging into the deep sea, and precipitating copper and often lead and zinc suldes directly
Nickel deposits are generally found in two forms, either onto the sea oor. This is then buried by further sedias sulde or laterite.
ment. This is a process similar to SEDEX zinc and lead,
Sulde type nickel deposits are formed in essentially the although some carbonate-hosted examples exist.
same manner as platinum deposits. Nickel is a chal- Often copper is associated with gold, lead, zinc and nickel
cophile element which prefers suldes, so an ultramac deposits.

3.9

3.7

Tin, tungsten, and molybdenum

Uranium

3.9 Tin, tungsten, and molybdenum

These three metals generally form in a certain type of

Main article: Uranium ore deposits
Uranium deposits are usually sourced from radioactive granite, via a similar mechanism to intrusive-related gold
and copper. They are considered together because the
process of forming these deposits is essentially the same.
Skarn type mineralisation related to these granites is a
very important type of tin, tungsten and molybdenum deposit. Skarn deposits form by reaction of mineralised
uids from the granite reacting with wall rocks such as
limestone. Skarn mineralisation is also important in lead,
zinc, copper, gold and occasionally uranium mineralisation.
Greisen granite is another related tin-molybdenum and
topaz mineralisation style.

Citrobacter species can have concentrations of uranium in their

bodies 300 times higher than in the surrounding environment.

granites, where certain minerals such as monazite are

leached during hydrothermal activity or during circulation of groundwater. The uranium is brought into solution
by acidic conditions and is deposited when this acidity
is neutralised. Generally this occurs in certain carbonbearing sediments, within an unconformity in sedimentary strata. The majority of the worlds nuclear power is
sourced from uranium in such deposits.

3.10 Rare earth elements, niobium, tantalum, lithium

The overwhelming majority of rare earth elements,
tantalum and lithium are found within pegmatite. Ore
genesis theories for these ores are wide and varied,
but most involve metamorphism and igneous activity.
Lithium is present as spodumene or lepidolite within pegmatite.
Carbonatite intrusions are an important source of these
elements. Ore minerals are essentially part of the unusual
mineralogy of carbonatite.

Uranium is also found in nearly all coal at several parts per

million, and in all granites. Radon is a common problem
3.11
during mining of uranium as it is a radioactive gas.
Uranium is also found associated with certain igneous
rocks, such as granite and porphyry. The Olympic Dam
deposit in Australia is an example of this type of uranium deposit. It contains 70% of Australias share of 40%
of the known global low-cost recoverable uranium inventory.

3.8

Titanium and zirconium

Phosphate

Phosphate is used in fertilisers. Immense quantities of

phosphate rock or phosphorite occur in sedimentary shelf
deposits, ranging in age from the Proterozoic to currently
forming environments.[5] Phosphate deposits are thought
to be sourced from the skeletons of dead sea creatures
which accumulated on the seaoor. Similar to iron ore
deposits and oil, particular conditions in the ocean and
environment are thought to have contributed to these deposits within the geological past.

Phosphate deposits are also formed from alkaline igneous

rocks such as nepheline syenites, carbonatites and assoMain article: Heavy mineral sands ore deposits
ciated rock types. The phosphate is, in this case, contained within magmatic apatite, monazite or other rareMineral sands are the predominant type of titanium, earth phosphates.
zirconium and thorium deposit. They are formed by accumulation of such heavy minerals within beach systems,
and are a type of placer deposits. The minerals which 3.12 Vanadium
contain titanium are ilmenite, rutile and leucoxene, zirconium is contained within zircon, and thorium is gen- Due to the presence of vanabins, concentration of
erally contained within monazite. These minerals are vanadium found in the blood cells of Ascidia gemmata
sourced from primarily granite bedrock by erosion and belonging to the suborder Phlebobranchia is 10,000,000
transported to the sea by rivers where they accumulate times higher than that in the surrounding seawater. A
within beach sands. Rarely, but importantly, gold, tin and similar biological process might have played a role in the
platinum deposits can form in beach placer deposits.
formation of vanadium ores. Vanadium is also present in

EXTERNAL LINKS

Arne, D.C.; Bierlein, F.P.; Morgan, J.W.; Stein,

H.J. (2001). Re-Os Dating of Suldes Associated With Gold Mineralisation in Central Victoria, Australia.. Economic Geology 96: 14551459.
doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.96.6.1455.
Dill, H.G. (2010).
The chessboard classication scheme of mineral deposits: Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium..
Earth-Science Reviews 100: 1420.
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.10.011.

Tunicates such as this bluebell tunicate contain vanadium as

vanabin.

fossil fuel deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale and oil
sands. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have
been reported.

See also
Mineral exploration
Copper extraction
Hydrothermal circulation
Economic geology
Mineral redox buer
Metasomatism
Igneous dierentiation

References

[1] Groves, David I.; Bierlein, Frank P. (2007). Geodynamic settings of mineral deposit systems. Journal of
the Geological Society 164: 1930. doi:10.1144/001676492006-065. Abstract
[2] Geology and geochemistry of the Sleeper Gold Mine,
USGS Open File Report 89-476, 1989
[3] Reith, Frank; Stephen L. Rogers; D. C. McPhail;
Daryl Webb (July 14, 2006).
Biomineralization
of Gold: Biolms on Bacterioform Gold. Science
313 (5784): 233236. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..233R.
doi:10.1126/science.1125878. PMID 16840703.
[4] O'Hanlon, Larry (September 1, 2010). Bacteria Make
Gold Nuggets. Discovery News. Retrieved September 4,
2010.
[5] Guilbert, John M. and Charles F. Park, The Geology of
Ore Deposits, 1986, Freeman, pp. 715-720, ISBN 07167-1456-6

Elder, D.; Cashman, S. (1992). Tectonic Control and Fluid Evolution in the Quartz Hill, California, Lode-gold Deposits.. Economic Geology 87:
17951812. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.87.7.1795.
Evans, A.M., 1993. Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals, An Introduction., Blackwell Science,
ISBN 0-632-02953-6
Groves, D.I. 1993. The Crustal Continuum Model
for late-Archaean lode-gold deposits of the Yilgran
Block, Western Australia. Mineralium Deposita 28,
pp366374, 1993.
Lang, J.R. & Baker, T., 2001. Intrusion-related gold
systems: the present level of understanding. Mineralium Deposita, 36, pp 477489
Lindberg, W. (1922). A suggestion for the terminology of certain mineral deposits. Economic Geology 17: 292294.
Lindgren, Waldemar, 1933. Mineral Deposits, 4th
ed., McGraw-Hill
Lowenstern, J.B. (2001).
Carbon dioxide
in magmas and implications for hydrothermal systems..
Mineralium Deposita 36:
490502.
Bibcode:2001MinDe..36..490L.
doi:10.1007/s001260100185.
Pettke, T; Frei, R.; Kramers J.D. & Villa, I. M.
1997. Isotope systematics in vein gold from Brusson,
Val d'Ayas (NW Italy); (U+Th)/He and K/Ar in native Au and its uid inclusions. Chemical Geology,
135, pp173187, 1997.
Robb, L. (2005), Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes (Blackwell Science). ISBN 978-0-63206378-9
White, A.J.R, 2001. Water, restite and granite mineralisation. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences,
48, pp551555 2001.

6 External links
Ore textures

7
Victoria, Australia, mineral endowment, Victorian
Government geoscience portal.
The chessboard classication scheme of mineral
deposits (abstract)

7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Text

Ore genesis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_genesis?oldid=708550034 Contributors: Rmhermen, Stone, Poszwa~enwiki,

Mboverload, Fg2, Vsmith, ESkog, JoeSmack, West London Dweller, Smalljim, Shenme, Andrewpmk, Ianblair23, Tabletop, Osric of
Ossulston, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Gwernol, Ksyrie, Sinus, SmackBot, Mira, Movementarian, Julius Sahara, Rolinator, Hammer1980, Mwtoews, Bejnar, Sorsanmetsastaja, Fangfufu, Geologyguy, DabMachine, CapitalR, Tawkerbot2, CJBot, Gioto, Tillman, Mikenorton, Volcanoguy, Vernon39, Kinetik138, AlphaEta, Alihaq717, M-le-mot-dit, Kelapstick, Almazi, LabFox, Turgan, Insanity Incarnate, ClueBot,
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pratap, Julietdeltalima, Lappspira, MercyDelight and Anonymous: 45

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