Water

Importance as a solvent in transport:

Have an uneven charge distribution, as the O molecule is and the H is + (Dipolar).
This means ionic substances (e.g. salt) dissolve easily as
the ions are separated due to the polar nature of water.
Hydrogen bonds form between the two molecules of H20 which
creates cohesion.
This helps water to flow, making it good for transporting
substances.
It takes a long time to heat and cool down water which means
living organisms can survive as temperature fluctuations are
small.

Sugars
Monosaccharides- Single sugar unit
Disaccharides- 2 sugar units bonded by glycosidic bonds e.g.
Sucrose - (glucose + fructose) form in which sugar is transported in a
plant
Maltose - (glucose + glucose) produced when amylase breaks down
starch
Lactose - (galactose + glucose) the sugar found in milk

Polysaccharides- Long chains of glucose molecules e.g. Starch,

glycogen
The bonds that form between Monosaccharides are glycosidic bonds.
In the reaction that forms a glycosidic bond there is a loss of one
molecule of water, this is called a condensation reaction.
Hydrolysis breaks the glycosidic bond, adding back the water
molecule.

Starch and Glycogen

STARCH-Starch is the main energy storage material in plants. It is
made up of a mixture of two molecules, amylose and amylopectin:
Amylose- a long, unbrached chain of glucose joined together by 1-4
glycosidic bonds. The angles of the glycosidic bonds give it a coiled
structure. This makes it compact and good for storage. It is also
insoluble water so it does not swell be osmosis.
Amylopectin- a long, branched chain of glucose joined by 1-4 and 1-6
glycosidic bonds. Its side branches allow the enzymes to get to the
glycosidic bonds easily meaning that glucose can be released quickly.
GLYCOGEN-The main energy storage material in animals:
Its structure is similar to amylopectin. Loads of branches means that
glucose can be released quickly. It is also a very compact molecule so
it's good for storage. It is also insoluble water so it does not swell or
effect osmosis.

Lipids
A triglyceride is made up of 3 fatty acids joined to 1 glycerol molecule.
The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic which makes lipids insoluble in
water.
When the molecules join together, a condensation reaction takes
place and ester bonds are formed.
Saturated Fatty Acids: don't have any double bonds between the
carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon tails.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: have double bonds between the carbon
atoms in their hydrocarbon tails. These double bonds cause the chain
to kink. If they have two or more, the lipid is polyunsaturated.

Circulatory Systems 1
Unicellular Organisms:
Substances and materials such as glucose and oxygen diffuse
directly into the cell. The diffusion rate is quick because of the
short distance the substances have to travel.
Multicellular Organisms:
Diffusion would be too slow to move substances round the larger
bodies of multicellular organisms as they have a smaller surface
area to volume ratio. They have mass transport systems
(circulatory system).
Closed circulatory systems:
Blood is enclosed in narrow blood vessels, which increases efficiency,
as blood travels faster at a higher pressure.
Blood leaves heart under pressure
arteries arterioles capillaries venules veins.
Single circulatory system: (e.g. in fish)
Heart pumps deoxygenated blood gills.
Gaseous exchange (diffusion of CO2 from blood to H2O that
surrounds the gills, and diffusion of O2 from H2O into the blood).
Blood leaves gills rest of body heart.
Double circulatory system (e.g. birds and mammals):
Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it
receives oxygen.
The oxygenated blood then returns to the heart to be pumped a
second time (by the left ventricle) out to the rest of the body.
Allows blood to travel around the bodies faster, delivering
nutrients faster, so animal have a higher metabolic rate.

Cardiac Cycle
ATRIAL SYSTOLE- Pressure in the atria increases as they fill with
blood. Increased pressure opens the atrioventricular valves allowing
blood to enter the ventricles. The atria contracts to force remaining
blood into the ventricles.
VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE- Ventricles contract from the base up,
increasing the pressure and closing the atrioventricular valves. The
semi lunar valves open and blood is forced into the arteries.
DIASTOLE- As the atria and ventricles relax, pressure falls. In the
ventricles this causes closure of the semi lunar valves. In the atria and
ventricles there is passive blood flow.

Blood Vessels
Artery:
THICK WALLS- Withstands high blood pressure
NARROW LUMEN- Blood flows under high pressure
ELASTIC FIBRES- Allows walls to stretch when blood is pumped into
the artery and recoil when the heart relaxes
SMOOTH LAYER OF ENDOTHELIAL CELLS- Low friction to ease
blood flow
Vein:
VALVES- Stops backflow of blood
WIDE LUMEN- Blood flows under low pressure
RELATIVELY THIN WALL- Blood flows under low pressure
Capillaries:
THIN WALL (ONE CELL THICK) - Allows rapid exchange between
blood and tissues

Daphnia Experiment
Daphnia are good for the experiment because they're transparent, so
you can see their internal organs.
1. Make up a range of caffeine solutions of different concentrations
and a control.
2. Transfer one daphnia onto a cavity slide and place the slide under a
microscope.
3. Place a small drop of caffeine solution onto the daphnia.
4. Count the number of heartbeats in 10 seconds and multiply by six
to get bpm.
5. Repeat the experiment using a different concentration.
For: Very simple organism with basic nervous system.
Against: Any use of animals is wrong as we can't determine how much
pain it feels.

Blood Clots
Blood clots when it flows very slowly or when blood vessel walls are
damaged.
Cascade of events:
1. Thromoboplastin is released from the damaged blood vessel.
2. Thromoboplastin triggers the conversion of prothrombin into
thrombin (calcium and vitamin K is present in plasma).
3. Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.

4. The fibrin fibres tangle together and form a mesh in which platelets
and red blood cells get trapped forming a blood clot.

Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis: A disease that hardens the arteries, which leads to
less elasticity and narrows the arteries due to the formation of plaque.
1. The endothelial lining becomes damaged for reasons such as high
blood pressure or toxins from smoking
2. There is an inflammatory response and white blood cells move into
the artery wall, cholesterol builds up which leads to a formation of
atheroma
3. Calcium salts and fibres build up which leads to the formation of
plaque and the artery narrows
4. The narrowing of the artery leads to high blood pressure, which
means it is more likely for more plaques to form

Risk Factors of CVD

Genetic
Tendency to high blood pressure and poor cholesterol
metabolism
Arteries that are more easily damaged
Mutations in genes that affect relative HDL:LDL levels in blood
Gender - Oestrogen can give women some protection
Ageing - Elasticity and width of arteries decrease with age
Diet - Saturated fats, cholesterol and lipoprotein levels
High blood pressure - should not be sustained 140/90

Smoking Nicotine makes platelets sticky, fewer antioxidants leads to

cell damage and atherosclerosis and carbon monoxide.
Inactivity - regular exercise reduces risk
Obesity - Increases rick of diabetes type II and CVD

Treatment for CVD

Antihypertensives- reduce high blood pressure. These drugs include:
Diuretics (which cause more urine to be produced, lowers blood
pressure and volume)
Beta blockers (which reduces the strength of the heartbeat)
Vasodilators (which widen the blood vessels)
Risks- Dizziness, nausea, muscle cramps.
Plant Statins- lowers cholesterol level in the blood by reducing the
amount of cholesterol absorbed from the gut. A lower blood
cholesterol level reduces atheroma formation. Risks: they can reduce
the absorption of some vitamins from the gut.
Anticoagulants- Reduces the formation of blood clots. These drugs
include: warfarin, heparin. Risks: uncontrolled bleeding if patient has
wound.
Platelet Inhibitory Drugs (e.g. Aspirin) - Makes platelets less sticky.
Risks: Rashes, diarrhoea, nausea.

Cholesterol
Cholesterol is not soluble in water. To be transported in the
bloodstream it is combined with proteins to form soluble lipoproteins.
High-density lipoproteins: They are mainly protein. They transport
cholesterol from body tissues to the liver where it's recycled or

excreted. Their function is to reduce total blood cholesterol when the

level is too high.
Low-density lipoproteins: They are mainly lipid. They transport
cholesterol from the liver to the blood, where it circulates until needed
by cells. Their function is to increase total blood cholesterol when the
level is too low.
High total blood cholesterol level and high LDL level have both been
linked to an increased risk of CVD.

Vitamin C experiment
1. Make several vitamin C solutions of different, known
concentrations.
2. Measure out a set volume of DCPIP into a test tube.
3. Titrate the vitamin C solution with the DCIPI and gently shake the
tube.
4. When the solution goes from blue to colourless, the right volume of
vitamin C has been added.
5. Repeat the experiment twice more, with the same solution and take
an average.
6. Make sure all variables are constant e.g. same volume of DCPIP.
7. Use the results to make a calibration curve of DCPIP against
vitamin C conc.

Energy Budgets
Energy budget is a term used to describe the amount of energy taken
in by an organism and the amount of energy used up by organisms.
If energy intake is higher than energy output, the excess energy will
be turned into fat reserves by the body, so the person will gain weight.

If energy intake is lower than energy output, the body will have to get
more energy by turning its fat reserves into energy, so the person will
lose weight.
Energy input - Energy output = Energy budget
BMI = Body mass in kg / height in m (squared)

Population Studies
Sample Size- the greater the number of people used in a study, the
more reliable the results.
Variables- the more variables that have been controlled in a study, the
more reliable the results.
Data Collection- the less bias involved in collecting the data, the more
reliable the results.
Controls- the presence of controls increases the reliability of the
results.
Correlation- An increase in one is accompanied by an increase in the
other.
Causation- A change in one is responsible for a change in the other.
Cohort studies:
Large number of people followed for a long period of time and
monitored to see if they develop the condition. Various risk factors the
participant has been exposed to are looked at.
Case-control studies:
A group with the condition (cases) is compared with a group who do
not have it (control)

Past history is investigated to try to identify factors leading to one

group having the disease and the others not