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 Fundamentals of Separation
Tower Internals
Crude Distillation
Trouble Shooting

Separation by distillation implies a difference in

boiling points of two or more materials
We separate many things by detecting a difference
in a physical properties
color, size, weight, shape

The components or compounds making up crude oil are

numbered in thousands
Many of these components have similar physical properties
including boiling points that may differ by only a few degrees.
Therefore, it is difficult to separate some pure compounds from
the complex mixture of components in crude oil by distillation
alone
There are other methods of separation used in a refinery for
example,

extraction

with

solvent,

crystallization,

and

absorption
Fortunately, rarely need pure compounds and it is often enough
to separate groups of compounds from each other by boiling

If we separate many compounds in crude oil

into groups we find that these groups have
characteristics that make them considerably
more valuable than the whole crude oil
Some of these groups are products
Some may be feedstock to other processing
units where they are chemically changed into
more valuable products
These products, in turn, are usually separated
or purified by distillation

The basic principle of distillation is

simple
When a solution of two or more components
is boiled
The lighter component (the one most volatile
or the one with the greatest tendency to
vaporize )vaporizes preferentially

Tow component mixture is contained in a vessel

When heat is add until the more volatile material ( red
dotes ) start to vaporize. Now the vapor contains a
higher proportion of red dots than dose the original
liquid

It is important to note that an equilibrium in composition will be

established
at a given temperature and pressure
By equilibrium we mean there is a given concentration as red
dots" in the vapor and in the liquid depending upon the original
concentration of each component in the liquid and their
respective properties in relation to each other

This results in the vapor above the liquid being relatively

rich in the lighter ( more volatile material )
And the liquid is left with proportionately more of the
less volatile ( heavier liquid )
Thus a separation, to some degree, has taken place
Now, let's develop this simple distillation concept into a
practical operation as it is used in the refinery
First , lets separate and remove the product

By cooling the over head

vapor, we condense and
remove it from the original
mixture
Thus to have made a partial
separation, partial because
you will note that there are a
few blue dotes" in the
distillate product

This has occurred because at the temperature and

pressure we are conducting the distillation, the heavier
component still vaporizes to some extent
This is because the components of interest in a given
distillation usually have fairly close boiling points

Therefore, to purify the

distillate product, we may
have

to

second

conduct
distillation

a
as

shown
Obviously,
continue

we
to

can

cascade

these simple distillations

until

we

achieve

the

desired purity of product

The distillations depicted so far are those we call

patch, and normally practical in the refinery,
although it is done frequently in the laboratory

Let us make our distillation equipment look more like

refinery pieces of equipment and let us make
continuous instead of patch operation

This is called Flash Vaporization

As shown.
The
liquid
is
pumped
continuously through a heater
and into a drum where the
pressure is lower
The lighter material flashes
instantaneously (vapor and
liquid flow from the drum
continuously)
The same system is shown
diagrammatically in the in the
lower section of the Figure.

Suppose we have 50% of the charge taken overhead

That is, we set the temperature and the pressure of the system in
such a way that half the charge is boiled off
And further, suppose the resulting overhead product does not
contain the desired concentration of the lighter product
As we have seen before, we can increase the purity by adding
a stage of distillation

Suppose we add two

more
stages
of
distillation
Although
this
is
accomplishing
our
goal of increasing the
purity of the light
friction, we are also
making large amounts
of the intermediate
product,
each
of
which contains the
same light friction
18

An obvious simplification in equipment can be made

if we allow the hot vapor from the stage above the
next higher (the intermediate product)
This

eliminates

the

need

for

the

intermediate

condensers and heaters

Now we have the continuous, multi-stage distillation

We have described staging for

the purpose of concentrating
the lighter component in the
overhead
The same principles apply to
concentrating
the
heavier
component in the bottom
product
The upper stages are called
rectifying stages
These below the feed are
called stripping stages

The upper rectifying section increases the

purity of the overhead product.
The lower stripping section increases the
recovery of the overhead product.
In many cases, the bottom product is the one
of primary interest
For the bottom, or heavy, product the
rectifying section improves recovery

Equilibrium Stage
A stage, or more specifically, an equilibrium stage, is
defined as :
Any portion of the distillation column such that the
liquid and vapor leaving it have composition in
equilibrium with each other.
By definition, then, a stage should be designed in
such a way as to provide intimate contact, or mixing,
of the rising vapor and the descending liquid. The
concept of an equilibrium stage is converted to an
actual mechanical separation tray by using an
efficiency factor which is less than one and depends
on the tray design.

The plates or trays are contacting devices and used to hold up the liquid
to provide better contact between vapour and liquid, hence better
separation .

2. Packings

1. Trays /Plates

TRAYS
PACKING

TRAYS WITH DOWNCOMER

VALVE TRAYS
SIEVE TRAYS

RANDOM

BUBBLE CAP TRAYS

STRUCTURED

TRAYS WITHOUT DOWNCOMER

DUAL FLOW TRAYS

I GENERATION

II GENERATION

III GENERATION

BAFFLE TRAYS
DISC & DONUT TRAYS
RIPPLE TRAYS
MULTI DOWNCOMER TRAYS
PROPRIETARY DESIGNS(MVG, SUPERFRAC)
TRITON, PROVALVE
NYE TRAYS
COLLECTOR/ CHIMNEY TRAYS
NON- FRACTIONATION TRAYS

RASCHIG
LESSING
CROSS PARTITION RING
BERL SADDLES

PALL RING
HYPAK
IMTP
CMR
NUTTER RING

GEMPAK
MELLAPAK
INTALOX
PARLPAK

Sieve Tray

This tray is a sheet of light metal with a large number of holes

drilled through it.

Vapor rising through the holes keeps the liquid on the tray and
bubbles up through it.

The overflow weir keeps a constant depth of liquid on the tray.

A sieve tray is:

Inexpensive,
Easy to clean, and
Maintains good liquid and vapor contact
as long as it is operated at its design load.
Because the sieve tray has fixed openings and
does not have covers over the holes, it does not
perform well if tower loads are constantly
changing.

Bubble Cap / Valve trays

In valve trays / Bubble Cap trays, perforations are
covered by liftable caps. Vapor flows lifts the caps,
thus self creating a flow area for the passage of
vapour. The lifting cap directs the vapor to flow
horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing

Valve Trays
Sieve Trays
Bubble Cap

Valve
Tray
Floating
Fixed

Valve Tray

Valve Tray
A valve tray has a variable opening for vapors to flow
through.
The hole has a cover
that consists of a cap
held in place by guides
which go down through
the plate, or tray and
hook underneath it.

When there is no vapor flow, the caps sits over the

hole and close it.
Under low pressure
the cap start to rise.
As the flow of vapors
increases, the cap rise
until it is stopped by
the guide tabs.

The valve tray is similar to the babble cap tray.

Both are more adaptable to variations in tower
loads than a sieve tray.
The valve trays and bubble cap trays are designed
to perform well with variable tower loads.

Trays
Bubble Cap Tray
The vapor is broken into small bubbles which
increases the surface area for vapor-liquid contact.

The bubble cap sits on top of a riser.

The riser channels vapors into the bubble cap.

64

Selection of Tray Type

The principal factors to consider when comparing
the performance of bubble-cap, sieve and valve
trays are:
Cost,
Capacity,
Operating range,
Maintenance and
Pressure drop.

Cost:
Bubble-cap trays are appreciably more expensive
than sieve or valve trays.
The relative cost will depend on the material of
construction used;
For mild steel the ratios,
bubble-cap: valve: sieve, are approximately

3.0 : 1.5 : 1.0

Capacity:
There is little difference in the capacity rating for the
three types (the diameter of the column required for
a given flow-rate).
The ranking is:

sieve, valve, and bubble-cap

Operating range:
This is the most significant factor.
By operating range is meant the range of vapour and
liquid rates over which the plate will operate
satisfactorily (the stable operating range).
Some flexibility will always be required in an
operating plant to:
Allow for changes in production rate, and
Cover start-up and shut-down conditions.

trays have a positive liquid seal and can

therefore operate efficiently at very low vapour
rates.

rely on the flow of vapour through the

holes to hold the liquid on the tray and cannot
operate at very low vapour rates, but, with good
design, sieve trays can be designed to give a
satisfactory operating range;
Typically, from 50 to 120 % of design capacity.
Valve trays are intended to give greater flexibility
than sieve trays at a lower cost than bubble-caps.

Maintenance:
For dirty services, bubble-caps are not suitable
as they are most susceptible to plugging.
Sieve trays are the easiest to clean.

Pressure Drop:
The pressure drop over the trays can be an
important design consideration, particularly for
vacuum columns.
The trays pressure drop will depend on the detailed
design of the tray but.

In general,
sieve plates give the lowest pressure drop, followed
by valves, with bubble-caps giving the highest.

Summary
Sieve trays are the cheapest and are satisfactory for
most applications.
Valve trays should be considered if the specified
turn-down cannot be met with sieve trays.
Bubble-caps should only be used where:
Very low vapor (gas) rates have to be
handled and
A positive liquid seal is essential at all
flow- rates.

Typical Tray Section

Inlet Weir
Outlet Weir

Downcomer
Trays
Seal Pot

These contribute to the uniform distribution of

liquid as it enters the tray from the down comer.
It is not recommended for
fluids that are dirty or tend
to foul surfaces.
If a more positive seal is
required at the downcomer at
the outlet, an inlet weir can
be fitted or a recessed seal pan
used.
82

Downcomer sealing can be achieved primarily by 2 means:

(1) inlet weirs
(2) recessed seal pan.

These devices provide a positive

seal on the tray. The disadvantage is that they create a pocket of
stagnant liquid where dirt, sediments, etc can build up. A large
amount of such build up can restrict the downcomer outlet area
and lead to premature flooding. Thus, the use of these devices is
not recommended in fouling or corrosive services.

The function of a weir is to maintain a desired liquid

level on the tray , thus insuring bubbling of vapors
through liquid. Typical weir height is between 2 - 4
inches. Low weirs are frequently used in low pressure
or vacuum columns. Notched (rectangular or Vshaped) weirs are commonly used for low liquid loads

Downcomers
Reflux flows down from one
tray to the next through
downcomers.
Downcomers must be large
enough to allow for drainage
from one tray to the next or
flooding might occur on some
of the trays.
Downcomers can be designed in
several different ways to provide
smooth flow from tray
to tray.

The straight, segmental, vertical downcomer is widely

used as it provides good utilization of column area for
downflow and has cost and simplicity advantage.
downcomer can be used
(e.g. due to

).

Sloped downcomer also provide a

for vapour-liquid contact, but it is also

A downcomer must be sufficiently large to allow liquid

to flow smoothly without choking. Sufficient time must
also be provided in the downcomer to allow proper
vapour disengagement from the down-flowing liquid,
so that the liquid is relatively free of vapour by the time
it enters the tray below. Inadequate downcomer area
will lead to downcomer choking, whereby liquid backs
up the downcomer into the tray above and eventually
flood the column.

Weep Holes
Holes for drainage must be adequate to drain the tower
in a reasonable time, yet not too large to interfere with
tray action.
Draining of the tower
through the trays is
necessary before any
internal maintenance
can be started.
The majority of the holes are placed adjacent to the
outlet or down comer weir.

Bottom Strainer
During the operation of a tower:
The bubble caps,
Bolts, and
Other foreign objects
may be dislodged and carried along with bottom
stream.

To prevent these objects leaving the tower and

damaging pumps, a strainer is installed in the
bottom outlet line.
Strainers must have openings
small enough to catch small
objects, but large enough
not to hinder the flow of
liquid, or product, or oil
out of the tower.
The holes in the strainers must be kept open so that
the flow of liquid out of the tower will not be
stopped, or hindered.

Reflux distributor
Reflux entering the top of the tower should be
spread evenly across the top tray to avoid dead
spots.
One way to disperse
reflux is to place a
reflux distributor in
front of the inlet line.

A reflux distributor is simply a plate or baffle that

prevents liquid from spraying across the tray.
Reflux entering the
tower is forced to flow
under the baffle so that
the liquid is distributed
evenly across the tray.

Top Tower Demister

Sometimes small drops of liquid suspended in vapor
are carried up from one tray to the next or into the
overhead vapor line.
This is called entrainment.
When the overhead product must be a dry vapor or
gas, entrainment is a more serious problem.
Entrainment between trays can usually
prevented by controlling vapor velocity.

be

Entrainment at the top of a tower can be cut down

by placing a demister on the vapor outlet line.
Demisters are constructed
of fine-gauge wire knitted
into mesh.
Demisters must be kept
clean of dirt and foreign
matter, or the flow of
vapor will be restricted, or stopped.
102

Classification of Trays
Based on the Number of liquid paths
1. Single Pass
2. Two Pass
3. Three Pass
4. Four Pass

Packing :
1. Random Packing
2. Structured Packing
INTALOX SADDLE
RASCHIG RING

PALL RING

Structured packing are considerably

per

unit volume than random packing. They come with

different sizes and are neatly stacked in the column.
Structure packing usually offer:

The word reflux is defined as "flowing back

Applying it to distillation tower, reflux is the
liquid flowing back down the tower from
each successive stage

Kinds of Reflux
Cold Reflux
Cold reflux is defined as liquid that is supplied at temperature a little
below that at the top of the tower
Each pound of this reflux removes a quantity of heat equal to the sum
of its latent and sensible heat required to raise its temperature from
reflux drum temperature to the temperature at the top of the tower
A constant quantity of reflux is recirculated from the reflux drum into
the top of the tower
It is vaporized and condensed and then returns in like quantity to the
reflux

It is the reflux that is

admitted to the tower at
the same temperature as
that maintained at the
top of the tower
It is capable of removing
the latent heat because
no
difference
in
temperature is involved.

It is the liquid that

overflow from one plate
to another in the tower,
and may be called hot
reflux because it is always
substantially at its boiling
point
It
also
capable
of
removing the latent heat
only
because
no
difference in temperature
is involved.

Circulating Reflux
It is also able to remove
only the sensible heat
which is represented by
its
change
in
temperature
as
it
circulates
The reflux is withdrawn
and is returned to the
tower
after
having
been cooled

Reflux Ratio
It is defined as the amount of actual
reflux divided by the amount of top
product
It is denoted by R which equals L/D

In general, increasing the reflux

Improves overhead purity and
Increases recovery of the bottom product
The number of stages required for a given
separation will be dependent upon the reflux
ratio used

Two points to consider

1. A minimum number of plates

(stages) required at total reflux
2. There is a minimum reflux ratio
below which it is impossible to
obtain the desired enrichment
however many plates are used

Total reflux is the conclusion when all the

condensate is returned to the tower as reflux,
no product is taken off and there is no feed
At total reflux, the number of stages
required for a given separation is the
minimum at which it is theoretically possible to
achieve the separation
Total reflux is carried out at :

1. Towers start-up
2. Testing of the tower

At minimum reflux, the separation can

only be achieved with an infinite
number of stages
This sets the minimum possible reflux
ratio for the specified separation

Practical reflux ratio will lie between

The minimum for the specified separation and Total
reflux
The optimum value will be the one at which the
specified separation is achieved at the lowest annual
cost
For many systems, the
lie between
1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio

will

In all distillations processes

Heat been added by
Means the feed
Means of a reboiler

COLUMN REBOILERS

Types of reboilers
The most critical element of reboiler design is the selection of
the proper type of reboiler for a specific service. Most
reboilers are of the shell and tube heat exchanger type and
normally steam is used as the heat source in such reboilers.
However, other heat transfer fluids like hot oil or Dowtherm
(TM) may be used. Fuel-fired furnaces may also be used as
reboilers in some cases.

. In the end, all these

factors reduce to economics. Every plant will weight the trade-off
between these factors differently. No one-size fits all selection exists.
Major factors include:

Plot space available

Total duty required

Fraction of tower liquid traffic vaporized

Fouling tendency

Temperature approach available

Temperature approach required

Kettle reboilers

Thermosyphon reboilers

Fired reboiler

Forced circulation reboilers

Forced circulation reboilers are used for reboiler duties where

viscous and/or heavily contaminated media are to be expected
in the bottom product.

High liquid velocities in the tubes and the resulting shearing forces
ensure that this type of heat exchanger is operated within its
optimum performance range, while keeping fouling to a
minimum. Pump selection influences performance and efficiency.
Forced circulation reboilers can be designed for either horizontal
or vertical installation.

1 = Column
2 = Trays
3 = Downcomer
4 = Reboiling
circulation line
5 = Manhole
6 = Forced
circulation
reboiler
7 = Steam inlet
8 = Baffles
9 = Heating tubes

The Reboiler is a heat exchanger through which

the bottom liquids circulate
Heat is transferred to the bottom materials which
cause vaporization of the lighter components
This vapor travels up the column to provide

The stripping action and

The additional heat necessary to
vaporize the down coming reflux

3. CRUDE DISTILLATION

The purpose of crude oil

distillation
is

primarily to split the crude into several

distillate fractions of a certain boiling range
Sharpness of fractionation is of secondary
importance
A crude distillation tower,
fractions has 40 to 50 trays

producing

gasoline,
naphtha,
kerosene,
diesel oil,
gas oil, and other products, by
distillation at atmospheric pressure

146

Crude is generally pumped to the unit

directly from a storage tank, and it is
important that charge tanks be drained
completely free from water before
charging to the unit
If water is entrained in the charge
It will vaporize in the exchangers and in
the heater, and cause a high pressure
drop through that equipment

Desalting
Most crude contain traces of salt which can
decompose in the heater to from hydrochloric
acid and cause corrosion of the fractionator's
overhead equipment
In order to remove the salt, water is injected
into the partially preheated crude and the
stream is thoroughly mixed

The mixture of oil and water is separated

in a desalter, which is a large vessel in
which may be accelerated by the
addition of chemicals or by electrical
devices
If the oil entering the desalter is not
enough heated, it may be too viscous to
permit proper mixing and complete
separation of the water and the oil, and
some of the water may be carried into
the fractionators 149

If, on the other hand, the oil is too hot,

some vaporization may occur, and the
resulting turbulence can result in
improper separation of oil and water
The desalter temperature is therefore
quite critical, and normally a bypass is
provided around at least one of the
exchangers so that the temperature
can be controlled

The optimum temperature depends upon

The desalter pressure and
quantity of light material in the crude
being
but is normally about

lower for low pressure and light crudes

The average water injection rate is
3-5% of the charge

In order to reduce the cost of operating a

crude unit
As much heat as possible is recovered from
the hot streams by heat exchanging them
with the cold crude charge
The number of heat exchangers within the
crude unit and cross heat exchange with
other units will vary with unit design

Desalted crude is heat exchanged against what ever

other heat sources are available to recover maximum
heat before crude is charged to the heater, which
ultimately supplies all the heat required for operation of
the crude unit
The heater transfer temperature is merely a convenient
control, and the actual temperature, which has no
great significance, will vary from 325C to as high as
430C, depending on
The type of crude and
The pressure at the bottom of the fractionating
tower

Crude entering the flash zone of the fractionating

column flashes into:

The vapor which rises up the column and

The liquid residue which drops downwards
This flash is a very rough separation
The vapors contain appreciable quantities of heavy
ends, which must be rejected downwards into
reduced crude, while the liquid contains lighter
products, which must be stripped out

Flashed vapors rise up the fractionating column

countercurrent to the internal reflux flowing down the
column
The lightest product, which is generally gasoline
passes overhead and is condensed in the overhead
receiver
The temperature at the top of the fractionators is a
good measure of the endpoint of the gasoline and
this temperature is controlled by returning some of the
condensed gasoline as reflux to the top of the column
Increasing the reflux rate lowers the top temperature
and results in the net overhead product having a
lower endpoint

External reflux which is returned to the top of the

fractionators passes downwards against the rising
vapors.

Lighter components of the reflux are

revaporized and return to the top of the column while

the heavier components in the rising vapors are
condensed and return down the column. We have
then an internal reflux stream flowing from, the top of
the fractionators all the way back to the flash zone
and becoming progressively heaver as it descends

Temperature of the drawoff decks is a fair

indication of the endpoint of the product
drawn at that point
The degree of fractionation between cuts
is generally judged by measuring the
number of degrees centigrade between
the 95% point of the lighter product and
the 5% point of the heaving product
Some people use IBP and FBP
But the IBP varies with stripping

Recommended Gab between

products

Fractionation can be improved by

in the fractionators, which is done
by raising the transfer temperature
There may be occasions when the internal
reflux necessary to achieve satisfactory
fractionation between the heaver products is
so great that if it was supplied from the top of
the fractionators the upper trays would flood
An Intermediate Circulating Reflux solves this
problem

Sometimes fractionators will be pulled dry

The rate at which a product is being withdrawn is greater
than the quantity of internal reflux in the fractionators
All the internal reflux then flows to the stripper, the trays
below the drawoff run dry, and therefore no fractionation
takes place, while at the same time there is insufficient
material to maintain the level in the stripper, and the
product pump will tend to lose suction

It is necessary then to
Either lower the product withdrawal rate
Or to increases the internal reflux in the tower
by raising the transfer temperature
Or by reducing the rate at which the next
lightest product is being withdrawn

Product Stripping (Side Strippers)

The flashed residue in the bottom of the
fractionators and the side cut products have
been in contact with lighter boiling vapors
These vapors must be removed to meet flash
point specifications and to drive the light ends
into lighter and more valuable products
Steam, usually superheated steam, is used to
strip these light ends

Generally only enough steam is used to

meet a flash point specification
While further increases in the quantity of
steam may raise the IBP of the product
slightly

All the stripping steam is condensed in

the overhead receiver and must be
drained off
Refluxing
water
fractionators

will

upset

the

If the endpoint of the overhead product

is very low, water may not pass
overhead, and will accumulate on the
upper trays and cause the tower to flood

The effect of steam

Steam is frequently used in fractionating columns,
strippers and sometimes in furnaces

If the quantity and temperature of the steam are

known, its effect can be determined by calculating
the partial pressure exerted by the steam
This partial pressure is then subtracted from the total
system pressure resulting lower pressure
In other words steam has the same effect as lowering
the pressure

Another controlling factor on

overhead receiver water is pH

the

Thus should be controlled between pH

5 and 6.5
Ammonia injection into the tower top
section can be used as a control for this

Product Disposal
All products are cooled before being
sent to storage
Light products should be below 60C to
reduce vapor losses in storage, but
Heavier products need not be as cold

If a product is being charged to another

unit, there may be an advantage in sending
it out hot
A product must never leave a unit at over
100C
If there is any possibility of it entering a tank
with water bottoms
The hot oil could readily boil the water and
blow the roof off

 The composition of a distillation product is

determined by performing laboratory tests
on samples of that product.
These test results are then compared with
product specifications or standards that
have been set for the product

If the product is meeting specifications, column

operations do not have to be adjusted
But, if the products are off-specification, a change in
column operations must be made
One can see that the control of the tower is a rather
complicated simultaneous solution of material and
heat balances

Material Balance
At each draw we must draw the quantity of
material in the crude that boils within the
specified boiling range
If we draw too much, or too little, the product
above or below will have to shift by that
amount, thereby possibly putting it off
specification
To stay on specifications the material balance
must be maintained

Heat Balance
Must be solved so that the right product
appears at the right tray with the proper
degree of fractionation
However,
crude
vary,
product
requirements vary, and the refinery must
manipulate the heat and material
balance to draw the right amount of
product, with the proper distillation
range or other product specifications

173

174

Initial Boiling Point (IBP)

Is the temperature at which the first
drop of condensate is collected during a
laboratory distillation test
In a mixture of hydrocarbons, the first
molecules to vaporize are the light ones
So, the IBP test is used to check for
light hydrocarbons that are present in a
product

Suppose specifications on the bottom

product call for an IBP between 100110F
Lab tests show an IBP of 95F
You know that light material boils at
lower
temperatures
than
heavy
material

So, the bottom product in this example

contains material that is too light

In order to raise the IBP of a product,

we must make the product heavier
One way is to strip some
components off with steam

light

Another way is to increase the

temperature of the feed or the reboiler
temperature so more light components
are vaporized

End Boiling Point (EP)

Is the temperature at which the last
drop of liquid vaporizes during the test
In a mixture of hydrocarbons, the last
molecules to vaporize are the heavy
ones
So, the EBP (EP) test is used to check
for heavy hydrocarbons that are present
in a product

Specifications call for an overhead

product with an EP between 150-160 F
Lab results indicate an EP of 170 F

You know that heavy material boils at

higher temperatures than light material
So, the top product does not meet
specifications because it contains material
that is too heavy

In order to lower the EP of a product,

we must make the product lighter
One way is to decrease the feed or
reboiler temperature so that fewer
heavy components vaporize
Another way is to lower the top
temperature by increasing the reflux rate

Flash Point
Is the temperature at which a petroleum
product generates ignitable vapors
Light hydrocarbons tend to flash more
easily than heavy hydrocarbons
A sample that contains traces of light
hydrocarbons flashes at a lower temperature
than a sample without these traces

A side draw product carries flash point

specifications of 125-130 F
The lab test shows a flash point of 110 F

The sample contains material that is too light

We can bring the product back to specification by
decreasing the reflux rate, or
using more stripping steam, or
increasing the reboiler temperature

API Gravity
Is used to designate the "heaviness" or
"lightness" of products
Kerosene is measured at about 42 API
Gasoline is measured at about 60 API
The lighter the oil, the higher API gravity

o Crude oil API gravities typically range from 7 to 52 corresponding to

about 970 kg/m3to 750 kg/m3,
o But most fall in the 20 to 45 API gravity range.
o Although light crude (i.e. 40-45 degrees API) is considered the best,
lighter crude (i.e., 46 degree API and above) is generally no better for a
typical refinery.
o As the crude gets lighter than 40-45 degrees API, it contains shorter
molecules, which means a lower carbon number. This also means it
contains less of the molecules useful as high octane gasoline and diesel
fuel, the production of which most refiners try to maximize.
o If a crude is heavier than 35 degree API, it contains longer and bigger
molecules that are not useful as high octane gasoline and diesel fuel
without further processing.

Suppose specifications call for a

product with an API gravity of 30-35
The product sample tests 28
The product is too heavy

Color
Light hydrocarbons are light colored while
Heavy hydrocarbons are dark in color
A light hydrocarbon product that is dark
colored probably contains too many heavy
molecules
Excessive vapor rates can cause small
drops of liquid to become entrained in the
vapor and be carried up the tower

Entrainment of heavy materials may

contaminate the overhead product
and make it too dark in color
Hydrocarbons will decompose and
change
color
at
very
high
temperatures
So, an off-color product may indicate
that a tower is operating at too high a
temperature

4. CRUDE DISTILLATION OPERATION

QUESTION (1)

Reflux Rate Changing

Suppose the reflux rate is increased from
1,000 to 1,200 barrels per hour, and the
other tower operating conditions are held
constant which of the following will occur
A. Lighter overhead, bottom, and side draw
products.
B. Heavier overhead and side draw products.
C. Heavier bottom product.
D. More overhead product.
192

This extra reflux flowing down the tower

causes the temperature on each tray to
decrease

Some of the heavier hydrocarbons in the upward

flowing vapors will now condense and fall back down
the tower
The extra reflux flowing down the tower reduces the
temperature of the liquid at the bottom of the column.
When the bottom temperature decreases, the amount
of light material vaporized out of the liquid at the
bottom of the tower is decreased
Because fewer vapors are now going overhead, the
amount of top product formed is decreased, or less.
Lighter overhead, bottom, and side draw products are

194reflux rate
produced by increasing the

QUESTION (2)
If we decrease the reflux rate
from 1,000 barrels to 800
barrels,

The cut point changes are reversed. The

temperature on each of the trays increases,
and a higher tower temperature mean
heavier products. So overhead, bottom,
and side draw products become heavier.
The amount of overhead product produced
increases and the amount of bottom
product formed decreases

Flooding
Occurs when the pressure drop across a tray is so high
that the liquid cannot flow down the tower as fast as
required.
The pressure drop across the tray increases to very
high values, and the tray efficiency drops markedly.
When the froth and foam in the down comer back up
to the tray above and begin accumulating on this tray.

Flooding is brought about by excessive vapour flow,

causing liquid to be entrained in the vapour up the
column. The increased pressure from excessive vapour
also backs up the liquid in the downcomer, causing an
increase in liquid holdup on the plate
above. Depending on the degree of flooding, the
maximum capacity of the column may be severely
reduced. Flooding is detected by sharp increases in
column differential pressure and significant decrease in
separation efficiency.

Entrainment Flooding - For a constant liquid rate, increasing

the gas rate results eventually in excessive entrainment and flooding.
At the flood point it is difficult to obtain net downward flow of liquid,
and any liquid fed to the column is carried out with the overhead gas.
Furthermore, the column inventory of liquid increases, pressure drop
across the column becomes quite large, and control becomes difficult.

Downflow Flooding - Flooding may also be brought on by

increasing the liquid rate while holding the gas rate constant. Excessive
liquid flow can overtax the capacity of downcomers or other passages,
with the ultimate result of increased liquid inventory, increased
pressure drop, and the other characteristics of a flooded column.

Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapour flow. The
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the
liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through
perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That
is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column
will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp
pressure drop in the column and reduced separation
efficiency.

Weeping/Dumping
Occurs at:
High liquid rates, and
Low vapor loads.
Some of slots or holes will dump liquid instead of
passing vapor, resulting in poor tray efficiency.
For towers with conventional down comers,
dumping usually occurs at the upstream raw of caps
or holes, where the liquid has the largest head and
kinetic energy.

Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of
vapour or gas. Although it provides high interfacial liquidvapour contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid
buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad
that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above. Whether
foaming will occur depends primarily on physical
properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to
tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation
efficiency
203 is always reduced.

Coning
Occurs at low liquid rate or seals.
The vapor pushes the liquid back from the slots or
holes and passes upward with poor liquid contact.
This causes poor tray efficiency.

Puking
Usually occurs at:
High liquid rate and
Low gas rate.
At high liquid rate the liquid level on each tray will
rise.
As the level rises, the flow of gas up the tower is
restricted.
The gas pressure in the bottom of the tower will begin
to rise.
It will reach the point that a surge of a gas will
suddenly move up the tower with enough velocity to
carry205
the liquid with it.

Reducing the liquid flow rate will usually eliminate

puking.
Puking should not be confused with carryover.
Puking occurs almost instantaneously.
Furthermore, if the liquid rate is not reduced, the
tower will puke again when the liquid stacks up.
Carryover is usually caused by a high vapor flow rate
(It happens continuously, whereas puking is an
intermittent thing).

Operating Range
Satisfactory operation will only be achieved over a
limited range of vapour and liquid flow rates.

207

The upper limit to vapour flow is set by the condition

of flooding.
At flooding there is:
A sharp drop in plate
efficiency and
Increase in pressure drop.
Flooding is caused by either:
Excessive carry over of liquid to the next plate
by entrainment, or
Liquid backing-up in the down comers.

The lower limit of the vapour flow is set by condition

of weeping.
Weeping occurs when the vapour flow is insufficient
to maintain a level of liquid on the plate.
"Coning" occurs at low liquid
rates, and is the term given
to the condition where the
vapour pushes the liquid
back from the holes and jets
upward, with poor liquid contact.