Kinematic Positioning with an Integrated GPS/Pseudolite/INS

Hung Kyu Lee, Jinling Wang, Chris Rizos

School of Surveying and Spatial Information System
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
Email : z3006822@student.unsw.edu.au
Abstract. Although existing integrated GPS/INS systems can overcome inherent drawbacks of
each system, such as no result without line-of-sight for GPS and INS errors that grow with time,
performance is nevertheless degraded in difficult operational circumstances. Some typical
examples are when the duration of satellite signal blockage is excessive, resulting in large
accumulated INS errors that are not able to be calibrated by GPS. Such a scenario is
unfortunately a common occurrence at engineering-construction sites. In such a case, pseudolites
(ground-based GPS-like signal transmitters) deployed at appropriate locations, can augment GPS
(and INS), so that accurate position and attitude information can still be obtained.
This paper presents the results of investigations into new kinematic positioning strategies,
such as GPS/PL/INS and PL/GPS integration, that can maintain performance by continuously
providing measurements necessary to update the system Kalman filter. The new concepts of
PL/INS and GPS/PL/INS integration using a centralised Kalman filter are described. Typically,
the former is applicable to indoor positioning where the GPS signal is unavailable for use. The
latter would be appropriate for circumstances when the number and geometry of visible satellites
is not sufficient for accurate positioning and attitude determination. Simulations are carried out
in order to analyse the geometric strength with respect to the locations of the pseudolites and the
user antennas. The results of integrated data processing are presented.
Key words: GPS, INS, Pseudolite, and Kalman filter

1. Introduction
Position and attitude information is an important component in surveying, navigation, control
and guidance of moving platforms. Traditionally, this information has been provided by an
Inertial Navigation System (INS), a self-contained measuring unit which provides position,
velocity and attitude information at a high output rate. The system, however, has time-dependent
error characteristics when operated in a stand-alone mode, without in-flight alignment. In
contrast, GPS provides accurate position, velocity and time data without any impact of mission
length or time since update. The main factor limiting the use of GPS is the requirement for lineof-sight between the receiver antenna and the satellites. Additional shortcomings include the low
data output rate and the need to deploy more than one GPS antenna in order to obtain attitude
information. Integrated GPS/INS systems have been developed in order to overcome the inherent
drawbacks of each system. Applications for such systems include aerial photogrammetry and
airborne gravity surveying, mobile mapping, vehicle navigation, guidance and control

[2][7][10][11]. Moreover, such a system is well suited for trajectory determination, as it can be
easily described using position and attitude information. In such an integrated system, low data
rate, high accuracy GPS measurements can be used to estimate and to correct the error states of
the INS by means of Kalman filtering. High data rate INS measurements can provide accurate
position and attitude information between the GPS updates. Moreover, redundant precise
positional information from the INS can be used for cycle slip detection and correction. This is
important as this is one of the limiting factors for high accuracy GPS performance in the standalone mode[3][13], and does lead to an improvement of the ambiguity resolution performance
[8].
Even though existing GPS/INS systems can effectively address the inherent drawbacks of
each system, the performance is, nevertheless, degraded in difficult operational circumstances.
Some typical cases are when the duration of satellite signal blockage is excessive, resulting in
large accumulated INS errors. Such scenarios are, for instance, common at engineering
construction sites, and the integration of GPS/INS with other technologies needs to be considered.
One such technology option is the pseudolite (or "pseudo-satellite").
Pseudolites are ground-based GPS-like signal transmitters, which can improve the satellite
geometry, or even replace the GPS satellites constellation for indoor applications [15][16]. They
typically transmit signals at the GPS frequencies (L1: 1575.42MHz; L2: 1227.6MHz). Both
pseudo-range and carrier phase measurements can be made on the pseudolite signals. Therefore,
it can be expected that pseudolites deployed at appropriate locations can augment the
performance of GPS/INS integration system, so that accurate position and attitude information
can be obtained in a wide variety of operational scenarios.
This paper investigates several new kinematic positioning strategies, such as GPS/PL/INS and
PL/GPS integration, that can maintain system performance by means of continuously providing
measurements necessary to update the system Kalman filter. New concepts of PL/INS and
GPS/PL/INS integration using a centralised Kalman filter are described. Typically, the former is
applicable to indoor positioning where the GPS signal is unavailable for use. The latter would be
appropriate for a case where the number and geometry of the visible satellites is not sufficient for
accurate positioning and attitude determination. Various simulation tests have been carried out in
order to analyse issues such as the geometric strength, and to assess the performance of the
proposed integrated system.

2. System Description
A drawback of existing integrated GPS/INS systems is that their performance is degraded in
difficult operational circumstances. Some typical cases are when the duration of satellite signal
blockage is excessive, resulting in large accumulated INS errors that can not be calibrated by
GPS. The critical duration of signal outage varies as a function of INS. For example, it could be
a couple of seconds for low-cost Inertial Measurement Units (IMU), and a few tens of seconds
for navigation-grade state-of-art INS. Such challenges are common at construction sites, open cut
mines, highway construction, and pump-storage-power-station and dam construction, where
steep pit walls or local terrain may mask some of the GPS signals. An example of such a case is
discussed in [14], where the operational time of a GPS-only system can be reduced to 20% of the
time if the obstruction angle is up to 45 degrees. The masking results in reduced satellite
availability, and as a consequence reliability and geometry is degraded, as indicated in Figure 1.

Under these circumstances, the Kalman filter update is not carried out accurately since integer
ambiguities cannot be fixed due to the insufficient number of SVs, hence the accumulated INS
error states are exponentially increasing. One or more pseudolites deployed at appropriate
locations can be used to augment an integrated GPS/INS system by providing increased
availability of measurements, so that accurate position and attitude information can still be
obtained. Another benefit of such a system is to improve the ambiguity search performance as
the initial coordinate from the calibrated INS solution is more accurate than that of the GPS-only
pseudo-range solution.

GPS &
PL

CPH

DD Comp.
Fixing Amb.

KF

Predicted
Position
INS

Navigation
Solution

Reference position
velocity & attitude

reset

Figure 1. Typical open pit mining &

construction site in a deep valley

Figure 2. Tightly coupled integration approach

Figure 3. Side view of under ground tunnelling

Another harsh operational environment is where the GPS signals are all unavailable, such as
in the case of underground tunnelling (see Figure 3). In those cases, GPS is not able to be used in
the Kalman filter update and the accumulated INS error increases exponentially. However,
pseudolites can replace the satellite constellation, and can be used to calibrate the INS error
states. This is based on the pseudolite-only positioning concept, which has been proposed for
indoor positioning [9][12]. However, multipath reflected from tunnel wall will be a major error
source which degrades positioning accuracy [12]. Even though one of the possible ways to
mitigate this error may include the use of position obtained from an INS solution, it will not be
discussed in this paper. Another important issue is the deployment of pseudolites, since the
positioning results are affected by the measurement geometry. This will be discussed in more
detail in the following section.
Integrating GPS and pseudolite measurements is relatively straightforward in that pseudolites
can be considered simply as extra GPS satellites, if the pseudolites transmit signals on the GPS
L1 and/or L2 frequency. Consequentially, a new integrated system based on GPS/Pseudolite/INS
sensor technology can be proposed, using a tightly coupled integration strategy with centralised

Kalman filter. The benefit of such an approach relative to a loosely coupled one is the provision
of better accuracy and less sensitivity to satellite dropouts. The concept of such a strategy is
illustrated in above Figure 2.

3. Mathematical Modelling
3.1 Pseudolite Measurement Models
Without loss of generality, in a manner similar to the GPS satellite measurements, the
mathematical models for the pseudolite (PL) pseudo-range and carrier phases are [17]:
Rkp = kp + c (dt p dt k ) + Tkp + drkp + dm kp + kp

kp =

p
k

T
dr
1 p c
k +
(dt p dt k ) + N kp + k +
p
p
p
p

(1)

+ m KP + ekp

(2)

where k and p denote the receiver and pseudolite respectively. Rkp and kp are the pseudo-range
and carrier phase measurements respectively. p is the wavelength of the carrier frequency. kp is
the topocentric distance. dt p and dt k is the pseudolite and receiver clock errors respectively.
p
Tkp is the tropospheric delay. drk is the psdeudolite location error. dm kp and m kp are multipath
errors in the pseudo-range and carrier phase measurements respectively. kp and ekp are the
pseudo-range and carrier phase measurement errors respectively.
In the above equations (1) and (2), it is necessary to note that there are no signal-propagation
correction terms for the ionosphere. This is because PL signal transmitters and the user receiver
antenna are both on the ground. Hence the PL signal will not propagate through the ionosphere.
Moreover, unlike the spaceborne satellite signals, the pseudolite signals propagate largely
through the lower troposphere. It is due to this fact that the effect of tropospheric delays in the
PL measurements should be corrected for using a special tropospheric delay compensation model,
or estimated using the PL measurements themselves [4][5].
3.2 SDINS Navigation Computation
A strapdown-INS (SDINS) outputs three components of the specific force vector and three
components of the angular velocity vector in the body frame, denoted by f b and ibb
respectively. While the subscripts of the angular velocity vector indicate the direction of the
rotation, the superscript presents the frame in which the vector is expressed. In this case, angular
velocity of the body frame with respect to the inertial frame is defined in the body frame.
Specific force and angular velocities can be used to determine all parameters required for
trajectory determination, such as position, velocity and attitude, by solving the following system
of differential equations[18]:
r& n

vn
n n b

v& = Rb f ( 2ien + enn )v n + g n

R& n

Rbn (ibb enb )

b

(3)

The vector on the left-hand side has nine components, three for position ( r n ) , three for
velocity (v n ) , and three for attitude ( Rbn ) . To solve this system, the sensed observables f b and
ibb are needed, as well as the gravity vector ( g n ) and the Earth rotation rate (ien ) . The
observables can be identified on the right-hand side of the equation, where the angular velocity
vector is contained in ibb , a skew-symmetric matrix. The solution and numerical implementation
of the above differential equation is discussed in [18].

3.3 Kalman Filtering

Basically, the Kalman filtering estimation algorithm comprises two steps, namely prediction
and update with external measurements. A linear Kalman filter equation is defined as follows.
Prediction

Update
T

(4)

x k ( ) = k,k-1 x k-1( + )
T

Pk ( ) = k,k-1 Pk-1( + ) k,k-1 + Q k-1

(5)

K k = Pk ( )H k H k Pk ( )H k + R k

x k ( + ) = x k ( ) + K k (Z k H k x k ( ))
T

Pk ( + ) = Pk ( ) K k H k Pk ( )

(6)
(7)
(8)

where, x and P are the optimally estimated state vector and variance-covariance matrix, and K ,
Q and R are the Kalman gain, system noise and measurement variance-covariance matrices
respectively. In this paper, double-differenced carrier phase measurements with fixed integer
ambiguities are used to update the filter.
3.4 Error State Model
For a short baseline application, as assumed in the following simulations, residual GPS
measurement errors are extremely small when the double-differenced carrier phase observable
model is used. Hence, the error state vector of the Kalman filter only includes the navigation
solution, and the accelerometer and gyroscope error states. Here, the following complete
terrestrial INS psi-angle error model is used [1]:
v& = -(ie + in ) v f + g +
r& = -en r + v
& = -in +

(9)

where, v, r , and are the velocity, position, and attitude error vector respectively, is the
accelerometer error vector, g is the error in the computed gravity vector, and is the gyro drift
vector.
An exact expression of the system equation for the Kalman filter depends on what error states
are chosen and what kind of models are used to describe them. In this study twenty one error
states are selected, namely the error state vector, which includes nine navigation solution errors
with respect to positions, velocities and attitude angles, six accelerometer measurement errors
(biases and scale factors), three gyro drifts, and three gravity uncertainty errors (see equation 10).
For a more detailed discussion of such a model see [7][8].

x nav = [rN ,E ,D , N , E , D , N , E D ] , x Acc = bx , by , bz , fx , fx , fx

T

x Gyro = dx , dy , dz

],

x Grav = [g N , E , D ]

(10)

4. Simulations
During the early stages of the development of an integrated kinematic positioning system it is
necessary to test the components, assess the behaviour of the various integration strategies and to
verify the performance of the system algorithms. It is often not practical to collect data under all
possible scenarios. Furthermore, in many kinematic positioning scenarios the true trajectory is
not known precisely. By processing simulated data a reference trajectory can be generated, and
then compared with results from the integrated system. In addition, GPS simulation can be an
invaluable tool when pre-planning a mission, or when attempting to assess the affect of different
biases on the GPS measurements. The availability, accuracy and reliability of GPS
measurements are a function of satellite geometry and user-defined parameters such as the
mobile receiver location, elevation angle, etc. Varying these parameters can make it possible to
evaluate the changes to the GPS measurements, and determine when an anomalous situation is
likely to occur.
4.1 Measurement Simulation Software
In this study, a combined GPS/PL/SDINS measurement simulation software has been
developed. The software comprises three components, the trajectory data, and SDINS and
GPS/PL measurement simulation. Both the GPS/PL and the SDINS data simulation require a
reference trajectory (a flight profile) for the moving vehicle. The reference trajectory is defined
by time, and the coordinate, velocity and attitude angle values. The inputs for the software
include the initial coordinates, velocity, attitude, update rate, starting and ending time. Moreover,
to define the vehicles movement change, segment parameters, for example acceleration, velocity
and heading changes, need to be defined. The generated trajectory profile is output with 1Hz
rate.
Table 1. Input values for the INS errors and GPS/PL measurement noise
INS Error Type
Accelerometer bias
Accelerometer scale factor
Gyro drift
Accelerometer white noise
Gyro white noise

Value
30mg
40ppm
0.01deg/hr
7.07ug/rt-hr
0.0008deg/hr/rt-hr

GPS/PL Obs. Type

Standard Dev. (m)

Pseudo-range

1.000

Carrier phase

0.002

In the case of SDINS, specific force (acceleration) and angular velocity is firstly generated,
based on the given trajectory profile, and then related sensor errors, accelerometer/gyro bias,
scale factor and noise (see Table 1), as well as effects associated with Earth rotation and gravity,
are computed and added to the 'true' measurements. All data so generated are output in a binary
format with an output rate of 64Hz.
GPS/PL data generation begins with the computation of the coordinates of the satellites.
While GPS coordinates are computed by an ephemeris data file (converted from the almanac

file), those for the pseudolites need to be provided by the user. Subsequently, based on the
coordinates of the receiver antenna and the satellites, the distances between the two points in
space are computed. The biases, errors and measurement noise defined by the appropriate
models (see Table 1) are then added. Multipath is not taken into account in this simulation study.

Time, Pos, Vel, & Attitude

Initial Position,
Velocity and Attitude

Flight profile
Generator

Segment
Parameters

SDINS SIMULATOR
Ephemeris
including PL coordinates
Observation (PR & CP)
PR error, CP error
Ambiguity

GPS/PL SIMULATOR
Specific force
Acc. Error, Corillis,
Gravity
Angular rate
Gyro error, Earth rotation

1Hz

Ephemeris
Observation
-Rinex format

64Hz

Delta Velocity
Delta Angle
- Binary format

Figure 4. The GPS/PL/SDINS measurement simulator

It is necessary to note some very important facts at this stage. One is the lack of an
ionospheric delay model for the PL measurements, due to the fact that the PL signals do not
propagated through the ionosphere. Secondly, a different tropospheric delay models must be
used for each PL, as the standard GPS tropospheric models cannot compensate for the PL
tropospheric delay. In this study a simple troposphere model, as described in [5], has been used
to generate the tropospheric delay error. A GPS/PL simulation output rate of 1Hz is adopted. The
simulated data is output as in the Rinex2 format. Figure 4 illustrates the GPS/PL/SDINS
measurement simulation software.
4.2 Trajectory and Measurements
The reference trajectory is depicted in Figure 5. This trajectory contains 49 segments and was
generated for a total time period of 900 seconds. The first segment is stationary, for the purpose
of initial INS alignment, and then the vehicle moves with a constant acceleration of 0.15m/sec2.
The vehicle then moves with a constant velocity of 5.9 m/sec (21.2km/h) for the remainder of the
trajectory. The heading and roll were changed 9 times, whereas the pitch and height were both
changed 5 times. It was assumed that the velocity component along the Z-(Down) axis of the
navigation frame was zero m/sec. However, when the pitch and roll angles are changed, the
actual Z-axis velocity component may not be zero.
Using the measurement simulation software described above, GPS/PL base and rover
measurements, as well as SDINS measurements, were generated. While only one SDINS data set
was simulated, five GPS/PL data sets were simulated by assuming different positioning scenarios.
All measurement sets were generated for 900 seconds.

Satellite
Number

Mean
PDOP

Data
sets

3.7

GPS/PL

5(2)

1.4

GPS/INS

5-3

3.7

GPS/PL/INS

5-3(2)

1.4

III

GPS/PL/INS

3(2)

2.1

IV

PL/INS

(5)

4.7

PL/INS

(5)

2.1

Case

II

Figure 5. Reference trajectory for the

simulation tests

Testing
Scenarios

GPS

Table 2. Simulated data sets for test

scenarios: ( )PL

4.3 Tests and Results

As shown in Table 2, five different GPS/PL data sets, based on a variety of positioning
scenarios, were simulated in order to assess the performance of such integrated systems. Four
different simulation tests will be discussed. In these tests the software package AIMSTM
(Airborne Integrated Mapping System), developed by the Centre or Mapping of the Ohio State
University [6][7][8], was used for the data processing. This software has been modified at the
University of New South Wales to include the capability of processing PL measurements.
The first test was to compare the performance of standard GPS with a GPS/PL system under
normal operational conditions. To this end, GPS measurements from five satellites were used,
while two pseudolite measurements were included in the case of the GPS/PL integration, see
Table 2. To assess the achievable accuracy of each system, a comparison between positions on
the reference and computed trajectory is made. As mentioned in the pervious section, the
reference trajectory in simulation studies provides the best means of analysing achievable
accuracy and system performance. As shown in Table 2, the addition of two pseudolites
strengthens the existing GPS satellite geometry by a factor of almost two, that is a PDOP 3.7 to
1.4. The enhanced geometry results in improved accuracy for integrated systems using PLs.
Figure 6 shows the position differences for the scenarios of GPS-only compared to GPS/PL.
Comparing the standard deviation values of the differences in both the horizontal and vertical
components, it can be noted that the addition of pseudolites has improved the accuracy.
The second test was carried out assuming the blockage of signals from satellites 17 and 30,
simulated three times. Figure 7 shows the number of SVs tracked and the associated RDOP
values. From the Figure it can be seen that two pseudolites enhance the geometry. The dotted
lines in the lower graphs of Figures 8 and 9 indicates the results from the periods of GPS signal
blockage. Even though measurements from the rest of the satellites during these periods are not
enough to update the Kalman filter, the results in Figures 8 (GPS/INS integration) and 9
(GPS/PL/INS integration) indicate that there is no significant error increase, being in the range of
a few millimetres to centimetres, in spite of a lack of update. From these Figures a comparison of
the lower graph (with signal blockage) with the upper one (without blockage) can be made. This
fact stems from the INS characteristic of providing very accurate output results over short time
intervals. Inspecting the lower graph of Figure 9, the results are affected by relatively large

changes of geometry, but still results in smaller values than that of the GPS/INS case, see the
upper graph of Figure 7. This is evidence that the geometric strength affects the accuracy of an
integrated GPS/INS system as well. On the other hand, the result should be totally different if the
signal blockage periods are extended, and/or a different type of INS is used. The former issue
will be dealt with later. The latter will not be discussed further.

Figure 6. Differences between reference and

computed positions (GPS and GPS/PL)

Figure 7. The number of observed SVs and

RDOP

Figure 8. Differences between reference and

computed position with/without satellite
blockage (GPS/INS)

Figure 9. Differences between reference and

computed position with/without satellite
blockage (GPS/PL/INS)

The third test is a scenario where the number of visible GPS satellites is insufficient, that is
there are less than 4 satellites visible. When using carrier phase double-differences
measurements for updating INS error estimation and correction with a Kalman filter, an
important issue is to fix the ambiguities correctly so that they may be included in the GPS
measurement. By and large, more than five satellites are recommended for OTF (on-the-fly)
ambiguity resolution algorithms. This means that with double-differenced measurements without
the correct ambiguity, it is impossible to accurately estimate and correct the accumulated INS
error. The second test showed that a few seconds GPS tracking loss did not affect the rate of INS
accuracy degradation if a high-grade INS is used. However, even a few seconds signal loss could

significantly degrade the accuracy of the system if a low-grade IMU was used. Figure 10 shows
the 50 seconds INS error behaviour if the double-differenced measurements are unavailable due
to insufficient tracked satellites. More severely, the longer the signal blockage, the larger the
accumulated INS errors. Under these circumstances the existing GPS/INS integration
configuration cannot give high positioning accuracy, especially with a low-cost IMU as in
scenarios such as Figure 10. As shown in the upper graph of Figure 11, three GPS and two PL
measurements are generated for this test. Although three GPS are used, the mean RDOP value is
kept at the 2.1 level. Moreover it is noted that centimetre level positioning accuracy is achievable
from the result of the simulation even if the number of tracked satellite is less than 5, using an
OTF algorithm in the kinematic application. Note the values of the standard deviation in each of
the figures.

Figure 10. Differences between reference and

computed positions without using GPS
measurements

Figure 11. Number of SVs & RDOP change,

and position differences in the case of
GPS/PL/INS integration

So far, the tests assuming both sufficient and insufficient GPS measurements have been done
to assess the contribution of pseudolites to existing GPS-only and integrated GPS/INS systems,
with respect to geometric strength and accuracy. The final test is, however, the 'harshest' GPS
operating environment, namely indoor positioning. The test assumed five PLs in an integrated
PL/INS configuration, and applied the same methodology as in the pervious test. It has already
been shown that in the case of satellite-based positioning, that the reliability and accuracy of
pseudolite-augmented systems, GPS/PL and GPS/PL/INS, is highly dependent on the geometric
strength. In the case of tests with no GPS signals, two PL measurement sets were simulated to
evaluate how variations in the PLs deployment affects the accuracy of the proposed system, see
Figure 12. As expected, the accuracy of both the horizontal and vertical components is
considerably improved when good geometry is assumed. In particular it is important to note that
such is the improvement in the vertical component that its accuracy is now better than the
horizontal components when the geometry is good, see Figure 13. This is in contrast to the
results generally obtained from standard GPS-based positioning and can be attributed to the use
of only low elevation PLs. It could be said that according to these simulation results, irrespective

of the pattern of deployment of PLs (the RDOP remains below 5), the achievable accuracy of the
system is at the centimetre level.

Figure 12. Geometry changes in the simulated

PL measurement sets

Figure 13. Differences between reference and

computed position in the case of PL/INS
integration

5. Concluding Remarks
New positioning concepts based on the integration of two or more of the GPS receiver,
pseudolite and INS technologies have been discussed in this paper. In order to assess the
performance of different system configurations, a variety of simulation tests have been carried
out. It has been found that appropriately distributed pseudolites can strengthen the GPS satellite /
PL transmitter geometry and therefore ensure improved accuracy for different positioning
scenarios. In addition it has been demonstrated that GPS/PL/INS and PL/INS integration would
make it possible to ensure centimetre level positioning accuracy even if there are insufficient
GPS signals available.
In conclusion, more research on mitigating pseudolite multipath and further tests with
different SDINS will be carried out in near future.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their deep appreciation to Dr. Dorota Grejner-Brzezinska
for making available the AIMSTM software package used in the data processing.

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