A Refresher on Pump Cavitation & NPSH

Both cavitation and NPSH are terms very frequently encountered by chemical engineers during their
entire career either as a design or operations engineer. Most fresh chemical engineers have some idea
of these terms but are not fully conversant with the concept. Many a times there are also a lot of
misconceptions about the actual meaning of these frequently encountered terms. My blog entry is a
humble attempt to bring forth some explanation regarding these often misunderstood or partially
understood concepts of cavitation and NPSH.
Let me begin with cavitation. A dictionary definition for cavitation is as follows:
The sudden formation and collapse of low-pressure bubbles in liquids by means of mechanical forces,
such as those resulting from rotation of a marine propeller.
In context with centrifugal pumps it can be said to be a phenomena where vapor bubbles form and
move across the vane of the pump impeller. As these vapor bubbles move along the impeller vane, the
pressure around the bubbles begins to increase. When a point is reached where the pressure on the
outside of the bubble is greater than the pressure inside the bubble, the bubble collapses. The bubble
collapse is not by explosion but by implosion. This collapse occurs simultaneously for hundreds of
bubbles moving across the impeller vane at practically the same point on the impeller vane. The figure
below should illustrate this phenomenon.
ROTATION

COLLAPSING BUBBLES
VAPOR BUBBLES

The phenomenon of the formation and subsequent collapse of these vapor bubbles, known as
cavitation, has several effects on a centrifugal pump. First, the collapsing bubbles make a distinctive
noise which is akin to a rattling sound, or a sound like the pump is pumping gravel. This can be a
nuisance in an extreme situation where a cavitating pump is operating where people are working. This
physical symptom is usually the area of least concern with cavitation, however. Of far greater concern is
the effect of cavitation on the hydraulic performance and the mechanical integrity of the pump.
A cavitating pump causes its hydraulic performance to drop off from its expected performance as
illustrated in the figure below:

Effect of Cavitation on the performance of a Centrifugal Pump

A much more serious effect is the mechanical damage that can be caused by excessive vibration in the
pump. This vibration is due to the uneven loading of the impeller as the mixture of vapor and liquid
passes through it, and to the local shock wave that occurs as each bubble collapses.
The shock waves can physically damage the impeller, causing the removal of material from the surface
of the impeller. The amount of material removed varies, depending on the extent of the cavitation and
the impeller material. Ferrous-based materials such as ductile iron are more susceptible to cavitation

shock waves compared to stainless steels which are not only superior in corrosion resistance but work
harden against the hammer like impact of the collapsing bubbles. If the impeller material is more
corrosion resistant but softer, ordinary bronze, for example, the damage that cavitation causes is similar
to a peening operation, in which a piece of relatively soft bronze is repeatedly struck with a small ball
peen hammer.
As long as the cavitation persists, this removal of material can continue. Pits can be formed gradually on
the impeller vanes and, in the extreme, the removal of material can actually cause a hole to be eaten
clear through an impeller vane, as illustrated in the figure below:

Material loss from impeller vane due to cavitation.

This removal of material from the impeller has the obvious effect of upsetting the dynamic balance of
the rotating component.
It is very important to remember that excessive vibration from cavitation can occur even without the
material loss from the impeller described above. This is true because the vibration from cavitation is
caused by the uneven loading of the impeller due to the shock waves produced by the collapsing vapor
bubbles.
One of the most common and visible effects of cavitation is the failure of the pumps seal and/or
bearings.

What causes the formation of the vapor bubbles in the first place, without which the cavitation would
not have a chance to occur? To a layman, the most obvious way to create vapor bubbles that is, to make
a liquid boil is by raising the temperature of the liquid. However, this is not what occurs in a cavitating
pump because, in the higher flow range where cavitation is likely to occur, the temperature of a liquid as
it moves through a centrifugal pump remains very nearly constant.
Another way to make a liquid boil, without increasing its temperature, is if the pressure of the liquid is
allowed to decrease. This physical property of liquids is known as vapor pressure.
Every liquid has a characteristic vapor pressure that varies with temperature, as the table below shows
for water. Many handbooks carry this data for various liquids.
For any liquid, as temperature goes up, vapor pressure increases. One way to interpret the vapor
pressure data for a liquid is that it shows the temperature at which the liquid boils when it is at a certain
pressure. For example, from Table 2.3, we see that at 14.7 psia (atmospheric pressure at sea level),
water boils at 212F (100C).
If the water is subjected to a pressure of 90 psia, the liquid does not boil until it reaches a temperature
of 320F (160C). This is the principle upon which a pressure cooker is based. With the pressure cooker
operating at a pressure above atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils at a much higher temperature than
it would in an open pot on the stove, so the food in the pressure cooker cooks faster.
If a liquid is at a certain temperature in a pressurized container and the pressure in the container is
allowed to drop below the vapor pressure of the liquid at that particular temperature. the liquid boils.
As an example (using Table below), if water at 300F (148.9C) is in a vessel which is maintained at a
pressure of 100 psia, the water is in a liquid state, i.e., is not boiling. However, if the pressure in the
vessel is allowed to drop, when it goes below 67 psia (the vapor pressure at 300F), the liquid begins to
boil.

Temperature
(F)

Temperature
(C)

Specific Gravity
@60F,
dimensionless

Specific Weight Vapor

, lb/ft3
pressure, psia

Vapor
pressure, ft
abs.*

32
0
1.002
62.42
0.0885
0.204
40
4.4
1.001
62.42
0.1217
0.281
45
7.2
1.001
62.40
0.1475
0.340
50
10
1.001
62.38
0.1781
0.411
55
12.8
1.000
62.36
0.2141
0.494
60
15.6
1.000
62.34
0.2563
0.591
65
18.3
0.999
62.31
0.3056
0.706
70
21.1
0.999
62.27
0.3631
0.839
75
23.9
0.998
62.24
0.4298
0.994
80
26.7
0.998
62.19
0.5069
1.172
85
29.4
0.997
62.16
0.5959
1.379
90
32.2
0.996
62.11
0.6982
1.617
95
35
0.995
62.06
0.8153
1.890
100
37.8
0.994
62.00
0.9492
2.203
110
43.3
0.992
61.84
1.275
2.965
120
48.9
0.990
61.73
1.692
3.943
130
54.4
0.987
61.54
2.223
5.196
140
60
0.985
61.39
2.889
6.766
150
65.6
0.982
61.20
3.718
8.735
160
71.1
0.979
61.01
4.741
11.172
170
76.7
0.975
60.79
5.992
14.178
180
82.2
0.972
60.57
7.510
17.825
190
87.8
0.968
60.35
9.339
22.257
200
93.3
0.964
60.13
11.526
27.584
212
100.0
0.959
59.81
14.696
35.353
220
104.4
0.956
59.63
17.186
41.343
240
115.6
0.948
59.10
24.97
60.77
260
126.7
0.939
58.51
35.43
87.05
280
137.8
0.929
58.00
49.20
122.18
300
148.9
0.919
57.31
67.01
168.22
320
160
0.909
56.66
89.66
227.55
340
171.1
0.898
55.96
118.01
303.17
360
182.2
0.886
55.22
153.04
398.49
380
193.3
0.874
54.47
195.77
516.75
400
204.4
0.860
53.65
247.31
663.42
420
215.6
0.847
52.80
308.83
841.17
440
226.7
0.833
51.92
381.59
1056.8
460
237.8
0.818
51.02
466.9
1317.8
480
248.9
0.802
50.00
566.1
1628.4
500
260
0.786
49.02
690.8
1998.2
520
271.1
0.766
47.85
812.4
2446.7
*Vapor pressure in feet of water (Abs.) converted from psia using sp. gr. @ temperature.
The above example is exactly analogous to what can occur in a pump system, causing the creation of
vapor bubbles and setting up the conditions for the pump to cavitate. In a pump system, as the liquid
leaves the supply vessel and approaches the suction of the pump, the local pressure at every point in

the suction line varies, due to changes in elevation and friction in the suction pipe, valves, filters, and
fittings. If this combination of changes in local pressure allows the pressure of the liquid to drop below
the vapor pressure at the pumping temperature, vapor bubbles form and the conditions are present for
cavitation to commence.
In analyzing a pump operating in a system to determine if cavitation is likely, there are two aspects of
NPSH to consider: NPSHa and NPSHr

NPSHa
Net positive suction head available (NPSHa) is the suction head present at the pump suction over and
above the vapor pressure of the liquid. NPSH a is a function of the suction system and is independent of
the type of pump in the system. It should be calculated by the engineer or pump user, and supplied to
the pump manufacturer as part of the application criteria or pump specification. The general formula for
calculating NPSHa is:
NPSHa = P H Hf Hvp

..(1)

where:
P =absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid in the suction vessel, expressed in feet (meter) of liquid
H = static distance from the surface of the liquid in the supply vessel to the centerline of the pump
impeller, in feet (meter); the term is positive if the pump has a static suction head, and negative if the
pump has a static suction lift. For the purpose of NPSH a calculations, both the static suction head and
the static suction lift should be considered at the minimum operating liquid level of the suction vessel.
In other words, the NPSH a should be calculated with the minimum static head or the maximum static lift
as the case maybe. The term minimum operating liquid level although is quite debatable since many
engineering professionals as well as engineering companies differ on its definition. It would suffice to
say that the minimum static head or maximum static lift may differ on a case-to-case and operating
philosophy basis and the engineer performing the NPSH a calculations would require doing a careful
analysis of this value before using it in his or her calculation.
Hf = friction loss in the suction line, including all piping, valves, fittings, filters, etc., expressed in feet
(meter) of liquid; this term varies with flow, so NPSH a must be calculated based on a particular flow rate
Hvp= vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature, expressed in feet (meter) of liquid

In a new pump application, NPSH a (and the static term H in the above formula) must be given to the
manufacturer with reference to some known datum point such as the elevation of the pump mounting
base. This is because the location of the pump impeller centerline elevation is generally not known when

the NPSHa calculations are made. It is important that the datum point of reference be mentioned in the
specification, as well as the calculated value of NPSH a.
New engineers often get confused when the suction vessel is not a vented vessel to atmosphere and
there is absence of data about the maximum operating pressure in the vapor space of the vessel. A way
out is that if the vessel is provided with a relief device in the vapor space of the vessel, the set pressure
of the relief device may be used as the maximum vessel pressure for the purpose of NPSH a calculations.

NPSHr
Net positive suction head required (NPSHr) is the suction head required at the impeller centerline over
and above the vapor pressure of the liquid. NPSH r is strictly a function of the pump inlet design, and is
independent of the suction piping system. The pump requires a pressure at the suction flange greater
than the vapor pressure of the liquid because merely getting the liquid to the pump suction flange in a
liquid state is not sufficient. The liquid experiences pressure losses when it first enters the pump, before
it gets to the point on the impeller vane where pressure begins to increase. These losses are caused by
frictional effects as the liquid passes through the pump suction nozzle, moves across the impeller inlet,
and changes direction to begin to flow along the impeller vanes.
NPSHr is established by the manufacturer using a special test, and the value of NPSH r is shown on the
pump curve as a function of pump capacity.
It is important to note that the NPSH r increases with higher flow rate due to the increased amount of
friction loss inside the pump inlet before the liquid reaches the pump impeller. In certain cases the
NPSHr also increases with the flow remaining unchanged but the impeller diameter reduced.
For a pump to operate free of cavitation, NPSH a must be greater than NPSHr. In determining the
acceptability of a particular pump operating in a particular system with regard to NPSH, the NPSH a for
the system must be calculated by the engineer, and then the NPSH r for the pump to be used must be
examined at the same flow rate by looking at this information on the pump curve. This comparison
should be made at all possible operation points of the pump, with the worst case usually being at the
maximum expected flow, also called the runout flow.

Safe Margin NPSHa vs. NPSHr

An often-asked question is: What is a safe margin to maintain between NPSH a and NPSHr?
Unfortunately, like so many questions related to pumps, the answer must begin with That depends.
For the majority of pumping applications, it is good practice to have a reasonable margin between the
available and required NPSH.
When considering the margin that should be maintained between NPSH a and NPSHr for a particular
application, the questions to ask include:
a. How conservatively was NPSH a calculated for the system, and for what percentage of the pumps duty
cycle is this low value of NPSH a actually present?

b. What is the pump impeller material, and how resistant is it to cavitation damage?
c. Does the pump system make use of a gas blanket that may become dissolved in the liquid and
subsequently liberated in the low pressure area of the impeller inlet?
Depending on the answers to these questions, the recommended minimum margin between calculated
NPSHa and NPSHr can range from 0 to 35%. A rule of thumb often used in industry is that NPSH a should
exceed NPSHr by a minimum of 3 feet (1 meter).
The safe margin between NPSH a and NPSHr needs to be critically evaluated and established when the
liquid pumped is close to its boiling point (saturated liquid) or when vey high pumping flow rates are
required.

Remedies for Cavitation

From the discussion till now it is obvious that the higher the value of NPSH a or greater the difference
between NPSHa and the NPSHr lesser the possibility of cavitation. For a given value of NPSH r at the pump
rated flow the endeavor of any engineer would be to increase the value of NPSH a as given by the
equation 1. Pump system modifications that can increase the NPSH a by manipulating the four terms in
the right hand side of equation 1 can be described as follows:
1. Increase the static suction head or decrease the static suction lift absolute value. This can be done
by having the pump operate at a higher suction vessel level or by changing the pump location to a lower
elevation.
2. Decrease the value of friction losses (H f) in equation 1. This can be done in several ways:
a. Make the suction pipe shorter by locating the pump close to the vessel.
b. Increasing the size of the suction pipe to reduce friction losses.
c. Reducing the number of fittings and valves in the suction pipe to reduce friction losses
d. Using a suction filter / strainer which gives the minimum pressure drop (low differential pressure)
at clogged conditions while still protecting the pump from ingress of solids / particles.
3. Decrease the pumping temperature of the liquid. This option has to be evaluated with respect to the
process requirements of the fluid being pumped.
4. Increase the pressure in the vapor space of the suction vessel by providing a pressure blanket using
inert gas or any other compatible gas which will increase the value of P in equation 1. This option
requires a very careful evaluation since this may prove detrimental to the pump performance in terms
of increased cavitation if the blanket gas has good solubility in the liquid and can be liberated at the
lower pressure area at the inlet of the pump.

The topic of pump cavitation and NPSH can be discussed even more extensively. However, the endeavor
of this brief refresher is to provide an insight to the younger generation of chemical engineers on the
fundamentals of cavitation and NPSH.

Reference
Pump Characteristics and Applications by Michael Volk, 2 nd Edition.

Prepared by:
Ankur Srivastava
Chemical Engineer
Email: ankur_2061@hotmail.com