Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

NOTES - Unit 2: Atomic Structure

PART 1: THE ATOM
Atom Basics
All atoms, with the exception of H, are made up of 3 subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons and electrons.
Hydrogen is the simplest atom (_______________________________________________)
Atomic radius is on the order of __________________.
Atoms are mostly _________________________________________.
Protons and neutrons are located in the ______________________________.
Electrons are found in ______________________ levels (____________________) surrounding the
nucleus.
Relative Mass and Charge
Actual mass of a proton: 1.672 x 1024 g (neutron mass is virtually identical; electron is 1/2000 of
this mass)
Actual charge of an electron:
1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs
PARTICLE

RELATIVE MASS

RELATIVE
CHARGE

proton
neutron
electron
Shorthand Notation for an Atom or Ion:

Examples
Symbol

Atomic
number (Z)

Mass number
(A)

#
protons

#
neutron
s

#
electron
s

9
4

Be

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4
20
40

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

Ca 2

37
17

Cl

Isotopes: atoms that have the same # of _____________________, but a different # of

_________________________.
Examples of isotopes:
Hydrogen:

Carbon:

Chlorine:

Relative Atomic Mass: weighted mean molar mass of atoms of elements.

Example: The two isotopes of chlorine occur in the ratio of 3:1. Thus, naturally occurring chlorine
contains 75%

35
17

Cl

and 25%

37
17

Cl

. Determine the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

PART 2: MASS SPECTROMETRY

The Mass Spectrometer: Relative atomic
masses (among other things we will discuss
when we get to organic chemistry) can be
determined using this instrument.

How it works (5 basic steps):

1. __________________________________: if the sample is not already as gas, the sample is
heated to this point.
2. __________________________________: sample is bombarded with a stream of high energy
electons. In practice, the instrument is set so that only ions with a single positive charge
are formed (M+).
3. __________________________________: resulting unipositive ions pass through slits in parallel
plates under the influence of an electric field.
4. __________________________________: ions are then passed over an external magnetic field.
The magnetic field causes the ions to be deflected, and the amount of deflections is
2

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

IB Topics 2 & 12 AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;
18.4
AP Chapters 1-5
proportional to the the charge/mass ratio. Ions with _____________________ masses are
deflected _____________________ than heavier ions. Ions with higher charges are deflected
more as they interact more effectively with the magnetic field.
5. __________________________________: positive ions of a particular mass/charge ratio are
detected and a signal is sent to a recorder. The strength of the signal is a measure of the
number of ions with that charge/mass ratio that are detected.

Mass Spectrum of Pb
6

5.2

5
4
3
2.2
relative abundance 2.4
2
1
0.2
0
203
mass/charge

Example: Determine the relative atomic mass of naturally occurring

lead based on the mass spectrum data below. Carry your answer out to the nearest tenth.
Isotopic
mass

Relative
abundance

% relative
abundance

Relative atomic mass =

Radioisotopes:
Nucleus stability depends upon the balance between the number of
3

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

IB Topics 2 & 12 AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;
18.4
AP Chapters 1-5
__________________________________________.
Nuclei that contain too many or too few neutrons are unstable (radioactive) and change to form
more stable nuclei by giving off radiation.
4

______________ ( 2He): particles (identical to helium nuclei) emitted by nuclei with too many
protons.

______________ ( -1 e ): electrons are ejected (owing to neutron decay) from nuclei with too
many neutrons.

______________ ( 0 ): rays that are a high-energy form of electromagnetic ration.

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes: can be used to generate energy in nuclear power plants
(fission), sterilize surgical instruments in hospitals, preserve food, detect cracks in structural
materials, etc. While the high energy nature of radioactivity can be used save human life,
uncontrolled levels of exposure can have quite the _______________ effect.
Carbon-14 dating

14

14

7
-1
Decays as 6
(beta emission) at a known rate.
Half life (time it takes for 50% of sample to decay) for C-14 is ____________________.
C-14 continually forms in the upper atmosphere and is in equilibrium with C-12
(concentrations are constant).
As living things function, they constantly recycle carbon, thus maintaining a constant
________________ ratio.
The C-14/C-12 ratio falls by _____________ every 5730 years after the death of a living
organism.
Measurement of current activity allows us to determine how long ago a fossil was
deposited. After ____________________, the activity is so low that other radionuclides must
be used for accurate fossil dating.

Cobalt-60 used in radiotherapy

Radiotherapy (radiation therapy) targets ionizing radiation at _________________ cells,
damaging the genetic material of these cells by knowcking off electrons and making it
impossible for these cells to grow and divide.
Although radiotherapy damages both cancer and normal cells, the normal cells are able to
recover if the treatment is carefully ______________________.
Co-60 is commonly used as it emits very penetrating ________________ radiation when its
protons an neutrons change their relative _____________________ in the nucleus.
Iodine-131 as a medical tracer
Emitter of both ______________ and ______________ radiation.
Radioisotopes have same chemical properties as any other atom of the same element and
so they play the same roll in the body; however, their positions, unlike other isotopes, can
4

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

IB Topics 2 & 12 AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;
18.4
AP Chapters 1-5
be monitored by detecting radiation levels, making them suitable as
__________________________________________.
I-131 in the form of ________________________________ can be used to investigate activity of
the thyroid gland and to diagnose and treat ____________________________ cancer.
Half life for I-131 is short, ______________, so it is quickly eliminated from the body.
Another isotope, I-125 is used in treatment of ________________ cancer (halflife=______________).

PART 3: EMISSION SPECTRA

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic radiation (radiant energy) - characterized by its wavelength (color), , and

frequency (energy),f
Related by the equations:

where
c = 299 792 458 m/s, or approx.. 3.00 x 108 m s-1 (the speed of light in a
vacuum) and
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s (Planks constant)
Wavelength =

Diagram of a Wave:

Frequency =
Atomic Emission Spectra

When sunlight or white light is passed through a prism, it gives the continuous
spectrum observed in a rainbow.
When energy is supplied to individual elements they emit a spectrum which only contains
emissions at particular wavelengths.
Each element has its own characteristic spectrum known as a ________________________as it
is not continuos.
5

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

Example: Hydrogen (H)

NOTE: the line spectrum consists of discrete lines that

______________________________________________
____________________________ (violet) end of the spectrum. A similar series of lines at higher
energies (UV) and several other series of lines at lower energy can be found in the IR
region of the spectrum.
Explanation of emission spectra

Electrons can only exist in certain __________________________________________.

When all electrons are in the lowest possible energy levels, an atom is said to be in its
GROUND STATE.
When an atom absorbs energy so that its electrons are boosted to higher energy levels,
the atom is said to be in an __________________________________________.
When an electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy level in an atom,
energy of a characteristic frequency (and corresponding wavelength) is
____________________________.
When an electron falls from a higher energy level back to the lower energy level, then
radiation of the same frequency (and corresponding wavelength) is
____________________________.
The light emitted by an element when its electrons return from excited states to their
ground states can be viewed as a

______________________________________________________________________.

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4
Energy level
Part of the spectrum
(n) electrons
the series of lines will
are returning
show up in
to

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

n=1
n=2
n=3

Note: the lines in the spectrum converge because the energy levels
themselves converge.
Energy levels available to the electron in the hydrogen atom (p. 286; Zumdahl, 7 th ed.):

Example: Calculate the energy required to excite the hydrogen electron from level n=1 to n=2.
What wavelength of light and portion of the elecromagnetic spectrum is capable of supplying this
amount of energy.

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

IB Topics 2 & 12 AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;
18.4
AP Chapters 1-5
Example: Calculate the energy required to remove the electron from a hydrogen atom in its
ground state.
Level

Max #
electrons

1 (K
shell)
2 (L
shell)
3 (M
shell)

PART 4: ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT

Evidence from Ionization Energies
First ionization energy: energy required to remove one electron from an atom in its gaseous
state.

This graph provides evidence that the levels can

contain different numbers of electrons before they
become full.

Evidence for Sublevels

Second ionization energy: energy required to remove the second electron.

What does this graph show?

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

Sublevels and orbitals:

The quantum mechanical model of the atom predicts energy levels for electrons; it is
concerned with the probability, or likelihood, of finding an electron in a certain position.
Regions where electrons are likely to be found are called orbitals.
o EACH ORBITAL CAN HOLD UP TO 2
ELECTRONS!
o Shapes of s and p orbitals:

In quantum theory, each electron is

assigned a set
of quantum numbers (like the mailing address of an
electron)
1) Principal Quantum Number (
):
describes the energy level that the electron occupies
n = 1, 2, 3, 4
the larger the value of n, the farther away from the nucleus and the higher the energy of
the electron.
2) Sublevels (
):
the # of sublevels in each energy level = the quantum #, n, for that energy level.
sublevels are labeled with a # that is the principal quantum #, and a letter: s, p, d, f
(ex: 2p is the p sublevel in the 2nd energy level)
Principal Energy
Level

Sublevels

Orbitals

Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4
Sublevel

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5
# of orbitals

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

Max. # of
electrons

3) spin quantum number (

):
labels the orientation of the electron;
electrons in an orbital spin in opposite directions; these directions are designated as +
and
Pauli Exclusion Principle: states that no 2 electrons have an identical set of four
quantum #s; ensures that no more than 2 electrons can be found within a particular
orbital.
Hunds rule: orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any
pairing occurs.
(repulsion between electrons in a single orbital is minimized)
All electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin; when 2 electrons
occupy an orbital they have opposite spins.
Aufbau Principle: orbitals of _________________________ energy are filled first (building-up
principle).

Orbital diagrams:
-each orbital is represented by a box
-each electron is represented by an arrow
hydrogen:
helium:

carbon:

Electron configurations: an abbreviated form of the orbital diagram.

helium:
boron:
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Unit 2: Atomic Structure

18.4

IB Topics 2 & 12
AP Chapters 1-5

neon:

AP Chapters (Zumdahl): 3.2; 7.1-7.11;

aluminum:

uranium:
Abbreviated electron configurations: an abbreviated form of the electron
configuration.
helium:
boron:
aluminum:
cobalt:
uranium:
IB sometimes uses another form of notation for this
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 becomes

Exceptions you should know:

Copper:
Chromium:
Why do these elements do this?
Lower energy arrangement of electrons: this configuration allows for half-filled (less
electron repulsion because no pairing in the 3d sublevel) or filled d-sublevel.
Electron configurations of ions:
N3- :

Al6+ :

Se2- :

Cr3+ :

Mg2+ :

Cu+ :

11