4.

1 Success factors and implications

The economic and institutional critical success factors for women leadership in the
workplace in China
The economic reform in China in the last two decades created business expansion for most of the
organizations in the country.

Different organizations stakeholders expected corresponding

favorable conditions for women participation both in the leadership and subordinate positions
(Williams & Chen, 2014). Broadening access of women to economic opportunity has reduced
male-female disparity in the economic productivity and earnings thus advancing women
leadership in various organizations in China.

Remedies including freeing up of female

employees time to enable them work way from their homes through activities such as
subsidized child care, improvement of women to credit access as well as ensuring access to
efficient and productive resources motivate women to go for leadership positions in their
workplaces. Addressing lack of information relating to the productivity of women in their
workplaces

and elimination of the institutional biases against female leaders through

introduction of favorable quotas to women as well as job placement programs for women have
greatly opened up many women working in various organizations across China (West et al.
2012). However, the setup of the various institutions in the country translated opposite and
varying daily practices have captured the realties concerning the representation and participation
of women in leadership in their work places. The numerous institutional and economic factors
mixture inclusive of womens traditional patriarchal stereotyping, political culture , females
lower average educational levels, inadequate state intervention, institutional procedures and
norms, labor

and

responsibilities gendered

division

and male centered-social and

organizational practices have strongly affected the development of women leadership in their

workplaces in China (Kuntz et al. 2013). With most of the factors culturally and historically
resulting from the Chinese community entrenchment, the role of women in leadership in the
country remains a subtle form.
Institutions and markets are useful in determining the constraints faced by different women,
incentives and preferences of female employees and their corresponding significance in the
organizations across the China. For this reason, China embraces informal and formal institutions
interaction as well as the interaction between markets and the household decision making
institutions with the aim of determining gender-related outcomes (Liu, Wei & Xie, 2014). This
has proved to be a motivation aspect for women to pursue careers and positions equally to male
employees. This interaction framework help in showing economic growth influenced by gender
outcomes especially women thus greatly influencing the manner in which the Chinese
organizations and institutions make decisions on the organizational leadership. Higher education
enrollment by the Chinese women played a major role in successful leadership in their places of
work. This has resulted to income growth through budget constraints loosening on their families
and homes as well as in the public treasury and as a result it has created links to new
employment opportunities (Wang, Tee & Ahmed, 2012). Similarly successful women leadership
resulting from education and training has led to increased and expansion of schools intended to
educate young women and girls in the country. Reduced corruption on women employment
schemes in various organizations in China has incredibly resulted to successful women
leadership in their places of work.

This has consequently reduced gender gaps during

recruitment processes and promotions.

What needs to be done to develop Women Leaders in the Context of China

To develop women leaders in their places of work, gender equality is key alongside the discussed
economic and institutional factors. Policy implications involving different policy ,makers within
different organizations need to fully focus their actions on priorities such as, women mortality
reduction, elimination of the still operating gender disadvantages especially in higher education,
economic opportunity access increment for women resulting to increased productivity and
earnings, giving female employees equal voice in the organization and the society at large and
also limiting the gender inequality transmission across generations in China (Chen et al. 2014).
Reducing excess mortality among women is necessary as it focuses on the underlying impact of
women leadership in their places of work at each age. Health care improvement for women
especially the expectant mothers is a good way of developing women and promoting their
participation in their work places. Shrinking education gaps between male and female employees
could promote women leadership in their places of work as they can effectively enroll for equal
courses and positions with men. In some corporate settings,

leadership and management

positions are given to employees who have pursued certain courses thus locking out others who
may not have studied those courses especially women (Walker, Hu & Qian, 2012). Most women
assume these courses are hard to pursue and therefore end up going for simpler courses thus
restricting them from obtaining the targeted leadership positions.
Therefore, in order to develop women leaders in their work places, the Chinese organizations
need to put in place simpler eligibility pools as well as favorable quotas to women to enable
them gain superiority in their positions. Further, women need to be educated on leadership
matters to open up their minds in understanding that leadership roles are meant for both men and
women (Morley, 2014). Further, diminishing gender differences in Chinese organizations
addresses he combined beliefs and social norms influence, womens education, legal framework

as well as the access to economic opportunities by female employees in their work places.
Measures to increase the control of female leaders over the laws enhance their ability to assess
accumulation particularly through their rights strengthening. The Chinese organizations ought to
introduce laws and reforms aimed at strengthening womens work rights by equalizing male and
female rights rather than giving one gender a greater voice than the other especially by
expanding the involvement of women in trade, training and educating women on leadership as
well as in political representation quotas (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). While so many remains
undone and yet to be done, the business environment and organizations are gradually changing
through the recognition of the importance of gender equality to both men and women. Most of
the organizations are continually recognizing the economic and institutional benefits of
embracing women leaders in their work places thus resulting to closure of the operating gender
gaps in various organizations. Generally, men still dominate in leadership positions in their work
places but the situation of women has undergone some improvement following the discussed
economic and institutional factors. Equal leadership positions and cooperation between male and
female leaders result improved performance and productivity within an organization.

4.2 Barriers to women leadership Development in the Context of China

The challenges facing women in winning leadership positions has been evidenced both in
legislative and executive level sin their working places. In China, several laws have been
imposed on gender equality and leadership but although these laws have taken effect in some
offices, here are still barriers barring women from fully taking the suggested leadership positions
(Ovseiko, 2016). The broad challenges facing women leaders can be classified into cultural
barriers, economic barriers, structural and institutional barriers among others. These multiple
barriers continually restrict womens rapid advancement in their workplaces

Cultural Barriers
Chen et al (2014) explain that there is an obvious assumption that the traditional attitudes
towards gender equality have become a strong influence on the advancement and empowerment
of women in their workplaces. Socialization theories provide an emphasis on enduring sex roles
division in a given workplace particularly the egalitarian existence towards women in the public
and private spheres in China. Most of the sex roles are acquired through informative agencies in
their early stages of life mostly in their homes, families, local communities, schools as well as in
their workplaces. According to the Kuntz et al. (2013), the Chinese culture requires that the
traditional values pertaining women roles are taught in their families and homes and therefore
many women become reluctant to apply for leadership positions in their workplaces and even on
becoming leaders they may fail to produce better results for the given organization. Cultural
explanations have tried to richly provide tangible reasons leading to challenges making women
to make strike advances in organizations within China. However, the opinions from Morley
(2014) denote that Chinese government intervention on long tradition has resolutely promoted
social equality that might have caused both the pubic and private sectors to be more receptive of
the positive actions idea including the gender quotas that have been specifically designed for
equality achievement for women not only in their workplaces places but also in their public lives.
Therefore, traditional attitudes towards gender equality in both private and private organizations
within China have commonly faced a suspicion to be a key determinant of women to hold
leadership positions in those organizations with the Chinese religion also playing a significant
role in the overall Chinese culture. The Chinese religion, which a large percentage of it is
dominated by catholism, the churchs culture is authoritarian and hierarchical in nature which
strongly contrasts women leadership in their workplaces, legislative and cabinet offices.

Structural Barriers
The relative essence of individual, corporate and national culture analysis controls the
institutional and structural factors which have been considered critical for womens leadership in
their workplaces. West et al. (2012) explained that the social systems which are among the early
sociological accounts play an important role in eligibility pool determination of the women in an
organizational in regard to their socioeconomic, educational and occupational status. She further
exclaimed that in the large sized firms in China, women find it hard to pursues leadership
positions where they are basically disadvantaged as a result of poverty, inadequate health care,
low literacy as well as poor childcare. Williams and Chen (2014) emphasize that the pool of
womens importance in the managerial, administrative and professional occupations which
commonly result to leadership positions. They further explained that careers in the Chinese
organizations provide social networks, experience, financial resources and flexibility that
facilitate well running of the selected leadership positions given to women. Moreover, Ibarra, Ely
and Kolb (2013) added that in most of the postindustrial organizations in China, women have
taken a step in the professional and management in the public and private sectors in addition to
the ever growing higher education enrolment. On the other hand, Lynch (2013) said that despite
the womens lifestyles transformation, leadership positions among women have continually
eluded in most of the Chinese postindustrial organizations. This is the country has specified
specific courses and careers that guarantees entry to management roles within an organization. In
most cases, women find it difficult pursuing these courses and end up going for simpler careers
that require no struggle or straining. For instance, law is the commonly accepted and adopted
training ground for the Chinese legislative offices and therefore given the complex nature of the
courses, many women fear pursuing the same. This implies that although the improvements on

the professional and educational status of women is considered to be a facilitating condition for
the empowerment of women, structural change alone within the organizations may not be
sufficient enough in winning leadership positions among women but something extra other than
the eligibility pool

is needed. The socioeconomic developments impact on the women

leadership can be improved through the combination of indicators including education, structural
change, longevity and womens literacy.
Institutional Factors
Various institutional accounts emphasize the importance of the social system including the
gender quotas adoption as well as the use of proportional representation in organizational
leadership. According to Johns (2013), institutional accounts provide a suggestion that the game
rules are the prime drivers helping in explaining the systematic differences in the leadership
positions among women in various Chinese organizations and also being a crucial factor that can
bar the activism of womens empowerment by the organizational reforms. The level of
democratization is among the institutional factors affecting women leadership in Chinese
organizations providing the most general context. Cook and Glass (2014) explained that the
democratic societies consolidation and transition promotes broader civil liberties inclusive of
women rights to hold leadership positions in their workplaces as well as strengthening the
management of a given institution. Despite the democratization monitoring within the
organizations in China, its role in promoting women leaders substantial numbers in those
organizations remains under dispute since there may be insignificant or no significant
relationship between women leadership and democratization levels. Literature by Howe-Walsh
and Turnbull (2016) shows that the affirmative action strategies use for the representation of
women in leadership positions in China has led to decline in the womens proportion holding

leadership positions in their given workplaces. The continued positive action strategies use
among various organizations has resulted to the adoption legal quotas for women during
recruitment processes. Therefore, institutional accounts provides clear insights into the reasons
why women leaders are increasing faster in some selected countries as it remains a puzzle in
other countries like China. It remains that various institutional reforms have been imposed in
various Chinese organizations in favor of women leadership but the reforms have turned out to
result to unanticipated consequences in the concerned organizations.
Barriers circumvention to develop women leaders in the context of China
Drawing from Burke and Majors (2014) literature, women are said to have varying qualities in
their day to day working styles which may consequently contribute to preferable leadership,
thought and behavior. However, Evans et al. (2014) explained that gender bias has been a strong
interference within the Chinese organizations restricting female workers from achieving
leadership positions in their workplaces. In addressing this challenge, Hannum et al. (2015)
suggested the development of the women-only leadership program to act as a way of assisting
female leaders towards obtaining senior leadership roles in their workplaces. She gave an
instance of the Women in Leadership Program operating in New Zealand which she mentioned
has been in operation for more than five years and has tremendous successful results both on the
organizational and individual levels in increasing job promotion opportunities, networking skills
as well as the self-confidence of women leaders and employees at large. Given the increasing
number of women working in different work places, gender stereotype understanding can be
useful in assisting the multicultural leaders in building positive relationships as well as avoiding
biased management decisions. The women in leadership program explain the need for the
organizational leaders to understand their employees local culture and be open minded to any

observed and noted cultural difference. This helps the leaders in overcoming cultural stereotypes
and values everyone in their diverse work places. Weiss et al. (2014) insinuated that personal and
gender bias can result to failure in building the employees trust and also finding qualified
employees for leadership positions especially women employees. It is crucial for organizations to
be objective in the practice of women leadership without making cultural assumptions. Through
cultural sensitivity and awareness within an organization, they can be at a better place to
eliminate gender inequality resulting to more women leaders hence an adequate return on
investments and a successful global competition.
Eligibility pool among other structural barriers to women leadership in their work places can also
be resolved. Referring to the views and opinions by Ferreira and Gyourko (2014), women easily
perpetuate to leadership barriers in favor of their advancement via a choice in responding to them
in unhelpful and difficulty ways. In the event of a woman experiencing a challenge, she may
choose to respond to it in different ways in favor of her advancement. She may internalize it
inappropriately, rationalize it via making sense or avoid the career altogether. Consequently,
there comes a perception that women leaders rarely advance following their opportunity
shrinkages. Therefore, there is a need to educate women leaders on how to react to barriers as it
greatly impacts other aspiring women leaders both in the present and the future. Further, the
eligibility of women leaders ought to be slightly different from the eligibility pool of the male
leaders. When women leaders experience discrimination from the male leaders or generally from
their work place, they tend to quick come to an internalization of the incidents taking
responsibility of what might have gone wrong. This is because most of the women leaders
especially in the top senior positions are considered to hold high meritocracy standards and also
the belief that different circumstances are caused by the actions performed by a leader. Therefore,

the perception and image created by the current women in leadership in various workplaces
greatly influences the next generation of women leadership hence a need to be taught on how to
react to challenges facing them in leadership. All women employees are subject to leadership
eligibility pool training to simulate their self-esteem and confidence in going for leadership
positions in their workplaces. Nguyen (2013) explained that subtle discrimination of women in
leadership positions lowers their self-esteem and most of them in such situations imply these
barriers as being resisted, overlooked or ignored. In the process of trying and figuring out what
went wrong, they end up taking personal responsibility concerning the incidence which in turn
may end up frustrating them. Therefore, they end up with negative experiences, views and
opinions of women leadership in their workplaces.
Finally, the recruitment agencies within an organization have an important role in curbing
barriers related to women leadership in their workplaces. Referring from the literature by
Paustian-Underdahl, Walker and Woehr (2014), various Chinese organizations as well as the
government have imposed rules and regulations to ensure gender equality on the management
and leadership of a given organization. The recruitment and promotion agencies need to put the
set rules and regulations especially on women empowerment and leadership to ensure gender
parity within the organizations. It is one thing to set a law and it is another thing to implement it
and therefore, it could be of great importance to ensure women are not discriminated during
recruitments and promotions. Discriminating women especially by making particular sentiments
including arguments that women are meant to belong to specific roles of educational
development restriction to men should be considered an offense within an organization and the
individuals concerned needs to be acted upon. Snaebjornsson and Edvardsson (2013) explained
that reduced confidence in the women abilities perpetuates their inferiority feelings thus creating

a self-fulfilling effect. Moreover, the promises made to women leaders through signing of
corporate contracts need to be fulfilled since most of them have a prior notion that women are
treated unfairly and are prone to weak payments especially in cases of a non-actualized increased
compensation or advancement. Further, democratization levels in a given organization could be
made insignificant to enable the recruitment and promotion agencies to actively implement the
laws in place to promote women leadership in those organizations. Following democracy may
lead to favoritism among men leaders as opposed to women leaders hence losing their place in
their workplaces. Similarly there is a need to create awareness of the actual work environment in
which these women leaders are expected to work to ensure advance preparation. Ovseiko (2016)
contended that women are well known in fostering harmony in their work places and show
resistance in asking for promotions to avoid their positions jeopardy.

5.0 Discussions
The cultural, structural and institutional barriers are among the multiple barriers affecting the
development of women leadership in their different workplaces. Women face varying structural
issues that bar them from developing their leadership positions in their workplaces of which
some if these issues are generally found in the society while others in the organization setting
(Cheung & Halpern, 2010). Societal structural factors are deeply rooted both in the public policy
and culture. Among the contributing factors to the womens limited career and leadership
advancement and empowerment include the limited human capital, policy and social programs
aspects and the societal expectation for the participation of female individuals in service
industries including community and social services, health services and education. Social policy
and programs involving women and leadership positions are considered to perpetuate domestic
obligations inequality. Women feel discriminated when it comes to leadership positions

especially when culture dominates in allocating tasks to them. The culture attitude and social
perception that women are more appropriate in fulfilling family responsibilities and
commitments than men reinforces a certain feeling of inferiority in handling leadership positions
in their workplaces (Walker, Hu & Qian, 2012). Despite the fact that womens participation in
workplace has greatly increased in the last recent years, their domestic responsibilities still hold
marginal evidence in going for leadership positions. The number of hour a woman spend
performing domestic chores in comparison to their spouses creates a disparity which shows an
undesirable scenario for female employees usually forced in choosing unhealthy work-life
balance in pursuance of their profession and careers.
Human capital involves knowledge, experience and skills brought on board by any employee in a
particular position.

This was also found to be a limitation towards development women

leadership in the context of the Chinese organizations (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Different
institutions have put in place varying eligibility pools that interrupt womens morale and
motivation of pursuing leadership positions in their workplaces. Other organizations require
them and encourage them to work in sectors and departments with less departmental
opportunities or in departments which have no executive advancement translation. Women in
leadership are more likely to dominate and come from non-business backgrounds limiting their
attempts of success since they have no or little experience in business leadership. Female
employees are likely to compensate for their lack of experience by getting specialized expertise
via education in higher institutions (Liu, Wei & Xie, 2014). However, most of the women have
the mindset and perception of inferiority in some courses and careers that can mold an individual
into a better leader. For this reason, women barely advance as a result of their limited business
experience usually resulting from organizations that prefer male leaders to female leaders.

Addressing barriers to women leadership

Barriers to women leadership are manageable and controllable in individual and organizational
levels. Both individuals and organizations have a role to play in circumventing the multiple
barriers including cultural, structural and institutional barriers among others. The development of
the women-only leadership program to act as a way of assisting female leaders towards obtaining
senior leadership roles in their workplaces majorly addresses all the multiple barriers to women
leadership advancement (Cooke, 2013). In these programs, women are taught about culture
differences and similarities, structural change and adoption, institutional contexts as well as how
to reacts to these barriers within the organization. Given the increasing number of women
working in different work places, gender stereotype understanding can be useful in assisting the
multicultural leaders in building positive relationships as well as avoiding biased management
decisions (Wang, Tee & Ahmed, 2012). Consequently, there comes a perception that women
leaders rarely advance following their opportunity shrinkage. Therefore, there is a need to
educate women leaders on how to react to barriers as it greatly impacts other aspiring women
leaders both in the present and the future.
It is crucial for organizations to be objective in the practice of women leadership without making
cultural assumptions. The recruitment and promotion agencies need to put the set rules and
regulations especially on women empowerment and leadership to ensure gender parity within the
organizations. It is one thing to set a law and it is another thing to implement it and therefore, it
could be of great importance to ensure women are not discriminated during recruitments and
promotions (Zhang et al. 2015). Further, several countries have imposed laws on gender equality
that has to be followed and implemented in all sectors of the country. Democracy levels may lead
to favoritism among men leaders as opposed to women leaders hence losing their place in their

workplaces. Creating awareness of the actual work environment in which these women leaders
are expected to work ensures advance preparation. Therefore, in relation to leadership
advancement among women in their work places, organizations need to be strict in ensuring
gender parity of the same. Through various women leadership programs the double bind effect
can easily be dealt with to curb the disadvantages most women experience in their workplaces
hence impacting the organizational development and productivity (Evans, 2010). In the current
business setting, organizational roles for both men and women are made clear in their job
description as well as in the organizational constitutions to ensure the advancement of women
leadership in their respective workplaces.
Summary
Generally, although women are perceived to make various achievements towards equality in
obtaining leadership positions, it still remains a fact that women poorly present an equal
representation in the roles they hold. The progress of these typical executive women is limited by
the ongoing, pervasive and complex barriers hence affecting millions of women who would have
wished to go for the leadership positions. The discriminatory, prejudicial and structural hurdles
faced by the women leaders are misunderstood and subtle thus creating multi-faceted, pervasive
and complex labyrinth resulting to ineffectiveness of any progress they may make. In correcting
this imbalance, organizations ought to distinguish and differentiate research from traditions,
myths and cultures as act accordingly. Progress towards inclusive organization leadership in
which men and women are represented equally in various organizations remains an important
goal in nearly all organizations across the world. Many barriers and challenges continuously
form obstacles in gender equality achievement in many of the organizations, though they can be
easily resolved and circumvented as described. Cultural attitudes, structural and institutional

contexts are systematically related to women leaders advancement in many organizations

controlling different aspects of the organization.

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