CVEN3203: Engineering Geology and Applied Geotechnics

K.Douglas

Soils
These notes provide a summary of the information provided in the lecture presentation.
They are not meant to be a complete discussion on the topic.

Weathering of rock
Weathering of rock is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the
earth's surface. It is a result of the change from the pressure, temperature, moisture and
chemical environments in which the rock was formed, to the rocks new environment at
and near the ground surface. Weathering processes are of two distinct types physical
(mechanical) and chemical.
Mechanical weathering
Mechanical weathering includes all the near surface physical processes which break rock
masses down to smaller blocks or fragments. This includes:

Destressing primary cause. During erosion material at the Earths surface is removed
and the underlying rocks are unloaded and expand upwards. This can result in the
formation of destressing or sheet joints in essentially intact rock or opening of defects
in jointed rock. Rock masses also usually have a high horizontal stress on them due to
tectonic stresses and locked in consolidation stresses. When rock is eroded or
excavated (e.g. river valley or basement excavation) the restraint on the rock is
removed and the rock mass tends to move in. In Sydney, basement excavations in
Sydney tend to move in approximately 1mm for every meter excavated.

Gravitational creep (slabs, wedges, toppling) or landslides

Joint water thrusting & uplifting during extreme rainfall events

Earthquake accelerations

Growth of tree roots in joints

Expansion of clays in joints

Freezing of water in joints. When water freezes it expands by approximately 9%. This
can cause opening and extension of existing defects.

Extreme temperature changes causing expansion and contraction of rock faces.

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Mechanical weathering generally precedes chemical weathering. It renders the rock mass
more permeable which allows for greater groundwater access and increases the surface
area of the rock mass leading to a higher potential for chemical attack.

Figure 1. Effects of destressing in a) intact rock and b) jointed rock (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 2. Sheet joints formed by induced tensile failure (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 3. High stresses developed in valley floors with resultant sheet joints (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 4. Complex valley structures related to stress release in weak flat-lying rocks (Fell et al,
2005)

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Chemical decomposition
Includes all the chemical processes that cause mineral changes resulting generally in
weakening of rock substances, so that they eventually assume soil properties.
Decomposition can be caused by near-surface (weathering) processes or deep-seated
(alteration) processes.
The nature and distribution of the two types of decomposition are generally different.
Chemical weathering

Caused primarily by circulating groundwater gaining access to low-porosity rock

substances via cleavage micro-cracks, open joints and fractures associated with faults.
For high-porosity rocks water can also access via intergranular pores.

Mostly extremely slow

Chemical weathering involves :

1. Chemical reactions between the minerals in the rock and water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and organic acids. These reactions cause decomposition of minerals to
form new products, some of which are soluble.
2. Removal of the soluble materials by leaching.
3. Development of microcracks in some rocks, probably due to some decomposition
products having larger volumes than the original minerals or due to destressing, or
capillary or osmotic suction effects.
4. Deposition of some decomposition products in pores or microcracks.

Development of current weathered profiles

The following factors have contributed:

Climate and vegetation dominant factor. Desert has negligible chemical weathering
whilst hot, humid conditions lead to rapid weathering.

Rock substance types are they resistant to weathering? Are they low porosity and
therefore weathering is likely around the defect surfaces only?

Defect types and patterns allows access for groundwater, air etc.

Erosion is the removal of material. If this is slower than the weathering rate then deep
weathered soil profiles can develop (e.g. Ashfield shale c.f. Hawkesbury Sandstone in
Sydney).
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Time More time exposed gives more time for weathering. Some rocks (clay or salt
mineral based) may weather quickly on exposure.

Topography

Groundwater optimum conditions when vertical water movement of aerated water is

at a maximum flat ground above the water table.

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Figure 5. Surface profile where: valley erosion rate > weathering rate (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 6. Weathered profile where a river has cut down through an uplifted block which has been
deeply weathered previously (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 7. Fresh and variably weathered rock due to substance type (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 8. Idealised weathered profile in granitic rocks (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 9. Features in weathered masses of granitic & other igneous rocks (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 10. Cross section through the site for Kosciusko Dam (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 11. Log of shaft in weathered granite from Kosciusko Dam (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 12. Weathered profile developed on sheet-jointed gneiss (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 13. Weathered profile controlled by both rock type and sheared zones (Fell et al, 2005)

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Chemical alteration Hydrothermal alteration

Igneous rocks can be partly or wholly decomposed by hot waters (from water in magma or
deeply penetrating groundwater) and gases during late stages of their solidification.
Resultant rock usually weaker and more susceptible to chemical weathering.
Generally distinguished by green or white colour (weathered rocks often yellow-brown due
to oxidation).
Altered rock can become weaker with depth.

Figure 14. Hydrothermally altered zone near granite with surface weathering (Fell et al, 2005)

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Rapid weathering
Defined as processes that lead to exposed rocks being weathered in days, months, years.
This can have significant consequences on an engineering project e.g. quarried rock for a
rockfill dam.

Slaking of mudrocks strengthened by consolidation only. Fine cracks develop due to

destressing and drying out. With the addition of water can further disintegrate to clay.

Rapid solution Rocks (sandstone or siltstone) with evaporite minerals (gypsum,

anhydrite, halite) as cements or matrix can be weakened rapidly on wetting and drying.

Crystal growth in pores rocks exposed to salt environments absorb the salt which
grows as crystals in the pores.

Decomposition of sulphide minerals moisture and oxygen leads to oxidation of

sulphides creating metallic sulphate and sulphuric acid.

Expansion of secondary minerals.

Transported Soils
When a rockmass weathers, the resulting soil is defined as residual soil. When erosion
occurs, the residual soil is removed, transported and deposited elsewhere. This process
sorts the soil into new particle size distributions and properties (e.g. relative density).
These soils are described below with a summary of the key issues they may have for
engineering.

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Alluvial Soils
Alluvial soils include soils deposited in the channels and flood plains of rivers, and in lakes,
estuaries and deltas. They are characterised by great variability, both vertically and
laterally, and can range from clays of high plasticity through to coarse sands, gravels and
boulders. For soil deposition there needs to be a change in energy i.e. velocity of water in
this case. Where there is a reduction in the velocity of the water, the heavier fraction of soil
that can no longer be carried by the water is deposited. The smaller, lighter material is
carried further downstream.
Braided streams

High gradient rapidly flowing streams (often in areas of snow melt)

Highly erosive and carry large amounts of sediment

Changes in velocity lead to deposition of sediment

Deposits have the following characteristics:

Gravel to silt size (not usually clay size as it is carried away by the water)
Wide grain size range across stream but locally uniform
Wide variance in void ratio and unit weight
Meandering streams

Figure 16 to Figure 18 show the range of soils in a meandering environment. Soil is carried
by the water within the meandering channel. As the water travels around a bend the
velocity of the water on the inside of the bend reduces and on the outside it increases.
This leads to deposition of soil on the inside of bends (point bars) and erosion of material
on the outside of bends. The result of this is that the meandering increases (i.e. river
continues to become more bendy). The velocity of the water also controls the form of
deposition of the sand. Figure 15 shows the formation of cross-bedding under different
flow velocities.
In the event of a flood, there is a large amount of water flowing down the river. This leads
to several things. Firstly, the meanders can be cut off as the water looks for the shortest
path. The high energy of the flood waters can lead to erosion and creation of new
straighter channels. The old meander is then cut-off leading to the formation of a small
lake (ox-bow lake). The soil in suspension within the ox-bow lake settles down due to the
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total loss of energy. Ox-bow lakes can contain very fine material including clays, silts and
organics. Secondly, the river channel can often not hold all the water so water spreads out
over the flood plain. As this occurs there is a rapid drop in the energy of the water. This
leads to deposition of material. Typically, the heavier material (sand) is deposited on the
banks of the river (levees) and the lighter material (silt and clay) is deposited in sheets
across the plain.
Figure 18 shows a model that represents deposition over time. The model shows an
environment dominated by silt and clay flood plains with old and new channels (sand)
running through it. Occasional ox-bow lakes (silt, clay, organics) are also shown.
Deltas
Where a river reaches a wide expanse of water (e.g. wider section of river, lake,
estuary/bay) the water loses significant energy and most of the soil carried by the river is
deposited suddenly. The coarser, heavier material is deposited closest to the mouth of the
river with the finer material traveling further under the momentum of the water. This
deposition profile is known as a delta.
Lakes
Lakes are large expanses of almost stationary water. In these very low-energy
environments you can expect clays and silts.

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Figure 15. Bedforms that develop due to unidirectional flow of sand (0.25-0.70mm) in shallow
water as flow velocity increases (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 16. Formation of point bar deposits and oxbow lake in a meandering stream (Fell et al,
2005)

Figure 17. Levee and backswamp deposit (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 18. Soils deposited by a meandering river (Fell et al, 2005)

Questions for site investigation alluvial soils

Vertical and lateral variability related to deposition conditions?

Lenticular deposits of open-work gravels, with extremely high permeability?

Anisotropy due to layering?

High kH:kV ratio?

Oxbow lake deposits, compressible organic soils?

Cracks, fissures, holes after rotting vegetation or burrowing animals, all either open or
backfilled?

Cemented layers?

Buried timber, rotten or preserved, large voids?

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Colluvial Soils
Colluvial soils are soils which have been eroded and deposited under gravity forces e.g.
slopewash, scree (talus) and landslide debris.
Slopewash
Mixtures of clay, sand and gravel moved downslope by soil creep & water erosion.
Landslide debris

Debris ranges from CH clays to silty sand and boulders.

Variable soils both vertically and laterally

Often timber present

Open cracks and voids

Sheared/slickensided zone beneath deposit with higher clay content

High water table

High mass permeability

Weathered colluvium (shale,siltstone,claystone) can have higher permeability then

colluvium.
Scree (talus)

Deposits of rock fragments which break off cliffs or areas of steep outcrops, and fall by
gravity. They can collect on the side of slopes and present a significant risk as their loose
nature can result in a rapid flowing failure on shearing, particularly if saturated.

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Figure 19. Classification of landslides (after Varnes, 1958)

Figure 20. Schematic view of residual, slopewash and alluvial deposits (Fell et al, 2005)

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Questions for site investigations colluvial soils

a) Scree or talus

High permeability and compressibility?

Timber debris, rotten or preserved?

Potential for instability or debris-flow?

b) Slopewash

Tubular voids causing high mass permeability?

Compressible?

Erodible?

Potential for slope instability?

c) Landslide debris

Variability in composition and properties: laterally and vertically?

Boulders?

Large voids, gaping or infilled cracks?

High compressibility?

Timber rotting or preserved?

High permeability?

High water tables: Wet conditions?

Old slide surfaces of low strength, at the base, or at other levels in the deposit?

Potential for renewed sliding movements?

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Marine Soils
Deposition of marine soils occurs in the lee of any obstacle; where sand is drifted into
deep or slack water; a spit forms downdrift of a headland and may extend into a bar across
a bay or river; and where a tombolo may form a sand link between an island and the main
shore.
Sediment rolls along the seabed where it is reached by wave motion in shallow water.
Beaches form where wave upwash is greater than backwash. Coastal dunes form from
beach sand blown inland by wind (aeolian). Marine sand can be expected to be denser
than the aeolian sand due to the higher energy of deposition. For example, the top 5m of
the Botany sands (aeolian) are loose whereas below this depth, they are typically medium
dense and higher (marine) even though the sand itself is the same.

Glacial Soils
During the Pleistocene period, large parts of the earths surface were covered with sheets
of ice. The ice moved across the landscape, eroding and reshaping it, and when it melted
it deposited the eroded materials.
Glacial environments include:

Subglacial and supraglacial characteristic of low lands where sediments and landforms were formed by large ice sheets.

Glaciated valley characteristic of areas of high stress relief (due to rock erosion) in
which the ice was restricted to valleys. The ice moved under gravity cutting through the
valley. A glaciated valley has a typical U shape. A valley formed by water erosion
typically has a V shape and meanders much more. Glaciers push material up the
sides of slopes and out in front of it. Much of the material is ground down to silt
although boulders can also be carried on top of and within the glacier. As the glacier
melts the boulders can fall into the silts.

Periglacial where frost action modified the glacially developed landforms and
materials.

Glaciofluvial/Fluvioglacial where glacially derived sediments were picked up,

transported and deposited by water.

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Figure 21. River before, during and after glaciation (Fell et al, 2005)

Figure 22. Section at a glacier snout and downstream (Fell et al, 2005)

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Questions for site investigations glacial soils

Buried valleys?

Bedrock surface or boulder?

Bedrock disrupted near upper surface?

Wide variety of till types?

Materials unsorted: clay to boulder sizes?

Slickensides in clay-rich till?

Variable compaction and cementation?

High permeability sands and gravels?

Loess?

Landslipped deposits?

Creeping landslides?

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Aeolian soils
Wind moves dry sand by rolling or bouncing. Sand abrasion undercuts rocks and
structures close to ground level. Dunes develop by deposition in slack air, in eddies, and in
the lee of obstacles. Active depositional slopes of dunes have loose sand at an angle of
repose of 32-34. The flatter sides of dunes are eroded by the wind in firm, dense sand.
Cross-bedding is formed in a similar way to that caused by water flow.

Figure 23. The four main types of sand dune (Fell et al, 2005)

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Figure 24. Sand transportation and dune formation

Questions for site investigations aeolian soils

Variability in relative density due to direction of wind?

Presence of loess?

Collapsible soil?

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Laterites
Laterite refers to various reddish highly weathered soils that have concentrated oxides of
iron and aluminium and may contain quartz and kaolinite. The oxides are concentrated at
the surface due to large seasonal water table changes. Laterite may have hardened either
partially or extensively into pisolitic, gravel like, or rock like masses; it may have cemented
other materials into rock-like aggregates; or it may be relatively soft but with the property of
self-hardening after exposure.

Figure 25. Lateritic weathering profile with processes involved (Selby, 1982)

Questions - laterites

Variability laterally and vertically?

Deeply weathered?

High insitu permeability, vertical and horizontal?

Low insitu density?

Gravelly ferricrete suitable for pavements?

Cemented material in crust suitable for rockfill or rip-rap?

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References
Fell, R.F., MacGregor, P. and Stapledon, (2005) Geotechnical Engineering of
Embankment Dams, Balkema

You should have:

An understanding of physical and chemical weathering
and the types of environments that they form
An understanding of how soils are transported
The ability to predict the possible types of soils present,
their distribution, variability and their engineering
properties in residual, alluvial, colluvial, marine, glacial,
aeolian and lateritic environments

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