Hydronic Heating Systems

THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
HYDRONIC HEATING SYSTEMS

The Effect Of Design On System Sensitivity
Anders Trschel
Department of Building Services Engineering

Chalmers University of Technology
Gteborg, Sweden 2002
Hydronic Heating Systems

Anders Trschel
ISBN: 91-7291-175-1
Anders Trschel 2002
Second edition
Doktorsavhandlingar vid Chalmers Tekniska Hgskola
Ny serie nr 1857
ISSN 0346-718X
Document: D62:2002
SE-412 96 Gteborg
Sweden
Telephone + 46 (0)31-7721000
Printed by Chalmers Reproservice, Gteborg 2002
ii
Hydronic Heating Systems

Anders Trschel
ABSTRACT
This thesis starts from the recognition that a hydronic heating system can be optimised,
but can never be totally perfect. Sooner or later, in practice, deviations - caused by one
or more components having slightly different characteristics or settings than they are
assumed or supposed to have - arise. The aim of this work is to show how system
design affects the overall sensitivity to deviations, in terms of the effect on performance
and return water temperature. The systems that have been analysed are radiator systems
and air heaters controlled by valve groups, both supplied by heat from district heating.
In particular, the analysis has been concentrated on differences between high-flow and
low-flow systems.
Based on fundamental theory in this area, as well as on physical measurements made in
test rigs, models have been developed and/or applied in order to investigate system
function in the desired manner. The effect of deviations have then been shown and
quantified, using results from simulations.
The simulations show that thermostatic radiator valves are most effective in low-flow
systems. Low-flow systems, too, produce the lowest return temperatures. However,
incorrect or changed radiator valve settings can result in substantial increased return
temperature and differences in room temperatures in such systems.
A direct connection of an air heater (that is without recirculation) presents the least risk
of control instability, which means that performance tends to be more stable. In this
respect, there is no difference whether the system is balanced for a high flow or a low
flow. However, balancing does have a considerable effect on the control performance
of valve groups with a recirculation connection and with low-flow systems running a
greater risk of instability.
Keywords
Hydronic Heating, District Heating, Radiator System, Air Heater, Heating Coil,
Valve Group, Shunt Group, Water Return Temperature, Room Temperature,
Thermal Power Output, Controllability, P-band, Deviations
iii
This thesis refers to the research project Heating systems in buildings by The
Swedish District Heating Association and the research grant no. 960493-5 from
BFR (Swedish Council for Building Research, now FORMAS).
iv
PREFACE
The work described in this thesis has been carried out at the Department of Buildings
Services Systems at Chalmers University of Technology, as part of the Department's
aim to improve detailed knowledge of hydronic heating and cooling systems. I would
therefore like to tender my special thanks to the Department and its personnel for
providing the opportunity of the work, as well as for the resulting valuable and
interesting time for me as a PhD candidate.
In particular, my thanks are due to my supervisor, Stefan Aronsson, whose help during
the work has been invaluable. In addition, I am most grateful for the support and
interest of Associate Professor Jan-Olof Dahlenbck, Professor Per Fahln and
Professor Emeritus Enno Abel.
Warm thanks, too, to Tommy Sundstrm and Josef Jarosz for all their help with the test
rigs, as well as to Magnus Thordmark of IMI Indoor Climate AB and Per-Gran
Persson of TA Control AB for their assistance with the provision of equipment.
I would also like to thank the Monitoring Centre for Energy Research at Chalmers,
which made the measurements in the Bankogatan properties, as well, of course, as
Familjebostder and particularly Yngve Andersson for their assistance in connection
with these measurements.
Another person not to be forgotten is Neil Muir, who translated the material.
Finally, I would like to thank all members of the reference group that has monitored the
work, and particularly Lennart Berndtsson from HSB who has been responsible for the
organisation.
Gothenburg, May 2002

Anders Trschel
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOMENCLATURE
xi
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.2
Purpose
1.3
Working method
1.3.1
Systems investigated
1.3.2
Measurement and simulation
1.3.3
The effect of deviations
1.4
Work in this field
1.4.1
Buildings supplied from district heating systems
1.4.2
Low-flow and high-flow balancing
1.4.3
Radiator systems, air heaters and valves
1.4.4
System design and control
1.5
The structure of this thesis
1
1
1
1
2
4
4
5
5
6
7
9
9
SYSTEM DESIGN
2.1
Structure
2.1.1
Distribution systems
2.1.2
Valve groups
2.2
Balancing
2.2.1
Valve capacity
2.2.2
Pump and system characteristics
2.2.3
The effect of pipe pressure drop
2.2.4
The effect of lowest balanced differential pressure
2.2.5
The heat-releasing components characteristic
2.2.6
Categorisation of systems
2.3
Control valves
2.3.1
Valve characteristic
2.3.2
Valve authority
2.3.3
Two-way and three-way control valves
2.4
The static and dynamic characteristics of the system
2.4.1
Static characteristic
2.4.2
The necessary P-band
11
11
11
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
29
30
30
32
33
35
35
38
MEASUREMENTS
3.1
Radiator system
3.1.1
Method of working
3.1.2
Measured results
3.2
Air heater with valve group
3.2.1
Configurations
3.2.2
Setting up and measuring
3.2.3
Some measurement results
43
43
43
44
44
44
45
47
vii
SIMULATION PROGRAMS
4.1
Calculation program in Excel
4.1.1
Structure
4.1.2
Verification
4.2
Flowmaster
4.2.1
Structure
4.2.2
Verification
57
57
57
58
65
66
66
SIMULATION PLANNING
5.1
Radiator system
5.1.1
Configuration
5.1.2
Temperature, flow, pressure
5.1.3
Studied deviations
5.1.4
Planning of simulations
5.2
5.2.1
System configurations
5.2.2
The necessary P-band width
5.2.3
Return temperature
5.2.4
Temperature, flow, pressure
5.2.5
Selection of components
5.2.6
Studied deviations
5.2.7
Planning the simulations
75
75
75
76
82
84
86
86
88
90
93
95
97
98
SIMULATION AND RESULTS RADIATOR SYSTEM

6.1
Performing the work
6.2
The basic cases
6.3
Incorrect valve settings
6.3.1
Fully closed radiator valve
6.3.2
Fully open radiator valve
6.3.3
Deviations from the correct setting of branch valve
6.3.4
Deviations from the correct setting of riser valve
6.3.5
Deviations from the correct setting of main valve
6.3.6
Summary
6.4
Incorrect balancing
6.4.1
Simplest possible balancing
6.4.2
Simplified balancing
6.4.3
Randomised deviations in balancing
6.4.4
Summary
6.4.5
Comparison with a measurement case
6.5
The effect of disturbances
6.5.1
Non-uniform distribution of internal heating
6.5.2
Summary
6.6
The distribution system
6.6.1
Single-pipe system
6.6.2
Two-pipe system
6.6.3
Three-pipe system
6.6.4
Summary
6.7
The effect of the district heating substation radiator heat exchanger
viii
101
101
101
103
103
111
120
124
128
130
139
140
142
144
156
158
160
161
164
165
165
171
175
177
181
SIMULATION AND RESULTS

AIR HEATER WITH VALVE GROUP
7.1
Performing the work
7.2
Optimum valve characteristic
7.2.1
The reference case
7.2.2
Different valve size
7.2.3
Varying available differential pressure
7.2.4
Summary
7.3
Actual valve characteristic
7.3.1
Linear and logarithmic valve characteristics
7.3.2
Different valve sizes
7.3.3
Summary
7.4
Deviations in setting of balancing valve
7.4.1
Primary side balancing valve
7.4.2
Secondary side balancing valve
7.4.3
Summary
7.5
The effect of variations in water supply temperature
7.6
The effect of a fouled air heater
187
187
187
187
192
194
195
196
197
199
201
202
202
205
207
208
212
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

8.1
Radiator system
8.1.1
High-flow or low-flow balancing
8.2
8.2.1
High-flow or low-flow balancing
8.2.2
Balancing the valve group
8.2.3
Controlled versus constant supply temperature
8.2.4
Selection of the valve group
8.2.5
Choice of valve characteristic
215
215
216
217
218
218
219
220
221
REFERENCES
223
APPENDIX
A
TEST RIGS
A.1 Test rig for the air heater with valve group
A.1.1
Arrangement of the test rig
A.1.2
Structure of the ventilation system
A.1.3
The control system
A.1.4
The measurement system
A.1.5
Uncertainty of measurement
A.2 The radiator system test rig
A.2.1
Arrangement of the test rig
A.2.2
The measurement system
A.2.3
ix
A-1
A-1
A-1
A-7
A-8
A-9
A-13
A-24
A-24
A-26
A-28
CALCULATION RELATIONSHIPS
B.1 The radiator system
B.1.1
Room heat balance
B.1.2
Distribution system
B.1.3
Thermostatic radiator valve
B.1.4
Media data
B.1.5
Limitations
B.2 Single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems
B.2.1
Thermal balance in the room
B.2.2
Distribution system
B.2.3
Limitations
B.3 The district heating substation radiator heat exchanger
B.3.1
Thermal balance
B.3.2
Media data
B.3.3
Limitations
B.4 Derivation of radiator sensitivity
B.4.1
Basic relationships
B.4.2
The effect of the flow on the temperature drop
B.4.3
The effect of the flow on the thermal output power
B.4.4
Limitations
B.5 Optimum valve characteristic
B.5.1
Necessary static characteristic
B.5.2
Valve group characteristic
B.5.3
Valve authority
B.5.4
Nomogram
B-1
B-1
B-1
B-2
B-6
B-7
B-8
B-13
B-13
B-13
B-13
B-13
B-14
B-16
B-16
B-17
B-17
B-18
B-19
B-19
B-20
B-20
B-24
B-26
B-27
NOMENCLATURE
Capital letters
A
C
D Q& V&
=
=
=
Area [m]
Thermal capacity flow [W/K]
Radiator sensitivity [-]
H
Ks
Kr
K rad
L
M
N
NTU
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Nu
&
Q
R
=
=
=
Re
Td
Tk
U
&
V
=
=
=
=
=
Valve opening [%]

System gain [%/C]
Controller gain [%/C]
Radiator constant [W/Kn]
Length [m]
Thermal capacity [J/K]
Number (quantity) [-]
Number of Transfer Units (measure of a heat exchangers size
related to its flow) [-]
Nusselts number [-]
Thermal power output [W]
Relationship between the heat capacity flows for water and air
through an air heater [-]
Reynolds number [-]
Dead time [s]
Time constant [s]
Coefficient of thermal transfer [W/mK]
Volume flow [m/s]
Lower-case letters
c
cp
=
=
Velocity [m/s]
Specific thermal capacity [J/kgK]
d
e
kv
k vs
k
&
m
n
p
t
u
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Diameter [m]
Control error (difference in temperature) [C]
Valve capacity [m/h]
Maximum valve capacity [m/h]
Flow resistance [kPa/(l/h) ; kPa/(l/h)] or Roughness of pipe [mm]
Mass flow [kg/s]
Radiator exponent [-]
Pressure [Pa]
Temperature [C]
Control signal (Valve opening) [%]
xi
Greek symbols
=
=
=
=
p
t , T
=
=
=
=
=
=
Coefficient of thermal transmittance [W/mK]

Valve authority [-]
Coefficient of friction [-] or Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
Relationship between the waterflow through a control valve and
the waterflow through the corresponding air heater [-]
Differential pressure, Pressure drop [Pa]
Difference in temperature, Change in temperature [C]
Efficiency [-]
Density [kg/m]
Time [s]
Kinematic viscosity [m/s]
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Control port for a control valve

Shunt port for a control valve
Check valve
Constant-flow port for a control valve
Heat releasing component
Control valve, Controlling
Total
Reference index
Media index for liquid (water)
Media index for air
Shunt group (i.e. valve group)
Radiator
Arbitrary index
Inlet, Incoming (temperature or media)
Outgoing, Outdoor (temperature or media)
Internal
Valve opening 0 %
Valve opening 100 %
Critical
Necessary
Balanced
Design
Nominal
Room
Mean value for a certain number of rooms
Return (temperature)
System
Mean value
Arithmetic mean value
Logarithmic mean value
Minimum, Least
Maximum
Index
A
B
BV
C
H
R
T
0
w
a
s
rad
i
in
out
intern
fully closed
fully open
crit
nec
balanced
design
nom
room
room, mean
return
system
m
am
lm
min
max
xii
1 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
Hydronic heating systems in buildings are designed so that they can maintain a desired
indoor temperature, which means that the physical conditions determining the design
are more or less given. In addition, if the heating system is supplied (or will be
supplied) by district heating, it is also important to ensure that the system provides a
low return temperature of the district heating water.
When the system is started up, its function and performance will depend on its actual
design and on the actual conditions, which often introduce greater or lesser deviations
from the parameters that were assumed when designing the system. As used here,
deviations mean that one or more components have characteristics other than as were
originally assumed. Examples of such deviations are oversizing of radiators, poor
system balancing, incorrectly operated control valves and so on. These deviations can
exist even before the system has been taken into use. In addition, there can be constant
changes to the system due to such effects as modifications by the building owners,
adjustments or damage caused by users and natural wear and tear, all of which gradually
(or otherwise) give rise to deviations.
This research project was initiated in order to investigate how an hydronic heating
system should and should not be designed in order to ensure its proper function and
performance when subjected to a range of deviations.
1.2
Purpose
The purpose of this work has been to show how the function and performance of a
hydronic heating system is affected by its design. The intention has been to bring
forward basis and information from which, in the extent, working methods can be
developed for use during the system design stage in order to ensure subsequent stable
operational function. The material should show the advantages and drawbacks of
various design and balancing principles, in respect of their ability to reduce the effects
of deviations. The work has therefore been intended to contribute to improving the
ability to forecast the effects and characteristics of a selected design.
1.3
Working method
The work has been carried out in four stages, of which the first has been to identify and
describe typical examples of system types. From this, based on fundamental theory in
the field and on measurements of actual systems, appropriate models have then been
developed and/or applied that have made it possible to investigate system function in
the desired manner. This has been followed by identification and description of typical
examples of deviations found in these systems. Finally, the last stage of the work has
involved system simulation to identify and quantify the effects of system deviations on
various performance parameters.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.3.1 Systems investigated

The purpose of a heating system in a building is to maintain the desired indoor air
temperature. How well the system works depends on its ability to handle
disturbances, i.e. parameter changes. This ability depends primarily on the design of
the heating system, and secondarily on how well the control system meets the needs of
the heating system. The main emphasis of this thesis is on the design of the heating
system, rather than on the control system.
There is considerable potential for improving heating systems when the supply of heat
to the buildings is temperature-sensitive. This is the case when systems are supplied by
district heating, where it is highly desirable to keep both the supply and return
temperatures down and to limit the water flow rate. For this reason, it is primarily
hydronic heating systems supplied by district heating on which this work has been
concentrated.
Today's hydronic heating systems supply heat primarily by means of radiators, although
to some extent also by means of air heaters. This work has therefore concentrated on
systems having radiators (slow thermal response) or air heaters (rapid thermal
response), primarily supplied by district heating.
Radiator system
The interaction between radiators and rooms is a slow process, which means that the
dynamic in such a system is not particularly apparent. It is therefore the equilibrium
condition in the system that says more about the system's function and performance than
does the process between these static levels.
It is important to obtain as good an overall picture of the system to be analysed as
possible. In the case of a radiator system, a complete, although relatively small,
distribution system in a building is therefore analysed. This system is shown in
Figure 1 below, and described in detail in Chapter 4. The system starts and finishes at
the connections to the heat exchangers in the district heating substation unit, which is
therefore not included in the analysis. It has thus been assumed that the supply
temperature in the building's heating system can always reach the required levels.
Heat
ex.
Figure 1.
The 2-pipe radiator system considered in the analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION

The heat release process from an air heater in a ventilation duct, on the other hand, is
considerably faster, which means that the dynamics of the process/equipment are
important in determining the function of the equipment when in use. Of course, as for
radiator systems, the static properties are also very important.
In the case involving analysis of systems incorporating air heaters, both the dynamic
and the static characteristics depend largely on the design of the air heater and of its
local valve group. In this respect, the difference between it and a radiator system is the
considerably faster and more advanced local control of air heaters. In this case, the
work is therefore concentrated solely on the air heater and its local valve group. The
system boundary conditions are expressed in the form of available pressure drop and of
the supply temperature.
The flow in heating systems supplied by district heating is always variable, as this
provides the most effective cooling of the district heating water. However, it is not
always desirable to have a variable flow rate through an air heater, and so valve groups
are therefore often used, to maintain a reasonably constant flow rate through the air
heater itself. The arrangement of these valve groups can vary, and so three different
types have therefore been analysed:
Direct connection; without shunt, which means variable flow through the air heater,
controlled by a two-way control valve.
District heating connection; with shunt, which means constant flow through the air
heater, controlled by means of a two-way control valve.
The SABO connection; with shunt, which means constant flow through the air
heater, controlled by means of a three-way control valve.
These different types of connections has, in this work, been given the names mentioned
in the listing above (instead of different numbers) for instant clarity whenever discussed
in the text.
Balancing
Although the system analyses have compared high-flow and low-flow balancing (and
other system arrangements), it is not desirable to make physical changes to the system,
such as by using larger or smaller radiators, as this affects the comparison. The
analyses for the radiator system have therefore been based on two different basic cases,
without deviations: one for each balancing method, with pipe sizes and arrangements,
radiators and heat output being the same. The same applies for the system using air
heaters.
The difference between the two basic cases is that the flow has been assumed to be
twice as great in the high-flow case as in the low-flow case. The required condition for
these two arrangements to work is that the design supply temperature in the low-flow
case should be higher than in the high-flow case.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.3.2 Measurement and simulation

After the selected systems were defined, a number of measurements were made in test
rigs in order to investigate the systems' properties and to verify any design relationships
that would be required in the next stages, i.e. of simulation of selected cases. When
making actual physical measurements, the test conditions may be more or less fixed,
depending on the design of the test rig and the measurement system. This means, that in
certain cases, it can be time-consuming or even impossible to obtain the required
results. This constraint does not exist in the case of simulations, as the conditions can
be altered as required. However, the initial physical measurements are important, as
they enable the simulation models to be verified.
The test rigs that were used consisted of a radiator rig, having two radiators on one
branch, and an air heater rig with associated valve group. The design of this valve
group is such that it can easily be changed to suit any particular required measurement
case.
Two simulation programs were used: a commercial program (Flowmaster) for
simulation of the air heater and its valve group, and an Excel spreadsheet, designed for
simulation of a radiator system.
1.3.3 The effect of deviations
As described earlier, this work has been concerned with investigation of what happens
in a system when conditions depart from the design conditions. Recapitulating, a
deviation means that something in the system is not what it should be. This could be
either software or hardware, i.e. such as an incorrectly selected valve characteristic,
an improperly performed balancing operation, a radiator valve that has been turned to a
different setting etc. The sensitivity of the system function, depending on its design,
can be analysed by regarding different systems in this way.
The analyses have been concentrated on investigation of two result parameters:
Room temperature or supply air temperature, which constitute the criterion of

assessment of system function as seen by the occupants of the building. In this
investigation, the supply air temperature has been assumed to be the same as the
temperature of the air leaving the air heater.
The return water temperature, which is the main criterion of system function as seen
from the district heating supplier's perspective.
The room temperature and the return temperature are two very important parameters,
which provide one way of describing how well the heating system is working. A
system deviation affects both the system function and performance, which in turn means
that either the room temperature or the supply temperature, or both, is/are affected. The
magnitude of the effect depends on the type of deviation and on the design of the
system.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.4
Work in this field
As far as hydronic heating systems are concerned, it is no exaggeration to say that the
number of publications concerned with such systems is almost impossible to count.
This means that the articles, reports and books mentioned or used in this work represent
only a small fraction of everything that has been written. Of necessity, they have been
selected on a subjective basis, although with the intention of constituting a firm basis
upon which to build. Much has been written, and it could be thought that this is a
working area about which little new remains to be said. However, the investigation of
various systems in terms of their sensitivity to various deviations, instead of in terms of
optimising their performance, does not seem to have been all that common, despite the
fact that investigation of the sensitivity of function to system design is the most
interesting aspect. Such work is essentially concerned with ensuring the proper function
of systems, which should really be an important objective.
As previously mentioned, the analysis aspects of the work described here have been
concentrated primarily on hydronic heating systems supplied by district heating. In
turn, the heating systems have been restricted to radiator systems and air heater systems,
which make up a large proportion of existing systems in countries such as Sweden,
Denmark, Finland, Germany and Russia. In 1996, district heating supplied about 36 %
of the total space heating requirements of buildings in Sweden1, in which radiator
systems provided the main form of space heating. There has therefore always been a
relatively high level of research into systems of this type in Sweden, which is also
reflected in the reference list at the end of this thesis. Conditions in the USA, for
example, are different, as district heating and radiator systems are in a minority:
instead, it is air-conditioning systems that are most commonly used. It is therefore not
surprising that there are relatively few publications from the USA: at least, as far as
radiator systems are concerned.
A few aspects that have been of interest in this work are briefly described below
(1.4.1-1.4.4). Each section describes only one or a few important articles, reports or
books.
1.4.1 Buildings supplied by district heating systems
Those involved in the district heating sector have conducted various types of research
into different heat production units, distribution piping, substation in buildings and other
aspects over many years. However, this work has not always considered the onward
link from the district heating system to internal heating systems in buildings. In fact,
such consideration has often been totally omitted, or only partly recognised as the major
heat sink for the district heating system which, despite everything, it actually is.
However, this is a heat sink with very varying properties, as shown by Sven Werner in
his PhD thesis entitled The heat load in district heating systems2 (1984), which is
specifically concerned with the load characteristic on district heating systems.
Nevertheless, some university-level research into district heating, and involving the
hydronic heating systems in buildings in one way or another, has been carried out in
1
2
Statistic from the Swedish District Heating Association.

Although this particular thesis is written in English, not all of the material cited in the rest of this
chapter or in other chapters of this thesis is necessarily in English. However, for the sake of clarity in
this thesis, those titles have been translated into English (placed in clampers) where necessary.
1 INTRODUCTION
recent years. Examples of this include Jochen Dahm's thesis Small district heating
systems (1999), Gunnar Larsson's Dynamik i fjrrvrmesystem (Dynamics of district
heating systems) (1999) and Lena Olsson's thesis Lokala fjrrvrmesystem (Local
district heating systems) (2001).
It is quite clear today that the supply and return temperatures of district heating systems
affect their overall efficiency and thus their economic viability. It is also equally clear
that there is a close link between these temperature levels and the design and balancing
not only of the consumer service units but also of the downstream domestic hot water,
air heating and radiator systems. A paper by Sven Werner and Stefan Petersson in
2000, entitled Samband mellan produktion och vltrimmade radiatorsystem (The
relationship between production and properly balanced radiator systems) showed, for
example, that district heating utilities in Sweden could save SEK 800 million/year if
their systems could be operated at maximum efficiency. A substantial proportion of this
potential is accounted for by improvements in the efficiency of building heating
systems. In this perspective, the importance of analysing building heating systems
connected to district heating supplies is patently apparent.
1.4.2 Low-flow and high-flow balancing
Low-flow versus high-flow balancing has been a subject of fierce debate for many
years. In Sweden it started in the 1960s, when sten Sandberg balanced a difficult
radiator system in a school in Kiruna by drastically reducing the flow rate and
increasing the supply temperature. This reduced the pressure drop in the pipes in the
system, enabling all the radiators to receive the correct flow. This approach was
subsequently given the name of the Kiruna method, or the low-flow method, and is
much used today by a number of property companies, such as SABO (a swedish
municipal housing organisation). It is described in the book by Torkel Andersson, Per
Gransson, Gunnar Wiberg and Bebs Reybekiel, Kirunametoden fr god
energihushllning (The Kiruna method - for good energy conservation) (1998). Torkel
Andersson had previously published a substantial two-part article entitled Konsten att
styra radiatorsystem (The art of controlling radiator systems) (1993), setting out the
benefits of low-flow systems.
A long debate occurred at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s between
sten Sandberg, who naturally supported the low-flow method, and Sven Mandorff
who defended the hitherto generally used high-flow method. This debate was
conducted on the pages of various HVAC magazines. In it, Sven Mandorff showed the
sensitivity of systems to system deviations, e.g. in his article entitled Kirunametoden
bara frdelar? (The Kiruna method - nothing but benefits?) (1982). The debate never
really reached a firm conclusion in favour of one system or the other, and will probably
never do so.
In recent years, Stefan Petersson has carried out a performance comparison, based on
both measurements and simulation, of high-flow and low-flow systems, describing the
results in his licentiate thesis Analys av konventionella radiatorsystem (Analysis of
conventional radiator systems) (1998) and in the subsequent report published by the
Swedish District Heating Association, entitled Metoder att n lgre returtemperatur
med vrmevxlar-dimensionering och injusteringsmetoder (Methods of achieving
lower return temperatures by heat exchanger design and balancing methods) (2000).
1 INTRODUCTION
The high-flow method is still regarded as being the generally accepted method, with the
low-flow method often being used as an alternative for balancing existing (often
substantially oversized) installations. However, it is not uncommon to encounter a sort
of intermediate-flow method, so it may be that the various balancing methods are
beginning to approach each other.
The general view today seems to be that, regardless of the method chosen, it is
important that systems are properly balanced. Unfortunately, this has not always been
obvious. During the 1970s, it was suggested that balancing of radiator systems was
unnecessary if they were complemented with thermostatic radiator valves. However,
Sven Mandorff showed, in his articles entitled Funktionen hos vrmesystem med
radiatortermostatventiler utan frinstllning (Performance of heating systems with
radiator thermostatic valves without presetting) (1979) and PS om termostatventiler
erfarenheter frn ett radhusomrde (A PM on thermostatic radiator valves - experience
from a terrace house development) (1977), that such a procedure could result in difficult
problems.
When considering balancing problems, Robert Petitjean's publication Total hydronic
balancing (1994) cannot be overlooked. It provides a detailed description of
(primarily) high-flow adjustment of hydronic heating systems, together with a number
of sensitivity analyses.
1.4.3 Radiator systems, air heaters and valves
A lot has been written about radiator systems from a general perspective: an example of
this is the BFR report Vrt att veta om vattenburen vrme (Worth knowing about
hydronic heating), by Sune Hggbom and Per-Olof Nylund (1989), which provides a
general description, mainly of radiator systems. Another example is Lennart rberg's
report Dimensionering och injustering av vattenburna vrme- och kylsystem (Design
and balancing of hydronic heating and cooling systems) (1986).
A considerable amount of research into radiator systems was carried out in Sweden
during the 1970s and 1980s, concerned primarily with the function and benefit of
thermostatic radiator valves, and with discussion of which balancing principle was
preferable. The Department of Heating and Ventilation Technology at the Royal
Institute of Technology has been the source of much that has been written about heat
release from radiators and how they affect the rooms in which they are installed.
Examples include Frenklad bestmning av operativtemperaturen i radiatorvrmda
rum (Simplified determination of the operative temperature in rooms heated by
radiators) by Folke Peterson (1975), Radiatorers yttemperatur (The surface
temperature of radiators) by Tor-Gran Malmstrm (1975) and Vrmevgivning frn
radiatorer (Heat release from radiators) by Stig Hammarsten (1985). All of these
publications are in the Royal Institute of Technology series of Technical Notices. Lars
Jensen's thesis, Digital reglering av klimatprocesser (Digital control of climate
processes) (1978), should also be mentioned in this context, as it includes a description
of how the room temperature reacts when a radiator is controlled in various ways.
As far as thermostatic radiator control valves are concerned, Anders Svensson's status
report entitled Radiatortermostatventilers funktion lgesrapport (The function of
1 INTRODUCTION
radiator thermostatic control valves) (1978) must be mentioned. In addition, he and

Sven Mandorff have written an interesting article entitled Radiatortermostatventiler p
gott och ont (Radiator thermostats for better or worse) (1977), which emphasised the
importance of adjusting the supply temperature to track the ambient temperature in
order to ensure correct operation of the thermostatic valves. Further examples of such
reports include Lars Jensen's Analys av termostatventilers statiska egenskaper
(Analysis of the static characteristics of thermostatic radiator control valves) (1986)
and the BFR report Lngtidsegenskaper hos radiatortermostatventiler (Long-term
characteristics of thermostatic radiator control valves), by Geron Johansson, Matti
Kolehmainen and Lars Waldner (1989).
For natural reasons, most of what has been published about radiator systems has been
concentrated on two-pipe systems, although there are exceptions. Examples include
Ett-rrs system fr vrme Teori, praktik och ekonomi (Single-pipe systems for
heating - theory, practice and economics) by Ulf Jrnefors (1978), and the articles 1rrsystemet ger en annan reglerstrategi (The single-pipe system necessitates a different
control strategy) by Hugo Brnnstrm (1987) and Single-pipe hydronic system design
and load-matched pumping by W.C. Stethem (1994).
There are many examples of Swedish work on air heaters. As far as the development
and/or study of mathematical models is concerned, Elisabeth Mundt's report Modeller
av luftvrmare fr simulering av stationra och dynamiska driftsfall (Models of air
heaters for simulation of stationary and dynamic operating modes) (1988) and Per E.
Blomberg's PhD thesis Experimental validation of dynamic component models for
simulation of air handling units (1999) should be mentioned. Two other interesting
reports are Per Widn's licentiate thesis Luftvrmare i luftbehandlingsaggregat (Air
heaters in air handling units) (1994) and Hugo Brnnstrm's BFR report
Frysskadeskra vattenburna luftvrmare (Frost-resistant hydronic air heaters - field
trials and practical application) (1990). The former is concerned with the linear
relationships between the temperatures in an air heater through which constant media
flows are passing, while the latter is concerned with air heaters without recirculation
circuit and how they can be protected from freezing.
The choice of control valves is an interesting aspect of this work. A considerable
amount of research into this has been carried out in Norway, with Arvid Grindal, Bent
Brresen and Einar Magne Hjorthol among those to the fore. Examples of interesting
literature include Arvid Grindal's article Ventilkarakteristikker er det p tide at vi
gjr noe med dem? (Valve characteristics - is it time to do something about them?)
(1988), Bent Brresen's article Ventildimensjonering og ventilautoritet (Valve sizing
and valve authority) (1994) and Einar Magne Hjorthol's thesis Optimisation of design
values in district heating substations by system simulation (1990).
There are also several examples of applications from the USA dealing with the selection
of balancing and control valves, such as Selecting control and balancing valves in a
variable flow system by Richard A. Hegberg (1997) and The effect of sizing
mismatch on coil valve performance by Randall J. Amerson (1998), in which the latter
provides an analysis of the effects of deviations. An early, very interesting, Swedish
article on the same theme is Att undvika missanpassning av styrventiler (To avoid
mis-sizing of control valves) by Karl-ke Lundin (1980).
1 INTRODUCTION
1.4.4 System design and control

How can the correct function of a system be ensured? The answer is that it probably
cannot be ensured, although the probability of the occurrence of problems can be
reduced by favourable design of the system. But how can this be quantified? One way
is to consider the control of the system or, strictly, how the necessary settings of the
system regulator must be set in order to avoid instability. The less well designed the
system, the greater the risk of control difficulties due to it being more likely for the
system to become unstable. In turn, the more difficult it is to control the system, then
the greater the risk of sub-standard performance. This approach starts with Ziegler and
Nichol's well-known article Optimum settings for automatic controllers (1942), with
guidelines concerning the setting of control systems. These guidelines have been used
in Norway for the classification of the difficulty of control of a system. Although there
are several persons who have worked on such aspects, most of the input to this present
project has been inspired from Arvid Grindal's and Bent Brresen's many publications,
e.g. their excellent joint article Controllability - back to basics (1990).
As far as research into system control is concerned, Lars Jensen's work must again be
mentioned. His PhD thesis, and various of his other publications, have provided the
basis for much of the research into this area. Not only has he developed mathematical
models for both components and control procedures, but he has also carried out several
instrumented investigations of various controlled items. His work has been continued in
Vojislav Novakovic's Digital control of heater coils thesis (1982), which shows how
the settings values for a digital controller can be determined, and how well such a
controller operates in comparison with an analogue equivalent.
However, the main emphasis of the work described here is not on system control, but on
system characteristics. Interest has therefore been concentrated on determination of the
system's static and in some extent dynamic characteristics.
1.5
The structure of this thesis
This thesis consists of eight chapters. Chapter 2 is devoted to general theory, describing
and defining a number of fundamental concepts concerning the design of a system.
This is necessary material for understanding of the following chapters.
Chapter 3 describes the measurements; how they were made and a number of
independent results, such as thermal stratification in air heaters.
Chapter 4 describes the simulation programs used. In addition, it compares the
measured results with those of simulation in order to verify the programs.
Chapter 5 deals with planning of the simulations. In this chapter the
systemconfigurations and deviations that are used in the simulations is being presented,
as well as the methods to derive and present the results.
Chapter 6, that is rather extensive, is devoted to results from simulation of the effects of
deviations in a radiator system. Each section of simulation is followed by a summary
and discussion of the particular case concerned. In addition, the chapter is concluded
1 INTRODUCTION
with a discussion of other aspects in the field, not dealt with earlier in the thesis, such as
the differences between 1-, 2- and 3-pipe systems and the effects of the performance of
the district heating heat exchanger connected to the radiator system.
Chapter 7 is also devoted to results, but this time from simulation of deviations in a
valve group and the associated air heater.
Chapter 8 brings together and discuss the results from Chapters 6 and 7. Any more or
less general trends are considered, and the consequences of some particular system
designs are described.
Appendix A describes the test rigs in detail, and considers the effects of uncertainties of
measurement.
Appendix B describes the theoretical and empirical relationships underpinning the
structure of the design program for analysis of deviations in a radiator system. Also the
derivation of an expression to describe the sensitivity of radiators to flow deviations is
described. The appendix is concluded with a description of the simplified process to
derive an optimum valve characteristic.
10
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
SYSTEM DESIGN
This chapter describes a number of concepts and definitions that need to be clarified in
order to assist understanding of the rest of this presentation. However, it is assumed
that a number of fundamental relationships are known by the reader, and so they will
not be further discussed here. For a more fundamental review of the concepts relating
to the function of a hydronic heating system, see Trschel (1999), from which some of
the material in this chapter has been taken, or (for example) Hggbom and Nylund
(1989), who describe both the theory and the practice of hydronic heating systems.
The function and performance of the system depend on the interaction between the
system design and its control. In this presentation, the focus is entirely on the system
design, due to the fact that this must always be considered first. The philosophy is that
control of the system must be tailored to the system to be controlled. A control system
or control method must not be applied in the hope of compensating for a poorly
designed system, and nor can it do so, which is a well-known observation, but
nonetheless important to point out (Grindal and Brresen, 1988; Hjorthol, 1990). It is
therefore important to understand how the design of a system affects its properties. The
better the design, the simpler the necessary control and the better the system will
perform.
As used here, system design or design of the system refers to the components selected
for use in the system, how they are arranged in relation to one another and their
capacities (i.e. aspects such as size, torque, power etc.). It is the intention here to
characterise system design in terms of the following three main aspects:
Structure (architecture etc.)
Balancing
Control valves
The inclusion of balancing as part of the design may perhaps not be regarded as a
general mainstream approach. This is because the selection of balancing method
represents an indirect measure of the system design, in the form of temperature levels
and flow rates. This simplifies the presentation, as balancing is a very important
parameter when describing a system.
2.1
Structure
2.1.1 Distribution systems

The structure of a system describes primarily how the distribution part of the system has
been designed. A common feature of all distribution systems is that the heat (i.e. the hot
water) is distributed around the building by means of a supply pipe. After giving up
heat in the heat-releasing components, the cooled flow is returned to the heat source via
a return pipe. This can be said to apply in general, although distribution systems can be
arranged in various ways. The commonest form is that of a 2-pipe system, in which
branches are taken off the supply pipe to each heat-releasing component, and from
which the flow returns via direct connection to the return pipe, as shown in Figure 2.
11
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Supply pipe
Heat-releasing
component
Return pipe
Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of a 2-pipe distribution system.
Alternatively, instead of having separate supply and return pipes, they can be combined
into a 1-pipe system, with the supply pipe to each component forming the return pipe
from the previous component, as shown in Figure 3.
Supply pipe
Return pipe
Figure 3.
As indicated by the name, the 1-pipe system consists really of only a single pipe,
forming a distribution loop that starts and finishes at the heat source, with an
appropriate flow being tapped off from the loop to each component. This means that
the supply flow to each component consists partly of the cooled return flow from the
previous component, so that the supply temperature is progressively reduced as the flow
passes each component. In order to compensate for this, the components can either be
progressively larger, or the flow tapped off to each component can be increased for
components further away from the source in the direction of flow.
A further development of the 2-pipe system is what is known as the 3-pipe system or the
Tischelmann connection, in which the return pipe is reverse-connected, as shown in
Figure 4 below.
Supply pipe
Return pipe
Figure 4.
The 3-pipe system works in the same way as the 2-pipe system, except that the return
connection is reversed. The purpose of this arrangement is to attempt to reduce the
differences in differential pressure across the components, as occurs in a 2-pipe system
with direct return. The differential pressure depends on the pressure losses in the supply
and return pipes: the further away from the heat source that a component is, the longer
are the supply and return connections to and from it, and thus the less is the differential
pressure available across the component. It can be seen from Figure 4 that the total
distance, in terms of the sum of the supply pipe length and the return pipe length, is the
same for each component, which means that the differential pressure available across
the components does not vary as much as in the basic 2-pipe system shown in Figure 2.
The reason for the interest in attempting to achieve constant differential pressure is that
this pressure considerably affects the flow through a component, and thus the amount of
12
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
heat released by it. Balancing, the purpose of which is to balance the flows through
each component, so that the flow through the components is set to the desired values, is
facilitated if the effect of the differential pressure differences on the distribution system
is reduced.
1-pipe systems and (particularly) 3-pipe systems are relatively uncommon, in
comparison with the use of 2-pipe systems. As a result, most of the emphasis of this
presentation will be on 2-pipe systems, with the other two types being dealt with only in
general terms.
2.1.2 Valve groups
The concept of structure or architecture of distribution systems, as used here, also
includes valve groups, which provide local control of air heaters. The design of such
valve groups affects the control principle. The simplest case consists of no valve group
at all, which means that the heat provided by the air coil is controlled only by changing
the flow through the component. The arrangement is referred to here as direct
connection (see Figure 5).
Direct
connection
Figure 5.
An example of direct connection.
However, in general, control is provided in and by a valve group by mixing the cooled
return water flow from the component with hot water from the supply pipe in order to
achieve a required inlet temperature, which is defined as being the temperature of the
water at the point of entry to a heat-releasing component. The supply temperature is
defined as being the temperature of the water entering the distribution system supply
pipe after the central temperature control function, which also can be controlled by
another valve group, e.g. if an oil-fired boiler is being used as the heat source. The inlet
temperature in a heating system will always be lower than the supply temperature,
regardless of the type of local control, due to heat losses in the supply pipe.
Figure 6 shows two examples of common valve groups, referred to here as the district
heating connection (as this arrangement is mostly used in systems connected to district
heating supplies), and the SABO1 connection (which is an fairly accepted name for this
type of valve group). The right-hand side of the shunt connection, or the bypass
connection, is referred to as the secondary side, with the left-hand side being referred to
as the primary side. Both valve groups are intended to provide an almost constant flow
rate through the air heater (the secondary side), with a variable flow rate in the
distribution system (the primary side).
SABO is a large country-wide municipal housing association.
13
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
District heating
connection
Figure 6.
SABO
connection
Two valve group arrangements to provide variable flow on the primary side
and constant flow on the secondary side.
Figure 7 shows two further valve group arrangements, intended to produce constant
flow rates on both the primary and secondary sides. These arrangements are generally
known respectively as the Swedish connection and the Norwegian connection.
Swedish
connection
Figure 7.
Norwegian
connection
Two valve groups to maintain constant flow rates on both the primary and
secondary sides.
Heating systems connected to district heating supplies use valve groups with variable
flows on the primary side (Figures 5 and 6) and that is why other types of valve groups
will not be further considered in this presentation.
2.2
Balancing
The purpose of balancing is to create a balanced flow in the system. However, the
performance of balancing affects not only the distribution of flows through the system,
but also the interaction between the heat-releasing components and their individual
characteristics.
For a fluid to flow, there must be a pressure difference. At the same time, the amount of
the flow is restricted by resistance. Flow resistance is due to energy losses in the form
of friction, losses caused by changes of direction (e.g. pipe bends etc.) or losses due to
sudden velocity changes. The relation between the flow resistance and the differential
pressure determines the magnitude of the flow. This is shown by the following simple
relationship (which admittedly applies only for full turbulent flow) (Abel et. al, 1997):
& =
V
&
V
p
k
p
k
(1)
= Flow [m/s]
= Differential pressure [Pa]
= Flow resistance [Pa/(m/s)]
The purpose of the pump in the circulation system is to create a pressure difference.
This pressure difference, which is the driving force behind the flow, is progressively
dissipated by pressure drops in the distribution system with increasing distance from the
14
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
pump. This means that the pressure difference across a radiator close to the pump is
higher than that across a radiator further away, as shown in Figure 8 below.
Pump
p2
p3
Radiator
Pressure
ppump
p1
p4
p5
Length
Figure 8.
Available differential pressure in a circulation system with five radiators. It

can be seen that the differential pressure across component 1 is
considerably higher than that across component 5.
If the flow through each radiator is to be the same, there needs to be a higher flow
resistance through radiator 1 and a lower resistance through radiator 5. This is achieved
during balancing by means of the balancing valves. Changing the openings of the
valves changes their flow resistance. However, it is not the flow resistance of the valves
that is specified during balancing, but their capacity.
2.2.1 Valve capacity
A measure of the valve capacity is given by its kv value, which is defined as:
kv =
&
V
p
p 0
=
=
=
=
=
&
V
(2)
p 0
p 0
Volume flow through the valve [m3/h]

Pressure drop (differential pressure) across the valve [bar]
Reference pressure drop = 1 bar
Density of the liquid passing through the valve [kg/m3]
Reference density = 1000 kg/m3 (water)
The kv value indicates the magnitude of the flow in [m/h] passing through the valve
for a differential pressure of 1 bar
The larger the opening, the higher the valve capacity and the greater the kv value.
Closing the valve completely gives a kv value of zero. The liquid in hydronic heating
systems is generally water, which can be regarded as an incompressible fluid, so that the
15
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
fluid correction factor (0/) can be expressed as unity. In addition, as the reference
pressure drop is 1, the expression for the kv value can be simplified to the following:
kv =
&
V
p
(3)
In many contexts, it is impractical to use the quantities [m3/h] and/or [bar]. There are
therefore many different expressions for the kv value, although the differences are due
only to the use of different units. (The reference units remain unchanged.) Table 1
shows a number of examples:
Differential pressure
\ Flow
Table 1.
[m3/h]
[bar]
kv =
[kPa]
kv =
&
V
p
[l/h]
kv =
&
10 V
kv =
&
0,001 V
p
&
0,01 V
p
[l/s]
kv =
kv =
&
3,6 V
p
&
36 V
p
Different expressions for the kv value of a valve, depending on the choice of

units.
The maximum kv value of a valve, i.e. its capacity when fully open, is usually referred
to as the kvs value.
The flow resistance (k) and the valve capacity (kv) symbolise two completely different
things, and must therefore not be confused, although this can easily happen as the
symbols are so similar. It is, of course, more practical to express the size or setting of a
valve by means of a measure of capacity than by means of a measure of its flow
resistance (which is a somewhat empty expression).
2.2.2 Pump and system characteristics
A hydronic heating system consists of a circulation system, in which the water is
circulated by a pump. The pump characteristic, which is determined by the design and
size of the pump, shows the relationship between the pressure rise in the pump and the
flow through it. The heating system has a hydraulic resistance, which expresses itself as
pressure drops through/across pipes, valves, heat-releasing components etc. The total
pressure drop of the system changes depending on the magnitude of the flow. The
relationship between the total flow and the total pressure drop in the system is referred
to as the system characteristic. The system operating point will automatically lie at the
point where the total flow through the system is such that the total pressure drop in the
system equals the pressure rise across the pump.
16
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
System characteristic
Operating point
Pump characteristic
Flow
Figure 9.
Pump and system characteristics.
The system characteristic depends on the total flow resistance of the system. The
greater the flow resistance, the greater the pressure drop in the system for any given
flow. This means that whenever anything changes in the system, the position of the
operating point will change, giving rise to a new total flow through the system.
Balancing, in other words, means that the system characteristic will be changed, due to
the fact that the balancing valves are partially closed, as necessary. At the same time,
the pressure rise across the pump changes. (Alternatively, one can say that the total
pressure drop in the system changes, if preferred.)
New system characteristic

Old system characteristic
New operating point
Old operating point
Pump characteristic
Flow
Figure 10. Changing the operating point in a system.

It can be seen from the figure above that the change in the total flow is due both to the
change in the system characteristic and to the shape of the pump characteristic curve. A
steep pump characteristic results in only a slight change in the total flow, but a more
substantial change in the pressure rise/pressure drop. A flat pump characteristic, on the
other hand, produces the opposite results, i.e. a substantial change in the total flow but
only a slight change in the pressure rise/pressure drop. This is shown schematically in
Figure 11, with steep and flat pump characteristics being symbolised by a vertical and a
horisontal straight line respectively.
17
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Steep pump characteristic
New operating
points, depending
on the pump
characteristic
Change in the system characteristic

Old operating point
Flat pump characteristic
Flow
Figure 11. Changes in the operating point, depending on the pump characteristic, in
response to a change in the system characteristic.
2.2.3 The effect of pipe pressure drop
The interaction, i.e. how individual flow changes affect the flow balance of the entire
system, depends on the pressure drops in the pipes of the system and on the magnitude
of the pressure drops across the components. The pressure drops in the pipes depend on
the size of the pipes and on the flow in them, which is a result of the system balancing.
Pipe pressure drop can be described by the following simple relationship, which follows
the same principle as that of equation (1):
&x
p pipe = k pipe V
where
(4)
p pipe = Pipe pressure drop [kPa]

k pipe
&
V
x
= The coefficient of flow resistance in the pipe [kPa/(m/s)x]

= Flow [m/s]
= An exponent, which depends on the type of flow [-]
For fully laminar flow, the exponent equals to 1, while for fully turbulent flow it equals
to 2 (Abel et. al, 1997). These represent the two limiting cases of flow conditions. The
exponent varies, in other words, between 1 and 2, depending on the flow conditions.
From the previous equations, we can derive the following relationship, which describes
how a change of flow affects the pressure drop. It is valid provided that neither the pipe
parameters nor exponent x are changed. Index 1 indicates the value of the quantity
before change, and index 2 indicates its value after change.
p pipe, 2
p pipe,1
&
V
= 2
&
V1
(5)
The magnitude of the interaction depends on by how much the pressure drop across the
heat-releasing components (i.e. its associated valves) changes in response to a change of
the flow balance in the system. This is illustrated by an example with a group of
radiators, as shown in Figure 12. The figure shows the effect of two different pipe
18
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
pressure drops, as could result, for example, from different flows or from different pipe
sizes (or from both mechanisms).
Control and balance valve
1
Flow:
Radiator branch
100 %
50 %
3 kPa
Case 1
1 kPa
2.5 kPa
9 kPa
Case 2
1 kPa
7 kPa
Figure 12. The increase in pressure drop in response to a reduction in flow through the
radiator group. A comparison between different pipe pressure drops (2 kPa
and 8 kPa).
In the first case, the pipe pressure drop in the supply and return pipes is 2 kPa, while the
lowest balanced differential pressure (across radiator 5) is 1 kPa. A reduction of 50 %
in the flow through the group means that the pipe pressure drop falls to 25 % of its
original value, in accordance with equation (5) above (provided that the flow is fully
turbulent). The differential pressure across radiator 5 then increases to 2.5 kPa, which
will result in an increase of 58 % in the flow if the radiator valve setting is not changed.
In the second case, the pipe pressure drop at 8 kPa is four times higher than in case 1,
while the lowest balance differential pressure remains at 1 kPa, across radiator 5. A
reduction of 50 % in the flow through the group results in a new differential pressure of
7 kPa across radiator 5, resulting in a flow increase of 164 % through it.
It can be seen, therefore, that the interaction increases with the pipe pressure drop,
which can be affected by balancing and, perhaps primarily, by the size of the pipes.
Large pipe sizes also have the advantage that not only is the interaction reduced, but
pumping costs are also reduced as there is a lower pressure drop in the system.
However, large pipe sizes also involve higher investment costs. In addition, it is not
always beneficial to minimise pressure drops in the system, as described in the
following section.
19
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
2.2.4 The effect of lowest balanced differential pressure

The magnitude of the system flow is not an entirely free choice, as it is linked to the
supply temperature and to the sizes of the heat-releasing components. The higher the
possible supply temperature, the lower the flow required. This means that other factors,
such as the choice of heat source and the size of the components (see the next section)
can affect adjustment of the magnitude of the flow. For this reason, the pipe pressure
drop cannot be set arbitrarily in connection with balancing. However, there is more
room to manoeuvre, from a technical point of view, in deciding on the lowest balanced
differential pressure.
As the flow through a component depends on both the available differential pressure
across it and its flow resistance, a high differential pressure can be compensated for (or
offset by) a high flow resistance, and vice versa, without affecting the flow. When
balancing the system, a lowest design differential pressure across the component (or,
strictly, across its balancing valve) in the system that has the lowest available
differential pressure, is determined. This component (that sets the lowest available
differential pressure) is usually the one that is furthest from the pump.
There is no optimum value for lowest differential pressure: some systems are designed
for a lowest differential pressure of 2 kPa, while others use 10 kPa. The greater the
differential pressure, the more must the balancing valve be throttled in order to achieve
the correct flow. It might seem as a bad idea to choose a high differential pressure, as
this will require the balancing valves to be throttled all the more, which means that, in
turn, an unnecessarily large pump has to be used in order to overcome the high pressure
drops in the system. However, the advantage of a high differential pressure is that a
change in a valve setting, due to control, does not have such a great effect on the flow
through other parts of the system as it would in a system operating with a low
differential pressure.
The interaction between the components, in other words, is less with increasing
differential pressure. We can clarify this by again showing an example (Figure 13) of
the pressure levels in a radiator branch. For the purposes of the example, it has been
assumed that the two radiator branches in the comparison are exactly the same: the only
difference between the two cases is that the lowest balanced differential pressure (across
radiator 5) is 1 kPa in one branch and 10 kPa in the other. The continuous lines in the
figure show the full-flow pressure drop in the pipes, which is the same in both cases.
When some of the radiator valves close, e.g. as a result of insolation, the flow through
the branch is reduced, which also reduces the pressure drops in the pipes. The new
pressure drops in the pipes are shown by the dotted lines in the figure. It can be seen
that the differential pressure across the radiators increases by the same amounts (in
absolute terms) in both cases, but that when expressed in relative terms the difference is
considerable, which thus affects the flows through the radiators differently.
20
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
9 kPa
Case 1
1 kPa
18 kPa
Case 2
10 kPa 13 kPa
4 kPa
Figure 13. Increasing the differential pressure in response to a reduction in flow

through the group. A comparison between a system balanced for a
minimum differential pressure of 1 kPa and one balanced for a minimum
differential pressure of 10 kPa.
In the first case (with a low balanced minimum differential pressure), the differential
pressure across radiator 5 increases from 1 kPa to 4 kPa. This is equivalent to a 100 %
increase in flow through radiator 5 if its valve setting remains unchanged, in accordance
with equation (1), which applies for fully turbulent flow.
In the second case, with a high set minimum differential pressure, the differential
pressure across radiator 5 also increases by 3 kPa. However, as it was originally
10 kPa, the relative increase is only 30 %, as against 300 % in the previous case. This
means that the flow through the radiator increases by only about 14 %.
The higher differential pressure, in other words, helps to reduce the interaction between
the heat-releasing components in a system. This means that, if the system is set up to
have a high minimum differential pressure, the amount of heat released from a
component does not change as much in response to flow changes caused by other
components in the system. A general opinion seems to be that this also assists system
control, due to the fact that the control valves have a higher valve authority. However,
this is not necessarily the case, as is discussed in Section 2.3.2, which considers and
explains the concept of valve authority. The drawback of a high differential pressure is
that energy is lost in the form of a high pressure drop through the valves, which
increases system running costs.
21
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
2.2.5 The heat-releasing components' characteristic

As previously mentioned, balancing provides an indirect measure of the design capacity
of the system, in the form of temperature levels and flows. It is important, when
analysing system function and performance, to be aware of the characteristics of the
heat-releasing components, in the form of the relationship between flow and heat
release power (or output air temperature). This characteristic depends partly on the size
and design of the component and partly on the temperature levels involved.
Determining the design/size of a heat-releasing component, such as a radiator, involves
ensuring that the component is sufficiently large to be able to provide the necessary
heating power. This size also depends on the design temperature levels in the heating
system and on the ambient conditions in which the component works, all in accordance
with the following well-known equation that describes heat transfer in a heat exchanger:
& = U A t
Q
m
&
Q
U
A
t m
=
=
=
=
(6)
Thermal power transferred [W]

Coefficient of thermal transmittance [W/mK]
The surface area of the heat-releasing component [m]
The mean temperature difference between the hot and cold flows [C]
In addition, if there are no heat losses in connection with transfer of the heat, the
following equation applies, with index i representing either the hot or the cold medium.
& = V
& c (t t ) = C t
Q
i
i
i
i ,in
i , out
i
i
&
Q
i
&
V
ci
t i ,in
=
=
=
=
=
t i ,out
= Exit temperature [C]
Ci
t i
& c ) [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow (= i V
i
i
= Temperature drop (= t i ,in t i ,out ) [C]
(7)
Thermal power transferred [W]

Density [kg/m]
Flow [m/s]
Specific thermal capacity [J/kgC]
Input temperature [C]
Radiators
For radiators, the special case applies that the coefficient of thermal transmittance U
consists in principle of the coefficient of surface thermal insulance on the outside of the
radiator. This coefficient depends on the temperature levels, which in turn enable the
following expression to be applied (Abel et. al, 1997):
& = K t n
Q
rad
rad
m
&
Q
rad
(8)
= Thermal power output from the radiator [W]

22
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
K rad
n
= Radiator constant, dependent on the size and design of the radiator [W/Cn]
= Radiator exponent, dependent on the size and design of the radiator [-]
The magnitude of the flow through the heat-releasing component has a considerable
effect on the amount of heat released. At a low flow rate, the water temperature falls
rapidly as the water passes through the radiator and gives up heat. The result is a low
return temperature and a relatively low average surface temperature on the radiator,
which therefore reduces the amount of heat released. With a high flow rate, on the other
hand, the water temperature doesnt fall so much. This produces a higher return
temperature, resulting in a high average surface temperature of the radiator, with high
heat release. Figure 14 shows, with a supply temperature of 80 C and a room
temperature of 20 C, how the thermal output power varies with the flow for a given
radiator. This curve has been produced from the equations shown above. The shape of
the curve is characteristic of both radiators and air heaters.
1000
tw ,in = 80 C
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Flow [l/h]
Figure 14. Flow characteristic of a radiator.

As the curve is not straight, a given flow change will have different effects on the
thermal power output, depending on at what point on the curve it occurs. At low flow
rates, a change in the flow has a considerable effect on the heat output. A flow change
at a high flow rate, on the other hand, does not result in any greater change in the
thermal output. In this respect, balancing is of interest, as it determines where on the
curve the radiator will be operating. However, the actual characteristic depends on the
inlet temperature, the room temperature and the design/size of the radiator. This is
illustrated in Figure 15, which shows the characteristics of one and the same radiator,
but at two different inlet temperatures, of 80 C and 60 C.
23
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
1000
tw ,in = 80 C
900
800
700
tw ,in = 60 C
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Flow [l/h]
Figure 15. Radiator characteristic of one and the same radiator, but with inlet
temperatures of 80 C and 60 C. It can be seen that the radiator can
provide a design thermal power output of, for example, 700 W with the
higher inlet temperature, but that a larger radiator would be required if the
lower inlet temperature is used.
The slope of the radiator characteristic curve for a given flow shows how sensitive the
radiator is to a small change in the flow. This can also be expressed in the form of the
following approximate relationship (see Appendix B for derivation), which describes
& Q
& ) for a relatively small change in
the relative change in thermal output power ( dQ
& V
& ):
flow ( dV
D Q& V&
2 (t w ,in
n t w
t room ) (2 n ) t w
n
t w
&
dQ
&
Q
=
= The radiator's sensitivity to a flow deviation [-]
&
dV
&
V
= Radiator exponent [-]
= t w ,in t w ,out = Temperature drop through the radiator [C]
t w ,in
= Inlet (supply) temperature [C]
t room
= Room temperature [C]
where
D Q& V&
Generally, n varies in value between 1.1 and 1.4 (Petitjean, 1994). For a value of
n = 1.33, we obtain the following simplified relationship:
24
(9)
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
D Q& V&
2 t w
3 (t w ,in t room ) t w
(10)
At a zero flow rate (or, strictly, fractionally above zero), the radiator sensitivity obtain a
value of 1, as the return temperature would then be the same as the room temperature.
This is the maximum value of sensitivity. At the other end of the flow rate, with an
infinitely high flow rate, the radiator sensitivity would be 0, which would be the least
possible value.
Assume that the radiator in Figure 15, for an inlet temperature of 80 C, has been
balanced for a flow rate of 10 l/h, which would mean that it would be supplying a
thermal output of 500 W at a room temperature of 20 C. From equation (7), the
temperature drop through the radiator would be estimated to about 43 C. With this and
using equation (10), the radiator sensitivity can be calculated as about 0.63.
The same radiator, but now with an inlet temperature of 60 C, release a thermal output
power of 500 W when the flow is balanced to approximately 30 l/h. The temperature
drop is then about 14 C, giving a radiator sensitivity of about 0.26.
This shows that, in the first case, which is equivalent to a radiator adjusted for a low
flow rate, the radiator is almost 2.5 times more sensitive to a flow change than in the
second case, which is equivalent to a high flow rate setting. However, it must be
pointed out that this applies only to consideration of the radiator in isolation. In actual
fact, the flow change through the radiator in the low-flow case would presumably be
less than in the high-flow case, which provides a means by which the differences in the
radiator sensitivities can be compensated, depending on how the rest of the system is
designed (see the previous section).
Air heaters
The assumption that the coefficient of thermal transmittance of an air heater depends on
the temperature levels cannot be made, as the coefficient of surface thermal insulance
on the outside of the air heater depends on the forced air flow (Mundt, 1988). The
coefficient of the surface thermal insulance on the inside of the air heater tubes also has
a significant effect on the coefficient of thermal transmittance. This means that the air
heater's UA value is affected by a change in the water flow rate, but hardly at all by a
change in temperature. Equation (6) cannot therefore be simplified for an air heater in
the same way as for a radiator.
However, instead of using equation (6), the efficacy of an air heater can be defined
using two efficiencies: one for the air side and one for the water side, as shown in
equations (11) and (12) below (Abel et. al, 1997).
a =
w =
t a ,out t a ,in
(11)
t w ,in t a ,in
t w ,in t w ,out
(12)
t w ,in t a ,in
25
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
a
w
t a ,out
= Air heater efficiency on the air side [-]

= Air heater efficiency on the water side [-]
= Output air temperature (after the air heater ) [C]
t a ,in
= Input air temperature (before the air heater) [C]
t w ,in
= Water inlet temperature [C]
t w ,out = Water return temperature [C]

The denominator in both the above expressions shows the maximum theoretical
temperature change in the air and water flows. The efficiencies of an air heater are
constant as long as the air or water flow rates remain constant (Widn, 1994). The
reason is that the UA value does not change unless the flows do so. This applies, of
course, provided that there are no changes to the air heater coil. It is therefore easy to
determine the output temperatures if the input temperatures and the efficiencies are
known.
In the case of a direct-connected air heater, through which the flow varies, equation (11)
provides a simple measure of the characteristic. In principle, the temperature rise of the
air (the numerator) corresponds to the amount of heat picked up from the air heater,
which in turn depends on both the efficiency (which is a measure of the design and size
of the air heater) and on the incoming temperatures of both the air and water. These
temperatures are independent of the flow. However, the flow affects the efficiency,
which can be calculated using, for example, the NTU method (Kays and London, 1984).
This means that a change in the flow produces a corresponding change in the efficiency,
which in turn results in a change in the thermal power released or absorbed.
However, in most cases, air heaters are not directly connected, but are connected to a
valve group, which returns some of the return flow to the inlet. In many air heaters, the
flow through the heater is kept almost constant, which means that the heater
characteristic is not as easy to determine as in the case of a direct-connected air heater.
The characteristic must link to what is happening in the system as it is controlled: if
not, it becomes difficult to link it to system function. The item that is controlled in the
system is the control valve, which in turn affects the flow through it. This means that it
is necessary for the characteristic of the heat-releasing component to be linked to the
flow through the control valve. This is the case with a direct-connected air heater, as
described in the last paragraph. However, links become more difficult in the case of an
air heater with a valve group that is recirculating some of the return flow. Figure 16
shows a diagram of such an arrangement.
26
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
&
V
B
tw,out
tw,supply
tw,in
&
V
R
&
V
H
Figure 16. A valve group with a return connection. At the mixing point (illustrated) the
supply and return temperature are combined to produce the required inlet
temperature to the air heater.
The following relationships apply at the mixing point (circled in the figure), with the
assumption that the specific thermal capacity is assumed to be constant:
where
t w ,sup ply C R + t w ,out C B = t w ,in C H
(13)
CH = CR + CB
(14)
t w ,sup ply = Supply temperature [C]

t w ,out
= Return temperature [C]
t w ,in
= Inlet temperature [C]
C
&
V
& c [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow = V
p
= Thermal capacity flow through the control valve [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow through the bypass [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow through the air heater [W/C]
&
V
B
&
VH
Equations (11) and (12), together with (13) and (14), give the following expression:
a ,s = a
t a ,out t a ,in
=
+ w w t w ,sup ply t a ,in
where
a ,s = Total efficiency on air side for valve group with air heater [-]
and
&
V
R
&
VH
27
(15)
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
For the air heater, assuming that no heat is being lost from it, the following equation can
be applied (Trschel, 1999):
w =
Ca
1
a = a
Cw
R
Ca
Cw
R
(16)
= Thermal capacity flow of air through the air heater [W/C]

= C H = Thermal capacity flow of water through the air heater [W/C]
= Cw Ca
Equation (15), together with (16) give the following expression:

a ,s =
1
1
1 1
+ 1
a R
t a ,out t a ,in
t w ,sup ply t a ,in
(17)
Equation (17) is analogous with equation (11). The difference is that equation (17)
describes the characteristic of an air heater (and its valve group) that is controlled by
changing its inlet temperature, while equation (11) describes a flow-controlled air
heater. The supply and inlet temperatures in equation (17) are independent of the flow,
in exactly the same way as for equation (11). If, in addition, the flows on both the water
and the air side are maintained constant, then the efficiencies are independent of the
flow. In this case, it is only quantity on the left-hand side of equation (17) that
changes with the flow through the control valve (directly proportional), which has a
direct effect on the temperature rise (the numerator on the right-hand side of the
equation), and thus on the amount of thermal power released.
An expression for the total efficiency on the water side for the valve group with the air
heater can also be derived. The relationship between the total efficiency on the air side
and on the water side is shown below:
w ,s =
a ,s
Ca
C C
a ,s = a w a , s =
CR
Cw CR
R
(18)
where w ,s = Total efficiency on water side for valve group with air heater [-]
Equation (18) together with (17) results in the following expression:
w ,s =
1
1

1 + 1
w
t w ,sup ply t w ,return

where t w ,retur = Return temperature on the valve groups primary side [C]
28
(19)
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
In the case of a direct-connected air heater is equal to 1. Expression (17) and (19) then
transforms into the ordinary expressions for the effiency of the air heater, that is
expression (11) and (12).
2.2.6 Categorisation of systems
A heating system that is designed for a maximum average temperature (i.e. the average
value of the supply and return pipe temperatures) of 50 C is said to be a
low-temperature system, while systems with higher maximum average temperatures are
referred to as high-temperature systems (Fredriksen and Werner, 1993). The system
temperatures are usually stated in order to indicate the type of system: e.g. a 75/35
system (supply temperature 75 C, return temperature 35 C), or a 60/40 system etc.
A common form of balancing is based on the principle of each valve in a group or
branch being independently adjusted in respect of its relationship with all the valves in
the group or branch. The flow is relatively high, which means that the pressure drops
between each valve are significant for the balancing, as the differential pressure
available across the valves falls with increasing distance from the pump. Examples of
system temperatures in such systems are 80/60, 60/40 and 55/45. They are referred to
as high-flow systems, and are thus balanced on the high-flow principle.
Low-flow balancing was used for the first time by sten Sandberg in the 1960s
(Andersson et. al, 1998), and involves reducing the flow considerably in comparison
with that of a high-flow system. This reduces the pressure drops between the valves on
a branch (provided that normal pipe sizes are used), with the result that the differential
pressure is almost the same across all the valves. Balancing can then be concentrated on
each valve at a time, with the relationship between the valves being essentially ignored.
For the same reason, those who recommend this method feel that there is no need for
any group or branch valves, as the differential pressure is practically the same across
each group or branch. Common system temperatures in low-flow systems are usually
somewhere between 70/30 and 80/40 C.
Hydronic heating systems can thus be categorised into low-temperature and
high-temperature systems, as well as into low-flow and high-flow systems. The table
below shows examples of systems categorised by the respective methods. A high
temperature drop can be said to correspond to a low flow, while a high average
temperature is indicative of a relatively small heat transfer surface area of the
heat-releasing component.
Flow
Temperature
Table 2.
High
Low
High
ex. 80/60
ex. 80/40
Low
ex. 60/40
ex. 70/30
Categorisation of different types of systems.
29
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
2.3
Control valves
It must be possible to control a hydronic heating system that supplies a demand for heat.
This can be done either centrally, by controlling the heat input to the entire system, or
locally by separate control of the thermal power supplied to each individual
heat-releasing component. Many systems use both methods in combination, e.g.
radiator systems with thermostatic valves. Control is effected by means of two-way or
three-way control valves, which alter the flow in the system or sub-system to the
required quantity. In order to characterise a system, it is therefore most important to
identify which type of control valve is being used. In order to describe control valves'
characteristics in this respect, the concepts of valve characteristic and valve authority is
being used.
2.3.1 Valve characteristic
Different mechanical designs of valves can produce different valve characteristics.
Different valve characteristics are suited to different types of systems. The valve
characteristic represents the relationship between the amount by which the valve is
opened and its capacity (the kv value). The valve opening (H) is a relative measure of
by how much the valve head has lifted. A valve opening of 0 % indicates that the valve
is fully closed, while 100 % indicates that it is fully open. The valve opening can, of
course, also be expressed as a per-unit value (0 to 1), as is also used here. Figure 17
shows a number of examples of various (theoretical) valve characteristics. Capacities in
the diagram are expressed as relative values, in the same way as is the valve opening,
with 100 % representing the maximum possible value (with the valve fully open). It
should be noted that linear and logarithmic characteristics are standardised forms, and
that quick-opening characteristics are not normally used in control valves, but are used
in shut-off valves (Palmertz, 1993). It should also be pointed out that the logarithmic
characteristic shown in the diagram is, in fact, somewhat modified: a real logarithmic
characteristic valve does not shut off completely when its valve opening is zero.
Relative kv value [% ]
100
80
Quick Opening
60
Linaer
Square-law
40
Logarithmic
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Valve opening [% ]
Figure 17. Four different mechanical valve characteristics - quick-opening, linear,

square law and logarithmic (modified).
30
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
The flow through a valve depends on its capacity and on the differential pressure across
it, which has previously been described in equation (3), and which can be re-expressed
as equation (20) below.
& = p k
V
v
(20)
With a constant differential pressure, the relationship between flow and valve capacity
is directly proportional, which means that the valve characteristic curve looks the same,
regardless of whether the Y-axis (see Figure 17) indicates relative flow or relative kv
value. The valve characteristic is often described as the relationship between the valve
opening of the valve and the flow through it. In order to distinguish these terms, this is
referred to in the rest of this presentation as the true valve characteristic of the valve,
while the relationship between the valve opening and the valve capacity is referred to as
the mechanical characteristic of the valve.
The true valve characteristic can, in other words, be divided up into two parts: one
which depends on the mechanical design of the valve (the mechanical valve
characteristic), and one which depends on the differential pressure of the valve which,
in turn, depends on the design of the system in which the valve is installed. This is
exemplified by Figure 18, which shows the constituents of the valve characteristic of a
logarithmic valve.
Mechanical characteristic
Valve capacity
True valve characteristic
2
1
Flow
Valve opening
Effect of differential pressure
Flow
Valve opening
3
2
Valve capacity
Figure 18. Breakdown of a valve's true characteristic into a purely mechanical

characteristic and a characteristic that depends on the differential pressure
of the valve.
It can be see from equation (20) above that, as said, the flow is directly proportional to
the valve capacity if the differential pressure is maintained constant. This is shown in
Figure 18 as a straight line in the lower left diagram. The slope coefficient of the line is
31
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
the square root of the differential pressure, which is also indicated by equation (20).
However, this straight-line characteristic applies only if the differential pressure across
the valve is constant at all settings. If the differential pressure across the valve changes
when its capacity is changed, the relationship between the valve capacity and flow
through it will no longer be directly proportional, which means that the true valve
characteristic will also be altered in relation to the mechanical characteristic.
2.3.2 Valve authority
With constant differential pressure across a valve, the mechanical valve characteristic
and the true valve characteristic are the same. However, if the differential pressure
changes, the true characteristic is altered, which means that it no longer conforms with
the mechanical characteristic. In all hydronic heating systems, the differential pressure
across control valves changes in one way or another when the heat demand changes.
The true valve characteristic then distorts from the mechanical characteristic by varying
amounts, depending on the magnitude of the change of differential pressure. A simple
measure of this distortion in the characteristic is provided by what is known as the valve
authority.
The valve authority (indicated by ) is the relationship between the differential pressure
across a control valve when fully open and the differential pressure when it is fully
closed (Petitjean, 1994), as given by:
=
p fully open
(21)
p fully closed
The lower the value of the valve authority, the greater the distortion of the valve
characteristic. The maximum value of valve authority is 1, which means that the
differential pressure across the valve is unchanged, and thus that the true valve
characteristic conforms with the mechanical valve characteristic.
Exactly how the valve affects the flow is shown by the true valve characteristic, which
is a product of both the mechanical characteristic and the valve authority. Figures 19
and 20 show the distortion of the valve characteristics of a linear valve and a
logarithmic valve for different amounts of valve authority.
Valve authority
60
and
40
20
0
= 0.1
80
60
give
40
= 0.5
20
=1
0
0
20
40
60
80
Valve opening [%]
100
= 0.25
100
Relative flow [%]
80
True characteristic
= 0.25
100
100
Relative flow [%]
Relative kv value [%]
= 0.1
80
60
= 0.5
40
=1
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 19. Distortion of the valve characteristic of a linear valve.
32
20
40
60
80
Valve opening [%]
100
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Valve authority
60
and
40
20
0
= 0.1
80
60
40
= 0.5
give
=1
20
0
20
40
60
80
Valve opening [%]
100
= 0.25
100
Relative flow [%]
80
True characteristic
= 0.25
100
100
Relative flow [%]
80
60
= 0.1
40
= 0.5
=1
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
Valve opening [%]
Figure 20. Distortion of the valve characteristic of a logarithmic valve.

As said above, the flow in a system is determined by the relationship between the
available differential pressure (from the pump) and the total flow resistance of the
system. If much of the flow resistance consists of fixed resistance such as pipes,
radiators, balancing valves etc., then the system flow resistance will increase only
marginally when the valves start to close, which means that the flow will hardly alter. It
is not until the valve is almost completely closed that its flow resistance can make a
substantial contribution to the total flow resistance of the system, and so it is only then
that the flow will actually start significantly to be reduced. In other words, the valve has
poor authority over the system, which is manifested by its valve authority being low.
A valve authority of 1, on the other hand, means that the valve has complete control
over what happens in the system. The only flow resistance that would exist in such a
system would be that of the control valve, which would mean that it would control the
flow exactly in accordance with its mechanical characteristic. However, a value of 1 is
generally purely theoretical, as all components in a system have a certain flow
resistance. Nevertheless, in some contexts, it is possible to achieve a valve authority of
1, but this is in connection with systems or sub-systems in which the flow can be kept
constant.
The valve authority is therefore affected both by the design/size of the system and by its
balancing. The larger the control valve in a given system, the lower the differential
pressure across it when it is fully open, and so the lower its authority.
However, it must be pointed out that what is important is the shape of the true valve
characteristic: it is that which determines how the control valve operates in a system. It
is therefore the combination of the mechanical characteristic and the valve authority that
is of interest. It can be seen from the diagrams above, for example, that a more or less
linear true valve characteristic can be achieved with the help of a linear mechanical
characteristic and a high valve authority or a logarithmic mechanical characteristic and a
low valve authority.
2.3.3 Two-way and three-way control valves
Two-way valves have two ports with the water flowing in through one port and out
through the other. They are used in connections with or without bypasses. Their mode
of operation is fairly obvious, and so no further explanation is provided here.
33
100
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Three-way valves consist of three ports, with standard designations as shown in the
diagram below.
A, Control port
C, Constant-flow port
B, Shunt port
Figure 21. Symbols and designations for a three-way control valve.
It is only the two black ports, i.e. A and B in Figure 21, that are really controlled. As
port A closes, port B opens, and vice versa. The white port C is not actually affected
by the valve operating mechanism. When referring to a three-way valve as being open
or closed, it is the A-port being referred to. This means that for a fully closed three-way
valve, for example, port A is fully closed while port B is fully open.
A three-way valve can be arranged as a mixing valve or as a distribution valve. The
difference is shown below in Figure 22. Note the flow directions.
Mixing valve
&
V
A
Distribution valve
&
V
A
&
V
C
&
V
C
&
V
B
&
V
B
Figure 22. Mixing and distribution valves.
When used as a mixing valve, flows A and B are mixed to form flow C. In the
distribution valve mode, flow C is instead divided up to form flows A and B.
Regardless of the type of valve, the sum of flows A and B is always equal to flow C.
& +V
& =V
&
V
A
B
C
(22)
This fact - that three-way valves have three ports, and thus three different flows - means
that their function is not as immediately obvious as that of two-way valves. In order to
assist understanding of how a three-valve works, it can be schematically replaced by
two two-way control valves. This does not in any way alter the function of the valve,
but simply shows that the three-way valve really consists of two different control ports,
which can have completely different characteristics.
34
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
A
&
V
C
&
V
A
&
V
C
&
V
A
B
&
V
B
&
V
B
Figure 23. Expressing a three-way valve as two two-way valves.

A three-way valve in which ports A and B have similar characteristics is referred to as a
symmetrical valve. If the ports are arranged to have different characteristics, the valve
is referred to as being asymmetrical.
When referring to the valve authority of a three-way valve, it is always that of the A
port that is intended. This is not to say that the valve authority of the B port is
uninteresting: it is, as said above, the flows through port A and port B together that
form the flow through port C, and it is often this flow that supplies the heat, e.g. to an
air heater. The mechanical characteristics and the authorities of both ports A and B
therefore have a considerable effect on the results of using a three-way valve for control
purposes.
The balancing valves in valve groups are used to adjust the flow not only when the
control valve is fully open, but also when it is completely closed. However, this means
that the flow will be correct only when the valve is either fully open or fully closed. In
between these two positions, the flow can vary considerably, depending on the
mechanical characteristic and authority of the valve. It must be pointed out that control
valves and balancing valves are normally indicated by the abbreviation SV, although
in this presentation we have used I for balancing valves and R for control valves.
This is to provide clearer distinction between the valves.
For a more detailed explanation of the characteristics of control valves, see Petitjean
(1989), Palmertz (1993) and Trschel (1999).
2.4
The static and dynamic characteristics of the system
The specific design of a system determines its character. In this presentation, we have
used the concepts of static characteristic and necessary P-band in order to describe the
character of a system. The static characteristic shows the steady-state characteristics of
the system, while the necessary P-band is a measure that also includes the dynamic
characteristics of the system.
2.4.1 Static characteristic
The overall purpose of a hydronic heating system in a building is to provide and
maintain a certain indoor air temperature. This is done by means of control of the
control valves in the system. The static characteristic describes the relationship between
35
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
the valve opening of a control valve and the resulting heat release or air temperature
(room temperature or supply air temperature) under steady-state conditions, i.e.
equilibrium conditions. Different static characteristics are obtained, depending on the
design of the system. The static characteristic consists of the mechanical characteristic
of the control valve, the authority of the valve and the characteristic of the controlled
heat-releasing component, all as shown in Figure 24 which is a schematic diagram of a
radiator circuit and thermostatic control valve.
&
V
kv
troom
4
2
1
kv
Valve authority
&
V
Radiator characteristic
troom
4
Figure 24. Make-up of the static characteristic, as illustrated by a radiator circuit.
The results are strongly affected by the control valve, as both its characteristic and its
size (which in turn affects its authority) affect the static characteristic. This means that,
for example, a large logarithmic valve can provide approximately the same static
characteristic as a small linear valve, as shown in the following schematic diagrams for
an air heater and valve group.
36
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Logarithmic
Low authority
Valve authority
Linear
Characteristic of
the air heater and
valve group
H
ta,out
ta,out
&
V
kv
&
V
kv
ta,out
ta,out
&
V
kv
High authority
H
&
V
kv
Figure 25. Comparison schematic of a large logarithmic and a small linear control
valve.
The static characteristic gives a first indication of where any control problems might
arise. If no dynamic aspects are considered, the static characteristic should be linear, as
pointed out by Lundin (1980), Avery (1993), Hegberg (1998) and Trschel (1999), and
by others.
The steeper the slope of the curve, the greater is the change in thermal power output
when the valve opening of the control valve changes. This is referred to as the system
gain, and is given by the following equation (Grindal, 1984):
Ks =
t
H
(23)
37
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
where
Ks
t
= System gain
= Change in outgoing air temperature (for an air heater) or
room temperature (for a radiator), for a...
= ...change in the valve opening of the control valve.
The instantaneous gain of the system (for each valve opening) is given by the
differential coefficient of the static characteristic. The higher the gain in the system, the
more likely it is that control problems will be encountered. However, this is due partly
to the dynamic characteristics of the system.
2.4.2 The necessary P-band
The static characteristic describes the system under steady-state conditions. However,
dynamic changes occur between equilibrium conditions (if the latter are ever achieved
at all). In order to acquire an overall picture of the system, the dynamic characteristics
also needs to be considered. Before doing that a number of concepts must first be
defined.
Control
When controlling a hydronic heating system, it is always proportional control mode (P)
that is used, often together with integrating control mode (PI). The P block in the
controller provides a control signal that is a linear function of the error signal (the set
value minus the actual value). The equation for this is as shown below (Persson, 1995).
u = u0 + KR e
where
u
u0
KR
e
=
=
=
=
(24)
control signal
control signal when the error signal is zero
proportionality constant (control system gain)
error signal
The relationship between the control signal and the error signal for a thermostatic valve
on a radiator in a room is illustrated in Figure 26.
H
100 %
0%
18 C
trum
22 C
Figure 26. Example of P-control mode (for a thermostatic radiator valve).
38
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
In the example above, it can be seen that the valve starts to close when the temperature
in the room exceeds 18 C. When the temperature has risen to 22 C, the valve is fully
closed. It goes, in other words, from fully open to fully closed for a 4 C increase in
room temperature. This is referred to as the P-band (proportional band) of the
controller, and is the inverse of the controller gain, KR (the slope of the line in the
figure). The wider the P-band, the lower the gain.
If the P-band is wide, control will operate slowly, as changes in the room temperature
result in only small changes in the valve position. A narrow P-band, on the other hand,
has a higher gain and so increases the speed of control, but with the risk that the control
process instead becomes unstable. However, this is considerably affected by the
characteristics of the controlled system.
The drawback of using only proportional control is that it is not normally possible to
achieve the exact set value. This is due to the fact that, in proportional control mode,
the control signal is directly proportional to the control error. In other words, to
produce a control signal requires a change in the control error, which results
unavoidably in the creation of a stationary control error under steady-state conditions.
However, these stationary control errors can be eliminated by using an integrating
control block, which continuously complements the control signal from the proportional
block until there is no longer any control error. With this combination, it is possible to
achieve the required set value.
A differential (D) block is sometimes also used in the controller, with the effect of
increasing the speed of response of the controller. However, differential control is
seldom used in the HVAC sector, which is probably due partly to the fact that it is not
regarded as necessary and partly because it makes control particularly sensitive to rapid
changes, thus increasing the risk of instability (Persson, 1995; Moult, 2000).
The Ziegler and Nichols methods and rules of thumb
In the 1940s, Ziegler and Nichols developed rules of thumb for setting up controllers,
which are still applicable today. They used two different methods of doing so: the step
response method and the self-oscillation method.
The step response method involves analysing the characteristics of the system in a
number of steps. The automatic control system is disengaged, and the output signal
from the controller is changed in steps. For each step change, the system dead time
(Td), time constant (Tk) and resulting change in the control parameters (r) are
measured or estimated.
The self-oscillation method involves reducing the width of the proportional control band
(increasing the gain) until the system becomes unstable and starts to oscillate. The
critical proportional band (Pkrit) and the cycle time of self-oscillation (Tcrit) are noted.
The following diagrams show how the proportional band, the integrating time and the
differentiating time are obtained from the various methods (Ziegler and Nichols, 1942;
Persson, 1995; Jacobson et. al, 1997).
39
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Step response
Self-oscillation
r, u
r
u (step)
r (response)
Time
Time
Tcrit
Dead time (Td) Time constant (Tk)
A=
Td
Tk
B=
r
u
Regulator
P
PI
PID
Subtract the effect of any integrating controller

by setting the integrating time to its maximum
value, and also subtract the differential effect,
by setting the differentiating time to zero.
Continue by progressively reducing the width
of the proportional band until instability just
occurs. Note the width of the critical
proportional band (Pcrit) and the critical period
time (Tcrit).
The step response
method
The self-oscillation method

Fast control
P-band = 2 Pcrit
P-band = 2,2 Pcrit
I-time = Tcrit / 1,2
P-band = 1,6 Pkrit
I-time = Tcrit / 2
D-time = Tcrit / 16
P-band = A B
P-band = A B / 0,9
I-time = 3 Td
P-band = A B / 1,2
I-time = 2 Td
D-time = 0,5 Td
Slow control
P-band = 4 Pcrit
P-band = 4,4 Pcrit
I-time = Tcrit
P-band = 3,2 Pcrit
I-time = Tcrit / 2
D-time = Tcrit / 16
Figure 27. Presentation of the Ziegler-Nichols rules of thumb for setting up controllers
using the step response and self-oscillation method.
The time constant, which is a measure of the inertia of the system, is defined as the time
it takes for the control parameter to change from one equilibrium position to another
position in response to a step change in the control signal. It can be derived graphically
by drawing a tangent at the point of inflection of the curve of the control parameter, i.e.
at the point of maximum slope of the curve. It is then given by the time between the
points where the tangent intersects the original equilibrium value and the new
equilibrium value, as shown in Figure 27. It should be noted that this applies for higher
order systems (Grindal, 1984). The longer the time constant, the simpler is control and
the narrower the proportional band can be set.
40
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
The dead time is the time that passes between when the control signal is changed until
the control parameter starts to respond. The longer the dead time, the more difficult
control becomes (i.e. a greater risk of instability), and the wider the proportional band
needs to be set.
Control problems
The use of Ziegler and Nichols' practical rules of thumb methods enables different types
of control circuits, or different systems, to be classified by deriving the necessary
settings of the controller. To prevent a system from becoming unstable, the control
system must be capable of controlling the worst case conditions, i.e. when the system is
most difficult to control. Setting the necessary proportional band of the controller (as
needed to avoid instability, regardless of load) thus provides a measure of the system
characteristics. If a wide necessary proportional band (or relative control difficulty as
Grindal refers to it) is needed, it means that the system will be difficult to control, while
a narrow necessary proportional band means that the system will be easier to control.
This presentation has used the step response method to calculate the width of the
necessary proportional band for measurements and simulations. This width is then used
to describe how well the system is designed. A poorly designed system necessitates a
wide necessary proportional band, thus increasing the risk of poor performance. The
width of the necessary proportional band for a given valve opening of the control valve
can be calculated from the following equation:
Pnec =
where
Td
KS
Tk
(25)
Pnec = Necessary proportional band [C/-]

Td = Dead time [seconds]
Tk = Time constant [seconds]
K S = System gain (for a given valve opening) =
t
[C/-]
H
Rewriting equation (25) from the expression shown in Figure 27 requires that the
control parameter is a temperature (this presentation is concentrating on room
temperature or outgoing air temperature), and that a certain change in the control signal
(u) results in a corresponding change in the valve opening of the control valve (H).
The width of the necessary proportional band varies with the valve opening of the
control valve. Control needs to be able to deal with the most difficult case, i.e. when the
width of the necessary proportional band is greatest. A well-designed system, in other
words is not merely one that can achieve a narrow necessary proportional band, but one
that can create the right conditions for a constant-width necessary proportional band,
regardless of the valve opening of the control valve. This ensures that the necessary
proportional band remains narrow throughout operation, giving good prospects for
problem-free control of the system.
To illustrate how the necessary proportional band provides a measure of the difficulty of
controlling the system, consider an extreme case of a proportional band width of 0 C.
41
2 SYSTEM DESIGN
Such a proportional band would result in instability, regardless of system design, as

control would operate in an On/Off mode. It would probably not be very successful for
a system using air heaters, and would probably result in wide fluctuations of the supply
air temperature. On the other hand, the consequences would be unlikely to be so
extreme for a radiator system, as has been shown by measurements in Lars Jensen's
thesis (1978) Digital control of climate processes. This is because of the very high
inertia (long time constant) of a radiator system (or, more correctly, of the interaction
between the radiator and the room). The proportional band of a thermostatic control
valve in a high-flow system is usually about 2 C, while some low-flow systems can
have proportional band widths as low as 0.5 C (depending on the balancing of the
radiator valve). It is therefore not likely that the function of a radiator system would be
particularly affected by advanced local control (Jensen, 1978), which means that the
design of the system has a considerable effect on its overall ability to deal with
disturbances.
The concept of using the proportional band for classifying the difficulty of controlling a
system has been taken primarily from Arvid Grindal's and Bent Brresen's many
articles. In particular, Bent Brresen's Dynamikk i shuntkoplinger (Dynamics of
valve groups) (1985) and Arvid Grindal's Regleringsteknikk for ingeniren (Control
methods for engineers) (1988) are therefore recommended for study of static and
dynamic characteristics of systems in the HVAC field.
42
3 MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS
This chapter briefly describes how the measurements were made, and presents some
examples of the results. See Appendix A for further details of the construction of the
test rigs, selection of components, control systems and instrumentation systems, as well
as information on uncertainty of measurement.
3.1
Radiator system
The purpose of the radiator test rig is to provide measured data for verification of
calculation equations dealing with:
- heat release (and return water temperature) from a radiator
- the interaction between radiators in the same system.
3.1.1 Method of working
Two different temperature levels were used for the measurements: 60/40 (equivalent to
the high flow rate mode) and 70/30 (equivalent to the low flow rate mode). In addition,
the pressure drop in the distribution system was varied, with the aim of investigating
how the interaction between the radiators in a system is affected by the pipe pressure
drop (or by the distance between the radiators).
The method of working in making the measurements accorded with the following
pattern:
1. Balancing the system:
- The desired supply temperature was set on the electric boiler.
- The pump speed was set (three different speeds).
- The balancing valve on the return connection was approximately set.
- The balancing valve between the radiators was approximately set.
- The pre-setting on the respective radiator valves was approximately set.
- The differential pressure across the respective radiator connection was measured,
If the measured differential pressures were not as desired, the valves were adjusted
again.
2. Checking the balancing (after about an hour).
The return temperature from each radiator was measured. If the measured return
temperatures were not as desired, the valves were adjusted again.
3. Measurement.
The pre-setting on one of the radiator valves was changed from fully closed to fully
open in a number of steps. After each change, the time was noted, together with
the volume that had passed through the respective flow meter. After about an hour,
when steady-state conditions had been reached, the following parameters were
measured:
- Supply temperature to radiator 1 (Ts1)
- Supply temperature to radiator 2 (Ts2)
43
3 MEASUREMENTS
Return temperature from radiator 1 (Tr1)

Return temperature from radiator 2 (Tr2)
Return temperature from the branch (Tr)
Room temperature (Troom)
Zeroed differential pressure (DP0)
Pressure drop across radiator 1 (DP1)
Pressure drop across radiator 2 (DP2)
Volume that had passed through flow meter no. 1, together with the time of
reading, which gives the volume flow through radiator 1 (Vw1)
- Volume that had passed through flow meter no. 2, together with the time of
reading, which gives the volume flow through radiator 2 (Vw2)
3.1.2 Measured results
It is difficult to draw any independent conclusions from the measured results alone.
They have been used to verify a number of calculation relationships, which means that
they must be compared with them. This is done in Chapter 4, and so no measured result
are shown here.
3.2
The purpose of the measurements in the air heater test rig was to:
- provide background data for verification of the simulation model
- provide genuine statistics and dynamic differences between different types of control
valves, valve groups and balancing.
To be able to fulfil these objectives, we need to obtain both the static and the dynamic
characteristics of various configurations of the system, by means of measurements.
Static characteristics are those that determine how the valve opening of the control
valve affects the outgoing air temperature (or heat release) from the air heater under
steady-state conditions. This has been previously defined (in Chapter 2) as the static
characteristic of the control circuit. The dynamic characteristics determine the
behaviour of change from one steady-state condition to another steady-state condition.
One measure of this is how the dead time and time constant of the control circuit are
affected by a change in the valve opening of the control valve.
3.2.1 Configurations
As previously mentioned (Chapter 1) there are three different types of valve groups that
are of interest in this work: direct connection, district heating connection and the
SABO connection.
44
3 MEASUREMENTS
Direct
connection
District heating
connection
SABO
connection
Figure 28. The three different valve group arrangements that have been investigated.
In addition to the different arrangements of valve groups, three different types of control
valves have also been used in the measurements: V341-4 (a small logarithmic valve),
V341-10 (a large logarithmic valve) and V355-4 (a small linear valve). These
designations, and which are used in this presentation, consist of the manufacturer's
product code and an index that shows the kvs value of the valve.
In addition, two different balancing cases have been used, with the intention that they
should correspond to high-flow and low-flow balancing. A supply temperature of about
60 C has been used for the high-flow balancing case: with the control valve fully open,
it results in a rise of air temperature of about 25 C across the coil, and a return water
temperature of about 40 C. For the low-flow balancing case, the supply temperature is
70-75 C, the temperature rise across the coil is still about 25 C and the water return
temperature is about 35-40 C. The above figures were obtained with an incoming air
temperature to the air heater of 0-10 C.
Permutating the variations in the valve group, the control valve and balancing, 18
different configurations are obtained, for all of which measurements have been made.
The configurations are identified by the following model: valve type (V3XXX-X), flow
(H/L), valve group (D/DH/SABO). This means that, for example, a configuration for
district heating connection, using the small logarithmic control valve and with a low
flow rate, would be indicated by V341-4,L,DH, while a high-flow directly-connected
arrangement with a linear control valve would be V355-4,H,D.
3.2.2 Setting up and measuring
Setting up
The system must be set up before each set of measurements is taken, which is done as
follows:
1. The heat source (the boiler) is set to give the required supply temperature.
2. The available differential pressure across the valve group is adjusted approximately
by means of balancing valves Ip and Ib (see Figure 29).
3. The valve group and the control valve to be used are adjusted using the shut-off
valves.
4. The valve group is adjusted as follows:
45
3 MEASUREMENTS
The district heating (DH) and the SABO connections:

- The control valve is closed and the flow through the circulation circuit adjusted
by means of balancing valve I2.
- The control valve is fully opened, and balancing valve I1 is set so that no flow
passes through the shunt/bypass connection.
Direct connection:
- The control valve and the balancing valve I2 are both fully opened, after which
the flow is adjusted using balancing valve I1.
Ip
I2
Ib
I1
Figure 29. The balancing valves in the test rig.
After setting up, the measurements can be made. These are of two different types: step
response and self-oscillation measurements.
Step response
These measurements have mainly been made by recording the step response when the
valve opening of the control valve is changed. When making the measurements, the
valve opening was changed from fully closed to fully open in ten steps, accompanied by
measurements of the ingoing and outgoing air temperatures. By waiting until
steady-state conditions have been achieved for each step (i.e. before moving on to the
next step), both the static and the dynamic characteristics can be recorded. The
controller has naturally been disconnected while making the step response
measurements.
As the measurements provide the basis for simulation of various systems (different
combinations of valve groups, control valves and balancing), it has been of interest to
measure, not only the air temperatures and the valve opening of the control valve, but
also the water temperatures (at four positions in the valve group), the water flows (on
the primary and secondary sides) and the differential pressure available across the valve
group. In addition, in order to obtain a measure of the control valve's authority, the
differential pressure across the valve has also been continuously measured.
Self-oscillation
In addition to the step response measurements, certain other measurements have also
been made in order to investigate the effect of control on the system (or, rather, how
various system configurations affect the choice of control). These measurements have
46
3 MEASUREMENTS
been made with the controller connected. To start with, a wide P-band (30-40 C) was
set, with the I-effect minimised by setting the I-time to as high a value as possible (999
seconds). After the system reached equilibrium, i.e. with the control valve having
reached a stable position, the width of the P-band was gradually reduced until the point
was reached where instability just occurred. In this context, instability is defined as
being the state where the control valve starts to hunt, with no apparent tendency towards
convergence. The wider the critical P-band is, the more difficult the system is to
control. In all cases, the controller set value has been set to 20 C, and the incoming air
temperature was 4-8 C.
3.2.3 Some measurement results
Although it is mainly the simulations that provide the basis for the results of this work,
some conclusions can nevertheless be drawn by studying the measured value results.
Figure 30 shows the measured static characteristic for the three different valve groups,
using the same control valve (V341-4) and the same type of balancing (high flow).
Relative thermal power output [-]
1.0
V341-4,H,D
V341-4,H,SABO
0.8
V341-4,H,DH
The X-axis shows the valve opening of the
control valve, with the value of 1.0
corresponding to a fully open valve. The
Y-axis shows the relative thermal power
output or, looking at it another way, the
relative temperature rise, with a value of
1.0 representing the maximum thermal
power output or the maximum temperature
rise (with the control valve fully open).
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 30. Measured static characteristics for the three valve groups using a V341-4
control valve and with high flow rate.
It can be seen from the above diagram that there is little difference between the
performance of the valve groups, and the same applies for all configurations using the
same control valve. This applies, in other words, regardless of the type of balancing
(high-flow or low-flow). The reason for this is that the difference in static characteristic
between low-flow and high-flow modes is almost non-existent, as shown in Figure 31.
47
3 MEASUREMENTS
1.0
V341-4,L,DH
0.8
V341-4,H,DH
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 31. Static characteristics of two configurations with the same valve group and
control valve, but with different flow rates.
In addition, the measurements show that the large logarithmic control valve (V341-10)
provides approximately the same static characteristic as the (small) linear control valve
(V355-4). This can be seen in Figure 32 below.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
V355-4,H,D
V341-10,H,D
0.2
V341-4,H,D
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 32. Static characteristics depending on the choice of control valve.

In total, therefore, the measurements show that there are essentially only two different
types of static characteristics (see Figure 32). The V341-10 and V355-4 control valves
provide a strongly curved characteristic, while the V341-4 valve produces a
48
3 MEASUREMENTS
considerably more linear characteristic. In this respect, the effect of high-flow or

low-flow mode, and the type of valve group, are largely insignificant.
It may seem strange that balancing does not seem to have any effect on the static
characteristic. However, the reason for this is that balancing affects both the valve
authority and the air heater characteristic in such a way that their effects on the static
characteristic more or less cancel each other out (see Chapter 2). However, it must be
noted that this applies only for this particular measured case, and must not be
interpreted as a general phenomenon.
It can be noted that the measurements support the general theory presented in Chapter 2,
where it was explained that the static characteristic of a control circuit is determined by
the characteristic and authority of the control valve, together with the characteristic of
the heater itself.
The air heater characteristic
Regardless of the type of valve group used, it is important to know the characteristic of
the air heater (i.e. its thermal power output as a function of the water flow). With the
case of constant flow through the air heater, the characteristic determines the return
temperature of the water and thus also affects the air heater inlet temperature (as this is a
mixture of the supply temperature and the return temperature). In turn, this affects how
the valve opening of the control valve is controlled. With a direct connection
arrangement, the air heater characteristic determines the flow required in order to
provide the correct thermal output, which therefore affects control of the control valve,
as the valve opening of the valve determines the flow through the heater.
The type of balancing affects the air heater characteristic, as shown in Figure 33, which
is based on measured values.
Thermal power output [kW]
25
20
15
10
60 - 40 C
70 - 40 C
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Relative water flow [-]
Figure 33. The effect of balancing on the air heater characteristic, as derived from
measured values.
49
3 MEASUREMENTS
The X-axis in Figure 33 represents the relative water flow, with the maximum value for
each curve being 1.0. The Y-axis shows the absolute values of thermal power output.
The quantities in the diagram are the design temperature levels. With a supply
temperature of 70 C, the design flow rate is considerably lower (about 35 % lower)
than the design flow rate with a supply temperature of 60 C. It is interesting to note
that both the design return temperature and the design output power rating are the same
for both flow rates. The thermal power output, in other words, is not proportional to the
mean temperature difference of the air heater (i.e. between the water and air flows).
This is because the UA value of the air heater is affected by the water flow rate. The
lower the water flow rate, the lower the UA value and the higher the mean temperature
difference has to be in order to prevent the thermal power output from being reduced.
Compare this with a radiator, of which the thermal power output is directly linked to the
mean temperature difference (see Chapter 2).
The curves in Figure 33 (the thin lines) are the result of curve matching to the measured
values, and clearly show how the characteristics of the air heater are affected by the
flow rate. The greater the temperature drop, the straighter the characteristic.
Dynamic characteristic (critical P-band)
Figure 34 shows an example of how self-oscillation of a system has been determined by
progressively reducing the width of the P-band for the V341-4,L,DH configuration. In
this example, the critical P-band width is 7 C, at which point clear signs of instability
occur. The vertical lines in the diagram show the points at which the width of the
controller P-band has been changed. After each change in the P-band, it can be seen
that the measured air temperature at the inlet upstream of the air heater bounces,
which is due to the fact that the electric heater in the inlet (upstream of the heating coil)
is connected for 30 seconds. This is to prevent the system from finding itself on a
metastable level, i.e. to prevent the system from appearing to be more stable than it
really is, due to the fact that it has not actually been exposed to any disturbances.
Table 3 shows the measured critical P-band for a number of different configurations. It
also shows the approximate ambient temperature at the time of making the
measurements, together with the controller set value (20 C in all cases). It should be
pointed out that, in all cases, the balancing has been almost perfect i.e. as good as can
be regarded as possible.
50
3 MEASUREMENTS
V341-4,L,DH
P-band: 30
20 16 14
12
10
25
100
Critical P-band ~ 7 C
20
Ta,out
90
Ta,in
80
70
60
15
50
40
10
30
20
10
0
0:00
0:20
0:40
1:00
1:20
1:40
2:00
2:20
2:40
Time [tt:mm]
3:00
3:20
3:40
4:00
4:20
0
4:40
The controller loses contact with the

system for about a minute!
Figure 34. An example of trials to set the system into self-oscillation.
Control valve
V341-10
V341-10
V341-4
V341-4
V341-4
V341-4
V355-4
V355-4
V355-4
V355-4
V341-4
V341-4
V355-4
V355-4
Table 3.
Balancing
(flow rate)
H
L
H
L
H
L
H
L
H
L
H
L
H
L
Valve group
DH
DH
DH
DH
SABO
SABO
DH
DH
SABO
SABO
D
D
D
D
Outdoor
temperature [C]
7
7
6
7
6
8
6
7
5
10
3.5
5.5
4.5
3.5
Set value [C] Critical P-band [C]

20
6
20
12
20
4
20
7
20
5
20
8
20
6
20
11
20
7
20
14
20
3
20
3
20
6
20
5
Measured critical P-bands for a number of different configurations.
It is important to point out that the critical P-bands in the above table do not necessarily
represent the worst cases. If the set value had been changed, or the temperature of the
incoming air had been different, the control valve would need to be open to a different
amount in order to achieve equilibrium, which would mean that a different sector of the
static characteristic would be applicable. It is likely that this would result in a
completely different critical P-band: the worst case would produce the highest value of
the critical P-band of the system.
51
Valve opening (H) [%]
Temperature [C]
30
3 MEASUREMENTS
The table shows that the width of the critical P-band of the low-flow district heating and
SABO arrangements is approximately twice as wide as for the corresponding high-flow
systems. This is presumably due to the fact that the dead time in the low-flow case is
approximately twice as long as in the high-flow case, as the flow is only half as great.
The table also shows that the lowest critical P-band (for the district heating and SABO
connections) occurs when the small logarithmic valve (V341-4) is used, while the other
two valves give results that are largely similar to each other. This is in good accordance
with the results described above concerning the static characteristic.
An interesting observation in the table is that the absolutely narrowest critical P-band
occurs in connection with direct connection, and that it is independent of the flow rate.
This is because this valve group is fundamentally different from the other two groups.
The district heating and SABO connections result in a relatively long time passing from
when the valve opening of the control valve is changed until the new inlet temperature
reaches the air heater. This is due to the fact that the speed of the temperature wave
from the valve group to the air heater is related to the flow velocity in the circulation
circuit. The temperature wave is actually somewhat slower than the flow velocity, due
to the fact that the water must also raise the temperature of the pipe on its way. The
lower the flow rate, the longer the dead time in the system and the wider the critical
P-band. However, in the direct connection arrangement, there is no mixing, which
means that there is not the same temperature wave effect as in the other systems.
Instead, it is simply the flow rate through the air heater that alters, which occurs almost
immediately when the valve opening of the control valve is altered. The reason for this
is that the flow change front moves at the speed of pressure variations in the system,
which in turn move at the speed of sound in water (about 1000 m/s), which is
considerably faster than the flow velocity. See Larsson (1999) for a more detailed
description of temperature and pressure waves in dynamic systems.
The self-oscillation method provides a practical design aid, based on measurements,
when deciding the necessary width of the controller P-band (and of any I-time or
D-time). However, this method is somewhat more difficult to employ here, where the
work is based mainly on simulations. Instead, it is Ziegler-Nichols' step response
method (see Chapter 2) which has been used, and which is based to some extent on
estimates of dead time and time constant. It can therefore be appropriate here to present
a simple comparison of these two methods.
Figure 35 shows the results of calculation of the necessary width of the P-band, using
Ziegler-Nichols' step response method. The calculations are based on step response
measurements for the V341-4,L,DH configuration. The widest necessary P-band is
obtained at a 60 % valve opening, which means that it is at this valve opening that it is
the most difficult to control the system.
52
3 MEASUREMENTS
V341-4,L,DH
20
18
16
Pnec [C]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Valve opening [% ]
Figure 35. Estimation of the necessary P-band (Pnec), using the step response method,
for different valve opening of the control valve.
According to Figure 34, which is based on the same set of measurements as used for
Figure 35, the self-oscillation method identifies a critical P-band width of 7 C for a set
value of 20 C and an incoming air temperature of about 7 C. In this case, a
P-controller would need to be set to twice the critical P-band width (see Chapter 2), i.e.
14 C, for effective (rapid) control. Figure 34 shows that oscillation is approximately
centred on 45 % valve opening. According to the step response method (Figure 35),
this is approximately equivalent to a requisite P-band width of 15 C. This means that,
in this case, the step response method produces almost the same result as the
self-oscillation method. The following table presents a number of further comparisons
of this type.
Configuration
V341-10,H,DH
V341-10,L,DH
V341-4,H,DH
V341-4,L,DH
V341-4,H,SABO
V341-4,L,SABO
V355-4,H,DH
V355-4,L,DH
V355-4,H,SABO
V355-4,L,SABO
V341-4,H,D
V341-4,L,D
V355-4,H,D
V355-4,L,D
Table 4.
Self-oscillation method
Critical P-band [C]
Necessary P-band [C]
6
12
4
7
5
8
6
11
7
14
3
3
6
5
12
24
8
14
10
16
12
22
14
28
6
6
12
10
Step response method

15
27
8
15
13
19
13
22
17
29
4
4
14
10
Comparison between Ziegler-Nichols' self-oscillation method and the step

response method.
53
3 MEASUREMENTS
The comparisons in the table above show that both methods give similar values, which
indicates that the step response method can be used to provide a measure (in terms of
the necessary P-band width) of how difficult the system is to control. This methodology
was described in Chapter 2, and is used in this work to provide a qualitative assessment
of the functional reliability of a system.
Thermal stratification
An advantage of forced circulation of water (or any liquid) through a valve group is that
the maximum flow is constantly maintained through the heater (or cooler), regardless of
the operational mode. This reduces the risk of substantial thermal stratification and also
of freezing. The figure below provides a comparison of the direct connection
arrangement and the district heating arrangement in order to give an idea of how the
choice of valve group affects temperature distribution (or, more correctly, water flow) in
an air heater.
V341-4,H,D
35
V341-4,H,DH
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Valve opening [%]
20
40
60
80
0
100
Valve opening [%]
Figure 36. Comparison of thermal stratification between two systems: direct

connection (V341-4, H, D) and with a circulating water flow through the air
heater (V341-4, H, DH).
Ta-1 (mean) and Ta-2 (mean) in the diagram show the mean values of the measured
values from the symmetrically positioned temperature sensors in the ventilation duct,
upstream and downstream of the air heater respectively, while Ta-2,1 Ta-2,9 are
the measured values from each temperature sensor downstream of the air heater.
Differences between these values show the thermal stratification. It can be seen that the
valve group providing a circulating flow of water produces definitely less thermal
stratification than does the direct connection arrangement. This applies almost
throughout the entire working range of the control valve, although the difference in
thermal stratification is quite small when the valve is fully open. This is naturally due
to the fact that, with the valve fully open, the flow through the direct-connected air
heater has reached its maximum value, which is equivalent to the constant flow of the
district heating connection. With the control valve fully closed, the measured values
from the nine downstream sensors are more or less the same as the mean value of the
incoming air temperature, which means that there is insignificant thermal stratification
54
Temperature [C]
Temperature [C]
35
Ta-2,3
Ta-2,1
Ta-2,2
Ta-2,6
Ta-2,4
Ta-2,5
Ta-2,9
Ta-2,7
Ta-2,8
Ta-2 (mean)
Ta-1 (mean)
3 MEASUREMENTS
upstream of the air heater. Figure 37 shows the profile of the stratification for three
control valve positions: fully closed (H = 0), half open (H = 0.5) and fully open (H =
1). The column for each sensor in the diagram shows the difference between the sensor
value and the mean value of all the sensors. The positions of the nine sensors in the
diagram correspond to their respective positions in the ventilation duct, as seen looking
towards the air heater and against the direction of air flow.
V341-4,H,D
0
Ta-2,3
Ta-2,2
Ta-2,1
-5
0
Ta-2,5
Ta-2,4
-5
Ta-2,3
Ta-2,2
Ta-2,1
Ta-2,6
Ta-2,5
Ta-2,4
-5
H=1
H = 0.5
H=0
0
Ta-2,9
Ta-2,8
H=1
H = 0.5
H=0
5
Temperature [C]
5
Temperature [C]
-5
Ta-2,6
V341-4,H,DH
5
Temperature [C]
5.2
Temperature [C]
Temperature [C]
Temperature [C]
Ta-2,7
-5
0
Ta-2,9
Ta-2,8
Ta-2,7
-5
Figure 37. Thermal stratification profile for direct connection (left) and district heating
connection (right).
It can be seen from the diagram that the air temperature is highest at the top of the duct
and lowest at the bottom. This is due to the fact that the inlet connection on the air
heater is higher than the return connection. The maximum difference between the
highest value (Ta-2.1) and the lowest value (Ta-2.8) in the duct cross-section is about
9 C for the direct connection arrangement (with the control valve half open), while the
district heating connection gives a maximum difference of about 5 C (with the control
valve fully open).
55
3 MEASUREMENTS
56
4 SIMULATION PROGRAMS
SIMULATION PROGRAMS
Two different simulation programs have been used in this work. This is because they
are intended for use with two systems that are completely different in many respects.
The commercial Flowmaster program has been used for the air heater and valve group
system, while a custom program, based on Excel, has been used for the radiator system.
4.1
Calculation program in Excel
In Trschel (1999) a static calculation program for a radiator branch is being described.
This program, written in Excel, has been developed here to cover an entire system. It
has subsequently been modified to some extent in order to agree with the results from
the measurements in the radiator rig.
4.1.1 Structure
The program is based on known theoretical and empirical relationships, as described in
Appendix B. However, it is intended to analyse only steady-state conditions, and
cannot therefore deal with dynamic processes. The program considers a radiator system
consisting of 20 radiators uniformly distributed on four branches and two risers, as
shown in Figure 38 below. The reason for this arrangement is that it enables the
interaction between branches and risers to be investigated, without making the
simulations difficult because of the need to handle too large a system.
5
II
II
Heat
Ex.
Figure 38. The radiator system processed by the Excel program.

The risers are named A and B, as shown in the diagram, while the branches are
designated I and II. Radiators are then individually numbered, depending on their
position along the branch. Radiator AII3, in other words, is in the middle of the second
branch (higher up) on the first riser, as seen from the pump and in the direction of flow.
The use of the riser and branch valves is optional, and so they are not a mandatory part
of the program. Each radiator, however, is fitted with a control valve, which cannot be
omitted. The same applies for the main valve (upstream of the heat exchanger).
However, the program does allow the characteristics and sizes of all the valves to be
selected as required.
57
Each radiator valve can be connected to, or disconnected from, a thermostat which, in
turn, has either a selectable P-band or a P-band equivalent to the pre-setting of the
radiator valve, based on the proportion of the valve head that is available for control
after balancing.
Each radiator is assumed to supply its room with heat. Room temperatures are
calculated using a heat balance for each room, but it is assumed that there is no heat
transfer between the rooms. The rooms are similar, with selectable levels of ventilation
flow rate and supply air temperature. Additional internal heat supplies can be added for
each room. All radiators are of the same size and type, and are defined by the required
room temperature with selectable design temperature parameters (supply temperature,
return temperature and outdoor temperature).
All pipes are defined in terms of length, size and material. In addition, critical
Reynold's numbers can be set, determining the change between laminar and turbulent
flow, as can the size of a transition zone between the two flow types, as the change
cannot occur instantaneously.
The pump characteristic can be selected as required, which means that a pressure
control over the pump itself could be applied in the form of a suitable pump
characteristic. However, it is not possible to simulate pressure control in any other place
in the system.
Each simulation run is started by calculating an optimal balancing set-up, on the basis of
given conditions. The system can then be changed in various ways in order to analyse
the effect of the changes. The parameters that can be changed are:
- Outdoor temperature
- Supply air temperature
- Supply main temperature (arbitrarily, or in accordance with a controller
characteristic)
- Presence or absence of thermostats
- Width of P-band (constant or dependent on balancing)
- Pump speed
- Internal heat contribution
- Setting of (any) radiator valves
- Setting of (any) branch valves
- Setting of (any) riser valves
- Setting of the main valve
4.1.2 Verification
As the program handles only steady-state conditions, simple equations can be used
which, in principle, means that the program is based on two different parts: heat release
and hydraulic interaction. Heat release determines how the flow and temperature levels
interact for an arbitrary radiator in a room, while the hydraulic interaction between the
radiators determines the flows and temperature levels in the entire system.
Performance of the program was verified by measured values from the radiator test rig,
which consists only of two radiators. However, the simulation analyses performed in
58
this work have involved considerably more than just two radiators, although the
principle is the same. The fundamental relationships that describe the interaction
between two radiators are no different than those which describe the interaction between
five radiators, or between two branches or two risers: the calculation merely becomes a
little more complicated and has to be carried out in more steps. The purpose of the
verification in this chapter is therefore to show that the relationships used in calculating
the heat release and hydraulic interaction reflect reality sufficiently well.
Heat release
Chapter 2 showed the following simple and accepted relationships for calculating the
heat emitted by a radiator in steady-state conditions:
& = K t n
Q
rad
rad
lm
&
where Q
rad
K rad
t lm
n
(26)
= Heat release (thermal power output) from the radiator [W]

= Radiator coefficient [W/Cn]
= Logarithmic mean temperature difference [C]
= Radiator exponent [-]
If the above expression is to be applicable, Krad must be reasonably constant, regardless

of flow, inlet water temperature or room temperature. To check this, the relationship
between the thermal power output and the logarithmic mean temperature difference (to
the power of the radiator exponent) has been plotted for the two radiators in the test rig,
with results as shown below. If the radiator coefficient is constant, the relationship is
linear. The figure shows that this seems to be the case. The radiator exponent was set
to 1.33 for both radiators.
600
550
Radiator 1
500
y = 4.00x
Radiator 2
450
Qrad [W]
400
350
300
250
y = 2.54x
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140
tlm [C ]
Figure 39. Plotting Krad for each radiator in the test rig.
59
n = 1,33
The results are based on measured values, with heat release having been calculated on
the basis of temperature drop and flow through the radiator (see Chapter 2).
The logarithmic mean temperature difference was calculated from the following
relationship:
t lm =
where t w ,in
t w ,in t w ,out
t w ,in t room
ln
t w ,out t room
(27)
= Inlet temperature [C]
t w ,out = Return temperature [C]

t room
The straight lines for each radiator, as shown in Figure 39, have been matched to the
plotted points using the method of least squares. The mean departure of the thermal
power output for radiator 1, between the measured values and the plotted line, amounts
to 3.39 W, or 0.6 % of the maximum measured thermal power output. The
corresponding mean departure for radiator 2 is 2.11 W, or 0.7 % of the maximum
measured thermal power output.
The equation for each of the lines is shown in the figure, with the slope coefficient
equivalent to the best value of Krad, based on the measured values. For radiator 1, this
gives a value of 4.00, while for radiator 2 the value is 2.54.
The simple equation (26) therefore shows itself to agree relatively well with the results,
and so it has been used for the simulations. It must be pointed out that calculations were
also made in order to optimise the radiator exponent, so that the mean departure from
the measured values would be as small as possible. In this case, the exponents for the
two radiators became relatively high: 1.34 for radiator 1 and 1.42 for radiator 2.
However, the reduction in mean departure (as against the case when using an exponent
of 1.33) was small, amounting to less than 0.06 W for both radiators. As a result, the
accepted exponent of 1.33 was used thereafter.
Hydraulic interaction
Hydraulic interaction between components in a system occurs when a change of flow
through one component affects the pressure levels in the system in such a way as also to
change the flow in other parts of the system. This interaction occurs in all flow systems,
although its magnitude varies. In order to be able to calculate the magnitude of the
effect, it is necessary to know the pressure and flow conditions in the system. This, in
turn, requires the flow resistances in the system to be known, both in terms of
magnitude and of where they occur. Apart from the need to know the characteristics of
the various components, such as valve and pump characteristics, it is also important to
decide what type of flow is occurring in the system. In this respect, the simplest
assumption is that the flow is fully turbulent in all parts of the system, which means that
the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the flow. However, this assumption is
not particularly suitable, as it presupposes high flow rates and/or small pipe sizes.
60
Instead, empirical relationships for calculation of the coefficient of friction () have

been used (see Appendix B).
Laminar flow is assumed at Re < 4000 (Abel et al., 1997). In order to prevent a jump in
calculation of the coefficient of friction when Re = 4000 is passed, the value of the
coefficient of friction changes from laminar to turbulent via a transition band, the size of
which can be varied, although the calculations have assumed 4000 < Re < 4500.
The following two figures show examples of measured and simulated results for flow in
two different systems. The first system, having design temperature levels of 70/30 C,
represents a low-flow case with (in principle) no pipe pressure drop (large pipes and
very low flows), which results in almost non-existent interaction between the radiators.
However, in the second case, which is a high-flow case with design temperature levels
of 60/40 C, the pipe pressure drops have a clear effect on the interaction between the
radiators.
70/30 C
45
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 1 (S)
Rad 2 (M)
Rad 2 (S)
40
35
Flow [l/h]
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
Setting of radiator valve 1
Figure 40. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of radiator
flow in a low flow rate case.
61
60/40 C
45
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 1 (S)
Rad 2 (M)
Rad 2 (S)
40
35
Flow [l/h]
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
Figure 41. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of radiator
flow in a high flow rate case.
The interaction shown in the above figures expresses itself in the form of by how much
the flow through radiator 2 changes when the setting of radiator valve 1 is changed. In
the low-flow case, there is no effect on the flow through radiator 2, which is due to the
fact that the pressure drop across this circuit is not affected by the flow change through
radiator 1, because the change in the overall pressure drop in the distribution system is
essentially negligible. However, in the high-flow case, the flow through radiator 2
changes when the flow through radiator 1 is changed: in other words, the change in
pressure drop in the distribution system in this case is not negligible.
It can be seen that there is good agreement between measured results and simulated
results. The mean departure between simulation and measurement of the flow through
radiator 1 is 0.1 l/h for the low-flow case, and 0.8 l/h for the high-flow case. In the case
of the flow through radiator 2, the corresponding values are 0.2 l/h in both cases.
The total
The heat release, together with the hydraulic interaction, defines the total system. In
order to provide a picture of how the simulations match the measurements in this
respect, the following two figures show examples of how the thermal power output from
the two radiators in the test rig is affected by the setting of one radiator valve.
62
70/30 C
700
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 1 (S)
600
Rad 2 (M)
Rad 2 (S)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
Figure 42. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of the thermal
output power in a low flow rate case.
60/40 C
700
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 1 (S)
600
Rad 2 (M)
Rad 2 (S)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
Figure 43. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of the thermal
output power in a high flow rate case.
Figure 40 showed that the flow through radiator 2 was not affected by the flow change
through radiator 1 in the low-flow case. The same applies also for the thermal output
power, as shown in Figure 42 above. However, it must be pointed out that this is
possible only if the pressure drops in the distribution system are almost non-existent,
63
which is not common. In the above examples, the mean departures between the
simulated and measured values for radiator 1 are 9.7 W for the low-flow case, and
5.4 W for the high-flow case. The corresponding values for radiator 2 are 5.8 W and
5.2 W.
One result parameter in this work is that of the return temperature. In exactly the same
way as for the thermal output power (and the room temperature), this provides a
measure of how the system is operating. This section concerning verification is
therefore concluded by showing an example of comparison of the simulated and
measured values of the return temperature from the radiators. Again, it is the same two
systems as previously shown that are considered.
70/30 C
Return temperature [C]
60
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 1 (S)
55
Rad 2 (M)
Rad 2 (S)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
0
10
Figure 44. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of the
radiators' return temperature in a low flow rate case.
64
60/40 C
60
55
Rad 1 (M)
Rad 2 (M)
50
Rad 1 (S)
Rad 2 (S)
45
40
35
30
25
20
0
10
Figure 45. Comparison between measured (M) and simulated (S) values of the
radiators' return temperature in a high flow rate case.
The above figures show a clear departure between the simulated and measured values
for radiator 1 when the radiator valve is fully closed (at setting 0). This is because the
trapped water has not had time to cool to room temperature, which to some extent could
be due to thermal conduction along the pipes. The simulations, however, have assumed
that the stationary water has cooled to the room temperature on equilibrium. If no
allowance is made for these incorrect values, we obtain a mean departure between the
simulated values and the measured values for radiator 1 of 0.6 C for both the low-flow
and the high-flow case. For radiator 2, the mean departure is 0.6 C for the low-flow
case and 0.7 C for the high-flow case.
The calculation program consists of known theoretical and empirical relationships. The
verification of the results against the measured data shows relatively small departures
between the simulated and the measured results, which indicates that the program can
be used for the analyses performed in this work.
4.2
Flowmaster
A program that is to be used to analyse a system with valve groups and air heaters must
be able to handle relatively rapid thermal and hydraulic processes. A high level of
detail is required in order to be able to simulate the dynamic processes in such systems.
There are several programs that could be suitable: the final choice was Flowmaster, but
this must not be taken as meaning that there are no other programs that could do the
work just as well, or possibly even better. However, Flowmaster had been in use for
some time by others in the Department, which meant that it would be quicker to become
familiar with it, and it also met the above requirements.
65
4.2.1 Structure
As its name indicated, Flowmaster is primarily a program for simulation of flow
systems. Temperature and heat transfer are really of secondary interest, although the
program does contain a calculation model for simulation of heat transfer, which can
easily be activated. The level of detail in Flowmaster is high, and the characteristics of
components in the program can easily be changed, either in accordance with examples
included in the program or as specifically required. The program has a graphical
interface, with the system for investigation being built up by connecting appropriate
components, which are represented by typical figures. The components in the program
are not represented by physical items, but by black boxes. Their characteristics are
determined by curves, surfaces and equations. The advantage of this is that it makes it
relatively simple to establish the necessary relationships between the large quantities of
data that have been produced in this work. See the Flowmaster manual for more details
of the program.
4.2.2 Verification
As the characteristics of the components in Flowmaster can be determined from the
actual measured results, it has been possible to create a fairly accurate model that
reflects the actual physical systems on which measurements were made. Verification
therefore involves:
- determination of the characteristics of individual components, using the measured
data, and possibly comparing these characteristics with theoretical, empirical or
accepted relationships.
- checking that the overall system's measured characteristics and simulated
characteristics match, both statically and dynamically.
Components
It has been possible to make actual measurements of the hydraulic parameters and
conditions of most components, as there are instrumentation connection points at many
positions in the test rigs. An exception to this is the balancing valves, for which
commercial product data has been used. This chapter shows measured values for the
most important components: these values have been used in the simulations.
Figure 46 shows examples of measured characteristics for the control valves. Each
point along the curves represents the equilibrium values, calculated as the mean value of
18 sequential samplings, over a period of 1.5 minutes.
66
kv value [m/h]
10
9
V341-10
V355-4
V341-4
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 46. Measured valve characteristics (port A) of the control valves.

The fact that the valve characteristics do not reach the specified kvs values can be due to
the fact that, for practical reasons, the pressure measurement points are not positioned
right up against the ends of the valves in the test rig, but a small distance away. This
can mean that a slight element of pipe pressure drop is included in measurement of the
kv value of the valve, which means that the measured kvs values are slightly lower than
the actual values for the valves. Admittedly, if so, the calculated kvs value for the
V355-4 valve should differ the most from the specified value, as this valve is positioned
furthest from the pressure measurement points, but this does not appear to be the case.
Another possible factor for the differences is simply that of manufacturing tolerances.
From a thermal perspective, it is naturally the air heater that is of the most interest, and
it is also the only component of which the thermal characteristics have been determined
by measurements. Although there are theoretical relationships, such as the NTU
method, that can be used when calculating the performance of air heaters, problems
arise when attempting to determine the UA value of heaters. This value depends on the
size, shape and media flows in the heater. Figure 47 shows how the UA value in the air
heater used in this work changes with the water flow. The figure is based on measured
values from both the low-flow and high-flow configurations. The value has been
calculated for a counterflow-connected air heater, which is a modification of the real
conditions. In actual fact, the flows in the air heater are partly counterflow and partly
cross-flow. Allowance for this is usually made by multiplying the UA value by a
correction factor (F), which accounts for the UAF designation shown on the Y-axis.
67
900
800
UAF [W/C]
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Flow [m/h]
Figure 47. The UAF value of the air heater as a function of water flow.
The measured values in the above diagram form a curve, the slope of which becomes
steeper as the water flow through the air heater is reduced. Chapter 3, describing the
measured results, showed the effects of this. However, when using the Flowmaster
program, it is more suitable to indicate how the efficiency of the air heater changes with
the water flow, as shown in Figure 48 below.
1.0
0.9
Efficiency on the water side
0.8
Efficiency on the air side
Efficiency [-]
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Flow [m/h]
Figure 48. Efficiencies of the air heater as a function of water flow.

It should be pointed out that, in Flowmaster, the efficiency of the air heater is defined as
being the higher of the water or air side efficiencies. If the program is to simulate a
larger or smaller (or dirty) air heater, it is the UA value of the air heater that is changed
68
accordingly, which means that it is the curve in Figure 47 that needs to be modified.
New efficiencies can then be derived, starting from the new relationship between the
flow and the UA value, in accordance with the NTU method.
As far as the pump (Grundfos UPS 25-60 180) is concerned, its measured characteristics
for two different speeds are shown in Figure 49.
60
Pressure [kPa]
50
40
30
2
20
1
10
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Flow [m /h]
Figure 49. The circulation pump characteristics.

The main pump has not been included in these simulations: instead, a pressure rise
across the valve group has been assumed. This differential pressure has been
continuously measured as part of all the test measurements, and has then been used as
input data for verification of the simulations. The same applies for the electric boiler
output temperature (i.e. the supply temperature in the system) and the incoming air
temperature to the air heater.
The total system
The following diagrams show comparisons between measurements and simulations for
three different configurations (V341-10,H,DH, V341-4,L,SABO and V355-4,H,D) in
respect of outgoing air temperature (supply air temperature), return water temperature
and water flows.
69
V341-10,H,DH
Supply air temperature [C]
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
1200
2400
3600
4800
6000
7200
8400
9600
Time [s]
V341-4,L,SABO
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
9000
10200
Time [s]
V355-4,H,D
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
600
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
Time [s]
Figure 50. Comparisons between measured values and simulated values of supply air
temperature.
70
V341-10,H,DH
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
1200
2400
3600
4800
6000
7200
8400
9600
Time [s]
V341-4,L,SABO
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
9000
10200
Time [s]
V355-4,H,D
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Measured
Simulated
0
600
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
Time [s]
Figure 51. Comparisons between measured values and simulated values of return
temperature.
71
V341-10,H,DH
1.4
Secondary flow
1.2
Flow [m/h]
1.0
0.8
Primary flow
0.6
0.4
Measured
0.2
Simulated
0.0
1200
2400
3600
4800
6000
7200
8400
9600
Time [s]
V341-4,L,SABO
1.4
1.2
Measured
Flow [m/h]
1.0
Simulated
0.8
Secondary flow
0.6
0.4
Primary flow
0.2
0.0
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
9000
10200
Time [s]
V355-4,H,D
1.4
1.2
Flow [m/h]
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Measured
0.2
Simulated
0.0
600
1800
3000
4200
5400
6600
7800
Time [s]
Figure 52. Comparisons between measured values and simulated values of flow.
72
Table 5 shows the mean departures between measured values and simulated values for
the listed cases, as shown in Figures 50 - 52.
V341-10,H,DH
V341-4,L,SABO
V355-4,H,D
Table 5.
Supply air
temperature [C]
0.22
0.51
1.03
Return
temperature [C]
0.42
0.60
1.35
Flow [m/h]
Primary / Secondary
0.03 / 0.02
0.08 / 0.01
0.03
Mean departure between measured values and simulated values.
The mean departure between measured values and simulated values can be calculated
from the following equation:
sm =
where s m
N
xM,i
xS,i
=
=
=
=
(x
i =1
x S, i )
M ,i
(28)
Mean departure
The number of measured value and simulation data samples
Measured data for sample no. i
Simulation data for sample no. i
The table shows that the measured departure is relatively small for all configurations.
The best agreement is that of the V341-4,H,DH configuration, while the worst is that of
V355-4,H,D. The mean departure has been calculated for all time steps (every fifth
second).
It should be pointed out that the mean departure in respect of the return temperature for
V355-4,H,D is based on measured and simulated values for the time of 1700 seconds
and onward. The reason for this can be clearly seen on the left of Figure 51, where the
measured return temperature has not reached equilibrium but is slowly cooling as the
water is stationary, while the simulations are based on an equilibrium state, which
means that the conditions for comparison of measured and simulated values are not
equivalent until simulation and measurement have started from the same starting point,
which occurs at the time of 1700 seconds. Nevertheless, the mean departure of the
return temperature is considerably higher for V355-4,H,D than it is for the other
configurations. Most of this departure (70 %) occurs when the control valve changes
from 0 % open to 10 % open (up to time 2800 seconds in the diagrams). When the
water starts to flow through the air heater, its temperature rises considerably more
quickly, as indicated by the measurements, than as indicated by the simulations. Again,
the explanation lies in the fact that the water in the pipe (the supply pipe) has not cooled
sufficiently, with the result that the dead time in the simulations is considerably longer
than in the measurements.
It should also be pointed out that the flow meters produce considerable noise at water
flow rates close to zero. This has not been included in the diagrams in Figure 52.
In addition to the cases described above, several other configurations have also been
investigated in order to assess the accuracy of the simulations. However, these cases
73
will not be described here, but they do give similar results to those described above. In
general, it is the district heating connection that shows the closest agreement between
measurements and simulations, while the direct connection has the poorest agreement,
as shown in the table above. Nevertheless, the differences are relatively small, and so
the simulation model is regarded as being fully acceptable.
74
5 SIMULATION - PLANNING
SIMULATION - PLANNING
Before the simulations can be run, they must be planned. This chapter, which can be
seen as a general introduction to the next two chapters (which describe the results of the
respective simulations for the radiator system and for the air heater with valve groups),
describes how the simulations have been prepared and how they have been run.
5.1
Radiator system
5.1.1 Configuration
The starting point for the design of systems that are suitable for comparison with each
other is a single common system. This original system was designed for (approximate)
temperature levels of 66/42 C at a design outdoor temperature of -15 C. The desired
indoor temperature was 20 C. When the system was balanced, it resulted in a high
flow rate. After starting up, it was found that the room temperature was too high, due to
an additional input of heat from an internal source and/or insolation. For simplicity, it
was assumed that this additional heat input was constant at 170 W throughout the year,
having the effect of increasing the indoor temperature by about 2.5 C. This problem
could be tackled in two ways: either by reducing the supply temperature or by reducing
the water flow rate. Applying both of them result in two different types of systems, and
it is those that provide the basis for the comparisons in this chapter.
In the one case, the design supply temperature is reduced to 60 C, which results in a
return temperature of about 40 C. The flow rate is not changed, and so this alternative
is a high-flow system. The desired indoor temperature of 20 C is achieved.
In the second case, the flow rate is reduced, which mean that the system becomes a
low-flow system. At the same time, the supply temperature is increased: with the flow
rate being reduced to half of the original value, the design supply temperature must be
increased to 73.3 C. This results in a return temperature of 33.3 C, with the desired
room temperature of 20 C being achieved.
As both the systems are derived from one and the same original system, the physical
arrangement is identical. Radiators, valves and pipes is the same, thus making it
possible to perform a true comparison.
However, changes can be made to the systems in their simulated forms in order to study
differences such as those between a system with thermostats and a system without
thermostats. The number of different system configurations simulated is shown in the
following table.
75
Without
thermostat
With
thermostat
Without riser
and branch
valves
With riser
and branch
valves
Without riser
and branch
valves
With riser
and branch
valves
Normal pump
Pressurecontrolled pump
Normal pump
Normal pump
Normal pump
High flow
(60/40)
High
Low
pmin
pmin
X
X
Low flow
(73/33)
High
Low
pmin
pmin
X
X
Table 6. A number of different systems can be simulated. Each X in the diagram shows
a possible system configuration. Ringed values represent the reference
systems.
The table shows 32 Xs, symbolising different system configurations. pmin refers to the
lowest balanced differential pressure in the system, which occurs across the radiators
that are furthest away from the pump. The difference between a normal pump and a
pressure-controlled pump is that the former has a natural pump characteristic, as for a
pump without speed control, while the latter indicates that the speed of the pump is
controlled and varied. It must be added that, in these simulations, pressure control
could be applied only across the actual pump itself, although the pump characteristic in
those cases could be arbitrarily assumed.
The two systems described - high-flow and low-flow - constituted the reference systems
for the simulations. The reference systems are assumed to be fitted with riser and
branch valves, but not with thermostats. The pump is not controlled, and the lowest
balanced differential pressure is high. The reference systems are shown in Table 6 by
circled Xs.
5.1.2 Temperature, flow, pressure
Temperature levels
The high-flow balanced system has, as said above, a design supply temperature of 60 C
and a resulting return temperature of 40 C, while balancing the system for low flow
results in a supply temperature of 73.3 C and a return temperature of 33.3 C. The two
sets of design temperature levels are therefore indicated by 60/40 and 73/33
respectively, as shown (beneath the headings of the high-flow and low-flow columns) in
Table 6.
76
The size and UA value of each room could be selected arbitrarily in the simulation
program. In the same way, the ventilation air flow rate and the incoming supply air
temperature could also be arbitrarily selected as required. In the simulations, the
radiator system provides all the heat required in the room, apart from the 170 W that are
assumed to be supplied from internal heat sources. The distribution pipes are not
assumed to be providing any heat contribution, and nor is any preheating of the
ventilation air assumed. This means that, in the simulations, the supply air temperature
is assumed to be the same as the outdoor air temperature, thus corresponding to
mechanical ventilation without heating the supply air. The simulations assume a
ventilation air flow rate of 0.5 air changes per hour. In the design case, transmission
heat losses amounts to 877 W, while ventilation heat losses amounts to 293 W. The
additional internal heat input is, as said above, 170 W. This means that each radiator
has to provide 1000 W in the design case, which in turn requires a water flow rate of
43.6 l/h in the high-flow case, and 21.8 l/h in the low-flow case.
The necessary supply temperature control curve characteristic for the respective systems
could be produced from these data. The curve shows how the supply temperature is
controlled as a function of the outdoor temperature, as shown in Figure 53. The return
temperature for each case is also shown in the diagram. The supply temperature is
indicated by Supply, the return temperature with Return, the high-flow system with
High and the low-flow system with Low.
Water temperature [C]
80
70
Supply, Low
60
50
40
Supply, High
Return, Low
30
Return, High
20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Outdoor temperature [C]
Figure 53. Control characteristics for the high-flow and low-flow cases, with
allowance for internal heat input.
The control curve characteristics shown in Figure 53, which allow for the internal heat
contribution of the building (and/or insolation), thus provide the required indoor
temperature of 20 C up to an outdoor temperature of 15 C, at which temperature the
heating season is assumed to end.
Unless otherwise mentioned, the control curve characteristics as shown in Figure 53 are
used for the simulated systems, as is the assumption of a basic internal heat input of
170 W.
77
Pressure levels
Setting the pressure levels is slightly difficult. If the physical arrangement of the
high-flow and low-flow systems are to be exactly the same for a comparison, the lowest
balanced differential pressure in the low-flow system would be very high. This is
because the pump would not be suited to the low pressures and flow rates in the system.
It is therefore necessary to make an exception for this point, so that the pumps for the
two systems are assumed to be matched to their systems in such a way as to provide a
minimum balanced differential pressure of 10 kPa in system with high pmin, and 2 kPa
in system with low pmin.
When choosing the pipe sizes and pipe lengths, it is the objective that, as far as possible,
the pressure drop per metre of pipe should be about 100 Pa/m, which is a common guide
value for system designs, and should not exceed 250 Pa/m for the high-flow case. The
pipe dimensions and pipe lengths for the high-flow system are chosen to give pipe
pressure drops of 1 kPa between each radiator (i.e. the sum of the pressure drops in the
supply and return connections), 3 kPa between each branches and 5 kPa between each
risers. This means that the pipe sizes in the system varies between 10 mm and 22 mm.
The pipes in the low-flow case are the same as those in the high-flow case, which means
that the specific pressure drop per metre of pipe in the low-flow system varies between
about 30 Pa/m and 70 Pa/m. The maximum pressure drop between the radiators are
about 0.5 kPa.
The flow through the heat exchanger are assumed to be fully turbulent, with a pressure
drop of 10 kPa in the high-flow case and 2.5 kPa in the low-flow case.
Radiator valves
The maximum kv value of the radiator valves can be calculated knowing the necessary
flow and minimum differential pressure. The highest kv value is obtained in the case of
a high-flow system with a low balanced differential pressure across the radiator furthest
from the pump (radiator BII5), and amounts to 0.31 m/h. Some of the smallest radiator
valves on the market have a kvs value of about 0.7 m/h, which are therefore quite
sufficient for the purposes of the simulations. The radiator valve used in the simulations
therefore has the following characteristic, which is based on the characteristics of an
existing valve available on the market.
78
0.8
In this case, the valve opening

provides a relative measure of
the pre-setting value, such that a
valve opening of 0.1 corresponds
to a pre-setting value of 1, etc.
The maximum valve opening, 1,
corresponds to a pre-setting
value of 10, and means that the
valve is fully open.
0.7
kv value [m/h]
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Valve opening [-]
Figure 54. The radiator valve used in the simulations.

It can be seen that the characteristic is almost a square function. Other commercially
available radiator valves can have completely different characteristics and so, at the end
of the simulations, a complementary sensitivity analysis is performed for the case of a
valve with a quick-opening characteristic, which is completely different to the square
law characteristic.
Thermostat
Central control of a radiator system follows a characteristic curve, which varies the
system supply temperature in response to changes in the outdoor temperature. Most
modern systems also include local control at each radiator, in the form of a thermostatic
control valve. The simulations permits these radiator thermostatic valves to be included
or excluded, as required. The width of the P-bands of the thermostats could also be
varied: either fixed, regardless of the setting of the radiator valve, or also varied to
allow for the setting of the valve (i.e. how much of the valve head travel is available for
control), and referred to here as the adjusted P-band.
When using an adjusted P-band, the thermostat's P-band is modified by the pre-setting
of the valve. In the simulations, this is linked directly proportional to the valve setting,
so that unity valve opening corresponds to the maximum P-band width (i.e. the entire
travel of the valve head is available for control), while zero valve opening represents a
P-band width of 0 C (i.e. no valve travel is available for control). A setting of 0.5
represents half the maximum P-band width, as half of the valve travel/length is available
for control. The simulations uses a maximum P-band width of 2 C, which is then
modified to match the valve setting.
Branch and riser valves
The sizes of the branch and riser valves are chosen to accommodate the maximum kv
value assumed. This means that, for the branch valve in branch I, it must be able to
create a pressure drop equal to that between the branches, i.e. 3 kPa (see above,
79
Pressure levels). This gives a kv value of 1.26 m/h. The riser valve in riser A must
be able to create a pressure drop equal to that between the two risers, i.e. 5 kPa,
equivalent to a kv value of 1.95 m/h. The branch and riser valve used in the simulations
has been selected in order to be able to provide these kv values. Its characteristic is as
shown below, and is based on the characteristic of an existing valve available on the
market.
3.0
kv value [m/h]
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 55. Characteristic of the branch and riser valve used in the simulations.
It can be seen that this characteristic, too, is almost a square law function, as was the
case for the radiator valve.
The pump
Which of the two pump characteristics that is used depends on the particular balancing
mode that is being simulated and on the type of curve selected. Figure 56 shows the
falling characteristic used for both the high-flow case (continuous lines) and low-flow
case (dotted lines). The two case characteristics are then further separated into a
characteristic for a high balanced differential pressure, with the lower curve showing the
characteristic for a low balanced differential pressure.
80
80
Pressure rise [kPa]
70
High-flow system
60
50
40
30
Low-flow system
20
10
0
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Flow [l/h]
Figure 56. Pump characteristics used in the simulations.

It must be added that, when using a pressure-controlled pump in the simulations, a level,
horizontal characteristic is assumed, representing the case when the pump pressure rise
is maintained constant, regardless of the system flow rate. This characteristic is shown
in Figure 57 below.
80
Pressure rise [kPa]
70
60
High-flow system
50
40
30
Low-flow system
20
10
0
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Flow [l/h]
Figure 57. Pump characteristics as used in the simulations for pressure-controlled

pumps.
As described above, for the non speed-controlled pumps, the upper characteristic in
each set is that for the system with a high balanced differential pressure, while the lower
characteristic is that for the pump in the low balanced differential pressure system.
The main valve
The size of the main valve depends on the size of the pump. If the pump creates a
higher pressure than is required, the additional pressure has to be dropped across the
main valve. In the simulations, the pump is not assumed to be perfectly matched to the
system: the pump characteristic and the main valve characteristic are selected in such a
81
way as to require the main valve to be 75 % open, regardless of whether simulation

relates to a high-flow or low-flow system, or to systems with high or low balanced
differential pressures. The valve characteristic used in the simulations is taken from that
of an existing valve available on the market, and is shown in Figure 58.
6.0
kv value [m/h]
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 58. Valve characteristic of the main valve used in the simulations.
It must, however, be pointed out that, when simulating a pressure-controlled pump, it is
assumed that this is perfectly matched to the system, so that the main valve is fully
open.
5.1.3 Studied deviations
Table 6 showed a number of systems without deviations, which means that they are all
perfectly balanced (i.e. with all radiators having the same flow through them) and with
exact supply temperatures. In such cases, the room temperatures and return
temperatures are the same for all rooms/radiators. In the rest of this presentation, these
perfect systems will be referred to as basic cases. Each system could then be exposed
to a number of different deviations, in order to investigate its sensitivity. The following
is a description of the deviations that are applied in this work:
Incorrect valve setting (for one valve)
- Radiator valve
This deviation is a relatively common one of the user, or of some other person,
changing the balanced setting of a radiator valve in order to change the heat output
from the radiator concerned. This has the effect of changing the flow balance in
the system, which can adversely affect other users. This deviation is simulated by
fully opening or closing a radiator valve, in order to study the effect in terms of
heat release from other radiators in the system.
82
- Branch valve
It is not only the setting of radiator valves that can be changed, but also branch
valves. Simulation here involves opening or closing a branch valve by 0.25 of
the valve opening from correct setting, in order to investigate the effect on the
radiators connected to that particular branch, and also to investigate heat release
from the radiators connected to the other branches.
- Riser valve
The settings of the riser valves can also be altered. Simulation of the effects of
changes to their settings is investigated in the same way as for branch valves.
- Main valve
A change in the setting of the main valve need not necessarily mean that the flow
balance of the system would be affected. However, it would affect the magnitude
of the flow, and the result of this can be simulated by opening or closing the valve,
e.g. by 0.25 of its valve opening.
Imperfect balancing (for all radiator valves)
- Simplest possible balancing
In practice, perfect balancing can hardly ever be achieved. Systems are sometimes
balanced in as simple a manner as possible, i.e. with all valves at the same setting.
- Simplified balancing
One way of simplifying balancing is to assume a constant differential pressure
across all radiators connected to any given branch, and then to balance them
according to the assumed differential pressure. With this procedure, the kv values
of the radiator valves will all be the same if the flows through the radiators are
supposed to be the same. The branch, riser and main valve (if there is one) are then
set so that the total flow through the branches is correct. The result of this
simplified method of balancing is that the first radiators on each branch have
slightly too high a flow, while the last radiators have too low a flow.
- Random differences in balancing
As said above, it is not always so simple to perform a good balancing operation,
which means that balancing is sometimes less successful. This is arranged in the
simulations by allowing the valve settings to vary randomly by a maximum of
0.05 in valve opening, in relation to the perfect basic case. In other words, if the
valve goes from fully open to fully closed over only one turn, this random
deviation represents a maximum of one-twentieth of a turn away from the perfect
setting.
Disturbances
- Internal heat
The system can be disturbed by an increase or decrease in the supply of internal
heat from the room. This can be modelled separately for each room.
83
- Response
Response means that something in the system has been changed in order to deal
with the problems that have occurred. Such problems could be, for example, that
one or more users thinks that it is too cold or too hot in the room, and so the
resulting response in many properties is to increase or decrease either the pump
pressure or the supply water temperature.
- Pump pressure
Changing the pump pressure is probably not the first response likely to be
applied, although it can be justified if the flow in the system, or in certain parts
of it, is clearly too low. In order to investigate the effect of changing the pump
pressure, the speed of the pump in the simulated system can be arbitrarily
changed.
- Supply temperature
Problems often occur, and complaints are often received, in connection with too
low indoor temperatures. In such cases, the natural response is to raise the
control curve characteristic, i.e. to change the relationship between the supply
temperature and the outdoor temperature. The simulations mirror this by
allowing the supply temperature to be set in accordance with a theoretical
optimum control curve characteristic, or at some arbitrary level.
5.1.4 Planning of simulations
A couple of the ways in which the results of the simulations are presented include
duration diagrams and data calculated from the outdoor temperature duration over the
year. This provides a means of indicating the effect of outdoor temperature on room
temperature and return temperature in a natural manner. Duration diagrams also have
the advantage of providing a graphical means of displaying any differences in the
amount of thermal energy used over the year. To produce a duration diagram requires a
number of simulations at different outdoor temperatures, which therefore vary between
15 C and +28 C, in 1 C increments. Each diagram therefore requires 44 simulations.
The diagrams are based on conditions for Gothenburg, with the outdoor temperature
being provided in the form of a mean curve of temperatures for the period from 1983
1992. The mean outdoor temperature over the year is 8.0 C, while the mean outdoor
temperature during the heating season (defined in this case as being that period of the
year during which the outdoor temperature does not exceed 15 C) is 5.6 C.
Regardless of whether or not the duration diagrams are shown in each case, they have
provided the basis for calculation of a weighted mean value of return water temperature
over the year. It should be pointed out that such weighting tends to produce a value that
is apparently too low. In actual fact, a deviation that changes the weighted value of
return temperature by only a few tenths of a degree can cause differences of two or three
degrees in the design conditions.
It would also be possible to produce a weighted value of the room temperatures in the
simulated systems, but this would provide only a partial picture of how the consumption
of thermal energy over the year is affected by a departure from design operating
conditions. For such an analysis, it is therefore more suitable to consider this change
directly, based on the actual simulated heat release from each radiator in the systems.
84
It is not possible to show all the results in full detail: they must, of course, be sorted.
Nor is it practical to attempt to simulate all possible combinations of deviations in the
different systems, partly due to the sheer resulting volume of work, and partly because
the results would be lost among the sheer quantity. The simulations have therefore been
run in accordance with the following limited selection, (which also shows the section
numbers in the following text that provide more detailed information). Nevertheless,
the amount of results (in the form of diagrams) are rather extensive and the reason that
they are all shown is that they give a graphical insight, in respect of comparison, to each
set of simulations that would be lost in a table.
6.2
The basic cases (no deviations)
6.3
Incorrect valve setting
6.3.1 Fully closed radiator valve
Reference system
Reference system without branch or riser valves
Reference system with low balanced differential pressure
Reference system with thermostats (adjusted P-band)
Reference system with thermostats and pressure-controlled pump
6.3.2 Fully open radiator valve
Reference system
Reference system with thermostats and pressure-controlled pump
6.3.3 Deviations from the correct setting of branch valve
Reference system
6.3.4 Deviations from the correct setting of riser valve
Reference system
6.3.5 Deviations from the correct setting of main valve
Reference system
6.3.6 Summary
6.4
Incorrect balancing
6.4.1 Simplest possible balancing
Reference system with fully open branch, riser and main valves
6.4.2 Simplified balancing
Reference system
6.4.3 Randomised deviations in balancing (maximum 0.05 in valve opening)
Reference system
Reference system without branch and riser valves
85
6.4.4

Reference system with thermostats (adjusted P-band) and
pressure-controlled pump
Reference system, response applied (pump pressure increased)
Reference system, response applied (supply temperature increased)
Reference system with thermostats, response applied (supply temperature
increased)
Reference system after long time (maximum + 0.25 in valve opening)
Summary
6.5 Disturbances
6.5.1 Non-uniform distribution of internal heating
Reference system
Reference system with thermostats (constant P-band)
Reference system with thermostats (adjusted P-band) and
6.5.2 Summary
6.6 The distribution system
6.6.1 Single-pipe system
6.6.2 Two-pipe system
6.6.3 Three-pipe system
6.6.4 Summary
6.7 The district heating substation radiator heat exchanger
The above cases form a rough framework that enables the structure of the simulation to
be appreciated more clearly. In addition, further sub-cases may be simulated (parts of
systems or for a particular parameter) in order to clarify the results. Each section is
concluded with a sub-section that summarises and discusses the results of the particular
simulations.
It should be added that Chapter 6 is concluded with a simple comparison of three
different types of distribution systems (single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe) in respect
of their abilities to deal with deviations in the setting of valves. In addition, there is a
brief discussion, based on simple calculations, of how the return temperature on the
district heating side is affected by deviations in the radiator system. See the guide
above.
5.2
5.2.1 System configurations

The system configurations analysed in this work have been earlier described in
Chapter 3, Measurements, and so only a quite brief description of the various
arrangements will be given here. There are three parameters that define the
characteristic of the valve group:
86
- Arrangement
- Balancing
- The type of control valve
The interface with the rest of the system (which is not considered in the simulations)
consists of the available differential pressure across the valve group and the supply
temperature in each operating case.
Arrangements
The valve groups analysed here are normally used in systems supplied with hot water
from district heating. A relatively low return water temperature is desirable, and so the
primary flow is controlled in all these valve groups in order to achieve this. The three
connection arrangements, shown below in Figure 59, are direct connection, district
heating connection and the SABO connection.
Direct
connection
District heating
connection
SABO
connection
Figure 59. The three valve group arrangements considered in the simulations.
The flow through the air heater in the direct connection arrangement is regulated by a
two-way valve, with balancing being provided by a balancing valve in series with the
two-way valve.
The thought behind the district heating connection is that the water flow through the air
heater should be constant, with the primary flow being controlled by a two-way control
valve. The secondary flow is balanced by a valve in the circulation circuit, while the
primary flow is balanced by another valve in series with the control valve. Finally, a
check valve is fitted in the bypass connection between the supply and return sides in
order to prevent flow in the wrong direction, which might otherwise occur if the system
is incorrectly balanced or if the circulation pump is not working
The SABO connection works in the same way as the district heating connection, but
with one important difference: that the thermal output power is controlled by a
three-way control valve, controlling the mixing of the primary flow and the flow
through the bypass in order to provide the necessary inlet temperature to the air heater.
Balancing
Each valve group can be balanced for either high flow or low flow, corresponding to the
design temperature levels.
87
The control valve

The number of types of control valves (in terms of their control characteristics) used in
the simulations has been limited to three: logarithmic, linear and optimum. In this
context, an optimum control valve is a virtual control valve that makes control of the
air heater as simple as possible, i.e. so that the width of the necessary P-band is constant
and as narrow as possible, under all operating conditions.
The optimum characteristic depends on the system configuration, including selection of
the type of valve group, balancing and the size of the valve (i.e. the kvs value of the
valve). It also depends on how the available differential pressure varies during
operation, the distance to sensors, pipe lengths etc. Chapter 7 starts with a short
description of how the optimum characteristic is arrived at, while Appendix B describes
a somewhat simplified way of doing so.
Designations
The designations used for each system in the simulations are analogous with those used
in Chapter 3, Measurements. In the simulations, the control valves are referred to as
either Log, Lin or Opt, while the valve groups are referred to as D, DH or
SABO. High-flow balancing is referred to as High-flow(or just H), while
low-flow balancing is referred to as Low-flow (or just L). This means that, for
example, a valve group using the district heating connection arrangement, balanced for
a high flow rate and having a logarithmic characteristic valve with a kvs value of
4.0 m/h, would be identified as Log-4,H,DH. A direct connection arrangement, with a
low flow, and having a control valve with an optimum characteristic and a kvs value of
10 m/h, would therefore be designated as Opt-10,L,D.
The reference cases
In exactly the same way as for the radiator systems in Chapter 6, the simulations in
Chapter 7 start from a number of reference cases without deviations. These reference
cases are all fitted with a control valve having an optimum valve characteristic. With
three valve groups, each having two different types of balancing (high flow or low
flow), there are therefore six reference cases.
5.2.2 The necessary P-band width
When simulating valve groups controlling air heaters, there is little point in
investigating how the outgoing (supply) air temperature from the air heater is affected
by deviations. This is because the whole purpose of control of these systems is to
maintain a desired air temperature, even under less favourable conditions. It is therefore
more interesting to investigate how the design of a valve group affects the ability to do
so, and this is quantified in the simulations in the form of the systems' necessary P-band
widths, as described in Chapter 2. In order to be able to determine the width of the
necessary P-band, we need to know the static and dynamic characteristics of the system,
and it is in this respect that the simulations are involved.
The same method of determining the static and dynamic characteristics of the various
system configurations (with or without deviations) is used as was used in the
88
measurements, i.e. investigation of the response to step changes. These step changes
are applied in ten steps, from a fully closed to a fully open control valve.
When the system characteristics have been determined in this way, the width of the
necessary P-band for each step can be calculated. This provides information on the
performance of the system, so that the need for a wide necessary P-band indicates that
the system is difficult to control, while a narrow necessary P-band indicates simpler
control. The better designed the system, the narrower the necessary P-band, and thus
the less the risk of control problems occurring. The equation for determining the
necessary P-band width has been given in Chapter 2, but is repeated here as a reminder
to assist understanding of the description of the simulations.
Pnec =
Td
KS
Tk
(29)
where Pnec = Necessary P-band width [C]

Td = Dead time [seconds]
Tk = Time constant [seconds]
K S = System gain (at a particular valve opening) =
t
[C]
H
The necessary P-band width for each stage is determined as shown in the diagram
below, which shows how t, H, Td and Tk are obtained.
26.0
0.45
Valve opening
25.5
0.40
25.0
24.5
24.0
ta,out
0.35
23.5
23.0
Valve opening [-]
Outgoing air temperature [C]
Outgoing air temperature
0.30
22.5
22.0
-100
Td Tk
-50
50
100
150
200
250
0.25
300
Time [s]
Figure 60. An example of a step response.

The example shown in Figure 60 shows how, at time 0, the valve opening of the control
valve is changed from 0.3 to 0.4, which has the effect of raising the outgoing air
temperature from about 22.55 C to 25.30 C. Based on the point of intersection of the
tangent with the temperature line for 22.55 C, the dead time is estimated as 15 seconds,
89
while its point of intersection with the 25.30 C line gives a time constant of 40 seconds.
Entering these values in Equation 29 indicates that the width of the necessary P-band is
10.5 C for a valve opening of 0.4.
5.2.3 Return temperature
Knowledge of the dynamic response of a valve group is particularly important in order
to be able to analyse its function with an air heater. However, as far as the return
temperature is concerned, the conditions are different: the return temperature value
depends on the design of the system from a static perspective. The dynamic response
delays and complicates analysis in this respect. For this reason, it is only the static
characteristics of the valve group (and of the air heater) that are considered when
determining the system return temperature for various operational cases. The method of
working is split into two parts:
- Determination of the static characteristics of the system
- Selection of a control curve (i.e. the relationship between the water supply
temperature and the outdoor temperature).
The static characteristics of the system could be described by how the total efficiencies
of the valve group (with the air heater) on the air and water sides change as the valve
opening of the control valve changes. Expressions for the total efficiencies were given
in Chapter 2, and are repeated here.
a ,s =
w ,s =
where
1
1
1 1
+ 1
a R
1
1

1 + 1
w
t a ,out t a ,in

a ,s
= The total efficiency of the valve group on the air side [-]
w ,s
= The total efficiency of the valve group on the water side [-]
a
w
R
CR
CH
Ca
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(30)
(31)
The efficiency of the air heater on the air side [-]

The efficiency of the air heater on the water side [-]
CR/CH [-]
C w C a [-]
Thermal capacity water flow through the control valve [W/C]
Thermal capacity water flow through the air heater [W/C]
Thermal capacity air flow through the air heater [W/C]
Cw
= C H = Thermal capacity water flow through the air heater [W/C]
t w ,sup ply = Supply water temperature [C]
90
t w ,return
= Return water temperature on the primary side of the
t a ,out
valve group [C]

= Outgoing (supply) air temperature (after the air heater) [C]
t a ,in
= Incoming air temperature (before the air heater) [C]
Changing the valve opening of the control valve affects the flow through the valve,
which in turn affects . If, in addition, the valve opening affects the flow through the
air heater, then R, a and w will also be affected. This means that a,s and w,s will also
be affected by the valve opening of the control valve. Just how this occurs depends on
the design of the system, and can be determined from static analysis of the step change
response simulations described above in connection with determination of the necessary
P-band widths.
An assumed control curve characteristic can be applied, when the static characteristic of
the system has been determined from the step change response simulations and
Equations 30 and 31, in order to obtain the return temperatures as functions of various
outdoor temperatures. The method of working is illustrated graphically and
schematically in the diagram below.
91
a,s
tw,supply
a ,s =
t a ,out t a ,in
Necessary a,s as a function

of the outdoor temperature
(in order to to be able to
achieve the desired air temp.)
tout
tout
Control curve
a,s
H
Necessary H as a function of
the outdoor temperature (in
order to to be able to achieve
the desired air temp.)
a,s = f (H)
tout
H
Static attributes of
the valve group and
air heater
w,s
w,s
w,s = f (H)
Resulting w,s as a function

of the outdoor temperature
tout
H
tw,return
tw,return = f (tout)
w ,s =

tout
Figure 61. Simulation and calculation procedure in order to arrive at the return water
temperature, depending on the static characteristics of the system and the
assumed control curve characteristic.
It can be seen from the diagrams above that, if the static characteristics are known, the
return temperature can be calculated regardless of what control curve characteristic is
used. This means that the only simulations that need to be performed are those for the
step responses, as they provide the necessary information on both the static and dynamic
characteristics, from which the necessary P-band width, and return water temperature as
92
a function of the outdoor temperature, can be determined, regardless of the choice of

control valve characteristics.
However, it should be pointed out that, although the calculated necessary P-band widths
and return temperatures admittedly apply for the same type of system, this is so for
different temperature levels. It is only the static attributes in respect of flows and
pressure levels that are the same, and which are used when calculating the return
temperature. A higher supply temperature means that there will be a higher air
temperature when performing step change response analyses, which will therefore also
increase the width of the necessary P-band (see Section 7.5). However, this is not too
important, as long as the effect is consistent for all the systems considered, as it is not
the absolute values that are of interest, but the comparison between the performance of
different systems and different deviations.
5.2.4 Temperature, flow, pressure
Temperature levels for step change analyses
When performing the step change response analysis simulations, the incoming air
temperature is held constant at 0 C. With the control valve fully open, the outgoing air
temperature should be 30 C, and so the flow rate and supply temperatures are adjusted
in the simulations in order to produce this condition without any deviations. The size of
the air heater is constant, regardless of the type of system.
In the high-flow system, the design supply temperature is approximately 60 C, and the
return temperature approximately 40 C. The low-flow system uses the same air heater
as the high-flow system, which means that, in order to achieve the same result in terms
of temperature increase of the air flow, the supply temperature has to be about 80 C,
giving a resulting return temperature of just below 40 C. These temperatures are
somewhat imprecise, which is due to the fact that it is the flow rate and the capacity of
the air heater that determine the necessary supply temperatures. This means that it is
necessary to some extent to adjust the supply temperature, depending on the particular
operating case, in order to achieve the required design temperature rise on the air side of
the air heater.
Temperature levels when determining the return temperature
In the simulations, it is the outdoor temperature that is varied when calculating how the
return temperature is affected by the system configuration and deviations. The design
outdoor temperature is -20 C, and the required air temperature from the air heater is
assumed to be +20 C, held constant regardless of the outdoor temperature. The same
system configurations are used as for the step change response simulations, although the
air temperatures are different. This is because determination of the air temperature is
based on the static characteristics of each system having first been determined by means
of the step change response simulations. When determining the return temperatures, it
is assumed that the air treatment system is not fitted with any means of heat recovery,
which means that the air stream must be heated through 40 K at the design case. This
requires a higher supply temperature than is used in the step change response
simulations. The figure below shows the control curve characteristics that have been
assumed for the high-flow and low-flow systems.
93
Supply temperature [C]
90
80
Low-flow system
70
60
50
High-flow system
40
30
20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 62. Assumed control characteristics for the two systems.

The characteristics are such that, in principle, the control valve must be fully open at the
design outdoor temperature of -20 C, and fully closed for an outdoor temperature of
+20 C, provided that the systems are not afflicted with any deviations. As the air
heater in the simulations is based on the measured properties of a real heater, it has not
been desirable to simulate a smaller heater, as this would therefore not be based on true
measured data. In addition, no properties of any form of heat recovery equipment have
been measured, and so no heat recovery equipment is used in the simulations, which
leaves the air heater to provide the entire temperature rise of the incoming air. This
explains the need for a relatively high water supply temperature, particularly in the
low-flow systems.
It should perhaps be added that the water supply temperature is defined as being the
incoming water temperature on the primary side, while the inlet temperature consists of
the water temperature at the inlet of the air heater itself, on the secondary side of the
valve group, after control by the valve group. The return temperature is the same on
both the primary and secondary sides.
Flow levels
The magnitude of the flow depends on the type of balancing used. In the high-flow
system, the necessary primary flow (and secondary flow) is about 1.2 m/h with the
control valve fully open. The necessary flow in the low-flow system is only half as
much, i.e. about 0.6 m/h with a fully open control valve. It is these flow rates that
determine the necessary supply temperatures for the design cases.
Pressure levels
The available differential pressure across each valve group is assumed to be 30 kPa in
the high-flow system under design conditions. For the low-flow system, the differential
pressure is assumed to be only one quarter of this, i.e. 7.5 kPa, which is due to the fact
94
that the rate of flow is only half, with fully turbulent flow being assumed. This is not
necessarily correct, but is probably very close. However, the main thing is that the
driving force for the flow should be in such a relationship to the flow that there is a
certain amount of capacity available for operation of the valves in the valve group. Too
high a differential pressure at a low flow rate would mean that the balancing valve on
the primary side of the valve group would have to be almost completely closed, which
would make it particularly sensitive to deviations.
The differential pressure is assumed to be constant, regardless of the valve opening of
the control valve. However, this is not particularly likely to occur in reality, and so
some simulations have been run with varying differential pressures. However, the
difference is really related only to the authority of the control valve, as described further
on in Chapter 7.
5.2.5 Selection of components
Most of the components represented in the simulations have a characteristic that has
been measured from physical components in the test rig. The only exception to this
consists of the control valves, which have a more theoretical characteristic when used in
the simulations, and the balancing valves, the characteristics of which are based on
manufacturers' product data.
Control valves
The control valves used in the simulations have either logarithmic, linear or optimum
characteristics. The optimum characteristic varies from case to case, but the other two
are constant, as shown in the diagram below. The logarithmic characteristic is
somewhat modified, in order to enable the valve to close fully.
Relative kv value (kv/kvs ) [-]
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Linear
0.4
0.3
Logarithmic
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 63. Linear and logarithmic valve characteristics.

The reason for using theoretical valve characteristics is to make the presentation a little
more general.
95
In the reference cases, the control valve is assumed to have a kvs value of 4.0 m/h,
which is therefore its maximum capacity. However, some simulations have been run
using other sizes of control valves.
Balancing valves
The characteristic of the balancing valves used in the simulations is the same as for the
balancing valves used when making the measurements, and is shown in the following
diagram.
16
14
kv value [m/h]
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 64. Balancing valves' characteristic.

The pump
The measured pump characteristic was shown in Chapter 4 (Figure 49). The same
pump curves have been used in the simulations, with pump characteristic No. 1 being
used for the low-flow systems, and characteristic No. 2 being used for the high-flow
systems.
The air heater
The air heater properties have been measured, and are described in Chapters 3 and 4.
The Flowmaster program requires the air heater characteristics to be specified in the
form of the air heater efficiency (i.e. the maximum efficiencies on the air and water
sides). This characteristic is shown in the following diagram.
96
Efficiency [-]
1.0
0.9
Air side
0.8
Water side
0.7
Maximum
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Flow [m/h]
Figure 65. The air heater efficiencies.

5.2.6 Studied deviations
The deviations simulated in Chapter 7 are described below.
Actual valve characteristics
No control valve has an optimum characteristic suited exactly to the system which it
is to control. It can therefore be interesting to display the difference in the effect on
the system between a real characteristic and an optimum characteristic. In this
case, the real characteristic consists either of an out-and-out linear characteristic, or
of a somewhat modified theoretical logarithmic characteristic, as shown in Figure 63.
Deviations in settings of the balancing valves
Balancing affects both the static and the dynamic characteristics of the system. The
systems considered in these simulations have two balancing valves (only one in the
direct connection arrangement) that can be incorrectly set. The effect of so doing is
therefore investigated for each of the two valves:
- Balancing valve on the primary side (I1)
Adjustment of I1 is intended to provide the correct maximum flow through the air
heater when the control valve is fully open. However, in the case of the district
heating connection, the most important aspect is to ensure that no flow passes
through the bypass connection when the control valve is fully open. In order to
investigate the effect in this respect of incorrect setting of the valve, simulations is
being run with the valve opening of the valve departing by 0.1 from its correct
setting. For the particular type of valve concerned, this is equivalent to a
mis-setting of less than half a turn of the valve knob.
- Balancing valve on the secondary side (I2)
The setting of I2 is intended to ensure that the flow in the recirculation connection
(in those valve groups that have such a connection) is correct. In exactly the same
97
way as for I1, the effect of incorrectly setting I2 by a 0.1 deviation in its valve
opening from the correct setting has been investigated.
Variation in available differential pressure
The differential pressure across a valve group changes as the operating conditions
change, which itself constitutes a deviation from the reference case, which assume
constant differential pressure. In the simulations, it is assumed that the magnitude of
this variation depends on the primary flow rate. At maximum flow, the differential
pressure is the same as in the reference case, but the pressure rises as the flow rate is
reduced, in accordance with the following equation:
& 2
p T = p 0 k V
w ,1
where p T
p 0
k
&
V
w ,1
=
=
=
=
(32)
Available differential pressure [kPa]

Pump pressure [kPa]
Coefficient of flow resistance (assumed to be constant) [kPa/(m/h)2]
Primary flow [m/h]
The pump pressure is assumed to be twice as high as the available differential

pressure in the reference case.
Variation in water supply temperature
The system supply temperature affects the results, both in terms of the necessary
P-band width and of the return temperature. For this reason, the simulations have
also investigated the effect of constant supply temperature as against a controlled
supply temperature, which has been done by performing a number of step change
response simulations at different outdoor temperatures and supply temperatures.
The effect of a dirty air heater
As the air heater is heating outdoor air, its capacity will eventually be reduced by the
accumulation of dirt on it. This has been simulated by assuming a 10 % reduction in
its UA value, thus changing its efficiency.
5.2.7 Planning the simulations
The results of the radiator simulations are presented in some extend in the form of
duration diagrams and the same approach is desirable when it comes to simulation of air
heaters with valve groups. Although the advantage of the duration diagram, used in the
simulation of radiator system, is that it consists of weighted measured values for the
10-year period from 1983 to 1992, it also involves a certain drawback as the lowest
outdoor temperature in that diagram is only -15 C. However, the air heater is designed
for an outdoor temperature of -20 C. In order to be able to calculate return
temperatures for this design outdoor temperature, a duration diagram for 1985, which
was a cold year with a lowest outdoor temperature of -21 C, has been used in these
simulations. Over the whole year, the mean value of the outdoor temperature was
6.1 C: ignoring the effect of outdoor temperatures above +20 C reduces this mean
value to 5.7 C.
The results of the simulations are presented in accordance with the following pattern:
98
7.2
7.2.1 Reference case
7.2.2 Different valve size
7.2.3 Varying available differential pressure
7.2.4 Summary
7.3
7.3.1 Linear and logarithmic valve characteristics
7.3.3 Summary
7.4
7.4.1 Primary side balancing valve
7.4.2 Secondary side balancing valve
7.4.3 Summary
7.5
7.6
The effect of a dirty air heater
The above headings form a rough framework of the structure of the simulations.
Additional simulations are also described in some of the sections in order to illustrate
the performance of subsystems or the effects of changes of a particular parameter.
99
100
6 SIMULATION AND RESULTS RADIATOR SYSTEM
SIMULATION AND RESULTS RADIATOR SYSTEM
6.1
Performing the work
The planning of the simulations is described in the previous chapter. The simulation
results described in this chapter have been used to compare the performances of various
system configurations with each other. There are really two types of comparisons that
are of interest: those between systems of the same type, with and without deviations,
and comparisons of dissimilar systems, but with similar deviations. Each section in this
chapter is followed by a summary of the particular cases concerned.
The architecture of the simulated system has been shown in diagrams in earlier chapters,
but is shown here again in order to facilitate the presentation in this chapter.
5
II
II
Radiator valve
I
Branch valve
Pump
Heat
Ex.
Riser valve
Main valve
Figure 66. The architecture of the simulated radiator system. A and B indicate the two
risers, while I and II indicate the positions of the branches on the risers.
Numerals 1-5 indicate the positions of the radiators on the branches.
6.2
The basic cases
Regardless of how the system is made up; the pressure levels that are used, whether
thermostatic radiator valves are fitted or what the pump characteristic is, the
temperature levels will remain the same if there are no incorrect settings and no
deviations and the system is not affected by any disturbances. These systems constitute
the basic cases in the simulations. In Chapter 5 the control curve characteristics was
shown for the respective reference systems and also how the return temperatures were
affected. Figure 67 below shows the same thing, but in the form of a duration diagram.
As before, the supply temperature is indicated by Supply. the return temperature by
Return, the high-flow system by High and the low-flow system by Low. In
addition, the outdoor temperature is indicated by Out and the mean value of indoor
temperature (in all 20 rooms) by Room (mean).
101
80
70
60
Supply, Low
Temperature [C]
50
40
Supply, High
30
Return, Low
Return, High
Room (mean)
20
10
Out
0
-10
-20
0
1460
2920
4380
5840
7300
8760
Time [h]
Figure 67. Duration diagram for the reference systems (no deviations).
It is with these ideal curves that many of the comparisons in this chapter have been
made. The weighted mean value of the return temperature throughout the year (or,
strictly, during the period while heat was required) amounted to 28.6 C for the
high-flow system and 26.3 C for the low-flow system.
The reference systems were, of course, designed for the design rating case, when the
water temperatures are at their highest. As the water temperatures fall, in response to
rising outdoor temperatures, the physical properties of the water change, with the result
that flows and thermal properties of the system are also changed. In this respect, it is
the branches furthest out in the systems that are most affected, as they are furthest from
the pump and the heat source, and so suffer the greatest risk of effects to the flow. The
overall result of this is that, in the basic cases, the indoor temperature will not be exactly
20 C as the outdoor temperature rises. Figure 61 shows how heat release from each
branch of the systems changes with the outdoor temperature, due to changes in the
density, specific thermal capacity and kinematic viscosity of water as a function of
temperature. The change is related to the heat releases of the systems if the properties
of the water had been assumed to be constant, and to the values applicable in the design
case.
102
High-flow system
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
AI
0.0
AII BI
-0.2
BII
-0.4
Low-flow system
1.0
Change in heat release [% ]
1.0
-0.6
-0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
AI
0.0
BI
-0.2
AII
-0.4
-0.6
BII
-0.8
-1.0
-1.0
-15
-10
-5
10
-15
15
-10
-5
10
Figure 68. The effects on the respective branches of changes in the flow and thermal
properties of the water in the systems, as a function of outdoor temperature
(which in turn affects the water temperatures).
It can be seen that the low-flow system is the more affected by changes in the physical
properties of the water, with this effect being particularly noticeable for the furthermost
branches.
6.3
Incorrect valve settings
One way of investigating the importance of the valve settings for system function and
performance is to see what happens if a valve in the system is not correctly set. It could,
for example, have been tampered with by users, have been incorrectly set from the start
or have failed.
6.3.1 Fully closed radiator valve
In the simulations, one valve in the systems assumes not to be correctly set. This is
valve AI1, which is closest to the pump. It is ringed in Figure 69.
Figure 69. System schematic, showing radiator valve AI1.
103
15
What usually happens is that the radiator valves close, or are closed, somewhat more
than their adjusted setting, as this is a facility which is often permitted to the user. In
addition it can, of course, occur automatically if the radiator has a thermostatic valve.
Closure of a radiator valve has the effect of moving the operating point on the pump
curve upwards (see Chapter 2), which reduces the total flow in the system and increases
the pump pressure. This increases the differential pressure across all the risers, and
therefore also across all the branches, and so finally across all the radiators. This
increased differential pressure increases the flow through the other radiators, i.e.
through all except that of which the valve has closed. The higher flow rate through the
radiators increases their rate of heat release and also increases the water return
temperature. The magnitude of the effect on the room temperature and on the return
temperature depends on the design of the system. The following text therefore
discusses the effects of a completely closed radiator valve on different system
arrangements.
The reference system
The following duration diagrams show how the room temperature and return
temperature in the reference systems are affected by a completely closed radiator valve
(AI1). The diagrams do not show the supply temperatures, as these are the same for the
basic cases.
45
40
35
Return, High
Return, Low
Temperature [C]
30
25
Room (mean), High

Room (mean), Low
20
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
730 1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300 8030 8760
Time [h]
Figure 70. The effect of a completely closed radiator valve (AI1) on the reference
systems.
In comparison with the basic case, the mean annual value of return temperature
increases by 0.2 C in both systems. Energy consumption during the year falls by 4.4 %
in the high-flow system, and by 4.1 % in the low-flow system. If there was no
interaction between the radiators in the systems, the reduction ought to have been
104
simply 5 %, to reflect the fact that one radiator out of 20 was fully closed. This means,
therefore, that the heat release from the remaining 19 radiators increases by about 0.7 %
in the high-flow system, and by about 0.9 % in the low-flow system. Figure 71 shows
the effect on the distribution between the branches. The diagram shows the change in
heat release from each branch. It must be pointed out that the change in heat release
from branch AI is based on the four radiators connected to the branch, with unaltered
valve settings. This means that the heat release from the radiator with the closed valve
has not been included when calculating the change in total heat release from the branch.
This applies also in all following presentations of the effect of a closed radiator valve.
High-flow system
4
3
2
AI
AII
BII BI
0
-15
-10
-5
Low-flow system
5
4
3
2
AI
AII
BII
BI
0
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 71. Changes in the heat release from the respective radiator branches in both
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. Note that the change in
heat release from branch AI does not include the loss of heat output from
radiator AI1, to which the closed valve is fitted.
It can be seen that the overall heat release increases, particularly from the other radiators
connected to the branch to which the closed valve is connected. The next greatest
increase in heat release is obtained from the other branch on the same riser, while the
branches connected to riser B are least affected.
Reference system with radiator valve BII5 closed
It can be interesting to see what the effect is of the position of the closed valve in the
system. It turns out that, if the valve at the far end of the system (BII5) is fully closed,
the effect is marginally greater than that of closing valve AI1. Figure 72 shows the
change in heat release from each branch.
105
15
High-flow system
4
3
2
BII
BI
AII AI
0
-15
-10
-5
Low-flow system
5
4
3
BII
BI
AII AI
0
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve BII5.
It must be pointed out that the position of the branch in the system does not have any
effect: in other words, it does not matter which of the radiator valves at the far ends of
the branches are closed in this respect. The effect on the branch concerned, and on the
other branches, remains the same. This is due to the fact that the system uses branch
and riser valves, which ensure that the differential pressure is the same across all the
branches after the respective branch valve. To some extent, it is namely the magnitude
of the differential pressure across the valves that determines their effect on the system.
This will be explain further on.
The purpose of branch and riser valves is primarily to facilitate balancing, although they
can also have an adverse effect in determining the response of the system to incorrect
settings. The effect on return temperature and energy consumption is only slightly less
if the system does not have branch and riser valves, although the spread between
branches is very much less. This is shown in the following diagram.
106
15

High-flow system
4
AI
AII
BI
BII
Low-flow system
5
1
0
4
AII
3
AI
BI
BII
1
0
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. The system has no branch
or riser valves.
It can be seen from the diagram that there is approximately the same increase in heat
release from all the branches. However, the differences between the branches is greater
in the cases where the systems have branch and riser valves (see Figure 71). This is due
to the fact that, generally, the differential pressure across the radiator valves is less in
the systems having these valves.
Chapter 2 showed that a low balanced differential pressure increased the interaction
between the radiators, and the same applies for the interaction between the branches in
the system. However, the simulations do not show any greater differences between a
low balanced differential pressure and a high balanced differential pressure. Relative to
the basic case, the increase in weighted return temperature is 0.2 C in the high-flow
system and 0.3 C in the low-flow system. The increase in energy output from the other
radiators is somewhat greater than in the reference case: 0.7 % in the high-flow system
and 1.1 % in the low-flow system.
Analysis of the heat release from the branches shows the differences between low
balanced and high balanced differential pressures somewhat more clearly. Figure 74
shows that the interaction between the branches is greater in the low balanced
differential pressure case (cf. Figure 71).
107
15
High-flow system
4
3
AI
2
1
AII
BII BI
0
-15
-10
-5
Low-flow system
5
4
AI
3
2
AII
1
BII BI
0
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. The balanced differential
pressure is low.
Reference system with a pressure-controlled pump
The pump characteristic is a further parameter that affects the sensitivity of the system
to incorrect settings. The simulations used a pump without pressure control. If a
pressure-controlled pump (as defined in the simulations) is used, there will be no change
in the pressure rise across the pump if the flow in the system is changed. This is
otherwise one of the causes (i.e. with a non pressure-controlled pump) that is
responsible for the differential pressure across the radiators changing in response to an
incorrect setting of any of the valves in the system.
The results of the simulation show that, in both systems, the return temperature rises by
0.1 C, which is, in turn, 0.1 C lower than would have been the case if a pump without
pressure control had been used. The increase in the amount of thermal energy supplied
by the other radiators in the system over the year amounts to 0.5 % for both systems.
The effect on heat release from the respective branches is shown in the diagram below.
108
15
High-flow system
4
3
2
AI
1
AII
BI BII
0
-15
-10
-5
Low-flow system
5
4
3
2
AI
1
AII
BI BII
0
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. The systems pumps are
pressure-controlled.
The difference between the high-flow and low-flow systems in this respect is quite
small. A comparison with Figure 71 shows that the interaction between the branches is
less if the pump is pressure-controlled.
Reference systems with other pipe pressure drops
Chapter 2 described, in principle, how the pipe pressure drop affects the interaction
between the radiators in a system. In order to exemplify this, simulations have been run
of the different systems with swapped-over pipe pressure drops: i.e. the high-flow
system was simulated using the pressure drops previously employed for the low-flow
system, and the low-flow system was simulated with the pressure drops as for the
high-flow system. The results showed that, in the high-flow system, the return
temperature was the same as if the system had its normal pipe pressure drops, while in
the low-flow system, on the other hand, the return temperature did drop slightly,
although by less than 0.1 C. This means that the amount of energy released by the
high-flow system remained unaltered, while that released by the low-flow system
decreased by 0.2 percentage points. Figure 76 shows how the heat released by the
respective branches changed, relative to the basic case.
109
15
High-flow system
4
3
2
AI
Low-flow system
5
AII
4
3
AI
2
AII
1
BII BI
BII BI
0
0
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. Pipe pressure drops have
been exchanged.
Comparison with Figure 71 shows that a lower pipe pressure drop reduces the
interaction between the radiators on the branch affected (AI). This applies, too, for the
other branch (AII) on the same riser, although there is only a very slight difference
between Figure 71 and Figure 76 in this respect. As far as the change in heat release
from the radiators connected to riser B is concerned, the figures show that the
interaction is less with the higher pipe pressure drop. This is due to the fact that a high
pipe pressure drop also gives rise to a higher differential pressure across certain parts
which, in turn, reduces the effect of a flow change in the system (see Chapter 2). The
effect on system sensitivity of the relationship between the pipe pressure drop and the
differential pressure is described in more detail further on in the summary (Section
6.3.6).
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves
The effect of a closed valve can be reduced through the use of thermostatic valves on
the radiators. This is indicated by the fact that the return temperature increases by only
0.1 C in this case, whether for the high-flow or the low-flow system. The amount of
energy released by the other radiators during the year increases by only 0.4 % in the
high-flow system and by only 0.3 % in the low-flow system, both as referred to the
basic case. There is also less interaction between the radiators connected to the branch
concerned, and also between the branches, as shown by Figure 77.
110
15
High-flow system
4
3
AI
BII
BI
Low-flow system
5
AII
1
0
4
3
BII
AII
AI
BI
1
0
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, in response to closure of valve AI1. The system is fitted with
thermostatic radiator valves.
The reason for the effect being least in the low-flow system in this case is that the
P-band of the thermostats on this system is narrower, which is in turn due to the fact that
the valves are more closed than in the high-flow system. In other words, less of the
valve head is available for control. Another contributing reason is that the radiators in
the low-flow system are more sensitive to flow changes as described by Equation (9) in
Chapter 2.
6.3.2 Fully open radiator valve
The previous section described the effects of a fully closed radiator valve, which is quite
a normal case. However, although it is not desirable for users to be able to open the
valves more than the setting to which they have been adjusted during balancing, this can
happen. Apart from the fact that some handy persons will be able to manipulate the
valves (i.e. the radiator flow balancing valves), there is nothing to say that the valve has
been correctly set from the start.
If a radiator valve is opened, the overall system characteristic will be changed in such a
way as to move the operating point downwards on the pump curve (see Chapter 2).
This will have the effect of reducing the pump pressure and increasing the total flow,
thus also increasing the pipe pressure drop in the system. The differential pressure
across all the risers falls, reducing the differential pressure across all the branches and,
finally, across all the radiators. In order to make this a little clearer following Diagram
is shown.
111
15
Pump characteristic
Old system characteristic

New system characteristic
Old differential
pressure over
radiator valve
Old pipe
pressure drop
New differential pressure

over radiator valve
Pipe characteristic
New pipe pressure drop
Flow
Figure 78. Change in the differential pressure across valves when the system
characteristic is changed due to the effect of opening one or more of the
valves.
The lower differential pressure results in the flow through the radiators falling, with the
exception of that radiator of which the valve has been opened. This reduced flow
through the radiators reduces the amount of heat released by them, and also reduces the
return temperature. However, the increased flow through the radiator with the opened
valve results in a significant increase in the amount of heat released by it and in the
return temperature, with the magnitude of these effects on the room temperature and the
system return temperature depending on the room and system design. The following
analysis therefore considers the effects of a fully open radiator valve on various types of
systems.
Reference systems with radiator valve AI1 fully open
The duration diagram below shows how the room temperatures and return temperatures
in the reference systems are affected by a fully open radiator valve (AI1).
112

45
40
35
Return, High
Temperature [C]
30
Return, Low
25
Room (mean), High
20
Room (mean), Low
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
730 1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300 8030 8760
Time [h]
Figure 79. The effect of a fully open radiator valve (AI1) in the reference systems.
The diagram shows that the return temperature in the low-flow system is quite
noticeably affected by the fully open radiator valve. The mean annual value of the
return temperature in the high-flow system is 28.9 C, while in the low-flow system it is
28.2 C. This means that, compared with the basic case, the respective increases are
0.3 C and 1.9 C. The fully open radiator valve increases the total flow in the
high-flow system by 3 %, and by no less than 10 % in the low-flow system.
Nevertheless, in both cases, the amount of thermal energy released over the year
declines: by 2.2 % in the high-flow system and by 6.1 % in the low-flow system.
The differences between the two systems are due primarily to two factors. Most of the
effect is due to the fact that the radiators in the low-flow system are considerably more
sensitive to changes in the flow, which means that there are significant changes in the
amount of heat released and in the return temperature when the flow changes in this
system. In addition, there is the fact that the differential pressure across the open valve
does not fall as much in the low-flow system as it does in the high-flow system, which
in turn means that the flow through the valve and radiator increases more in the
low-flow system. This is due to some extent to the low pipe pressure drop in the
low-flow system. It can be seen from Figure 78 that a low pipe pressure drop results in
less reduction of the differential pressure across an opened valve, which means that the
flow through the valve increases more.
The simulations showed that the effect of an open valve in either a high-flow or a
low-flow system is such that it steals such a substantial amount of the flow through
the branch that the heat release from the branch concerned is the lowest of that from all
the branches in the system. This can be seen in Figure 73, which shows the change in
the heat release from each branch in the systems. Note that this change is based on the
113
heat release from all radiators on the branches, i.e. including the radiator of which the
valve is fully open.
High-flow system
BI BII
-2
AII
-4
Low-flow system
0
AI
-6
-8
-10
-2
BI
BII
-4
-6
-8
AII
AI
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
system types, when AI1 is fully opened.
It can be seen from the diagram that it is the heat release from branch AI, carrying the
fully open radiator valve AI1, that is most affected.. The next most affected branch is
AII, which is connected to the same riser as AI. Riser B is least affected, with more or
less insignificant differences between the branches on this riser. It can also be seen
from the diagram that the differences between all four braches are considerably less in
the high-flow system than in the low-flow system.
Reference systems with radiator valve BII5 fully open
In exactly the same way as for the case for the closed radiator valve, it can be interesting
to study the effect of where the fully open valve is in the system. If, instead of valve
AI1, it is valve BII5 that is fully opened, the weighted mean annual value of return
temperature becomes 28.8 C in the high-flow system and 27.3 C in the low-flow
system, being increases of 0.2 C and 1.0 C respectively in comparison with the basic
case. Energy emissions during the year falls by 0.7 % and 2.3 % respectively. The
difference between this case, and the effects of opening valve AI1, are quite
considerable, and particularly in the low-flow system. In other words, the system is less
sensitive to a fully open valve if the differential pressure across the valve is low. The
interaction between the branches in this case is shown in Figure 81, which should be
compared with Figure 80 above.
114
High-flow system
AI
AII
-4
Low-flow system
0
-2
BII
BI
-6
-8
-10
-2
-4
BII
-6
AI
-8
AII
BI
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, when BII5 is fully opened.
Reference systems without branch or riser valves
The branch and riser valves tend to reduce the effect of incorrect settings of this type, as
is shown by the following duration diagram, which represents the case where the
simulated systems are not fitted with branch or riser valves (cf. Figure 79).
45
40
35
Return, High
30
Temperature [C]
Return, Low
25
Room (mean), High
20
Room (mean), Low
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
730 1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300 8030 8760
Time [h]
Figure 82. The effect of a fully open radiator valve (AI1) in the reference systems,
without branch or riser valves.
115
15
The return temperature during the year amounted to 29.2 C in the high-flow system and
29.0 C in the low-flow system, these values being 0.3 C and 0.8 C respectively
higher than the return temperatures if the systems had been fitted with branch and riser
valves. Energy emissions decreased by 2.9 % in the high-flow system and by 7 .0 % in
the low-flow system, in comparison with the basic case, and so being 0.7 and 0.9
percentage points respectively lower than the case for systems having branch and riser
valves.
It can therefore be seen that the use of branch and riser valves reduces the rise in return
temperature, and particularly in the low-flow system. There is also less effect on energy
release if branch and riser valves are used. However, heat release from the branch
concerned is stabilised for the system without such valves, although the effect on the
other branches increases, as shown in Figure 83 below.
High-flow system
AI
-2
BI
BII
-4
Low-flow system
0
AII
-6
-8
-10
-2
AI
-4
-6
BI
BII
-8
AII
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
system types, when AI1 is fully opened. The systems have no branch or riser
valves.
The reason for there being very little effect on heat release from the branch having the
radiator with the fully opened valve is due to the fact that the differential pressure across
the opened valve is high, and so there is a high flow through it, which compensates for
the reduction in flow through the other radiators connected to the branch. At the same
time, this also means that the return temperature from the branch increases. Further, the
increased total flow results in an increase in the pipe pressure drop, which therefore acts
to reduce the differential pressure across the other branches in the system, and thus
explains the increased interaction with the other branches, in comparison with the case
where branch and riser valves were used.
Reference systems with low balanced differential pressure
A high differential pressure across the opened valve seems to result in substantial
changes in flow. The following duration diagram is therefore shown for comparison,
showing how the room temperature and return temperature are affected by fully opening
116
radiator valve AI1 in a system having a low balanced differential pressure (2 kPa across
the furthermost radiator).
45
40
35
Return, High
Temperature [C]
30
Return, Low
25
Room (mean), High
20
Room (mean), Low
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
730 1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300 8030 8760
Time [h]
Figure 84. The effect of a fully open radiator valve (AI1) in the reference systems, with
low balanced differential pressure.
The mean annual value of the return temperature is 28.8 C in the high-flow case and
27.1 C in the low-flow case, equivalent to increases of 0.2 C and 0.8 C respectively in
comparison with the basic case. It is quite clear that, particularly in the low-flow
system, the return temperature is affected less in this case than it would be in a system
with a high differential pressure (cf. Figure 79). In addition, there is also less reduction
in energy emission in comparison with the basic case: 1.6 % in the high-flow system
and 4.7 % in the low-flow system. Figure 85 shows the reduction in heat release from
each branch of the system.
117
High-flow system
BI BII
AII
-2
AI
-4
Low-flow system
0
-6
-8
-10
BI
BII
-2
-4
AII
-6
-8
AI
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
system types, when AI1 is fully opened. The systems are balanced with low
differential pressures.
Reference systems with pressure-controlled pumps
The use of a pressure-controlled pump increases the return temperature in the high-flow
system by 0.4 C, and in the low-flow system by 2.1 C, when AI1 is opened, which
temperatures are 0.1 C and 0.2 C respectively higher than if the systems did not have
pressure-controlled pumps. Compared with the basic case, the reductions in energy
emission are 2.0 % in the high-flow system and 4.7 % in the low-flow system, which
are smaller changes than in the case when the systems do not have pressure-controlled
pumps. This indicates that the interaction within the system is reduced through the use
of a pressure-controlled pump, as can be seen by the interaction between the branches
illustrated in Figure 86.
118
15
High-flow system
BI BII
-2
AII
-4
Low-flow system
0
AI
-6
-8
-10
BI
-2
BII
-4
-6
AII
-8
AI
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 86. Reduction in the heat release from the respective radiator branches in both
system types, when AI1 is fully opened. System pumps are pressurecontrolled.
It could be seen from Figure 75 that, if a radiator valve is closed, the interaction
between the radiators and the branches is reduced if the system has a
pressure-controlled pump, resulting in a lesser increase in the return temperature. If,
instead, the valve is fully opened, there is the same effect in terms of reducing the
interaction between the radiators and the branches, but the return temperature of the
system increases. This is due to the fact that the differential pressure across the opened
valve does not decreases as much if the pump pressure rise is maintained constant.
Reference systems with exchanged pipe pressure drops
What is the effect of the pipe pressure drop on system sensitivity in the case of a fully
open valve? To investigate this, simulations were run of reference systems having
exchanged pipe pressure drops, in exactly the same way as for the case with a closed
valve. In other words, the high-flow system was simulated as having the pipe pressure
drops of the low-flow system, while the low-flow system was simulated with the pipe
pressure drops of the high-flow system. The results show that the return temperature
increases only slightly in the high-flow system (by less than 0.1 C), in comparison with
the case where it has its normal pipe pressure drop. The reverse applies for the
low-flow system, with the return temperature being as high as in the case with its
normal low pipe pressure drop. Even so, the difference amounts to only 0.3 C.
The emission of thermal energy from the high-flow system is reduced by 1.8 %, while
that from the low-flow system is reduced by 7.9 %, both as related to the basic case.
These values are respectively 0.4 percentage points less, and 1.8 percentage points
more, than in the cases with normal pressure drops. The changes in heat release from
the respective system branches are shown in Figure 87.
119
15
High-flow system
Low-flow system
0
BI BII
-2
AI
AII
-4
-6
-8
BI
-2
BII
-4
-6
AII
-8
AI
-10
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Figure 87. Reduction in the heat release from the respective radiator branches in both
system types, when AI1 is fully opened. The pressure drops in the two
systems have been exchanged.
The diagram shows that a lower pipe pressure drop clearly reduces the interaction in the
system, while a higher pipe pressure drop increases the interaction.
The condition here, for analysis of the effect of a fully open radiator valve, is that the
valve is just fully open, regardless of other conditions. As the heat release from all the
other radiators drops as a result of the open valve, any thermostats fitted to them have
no effect on their performance: they cannot open the valves by more than the setting to
which the valves have been balanced.
6.3.3 Deviations from the correct setting of branch valve
The branch valves facilitate balancing the system radiator valves, as the radiator valves
connected to each branch can be individually adjusted. The branches can then be
balanced with each other by means of the branch valves. This means that, provided that
they are correctly balanced with respect to each other, the radiator valves do not need to
be re-adjusted if the flow to their branch should be changed during operation: instead,
the branch valve can be used to increase or decrease the flow in the branch as necessary.
However, changing the setting of any of the branch valves naturally has an effect on the
rest of the system. This section is devoted to showing the effects of the branch valves
on the system if this setting should be changed or be incorrect. The cases considered
are those for incorrect settings of 0.25 of the valve opening of the valve from the basic
case condition. These are indicated as reduced setting (- 0.25) and increased setting
(+ 0.25). The particular valve concerned, and the effects of which have been considered
in the simulations, is valve AI, the position of which is shown in the following diagram.
120
AII
BII
BI
AI
Figure 88. The position of branch valve AI.

Reference systems with reduced settings of the branch valve
Closing a branch valve reduces the flow through the branch and through the system
which, together with a possible resulting increase in the pump pressure (depending on
whether and/or how the pump is controlled), results in an increase in the differential
pressure across the other branches. The flow through the radiators on the branch
concerned is reduced, while that through the other radiators on the system is increased.
If the valve opening of branch valve AI is reduced by 0.25 relative to the correct setting,
the weighted annual mean value of the system return temperature falls by 0.1 C in the
high-flow system, and by 0.2 C in the low-flow system, both as relative to the basic
case. The diagrams below show how the thermal output power changes in the branches.
Over the year, the total output of thermal energy falls by 0.8 % in the high-flow system,
and by 1.3 % in the low flow system.
High-flow system
5
AII
BI
BII
-5
Low-flow system
10
10
AI
-10
5
AII
BI
BII
-5
AI
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 89. Change in thermal output powers from the branches in response to partial
closure of branch valve AI.
If, instead, it is branch valve BII of which the valve opening is reduced by 0.25, the
return temperature remains virtually unchanged as related to the basic case, and this
applies for both the high-flow and the low-flow systems. The change in the amount of
121
15
thermal energy released over the year also remains essentially negligible for both
systems (less than 0.1 %). This is also indicated by the fact that the interaction between
the branches is almost non-existent, as shown in the diagrams below.
High-flow system
BI
AII
Low-flow system
10
10
AI
BII
-5
-10
BI
AII
AI
BII
-5
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
closure of branch valve BII.
Reference systems with increased setting of the branch valve
If, instead of being closed, the valve opening of branch valve AI is increased by 0.25,
the return temperature in the system increases. However, this increase is only marginal,
amounting to less than 0.1 C for both the high-flow and the low-flow systems. The
corresponding increase in energy emission is also small, being less than 0.1 % for the
high-flow system and just over 0.1 % for the low-flow system. The interaction with the
other branches is also more or less insignificant, as shown by the following diagrams.
High-flow system
5
AI
BI BII
Low-flow system
10
10
AII
-5
-10
5
AI
BI BII
AII
-5
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 91. Change in thermal output powers from the branches in response to
increased setting of branch valve AI.
122
15
This may seem somewhat strange; that opening a branch valve actually has less effect
on the system than if a radiator valve is opened (cf., for example, Figure 80). The
reason for this is that the balanced kv value of the branch valve is so high that it has
hardly any effect on the system characteristic. Radiator valves, on the other hand, have
a relatively low kv value after balancing, which means that they present a higher flow
resistance to the system. The greater the effect that a valve has on the total flow
resistance of the system (i.e. on the system characteristic), the greater will be the change
in the total flow if the setting of the valve is altered, and so the greater the effect on the
system.
Even if an excessively large branch valve had been chosen, full opening of it would still
not significantly affect the system. This has been checked by a simulation in which the
kvs values of the branch valves have been set at 10 m/h. Under these conditions, a fully
opened AI branch valve would result in an increase of 0.1 C in the return temperatures
in both systems, as compared with the basic case.
Reference systems with reduced settings of the branch valve and low differential
pressure
If the balanced differential pressure in the system is low, the effect of closing branch
valve AI becomes somewhat greater, with the return temperature of the high-flow
system increasing by 0.1 C, and that of the low-flow system increasing by 0.2 C, both
as compared with the basic case. Thermal energy emissions fall by 1.2 % and 2.2 %
respectively. The interaction between the valves is shown in the diagrams below.
High-flow system
5
AII
BI
Low-flow system
10
10
BII
-5
AII
BI
BII
-5
AI
AI
-10
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
increased setting of branch valve AI. The systems have been balanced with
low differential pressures.
This shows once again how the differential pressure affects the sensitivity of the system
to changes in valve settings (cf. Figure 89). The lower the differential pressure, the
greater the effect of a reduced valve opening on the system.
123
15
Reference systems with increased settings of the branch valve and low differential
pressure
If, instead of closing, the valve opening of branch valve AI increases, in a system
having a low balanced differential pressure, the effect on the system is greater than it
would be if the system had a high balanced differential pressure. However, this has no
significant effect on the return temperatures, as they are hardly changed, and nor on the
emission of thermal energy. However, the interaction between the branches increases,
as shown in the following diagrams.
High-flow system
5
AI
0
BI BII
Low-flow system
10
10
AII
-5
-10
5
AI
0
BI BII
AII
-5
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
increased setting of branch valve AI. The systems have been balanced with
low differential pressures.
It can be seen from the two diagrams that the heat release from the branch concerned
(AI) changes more in a system with a low balanced differential pressure than it does in a
system with a high balanced differential pressure (cf. Figure 91). The same also applies
for the other branches in the system, which means that this case is not analogous with
the corresponding comparison for the effect of radiator valves, where it was found that
the interaction between the branches if the radiator valve if opened is less for a system
with a low balanced differential pressure.
6.3.4 Deviations from the correct setting of riser valve
In the same way as the setting of a branch valve can depart from the correct value, riser
valves can also be set incorrectly. The terms reduced setting for a 0.25 reduction in
valve opening, and increased setting for an increase of 0.25 in valve opening, are also
used here.
The simulations have been based on a change in the setting of riser valve A, the position
of which is shown in the following diagram.
124
15
Figure 94. The position of riser valve A.

Reference systems with reduced settings of the riser valve
Partly closing a riser valve reduces the flow in the riser and in the system which,
together with a possible rise in the pump pressure, results in an increase in the
differential pressure across the other risers. The effect is to reduce the flow through the
radiators connected to the riser of which the valve has been partly closed, and to
increase the flow through the other radiators on the system.
Reducing the valve opening of riser valve by 0.25, as compared with the perfect basic
case, reduces the annual weighted value of system return temperature by 0.3 C in the
high-flow case, and by 0.5 C in the low-flow case, as compared with the basic case.
The two diagrams below show the changes in the thermal emissions from the branches
in the respective systems. In total, thermal emission over the year is reduced by 1.8 %
in the high flow system and by 2.5 % in the low flow system.
High-flow system
5
BII
BI
AI
-5
Low-flow system
10
10
AII
-10
5
BII
BI
-5
AI
AII
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
closure of riser valve A.
Figure 95 show that there is a significant reduction in heat release from the radiators
connected to riser A, and a slight increase in heat release from those connected to riser
B.
125
15
If, instead, it is riser valve B that is closed, the return temperatures in both cases are
reduced by only 0.1 C, with the amount of thermal energy output during the year
falling by 0.4 % in the high-flow system and by 0.5 % in the low-flow system.
Reference systems with increased settings of the riser valve
Increasing the opening of riser valve A by 0.25 from the correct setting increases the
return temperatures in both systems by only 0.1 C. Thermal energy emission increases
by 0.3 % in the high-flow system and by 0.5 % in the low-flow system. The changes in
thermal output power from the respective branches in the systems are shown in the
diagrams below.
High-flow system
5
AI
AII
BI
BII
Low-flow system
10
10
-5
-10
5
AI
AII
BI
BII
-5
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
opening of riser valve A.
Slightly opening the riser valve has considerably less effect on the system than a
corresponding slight closing. On the other hand, the difference in effects on the highand low-low systems is more or less insignificant.
Reference systems with reduced settings of the riser valve and low differential
pressure
If the systems are balanced to have low differential pressures, the effect of closing riser
valve A is greater than it would be if it was in systems set to have a high balanced
differential pressure. The return temperature in the high-flow system is reduced by
0.3 C, while that in the low-flow system is reduced by 0.5 C, both as compared with
the basic case. The emission of thermal energy is also reduced: by 2.2 % in the
high-flow case and by 3.8 % in the low-flow case. The difference between the outputs
from the respective branches is shown in the diagrams below.
126
15

High-flow system
5
BII
BI
-5
Low-flow system
10
10
AI
AII
-10
BII
BI
-5
AI
AII
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
closure of riser valve A. The systems are balanced for low differential
pressures.
Reference systems with low balanced differential pressures and increased settings
of the riser valves
Increasing the valve opening of riser valve A has the same effect on the return
temperature in a system having a low balanced differential pressure as it does in a
system having a high balanced differential pressure: in both cases, the increase in the
return temperature is 0.1 C. Thermal emission increases by 0.3 % in the high
flow-case, and by 0.4 % in the low-flow case, both as compared with the basic case.
The difference between the branches is shown in the following diagrams.
High-flow system
5
AII
AI
0
BII
Low-flow system
10
10
BI
-5
-10
5
AII
AI
0
BI
BII
-5
-10
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
opening of riser valve A. The systems are balanced for low differential
pressures.
127
15
This case, and the previous one above, show that the effect is greater with a low
differential pressure, and that there is also some difference between the two systems. It
can be seen that the low-flow system is definitely the more sensitive to a change in the
setting of a riser valve.
6.3.5 Deviations from the correct setting of main valve
The main valve is used to set the total flow in the system as a whole. Any change in its
setting will produce a corresponding increase or decrease in the flow through the entire
system: the difference between the branches will be minimal. The following cases
therefore show diagrams of the change in thermal output from any branch only when
there are differences between the branches.
Reference systems with reduced settings of the main valve
Reducing the valve opening of the main valve by 0.25 has the effect of reducing the
weighted annual mean value of system return temperature by 0.4 C in the high-flow
case, and by 0.5 C in the low-flow case, both as compared with the basic case. Over
the year, thermal energy emission from the high-flow system is reduced by 1.5 %, and
from the low-flow system by 1.9 %.
Reference systems with increased settings of the main valve
If, instead, the valve opening of the main valve is increased by 0.25, relative to the
correct setting, the return temperature in both systems increases by only 0.1 C.
Thermal energy emission from the high-flow system increases by 0.4 %, and that from
the low-flow system by 0.5 %. In other words, increasing the valve opening of the main
valve has considerably less effect on the system than does closing it.
Reference systems with reduced setting of the main valve and low balanced
differential pressure
In the case of systems with a low balanced differential pressure, the return temperature
from the high-flow system increases by 0.5 C, while that from the low-flow system
increases by 0.7 C. Thermal energy emissions increase by 1.7 % and 2.8 %
respectively.
Reference systems with increased setting of the main valve and low balanced
differential pressure
Increasing the valve opening of the main valve has the same effect on the return
temperature in a system having a low balanced differential pressure as it does in a
system having a high balanced differential pressure. In both cases, the increase in the
return temperature is 0.1 C. The thermal emission increases by 0.4 % in the high-flow
case, and by 0.5 % in the low-flow case, both as compared with the basic alternative.
128
Reference systems with reduced setting of the main valve and without branch or
riser valves
If the systems have no branch or riser valves at all, closing the main valve has a greater
effect. The mean annual return temperature of the high-flow system is reduced by
0.9 C, while that of the low-flow system is reduced by 1.0 C. Thermal energy
emissions are reduced by 3.1 % and 4.1 % respectively.
Reference systems with increased setting of the main valve and without branch or
riser valves
For systems with neither branch nor riser valves, increasing the setting of the main
valve increases the return temperature in both systems by 0.2 C. The increase in
thermal energy output is 0.7 % in the high-flow system, and 0.9 % in the low-flow
system, both as compared with the basic case. The lack of branch or riser valves in the
systems, in other words, means that any change in the setting of the main valve has a
greater effect. This is due to the fact that, in this case, the main valve has a greater
effect on the total system flow resistance.
Reference systems with increased setting of the main valve and thermostatic
radiator valves
If the system is fitted with thermostatic radiator valves, increasing the valve opening of
the main valve will be compensated by closing of the thermostatic valves. This means
that, in both the high-flow and low-flow systems, the return temperature increases by
less than 0.1 C, while the emission of thermal energy increases by only 0.2 %.
However, there is some difference between the branches, as shown in the diagrams
below.
High-flow system
0.8
0.6
0.4
BII
AII
BI
0.2
Low-flow system
1.0
1.0
AI
0.0
0.8
0.6
BII
0.4
AII
0.2
BI
AI
0.0
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
opening of the main valve. The systems are fitted with thermostatic radiator
valves.
129
15
Branches AI and BI are least affected, and are also less affected in the low-flow system
than in the high-flow system. This is due to the fact that the P-band of the thermostats
is narrower in the low-flow system than in the high-flow system, due to the more closed
radiator valves in the former system. Branches AII and BII are affected more in the
low-flow system than they are in the high-flow system, although this is due to the fact
that the basic cases, with which the systems are compared, give a room temperature that
is somewhat lower than 20 C for these two branches. This is due in turn to the fact that
the properties of the water in the system change with temperature. See also Section 6.2
concerning the basic cases.
6.3.6 Summary
The following table is a summary of the simulations carried out to investigate how the
return temperature and the heat emission are affected by changes in the valve settings
away from the correct settings for various system configurations.
System
Deviation
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
- no branch or riser valves
- low balanced diff. pressure
- pressure-controlled pump
- different pipe pressure drops
- with thermostats
Reference system
Reference system
- pressure-controlled pump
- different pipe pressure drops
- with thermostats
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
Reference system
- with thermostatic valves
AI1 closed
BII5 closed
AI1 closed
AI1 closed
AI1 closed
AI1 closed
AI1 closed
AI1 open
BII5 open
AI1 open
AI1 open
AI1 open
AI1 open
AI1 open
AI closed setting
BII closed setting
AI open setting
AI closed setting
AI open setting
A closed setting
B closed setting
A open setting
A closed setting
A open setting
M closed setting
M open setting
M closed setting
M open setting
M closed setting
M open setting
M open setting
Table 7.
High-flow system
tw,return [C] Qsystem [%]
0
0
+ 0.2
- 4.4 (+ 0.7)
+ 0.2
- 4.4 (+ 0.7)
+ 0.2
- 4.5 (+ 0.6)
+ 0.2
- 4.4 (+ 0.7)
+ 0.1
- 4.5 (+ 0.5)
+ 0.2
- 4.4 (+ 0.7)
+ 0.1
- 4.7 (+ 0.4)
+ 0.3
- 2.2
+ 0.2
- 0.7
+ 0.5
- 2.9
+ 0.2
- 1.6
+ 0.4
- 2.0
+ 0.3
- 1.8
+ 0.3
- 2.2
- 0.1
- 0.8
0
- 0.1
0
+ 0.1
+ 0.1
+ 1.2
0
0
- 0.3
- 1.8
- 0.1
- 0.4
+ 0.1
+ 0.3
- 0.3
- 2.2
+ 0.1
+ 0.3
- 0.4
- 1.5
+ 0.1
+ 0.4
- 0.9
- 3.1
+ 0.2
+ 0.7
- 0.5
- 1.7
+ 0.1
+ 0.4
+ 0.1
+ 0.2
Low-flow system
0
0
+ 0.2
- 4.1 (+ 0.9)
+ 0.3
- 4.1 (+ 1.0)
+ 0.2
- 4.3 (+ 0.8)
+ 0.3
- 3.9 (+ 1.1)
+ 0.1
- 4.5 (+ 0.5)
+ 0.2
- 4.4 (+ 0.7)
+ 0.1
- 4.7 (+ 0.3)
+ 1.9
- 6.1
+ 1.0
- 2.3
+ 2.6
- 7.0
+ 0.8
- 4.7
+ 2.1
- 4.7
+ 1.6
- 7.9
+ 1.9
- 6.1
- 0.2
- 1.3
0
- 0.1
0
+ 0.1
+ 0.2
+ 2.2
0
0
- 0.5
- 2.5
- 0.1
- 0.5
+ 0.1
+ 0.5
- 0.5
- 3.8
+ 0.1
+ 0.4
- 0.5
- 1.9
+ 0.1
+ 0.5
- 1.0
- 4.1
+ 0.2
+ 0.9
- 0.7
- 2.8
+ 0.1
+ 0.5
+ 0.1
+ 0.2
Results from simulations of valve settings departing from the correct

settings.
130
The table shows the results for each simulated case, in the form of the change in the
weighted mean value of return temperature (tw,return) and of the change in the amount
of thermal energy supplied over the year (Qsystem). The values not in, or outside,
brackets are based on all radiators, while those values in brackets are based on all
radiators except the one affected by the particular change in the valve setting. However,
these second figures have been calculated only for the cases involving closed radiator
valves. The abbreviation M refers to the main valve.
In general, the table shows that it is not until a radiator valve is opened that significant
differences with the basic case, and between the high-flow and low-flow systems, occur.
It also shows that a reduction in the valve opening of a branch, riser or main valve
results in considerably more marked effects than does a corresponding increase in the
valve opening of the valve. However, the difference between the high-flow and the
low-flow systems is not particularly noticeable in these cases. In the following, these
conclusions and some othert results are being discussed a little closer.
Adjusting a radiator valve
50
22
45
21
Heat release [kW]
The simulations show that, regardless of whether a radiator valve is opened or closed,
the result is to increase the return temperature and to reduce the total amount of heat
emission from the radiators. This is further illustrated in the diagrams below, which
apply for the reference systems at the design outdoor temperature of -15 C. It can be
seen how the return temperature and the heat emission vary with the valve opening of a
radiator valve in the system. The circled positions in the diagrams indicate the points of
perfect balancing of the valve in each system.
High-flow, total
40
35
Low-flow, total
High-flow, total
20
Low-flow, total
19
Outdoor temperature = - 15 C
18
30
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening of radiatorvalve AI1 [-]
Figure 100.The effect of the valve opening of radiator valve AI1 on the system's (total)
return temperature and on systems total heat release.
The effect of a closed radiator valve is relatively slight, provided that allowance is made
for the fact that it effectively closes one of the radiators in the system. If there was no
interaction, the thermal output power in the above diagram would be 19 kW with the
radiator valve completely closed. On the other hand, the result of fully opening a
radiator valve is much more noticeable, particularly in the low-flow system. Despite the
fact that the flow through the particular valve increases considerably, thus raising the
131
1.0
system return temperature, the total heat emission from the system as a whole
nevertheless declines as a result of the overall reduction of flow through the other
radiators.
The differences between the high-flow effects and the low-flow effects are due to
several factors. Obviously, the difference in the valve settings can be assumed to be one
reason. As, in general, the valves in the low-flow system arrangement are more closed
than are the corresponding valves in the high-flow system arrangement, opening the
valves in the low-flow system has a greater effect on the system characteristic.
However, this is not decisive. Although specially modified valves are used in the
low-flow system, opening a valve nevertheless results in a greater rise in the return
temperature than does a corresponding valve opening in the high-flow system,
(Trschel, 1999). Instead, the true reason for this depends on primarily two factors:
The radiator characteristic in the low-flow system gives rise to high return
temperatures when the flow through the radiator increases, while a reduction in the
flow results in a substantial reduction in the thermal emission power (see Chapter 2).
The low pressure drops in the low-flow distribution system result in relatively high
differential pressures across the open valve. This point is explained further below.
Differential pressure, pipe pressure drops and pump characteristic
It is clear that the differential pressure across the valve of which the setting has been
changed has a considerable effect on the sensitivity of the system to such changes. In a
given system, the interaction between the radiators declines with rising balanced
differential pressure, but only provided that the change consists of a radiator valve
closing. If, instead, the valve is opened, conditions are reversed, with the interaction
increasing. This is clarified by the diagram below, which shows the results of
simulations of the high-flow system with high and low balanced differential pressures.
It can be seen how the change in differential pressure (i.e. as related to the reference
case) across the radiator valves on a branch is affected by the balanced differential
pressure (pmin), and by whether the valve concerned is fully open or fully closed. The
relative change of differential pressure provides a measure of by how much the flow
through the valve changes if the valve setting remains unchanged.
132
Relative change in differential pressure [% ]
100
Rad 1 closed, 2 kPa

Rad 1 closed, 10 kPa
Rad 1 fully open, 2 kPa
Rad 1 fully open, 10 kPa
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
Branch +
valve
Rad 1
Rad 2
Rad 3
Rad 4
Rad 5
Figure 101.The effect of the magnitude of the balanced differential pressure on the
change of differential pressure across the radiator valves connected to a
branch if one valve is opened or closed.
It can be seen from the diagram that, with a low balanced differential pressure, there is a
relatively substantial change in the differential pressure if the valve closes, while the
change in the differential pressure would be less in a system having a high balanced
differential pressure. In other words, the interaction between the radiators increases on
a system having a low balanced differential pressure if one of the valves on the branch
closes. If, instead, the valve is opened, then the effects will be the opposite, which can
be seen in the diagram by a low balanced differential pressure resulting in a smaller
change in the differential pressure in the branch (and thus having less interaction effect),
than would be the case with a high balanced differential pressure.
The simulations also showed that opening a radiator valve on a system having a high
pipe pressure drop resulted in a lesser rise in the return temperature than did opening a
valve on a system having a low pipe pressure drop. What is this due to? Put simply, the
return temperature depends on the magnitude of the differential pressure across the open
radiator valves. The greater the pressure drop in the system, the smaller the differential
pressure drop across the opened valve, and thus the lower the return temperature.
As explained, the flow through an opened valve depends on the magnitude of the
differential pressure after the change in the valve setting. This differential pressure can
be expressed as:
p 2 = p1 + (p pump ) (p pipe )
where: p 2
p1
(33)
= Differential pressure across the valve after changing the valve

setting
= Differential pressure across the valve before changing the valve
setting
133
(p pump ) = Change in pump pressure (= p pump, 2 p pump,1 )
(p pipe ) = Change in pressure drop up to the valve (= p pipe, 2 p pipe,1 )

If a radiator valve is opened, the total flow through the system increases while the pump
pressure rise normally decreases, as a result of the pump characteristic curve. This
means that, in order to minimise the risk of high flow through the opened valve, thus
resulting in a significant increase in the return temperature, the balanced differential
pressure in the system should be set low. At the same time, the pressure drops in the
system should be high, with a steep pump characteristic, thus resulting in a low
differential pressure across any opened valve. Together with the radiator sensitivity,
this is why the return temperature does not rise as much in the high-flow system as it
does in the low-flow system. It also explains why the return temperature rises more in a
system with a lower pipe pressure drop and with a pressure-controlled pump.
The above reasoning is naturally somewhat artificial, and a more realistic way of
limiting the effect of an open valve would presumably be to choose a small valve from
the start, so that the balanced kv value does not differ too greatly from the valve's kvs
value. For this reason, it is again preferable to have a low balanced differential
pressure, as in this case the valve does not need to be closed so much as would be the
case with a high differential pressure. Another way of achieving a low differential
pressure across the radiator valve is to fit a second valve, less easily accessible, across
which some of the available differential pressure can be dropped. This is why the use of
branch and riser valves seems to reduce the impact of an open radiator valve.
Regardless of whether the radiator valve is opened or closed, the change in differential
pressure across it also affects the flow through the other valves connected to the same
branch. This means that, to some extent, the change in flow in the rest of the branch is
dependent on the relative change of the differential pressure across the valve of which
the setting has been changed. If this valve is the first one on the branch, the change in
flow through the other radiators on the branch will be almost proportional (depending
on the flow) to the root of the relative change in differential pressure across the opened
valve. The relative change in differential pressure can be expressed as:
p 2 (p pump ) (p pipe )
=
+1
p1
p1
(34)
The change in the flow through the rest of the system can be estimated, starting from the
closest system junction after/from which the system is unchanged. At this point, the
change in the flow is more or less proportional to the root of the relative change of
differential pressure. The expression for the change in differential pressure at this point
is the same as the above expression, except that the differential pressures naturally relate
to those at this point instead of that across a valve.
It is not possible to provide a general, exact expression for the change of flow through
the system valves when a change occurs from conditions without deviations. However,
the above equations indicate that the change in flow (or the change in differential
pressure across a valve) depends on the pump characteristic, the pipe pressure drop and
the balanced system differential pressure.
134
The above means that, in order to minimise the interaction between the radiators on a
system, the ideal is to have a high balanced differential pressure, a low pressure drop in
the distribution system and a flat pump curve. This explains why the
pressure-controlled pump in the simulations reduces the interaction of the system.
Proportion of radiator valves with changed settings
The simulations showed that opening a valve had a considerable effect on the system.
However, what would be the result of opening several valves? The diagram below
shows how the design return temperature is affected by the proportion of radiator valves
in the system that are fully opened. The pale lines in the diagram also show how the
weighted mean annual return temperatures from the respective systems change in
proportion to the numbers of fully open radiator valves.
55
Low-flow system
50
45
High-flow system
40
35
30
25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Proportion of fully open radiator valves [% ]
Figure 102.The effect of the proportion of fully open radiator valves on the return
temperature.
It can be seen from the diagram that the return temperature in the low-flow system rises
rapidly when one or more valves is opened, reaching a maximum (which depends on
how the flow varies throughout the system) for a certain number of open valves. In the
system considered here, with 20 radiators, it is sufficient for two radiator valves (i.e.
10 %) to be fully open for the return temperature in the low-flow system already to
exceed that in the high-flow system.
Regardless of whether high-flow or low-flow balancing is chosen, it is important that it
should be carried out correctly. If only a few valves, or even just one valve, are/is
incorrectly set, there will be a noticeable effect on system performance. However, it is
better that the valves should be slightly too closed than that they should be slightly too
open, as the former has less effect on the rest of the system.
135
The size of the system

The effect of a valve setting changed away from its ideal setting decreases as the system
size increases. This is illustrated in the simulations by the fact that the effect declines
with increasing distance from the valve concerned. This can be seen more clearly in the
following diagrams, which show how the return temperatures in various parts of the
system are affected by a change in the setting of one radiator valve. The diagrams are
based on the effects in a reference system at design conditions.
High-flow system
Low-flow system
55
55
Radiator
50
Radiator
Branch
45
Riser
40
Total
35
30
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Branch
45
Riser
40
Total
35
30
25
25
0
50
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 103.The effect of the valve opening of radiator valve AI1 on return temperatures
in different parts of high-flow and low-flow systems.
In principle, the above diagrams show the differences in the effect on return
temperatures between different sizes of systems. The return temperature from the
directly affected radiator can be regarded as representing the effect on a system
consisting of only one radiator, with the branch return temperature representing the
effect on a system of five radiators, the riser return temperature representing the effect
on a system of ten radiators and the overall system consisting, as known, of 20 radiators.
The position of the altered valve in the system
As previously mentioned, the sensitivity to a change in a radiator setting depends
largely on the magnitude of the differential pressure and on whether the valve is opened
or closed. The simulations show that opening the end radiator valve (i.e. at the
furthest point of the system), has less effect than if the first radiator valve is opened.
If, on the other hand, the respective valves are closed, then the effects are reversed
(although the difference is very slight in this respect). This can be illustrated by a
diagram showing how the differential pressure in the branch to which the changed valve
is connected changes relative to the basic case. The diagram is for a reference system,
set up with a high flow.
136
Relative change in differential pressure [% ]
150
125
100
75
Rad 5 closed
Rad 1 closed
Rad 5 fully open
Rad 1 fully open
50
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
Branch +
valve
Rad 1
Rad 2
Rad 3
Rad 4
Rad 5
Figure 104.The effect of the position of the altered valve on the differential pressure in
a branch, depending on whether the valve is opened or closed.
It can be seen from the diagram that the change in differential pressure across the
unaltered valves is somewhat less when radiator valve 1 is closed than if radiatorvalve 5
is closed. When looking at the diagram, it is important to bear in mind that the
differential pressure across the closed valve does not affect the situation, as no flow is
actually passing through it. It can also be seen from the diagram that the interaction
between the radiators is greater when radiator valve 1 is opened than when radiator
valve 5 is opened.
A detail that can be seen from the diagram is that the change in the differential pressure
across the branch (including the branch valve) is greatest when radiator valve 1 is
opened. This means that the total flow through the system increases the most in this
case, resulting in the highest pressure drop in the distribution system and thus the
greatest effect on the other branches connected to the system.
Branch, riser and main valves
The branch, riser and main valves all reduce the differential pressure across the radiator
valves which, as pointed out above, has an adverse effect on the sensitivity if any valve
is closed, or a positive effect if any of the radiator valves are opened.
The effect of a change in the setting of a branch valve or riser valve is linked to its
effect on the rest of the system or, put another way, to the magnitude of the pressure
drop that the valve is intended to create in relation to the total pressure drop of the
system. The simulations show that the effect of the branch and riser valves increases as
the balanced differential pressure of the system decreases.
The difference between this situation and the case of a radiator valve with a changed
setting is that the differential pressure across the branch or riser valve is not related to
the balanced differential pressure in the system, but to the pressure drop between the
137
branches (or risers), which does not change with the value of the balanced differential
pressure. A low balanced differential pressure means that the system's radiator valves
do not need to be closed as much as would be the case with a high balanced differential
pressure. As the balancing of the branch valves is not affected by the balanced
differential pressure in the system as a whole, the influence of the branch valves on the
total flow resistance of the system increases as the balanced differential pressure is
reduced. Any change in the setting of the branch valve therefore gives rise to a greater
change in the system characteristic, leading in turn to a larger change in the total flow.
As the settings of the other branches have not been changed, an increased flow will
reduce the differential pressure and thus reduce the flow through the branches. In other
words, the interaction with other branches, caused by a change in the setting of a branch
valve, increases with reducing balanced differential pressure. However, interaction
decreases as a result of reducing the pipe pressure drop, as the branch valve then loses
some of its effect on the system characteristic.
The effect of a change in the setting of a branch valve could be investigated in exactly
the same way as for a change in the setting of a radiator valve. The diagram below
shows how the return temperatures from the system and from the branch are affected by
a change in the setting of branch valve AI. The diagram is based on design conditions.
55
50
45
High-flow, total
High-flow, branch
40
Low-flow, total
35
Low-flow, branch
30
25
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening of branch valve AI [-]
Figure 105.The effect of the valve opening of branch valve AI on branch and system
return temperatures for high-flow and low-flow reference systems.
In comparison with the effect of fully closing a radiator valve, the effect of fully closing
a branch valve is naturally greater. However, on the other hand, the effect of fully
opening a branch valve has less effect on system return temperature than does fully
opening a radiator valve (see Figure 100). This is due to the fact that the increased flow
through the branch is shared equally among the radiators, thus avoiding a corresponding
surge in the flow, with resulting high return temperature, as caused by fully opening a
radiator valve. In other words, systems are more sensitive to an open radiator valve
than to an open branch or riser valve.
138
The following diagram shows how the thermal output power is affected by the setting of
the branch valve. As with Figure 105, this is based on design conditions.
Heat release [kW]
22
21
Low-flow, total
20
High-flow, total
19
18
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening of branch valve AI [-]
Figure 106.The effect of valve opening of branch valve AI on heat release powers from
the reference systems.
Once again, comparison with a closed radiator valve shows that the effect of closing a
branch valve has the greater effect on the system, as it closes off five radiators instead
of just one. In the same way, fully opening a radiator valve has a considerably greater
effect on the total heat release from the system than does fully opening a branch valve.
Figures 105 and 106 show an almost insignificant difference between the performances
of the high-flow and low-flow systems, not only in terms of change of return
temperature but also in terms of change in heat emission. This is because the radiator
sensitivity, which is greater in the low-flow system (see Equation (9) in Chapter 2), is
compensated for by the fact that the flow-related interaction between the branches is
lesser in the low-flow system due to a considerably lower pipe pressure drop (see
Equation (34)).
6.4
Incorrect balancing
The basic case assumed that the system was perfectly balanced, i.e. that each radiator
received exactly the correct flow needed in order to be able to provide the exact heating
power required. This, of course, is a Utopian situation, and is unlikely to be achievable
in practice. Nor can it even be said to be desirable, as it would presumably require
considerable time and resources to achieve, probably for little benefit. Perfect balancing
is not necessarily automatically considerably better than simple balancing.
This section describes the effects of various deviations from perfect balancing. The
difference between it and the previous section, concerned with the effects of deviations
in the settings of individual valves, is that, in this section, the settings of virtually all the
valves depart from the ideal basic case settings. As before, the emphasis of the analyses
139
is on how sensitive the various system arrangements are to deviations of various valve
settings from the ideal.
The deviations from the ideal that have been analysed are simplest possible balancing,
simplified balancing and randomised deviations from ideal balancing.
6.4.1 Simplest possible balancing
The simplest possible balancing case is that represented by the assumption that the
differential pressure across all the radiator valves is constant. All the valves would then
be adjusted to one and the same kv value, equivalent to the required flow rate at the
assumed differential pressure. It is further assumed, for this case, that none of the
branch, riser or main valves would be adjusted, but simply set to their fully open
positions.
Reference system
For the reference system, the valve opening of the radiator valves in the high-flow
system would be 0.44 which, for the simplest possible balancing arrangement, would
provide the required radiator flow for a differential pressure of 10 kPa with the
particular valve concerned. For the low-flow system, the corresponding valve opening
would be 0.31.
The results of this would give an increase in the weighted annual mean return
temperature of 0.4 C in the high-flow system and 0.5 C in the low-flow system, both
as compared with the basic case. The respective increases in the amount of thermal
energy supplied over the year would be 1.0 % and 1.9 %. The spread in room
temperature is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
Room temperature [C]
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
21
Mean
20
19
Min
18
17
16
23
22
Max
21
Mean
20
Min
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 107.Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in the rooms for the simplest
possible balancing setting. The systems are balanced for a high differential
pressure.
140
15
The spread in the room temperature is not particularly large in either of the systems,
although that of the high-flow system is somewhat larger than that of the low-flow
system. However, compared with the performance of the basic case, the increase in
mean room temperature is greater in the low-flow system.
If the differential pressure across all the radiator valves is assumed to be 2 kPa, the
required valve opening of the radiator valves are 0.66 in the high-flow case and 0.47 in
the low-flow case. The corresponding increases in the return temperatures are 0.5 C in
the high-flow system and 0.8 C in the low-flow system. The amount of thermal energy
supplied over the year is reduced by 0.5 % in the high-flow system, while it increases by
1.7 % in the low-flow system, both as compared with the basic case. The spread in
room temperatures is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
21
Mean
20
19
18
17
Min
16
23
Max
22
21
Mean
20
19
18
Min
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
possible balancing setting. The systems are balanced for a low differential
pressure.
The spreads of the room temperatures are considerably greater in this case than in the
case with a high balanced differential pressure and so are the changes in return
temperatures. However, the amount of thermal energy supplied is less, due to the fact
that the mean value of the room temperature does not change as much in this case.
The effect of simple balancing is reduced if the system is fitted with thermostatic
radiator valves, as shown in the following diagrams, which are for systems that have
been balanced for a high differential pressure. The increase in the return temperature is
0.2 C for the high-flow system and 0.1 C for the low-flow system. Corresponding
increases in energy emissions are 0.6 % and 0.4 % respectively, compared with the
basic case.
141
15

Low-flow system
25
25
24
24
High-flow system
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
23
22
21
19
18
17
16
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Max
Mean
Min
20
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
possible balancing setting. The systems are balanced for a high differential
pressure and are fitted with thermostatic radiator valves.
6.4.2 Simplified balancing
Instead of merely adjusting the radiator valves to give a required flow for an assumed
constant differential pressure, as was described above, the method can be complemented
by correction of the total flow using the main, branch and/or riser valves.
Reference systems
The diagrams below show the spread in room temperature for both systems when the
total flow has been corrected using the main, branch and riser valves. The valve
opening of the radiator valves is 0.44 in the high-flow system and 0.31 in the low-flow
system (see the previous section).
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 110.Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in the rooms for the simplified
balancing setting.
142
15
It can be seen from the diagrams that using these valves to balance the total flow results
in the required mean annual room temperature. There is also less spread in the room
temperature compared with what would be the case if the total system flow had not been
corrected. The maximum spread occurs at design conditions, and amounts to about
1 C in both systems. The increase in return temperature is insignificant (less than
0.1 C), as is the change in emission of thermal energy over the year. This applies for
both systems.
Reference systems with low balanced differential pressures
The spread in the room temperatures becomes greater with low balanced differential
pressures, as shown in the following diagrams. For both systems, the increase in the
return temperature is 0.1 C, while the emission of thermal energy falls by 1.8 % for the
high-flow system and by 1.0 % for the low-flow system.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
20
Mean
19
18
Min
17
23
22
20
18
15
15
-5
10
15
Min
17
16
-10
Mean
19
16
-15
Max
21
-15
-10
-5
10
balancing setting. The systems are balanced for a low differential pressure.
The spread is significantly greater in the case with a low balanced differential pressure,
which is due to the fact that, in relative terms, the magnitudes of the differential
pressures across the radiator valves differ more from each other. This means that the
effect of the pipe pressure drop will be greater for a low differential pressure, with the
result that the kv value that has been set for each radiator valve will be further from the
ideal setting.
Fitting the system with thermostatic radiator valves reduces the effect of the simplified
balancing process, as shown in the diagrams below. In comparison with the basic case,
the return temperature actually falls in this case. However, the reduction is slight, being
less than 0.1 C for both systems. The amount of thermal energy released also declines,
by 0.2 % for the high-flow system and by 0.3 % for the low-flow system.
143
15

Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
balancing setting. Both systems are fitted with thermostatic radiator valves.
A comparison with Figure 109 shows that, if the systems are fitted with thermostatic
radiator valves, the simplest possible balancing process actually results in somewhat
less spread than does the simplified process. This is due to the fact that, when the
thermostatic valves attempt to reduce the flow in parts of the system, there is less
leeway for increases in the flow in other parts of the system, due to the fact that the
main, branch and riser valves have been balanced.
6.4.3 Randomised deviations in balancing
The purpose of considering the case of random deviations in balancing is that this
presumably reflects real conditions. Ideal balancing is more or less impossible to
achieve, which means that, in the best case, results are probably only somewhere in the
vicinity. No matter how good a balance is aimed at, there will unavoidably be
deviations in the settings of the valves. In addition, these deviations are likely to
increase with time if nothing is done to correct them. This section therefore analyses
the effect of random deviation in the settings of all radiator valves in the system.
This has been done in the simulations by randomly changing the settings of all 20
radiator valves in the system by a maximum of 0.05 of the valve opening. The same
deviations have been used in both the high-flow and low-flow cases. It must be added
that the sum of the changes for the 20 valves has been + 0.2 in the valve opening, or +
0.01 as a mean value per valve (see Figure 54 in Chapter 5 to see what this means for
the kv value). The tables below show how the valve opening was changed for each
individual valve.
144
15
Radiator
AII5
AII4
AII3
AII2
AII1
H [-]
+ 0.01
0.00
+ 0.04
0.03
0.01
Radiator
BII5
BII4
BII3
BII2
BII1
H [-]
+ 0.01
+ 0.02
0.00
0.03
+ 0.04
Radiator
AI5
AI4
AI3
AI2
AI1
H [-]
0.02
+ 0.03
+ 0.04
+ 0.02
+ 0.05
Radiator
BI5
BI4
BI3
BI2
BI1
H [-]
0.02
+ 0.01
0.03
+ 0.05
+ 0.02
Table 8.
Changes in the radiator valve settings to represent random deviations from

the ideal settings.
The table shows quite small deviations from the ideal settings, intended to represent the
difficulties of exactly achieving a particular kv value for a radiator valve before the
system is in operation, due to such factors as the method of adjustment, manufacturing
tolerances for the valves and approximate calculations of the required kv values.
Reference systems
As far as changes in the return temperature or emission of thermal energy over the year
are concerned, the effect of the random changes in the settings of the reference system
are not large. The weighted return temperature increases by 0.1 C in the high-flow
system, and by 0.3 C in the low-flow system, both compared with the basic case.
Thermal energy emissions decrease by 0.1 % in the high-flow case, and increase by
0.2 % in the low-flow case. However, the new set-up does display some spread in the
room temperatures in the systems, as shown in the diagrams below.
145
Low-flow system
25
25
24
24
High-flow system
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
23
22
20
17
15
15
-5
10
15
Min
18
16
-10
Mean
19
16
-15
Max
21
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 113.Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in the rooms for random
deviations of valve settings in balancing. The overall effect of the deviations
of the settings is a general slight increase in the valve opening.
It can be seen that the spread in room temperature is quite large, particularly in the
low-flow system. What this says is that only quite small changes in the valve opening
of the valves are needed in order to have a considerable effect on the flow balance in the
system, but yet without significantly affecting the total heat release from the system.
The deviation in the valve settings result in a slight decrease of total flow resistance in
the system, which has the effect of slightly increasing the total flow. If we reverse the
size of the valve opening of the valves in Table 8, so that the total change in valve
opening is -0.2, the flow resistance increases and the total flow falls. This changes the
return temperature only very slightly in comparison with the basic case, by less than
0.1 C in both systems. Over the year, emission of thermal energy decreases by 0.4 %
in the high-flow system and by 1.6 % in the low-flow system. The diagrams below
show the spread in room temperatures.
146
15

Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
20
Max
Mean
19
Min
18
17
16
23
22
Max
21
20
Mean
19
18
Min
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
deviations of valve settings in balancing. The overall effect of the deviations
of the settings is a general decrease in the valve opening.
The simulations show that a general increase in the valve opening of the radiator valves
affects the return temperature, but has little effect on the total heat emission. The
opposite applies for a general reduction in the valve opening of the valves, i.e. it affects
the heat release but has little effect on the return temperature. This applies especially in
the case of the low-flow system.
Reference systems without branch or riser valves
The effect of the random deviations from ideal settings becomes greater if the systems
are not fitted with branch or riser valves, with the return temperature increasing by
0.1 C in the high-flow system and by 0.4 C in the low-flow system. The amount of
thermal energy emitted is reduced by less than 0.1 % in the high-flow system, but
increases by 0.3 % in the low-flow system. The spread in the room temperatures is
shown in the diagrams below.
147
15

Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
20
Mean
Min
19
18
17
16
23
Max
22
21
Mean
20
19
18
Min
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
deviations of valve settings in balancing. The systems are not fitted with
branch or riser valves. The overall effect of the deviations of the settings is
a general increase in the valve opening.
The effect of random deviations of the valve settings from the ideal is less in the case of
systems set up to have a low balanced differential pressure, with the return temperature
increasing by less than 0.1 C in both systems. The thermal energy emission decreases
by 0.2 % in the high-flow system and by 0.4 % in the low-flow system. The spread in
room temperatures is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
23
22
Max
21
Mean
20
19
Min
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
deviations of valve settings in balancing. The systems are balanced to have
a low differential pressure. The overall effect of the deviations of the
settings is a general increase in the valve opening.
148
15
Reference systems with other valve characteristics

The simulations assume that the radiator valve characteristics are essentially that of a
square law. However, as the deviation from the ideal balanced setting relate to the
valve opening of these valves, the shape of the characteristic has a considerable effect
on the results. This has been demonstrated by a simulation of the use of radiator valves
having a quick-opening characteristic, as shown in the diagram below.
0.7
kv valve [m/h]
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 117.Quick-opening characteristic.

The effect of this is that, for random deviations in the settings of such valves, the return
temperature would increase by 0.2 C in the high-flow system, but by no less than
2.2 C in the low-flow system, both as compared with the basic case. Thermal energy
emission over the year would decline by 1.5 % in the high-flow system, and by no less
than 11.0 % in the low-flow system.
These values are considerably greater than those for corresponding cases using the
valves with a square law characteristic. A slight increase in the valve opening of a
quick-opening valve tends substantially to increase the flow, resulting in a large
increase in the return temperature. On the other hand, a slight decrease in the valve
opening effects a substantial reduction in the flow, which has the effect of drastically
reducing the amount of heat emission. This effect is particularly severe in the low flow
case, as the radiators in this system are very sensitive to changes in the flow.
If the system is fitted with thermostatic valves having a quick-opening characteristic,
local control of the radiator would probably tends to be in On/Off mode. The effect of
this is noticed to some extent in the simulations, by being unable to achieve equilibrium
with this configuration.
Even if the systems are fitted with thermostatic valves, they are not sufficient to offset
the deviation from the ideal settings. The return temperature falls by less than 0.1 C in
149
the high-flow system, and by 0.2 C in the low-flow system. Thermal energy emissions
also fall, by 0.2 % in the high-flow system and by 0.9 % in the low-flow system.
The spread in room temperatures is reduced, due to the fact that the thermostatic valves
respond to the room temperature in those rooms where the temperature exceeds 20 C.
The effect of this is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
23
22
21
19
17
16
15
15
-10
-5
10
15
Min
18
16
-15
Max
Mean
20
-15
-10
-5
10
deviation of valve settings in balancing. The systems are fitted with
thermostatic radiator valves. The overall effect of the deviation of the
settings is a general slight increase in the valve opening.
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves and pressure-controlled
pumps
The effect of random deviations in the settings of the valves becomes even greater if the
system pressure level is controlled by a pressure-controlled pump. The return
temperature in the high-flow system falls by 0.1 C, while that of the low flow system
falls by 0.2 C, with emissions of thermal energy declining by 0.3 % and 1.1 %
respectively. The spread in room temperatures is shown in the following diagrams.
150
15
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
Mean
Min
20
19
18
17
16
23
22
21
Max
Mean
20
19
Min
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
deviation of valve settings in balancing. The systems are fitted with
thermostatic radiator valves, and the pump is pressure-controlled. The
overall effect of the deviation of the settings is a general slight increase in
the valve opening.
Reference systems with response applied (pump pressure increased)
The simulations of random deviations in the valve settings show that certain rooms in
the systems have low temperatures, and particularly in the low-flow system case. This
can be compensated for by increasing the flow in the system by raising the pump
pressure. This has therefore been done in the simulations by increasing the pump
pressure to such a level that the temperature of the coldest room reaches 20 C. This
involved increasing the total flow by 20 % in the high-flow system, and by over 30 % in
the low-flow system.
The increase in total flow naturally results in a rise in the return temperature, and also of
the amount of heat emitted by the systems. This is shown in the following duration
diagram, in which the return temperature in the high-flow system increases by 1.0 C,
while that in the low-flow system increases by 2.3 C. Over the year, thermal energy
emission from the high-flow system increases by 2.9 %, while that from the low-flow
system increases by 8.1 %.
151
15
45
40
35
Return, High
Temperature [C]
30
Return, Low
25
Room (mean), Low
20
Room (mean), High
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
1460
2920
4380
5840
7300
8760
Time [h]
Figure 120.The effect of increasing total system flow in order to raise the temperature
in the coldest room in the system, with random deviations in valve settings.
The spread in room temperatures after this response is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
Mean
Min
21
20
19
18
17
22
20
18
17
16
15
-5
10
15
Min
19
15
-10
Mean
21
16
-15
Max
23
-15
-10
-5
10
deviation of valve settings in balancing. The lowest room temperature on
the systems has been dealt with by raising the pump pressures.
152
15
Reference systems, response applied (supply temperature increased)

Instead of increasing the pump pressure to raise the temperature of the coldest room in
the system, the supply temperature could be increased. In the design cases, the
necessary increase in supply temperature is 2.5 C for the high-flow system and over
8.0 C for the low-flow system. This has less effect on the return temperatures in the
system than does an increase in the flow, but has a greater effect on the heat emission
and spread of room temperatures.
The weighted annual return temperature in the high-flow system increases by 0.7 C,
while that in the low-flow system increases by 1.8 C, both as compared with the basic
case, while the thermal energy emissions increase by 4.1 % and 11.6 % respectively.
The spread in room temperatures is shown in the diagrams below.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
Mean
Min
21
20
19
18
17
16
Max
23
Mean
22
21
20
Min
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
deviation of valve settings in balancing. The lowest room temperature on
the systems has been dealt with by raising the supply temperatures in the
systems.
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves, response applied (supply
temperature increased)
As described in the preceding case, the temperature in the coldest room can be brought
up to 20 C by increasing the supply temperature. If, in addition, the systems are fitted
with thermostatic radiator valves, the room temperatures in the rooms that exceed 20 C
will be reduced. The overall result of this is to give a very slight decrease (less than
0.1 C) in the return temperature in the high-flow system, as compared with the basic
case. The return temperature in the low-flow system is reduced by 0.8 C, while
thermal energy emissions increase by 1.9 % in the high-flow system and by 1.7 % in the
low-flow system.
The spread in room temperatures is substantially reduced, with the maximum difference
between the lowest and highest room temperatures amounting to 0.15 C in both
systems.
153
15
Reference systems after a long time (maximum + 0.25 of valve opening)

It is not possible to run a simulation that exactly describes the deviations in valve
settings (and their effects) that occur in a system after a long period of operation. This
is naturally because these deviations can vary widely from one system to another, while
they sometimes are perhaps not even noticed at all. Previously, it is only relatively
small random deviations in the valve opening of the radiator valves that have been
considered, and they have also been arranged both to increase and to decrease the valve
opening of the valves. The intention behind this approach was that these deviations in
the settings could be linked to the actual balancing of the system.
The simulation described below is instead intended to give an idea of the effects of
major random deviations in the settings of the valves, as a result of changes or
interference by users, wear and tear, maintenance corrections etc. It is not particularly
likely that the valve opening of the valves will be reduced: instead, if anything, they are
more likely to be increased relative to the original settings. This simulation has
assumed a maximum change in the valve opening of any individual valve of + 0.25,
with an aggregated change for all the valves of + 2.0, which is equivalent to an average
change in valve opening of + 0.1 of each valve. The table below show the deviation
from the ideal valve opening of each individual valve.
Radiator
AII5
AII4
AII3
AII2
AII1
H [-]
+ 0.02
+ 0.01
+ 0.07
+ 0.17
+ 0.18
Radiator
BII5
BII4
BII3
BII2
BII1
H [-]
+ 0.05
+ 0.08
+ 0.12
+ 0.01
+ 0.09
Radiator
AI5
AI4
AI3
AI2
AI1
H [-]
+ 0.09
+ 0.20
+ 0.14
+ 0.04
+ 0.18
Radiator
BI5
BI4
BI3
BI2
BI1
H [-]
+ 0.06
+ 0.03
+ 0.24
+ 0.19
+ 0.03
Table 9.
Changes in the radiator valve settings to represent large random deviations

from the ideal settings.
With the above random deviations of the valve settings from the ideal settings, the
weighted return temperature during the year increases by 0.3 C in the high-flow
system, and by 1.6 C in the low-flow system, with the amount of thermal energy
emitted falling by 0.4 % in the high-flow system and increasing by 2.2 % in the
low-flow system, both as compared with the basic case.
154

45
40
35
Return, High
Temperature [C]
30
Return, Low
25
Room (mean), Low
20
Room (mean), High
15
10
Out
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
1460
2920
4380
5840
7300
8760
Time [h]
Figure 123.The effect of major deviations of the valve settings from the ideal settings.
It can be seen from Figure 123 that the return temperature in both the high-flow and the
low-flow case is higher than in the basic case. But the change in the mean temperatures
of the rooms is almost non-existent in the high-flow case and just somewhat larger in
the low-flow case. The spread of the room temperatures is shown in the following
diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
21
20
Mean
19
Min
18
17
23
22
21
19
18
17
16
15
15
-10
-5
10
15
Mean
20
16
-15
Max
Min
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 124.Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in the rooms for substantial
random deviations of the valve opening of the radiator valves.
The results of this simulation show that, depending on the system, deviations in the
valve opening of the radiator valves from their ideal settings can result in a relatively
substantial spread in the room temperatures and that this also effects the system return
155
15
temperatures. However, the heat emission, and therefore also the mean temperature in
the building, need not necessarily be significantly affected by these deviations. This is
an interesting observation, which can be compared with measured data from a real
system, as further discussed in the following summary.
6.4.4 Summary
The following table shows a summary of the simulations of the effects on the return
temperatures and heat emissions of departures in system settings from the ideal settings,
for various system configurations.
System
Deviation
Reference system
Reference system
- low balanced diff.press.
- with thermostats
Reference system
- with thermostats
Reference system
Simplest balancing
Simplest balancing
Simplest balancing
Random
Random (reversed
signs)
Random
Random
Reference system
- with quick-opening
characteristic
- with thermostats
- with thermostats and
Reference system
Reference system
- with thermostats
- after long time
High-flow system
0
0
+ 0.4
+ 1.0
+ 0.5
- 0.5
+ 0.2
+ 0.6
0
0
+ 0.1
- 1.8
0
- 0.2
+ 0.1
- 0.1
Low-flow system
0
0
+ 0.5
+ 1.9
+ 0.8
+ 1.7
+ 0.1
+ 0.4
0
0
+ 0.1
- 1.0
0
- 0.3
+ 0.3
+ 0.2
- 0.4
- 1.6
+ 0.1
0
0
- 0.2
+ 0.4
0
+ 0.3
- 0.4
Random
+ 0.2
- 1.5
+ 2.2
- 11.0
Random
- 0.2
- 0.2
- 0.9
Random
- 0.1
- 0.3
- 0.2
- 1.1
+ 1.0
+ 2.9
+ 2.3
+ 8.1
+ 0.7
+ 4.1
+ 1.8
+ 11.6
+ 1.9
- 0.8
+ 1.7
+ 0.3
- 0.4
+ 1.6
+ 2.2
Random + action
(increased pump press.)
Random + action
(higher supply temp.)
Random + action
(higher supply temp.)
Random (major
deviations)
Table 10. Results from simulations of non-ideal settings.

of thermal energy supplied over the year (Qsystem). Note that the table does not include
the spread in room temperatures.
In general, the table shows that there is relatively little effect from deviations of settings
from their ideal values. This applies in particular to the simplified balancing case,
where there is essentially no difference in principle between it and the basic case.
However, it must again be emphasised that Table 10 does not include the spread in
room temperatures, which can give the impression that certain system configurations
and/or deviations of settings from the ideal have hardly any effect. The simulations
therefore show that there is no apparent link between the spread and the mean values of
room temperatures.
156
The table also shows that a low differential pressure has an adverse effect in conjunction
with simple or simplified balancing. However, low differential pressure has reduced the
effects of incorrect settings of the valve openings, which is due to the fact that it reduces
the effect of valves that are open more than necessary.
The simulations indicate that good results can be achieved merely by employing
simplified balancing of the systems. However, this presupposes a sufficiently high
system differential pressure, as otherwise there would be an excessive spread of room
temperatures, as shown in the diagram below.
Maximum difference in room

temperatures [C]
8
7
High-flow system
Low-flow system
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
Applied differential pressure [kPa]
Figure 125.Maximum spread in room temperatures as a function of applied differential

pressures: simplified balancing.
In addition, increasing the number of radiators connected to the system branches
produces a corresponding increase in the difference in room temperatures, as shown by
Petitjean (1994) and also by Trschel (1999). Another important prerequisite for this
type of balancing is that the system should be fitted with branch valves and riser valves,
so that the flows in the various parts of the system can be correctly set.
Many of the simulations described in this report have been concentrated on
investigating the effects of changing the setting of a single valve in the system. This is
partly because such changes can, in some cases, give rise to substantial system changes,
and partly because they help to explain the effects of changes in the settings of several
valves in the system. For example, a general increase in the valve opening of the
radiator valves in a system has a greater effect than a corresponding general decrease in
the valve opening of the valves, which can be traced back to the fact that an opened
valve has a greater effect on the system than has the closed valve.
It should be pointed out that minor deviations of radiator valve settings from the ideal
values, resulting from the balancing procedure, do not have a significant effect on either
157
the return temperature or overall system heat release. However, they do affect the
spread in room temperatures.
It is not until substantial deviations in valve settings from the ideal values occur that
corresponding substantial changes occur in the return temperature. Such changes will
also occur if some arbitrary rough-and-ready adjustment is carried out in order to raise
the lowest room temperature in the system to an acceptable level, instead of properly
performing a new balance of the system. The risk of such a response is that it will result
in a substantial increase in the average temperatures of the rooms in the system,
unavoidably resulting in high return temperatures and high usage of thermal energy.
The problem of high return temperatures is therefore not due to closure of valves in the
system, as such closures hardly affect the return temperature. Instead, they tend mainly
to be due to system valves being opened more than they should be. The simulations
showed that it is only when some drastic, substantial change was made, or when there
was a general change in the settings of the valves, that system return temperature
increased substantially. This can be compared with the results of real measurements on
a district heating substation performed as part of the work, as described below.
6.4.5 Comparison with a measurement case
The measurements were started in the spring of 2000 on a district heating substation in a
property on Bankogatan in Gothenburg, supplying space heating and domestic hot water
to 144 apartments in six buildings. The substation provided two space heating supplies:
one to buildings 3, 5 and 7, and the other to buildings 9, 11 and 13. The radiator
systems in the buildings were balanced early in the autumn of 2000, which was
followed by new measurements made during the winter and spring of 2000-2001. The
measurements were made by The Montoring Centre for Energy Research at Chalmers
University of Technology, and included determination of the following parameters:
-
Supply temperature, district heating

Supply temperature, radiator systems in buildings 3, 5 and 7
Supply temperature, radiator systems in buildings 9, 11 and 13
Return temperature, district heating
Return temperature, radiator systems in buildings 3, 5 and 7
Return temperature, radiator systems in buildings 9, 11 and 13
Flow rate, district heating
Flow rate, radiator systems in buildings 3, 5 and 7
Flow rate, radiator systems in buildings 9, 11 and 13
Thermal output power, district heating
Thermal output power, radiator systems in buildings 3 13
The following diagram shows how the temperatures from the substation were related to
the outdoor temperature, prior to balancing.
158
Temperature levels - Bankogatan (prior to balancing)

110
District heating - Supply
Temperature [C]
100
District heating - Return
90
Building - Supply
80
Building - Return
70
60
50
40
30
20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 126.Measured temperatures in the district heating substation prior to balancing.

The outcome of the balancing was that the radiator valves were replaced and that the
flow in the radiator systems were reduced (from approximately 30 m/h to 18 m/h at
design conditions). This had the effect of reducing the return temperature, while
leaving the supply temperature of the radiator system more or less unchanged. Figure
127 shows the temperature levels after balancing.
Temperature levels - Bankogatan (after balancing)
110
District heating - Supply
Temperature [C]
100
District heating - Return
90
Building - Supply
80
Building - Return
70
60
50
40
30
20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 127.Measured temperatures in the district heating substation after balancing.
159
Figure 128 shows the thermal output powers from the radiator system before and after
balancing.
Thermal power output (radiator system) - Bankogatan
700
Thermal power output [kW]
After balancing
600
Prior to balancing
500
400
300
200
100
0
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 128.Measured thermal power output from the radiator system before and after
balancing.
It can be seen that the thermal power output from the radiator systems hardly changed at
all as a result of the balancing. This indicates that the mean temperatures in the building
were not significantly reduced, despite the fact that the flow rate was reduced without
changing the supply temperature. For this to have been the case, there must have been a
substantial imbalance in flow distribution in the system prior to balancing.
One of the simulation cases is similar to this scenario. In this case (referred to as
Reference systems after a long period of operation), the valve opening of all the
radiator valves were randomly increased. This resulted in an increase in the return
temperature, while at the same time not having much effect on heat release. The same
thing seems to apply for the actual measured case, where balancing seems to have
reduced the spread in room temperatures by balancing the system flows, substantially
reducing the return temperature but not affecting the total heat release. Alternatively,
reversing the chronological order, it can be said that substantial changes in the settings
of the valves result in a wide spread of room temperatures, thus substantially increasing
the return temperature without significantly affecting heat release.
6.5
The effect of disturbances
The simulations described so far in this chapter have not considered the effects of
system disturbances, despite the fact that, in real life, disturbances of one sort or another
are likely to occur all the time. This has been because the simulations have been
intended as far as possible to show the effects of non-ideal settings. The following
simulations, however, are based on ideal settings, but with the input of system
160
disturbances in the form of changed heat inputs in the rooms supplied by the systems,
with the aim of showing the resulting effects on the various systems and their abilities to
deal with them.
6.5.1 Non-uniform distribution of internal heating
This disturbance represents the effect of uneven loading of the system. It has
therefore been assumed that the heat inputs in the rooms supplied by the radiators
connected to riser A have doubled to 340 W (which could be due to such a cause as
greater insolation or some additional source of internal heat), while the heat load in the
rooms supplied by the radiators connected to riser B is unchanged at 170 W.
Reference systems
In the first case, it has been assumed that the reference systems are unevenly loaded,
which has had the effect of increasing the weighted mean return temperature by 0.7 C
in the high-flow system, and by 1.1 C in the low-flow system, both as compared with
the basic case. The reductions in thermal emission from the radiator systems are 10.6 %
and 9.0 % respectively.
The diagrams below show the differences in room temperatures between maximum and
minimum values, with the maximum values corresponding to the room temperatures
connected to riser A, and with the minimum temperatures corresponding to those
connected to riser B.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
23
High-flow system
25
Max
22
Mean
21
Min
20
19
18
17
16
Max
23
22
Mean
21
20
Min
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
Figure 129.Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in the rooms with uneven
distribution of internal heat loads.
The difference between the two risers is somewhat less in the high-flow system, which
is due to the fact that there is a greater reduction in heat emission from the radiators in
this system when the room temperature rises.
161
15
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves (constant P-band)

If the balancing valve is separated from the thermostatic valve, the systems will have
the same P-band width, regardless of the results of balancing. If the width of this
constant P-band is assumed to be 2 C in both systems, then the return temperature in
the high-flow system will be reduced by 0.3 C, while that in the low-flow system will
be reduced by 0.6 C, both as compared with the basic case. Thermal energy emissions
will be reduced by 17.7 % in the high-flow case, and by 19.1 % in the low-flow case,
which shows that the low-flow system is definitely more efficient, even though the
width of the system P-bands is the same. This is due to the fact that the sensitivity of
the radiators to a change in flow through them is greatest in the low-flow system (see
Equation (9) in Chapter 2). The following diagrams show the spread in room
temperatures.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
Max
21
Mean
20
Min
19
18
17
23
22
21
20
17
15
15
-5
10
15
-15
Min
18
16
-10
Mean
19
16
-15
Max
-10
-5
10
distribution of internal heat loads. The systems are fitted with thermostatic
radiator valves, having constant P-band widths.
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves (adjusted P-band)
If the same valve is used both for system balancing and for control, the use of
thermostatic valves will result in the narrower P-band width for the low-flow system, as
it is in this system that the valves are most closed. In this case, with a P-band width that
depends on the valve setting, the return temperature is further reduced as the internal,
unevenly distributed, heat load increases. In the high-flow system, the return
temperature falls by 0.4 C, while in the low-flow system it falls by 0.8 C, both as
compared with the basic case. The corresponding reductions in thermal energy
emissions are 20.6 % in the high-flow case and 21.8 % in the low-flow case, which
shows that the adjusted P-band widths of the thermostats further improve the
efficiencies of the systems. In the low-flow case, the width of the P-band is about
0.6 C, while in the high-flow case it is about 0.9 C. The spread in room temperatures
is shown in the following diagrams.
162
15
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
20
Mean
Min
19
18
17
16
23
22
21
Max
20
Mean
Min
19
18
17
16
15
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
radiator valves, having adjusted P-band widths.
Reference systems with thermostatic radiator valves (adjusted P-band widths) and
pressure-controlled pumps
Fitting the systems with pressure-controlled pumps will further reduce the spread in
room temperatures, such that the return temperature in the high-flow system is reduced
by 0.8 C, and that in the low-flow system is reduced by 0.9 C. Thermal energy
emissions are reduced by 21.0 % in the high-flow case, and by 22.1 % in the low-flow
case. Spread in room temperatures is shown in the following diagrams.
Low-flow system
25
24
24
High-flow system
25
23
22
21
Max
20
Mean
Min
19
18
17
23
22
21
17
15
15
-5
10
15
-15
Min
18
16
-10
Mean
19
16
-15
Max
20
-10
-5
10
radiator valves, having adjusted P-band widths, and with
pressure-controlled pumps.
163
15
6.5.2 Summary
The following table shows a summary of the simulations of how uneven distribution of
the internal heat load affects return temperatures and heat emissions of various system
configurations.
System
Reference system
Reference system
- with thermostats
(constant P-band)
- with thermostats
(adjusted P-band)
- with thermostats
(adjusted P-band) and
pressure-controlled
pump
Disturbance
Uneven distribution
of internal heat
Uneven distribution
of internal heat
Uneven distribution
of internal heat
Uneven distribution
of internal heat
High-flow system
0
0
Low-flow system
0
0
+ 0.7
- 10.6
+ 1.1
- 9.0
- 0.3
- 17.7
- 0.6
- 19.1
- 0.4
- 20.6
- 0.8
- 21.8
- 0.8
- 21.0
- 0.9
- 22.0
Table 11. Results of simulations of uneven internal heat load.

of thermal energy supplied over the year (Qsystem). Note that the table does not include
the spread in room temperatures.
The table shows major differences in the responses to this particular disturbance of the
systems with and without thermostatic radiator valves. The most effective system is the
low-flow system. Although the widths of the thermostats' P-bands are the same in both
systems, the low-flow system makes best use of the additional thermal energy inputs in
the rooms, which is due to the sensitivity of the radiator valves on this type of system.
System efficiency is further improved by an adjusted P-band width, considerably
narrower than that of the constant width. The spread in room temperatures is least,
while the values of room temperature, return temperature and thermal energy emissions
are lowest, if the systems are also fitted with pressure-controlled pumps. This is due to
the fact that the differential pressure across the thermostatic valves rises less when the
valves start to close.
It is not possible to draw any conclusions from the results of the simulations as to how
well thermostatic radiator valves operate. This is due to a limitation of the program,
which assumes that all thermostatic valves operate in an ideal manner. In reality, their
performance would be affected by factors such as hysteresis, thermal conductance,
sensitivity to differential pressure, mechanical and dynamic responses and other factors.
However, this was not investigated in this work, which means that the thermostatic
valves in the simulations could have only favourable effects on the ability of the system
to reduce the effects of deviations and disturbances. This assumes, of course, that all
the thermostatic valves in the system are working. If one of the valves is not working
properly, the flow through it could increase substantially if other valves close.
164
6.6
The distribution system
The simulations described so far have been concerned only with two-pipe systems.
Although this is by far the most common type of system, there are also single-pipe and
three-pipe systems. This section presents a brief, simplified description of certain
differences between these three arrangements, postulating a very small system, with
only five radiators, in order to do so. The simulation program for this small system is
constructed in exactly the same way as that for the two-pipe system with 20 radiators
that has hitherto been used. However, in addition to the size of the system, there is also
a relatively important difference, in that all flow in the small system is assumed to be
fully turbulent. This is because the program is intended only to investigate the
differences between single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems, and not between
high-flow and low-flow systems, for which the difference in flow can have some effect.
It is also for this reason that only the high-flow system has been considered in these
simulations.
The simulations have assumed that each radiator is to provide 1000 W at the design
outdoor temperature of -15 C, supplying heat to one room, to maintain an indoor
temperature of 20 C. The internal heat load in each room is 170 W. Transmission
losses at the design outdoor temperature are 877 W, while ventilation heat losses
amount to 293 W. The radiator valves are of the same type as used for the earlier
simulations (see Figure 55 in Chapter 5). The pump has the same characteristic as
before, but as the speed can be freely selected, it has been set to provide a pump
pressure that corresponds to the system pressure drop with correctly balanced flow.
6.6.1 Single-pipe system
The arrangement of the single-pipe system is shown in Figure 133.
Figure 133.Schematic arrangement of the single-pipe system.

The diagram above shows the system with a dotted return connection. This does not
actually exist in the simulation program: instead, the return connection from the final
radiator is connected immediately to the suction input of the pump. The differential
pressure across each radiator in the simulations is assumed to be 5 kPa, with a pipe
pressure drop of 1 kPa between each radiator, giving a necessary pump pressure of
30 kPa. The figure below shows the pressure drops in the system.
165
p [kPa]
Rad 1
Rad 2
Pump
Rad 3
Rad 4
Rad 5
L [m]
Figure 134.Pressure drops in the single-pipe system.

In single-pipe systems, the inlet temperature to each radiator falls progressively along
the system. This means that designing and balancing a single-pipe system can start
from two different limit cases: either increasing the radiator flow, or increasing the
radiator size, for each radiator that is passed. In the first case, the flow through the
radiators is progressively increased, so that the first radiator has the lowest flow, while
the furthest radiator has the highest flow. In the second case, each radiator receives the
same proportion of the flow through the loop (the total flow), but the sizes of the
radiators increase with increasing distance from the pump. These two methods can, of
course, be combined, so that both the flow through the radiators, and the sizes of them,
increase along the system. However, the commonest case is for the flow to be assumed
to be the same through all radiators, being indicated in the form of the proportion of the
total loop flow passing through the radiators (Jrnefors, 1978). It is this method that has
been used in these simulations.
Figure 135 shows how the total radiator size (the sum of all the radiators connected to
the loop) changes with the proportion of the loop flow that passes through the radiator
and with the number of radiators connected to the loop. The total radiator size has been
standardised in the diagram, which means that radiator size 1 corresponds to the size of
a radiator in the two-pipe or three-pipe systems (in which all radiators are of the same
size). Radiator size 2, therefore, corresponds to two radiators in the other systems, and
so on. For comparison, the diagram also shows the total radiator size for the two-pipe
and the three-pipe systems.
166
12
Total standardised radiator size
11
10
Proportion of the loop flow through
each radiator
9
8
7
6
30%
5
4
40%
3
2
60%
Two- and three- pipe system
0
0
10
Number of radiators
Figure 135.Total standardised radiator size in the single-pipe system, as a function of

the proportion of the loop flow through each radiator and of the number of
radiators connected to the loop.
It can be seen from the diagram that, in terms of total radiator size, there is not a very
great difference between the single-pipe system and the two-pipe and three-pipe
systems. However, radiator flows less than 30 % of the loop flow should be avoided, as
they result in unnecessarily large radiators. If, on the other hand, the flow through the
radiators is a high proportion of the total loop flow, closure of a radiator valve will
mean that the total flow through the loop will fall considerably, thus having a significant
effect on the performance of the other radiators. The extreme case is if the radiator flow
equals 100 % of the loop flow, which would mean that the radiators were connected in
series without any bypasses. Closing any radiator valve would therefore have the effect
of stopping the flow through the entire loop. The effect of this is shown in the diagram
below, which represents closure of a radiator valve (the first radiator on the loop) for
varying proportions of radiator flow. The loop supplies five radiators.
167
50
Return temperature (from the loop)
45
Temperature [C]
40
35
30
25
Room temperature (mean value for room 2 - 5)
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Proportion of the loop flow through each radiator [% ]
Figure 136.The effect of a closed radiator valve (no. 1) on loop return temperature and
room temperatures in the other rooms, as a function of different proportions
of loop flow passing through the radiators.
It can be seen from the diagram that, when the radiators are taking more than 60 % of
the loop flow, the room temperatures in the other rooms start to fall below 20 C if one
radiator on the loop is turned off. This drop in temperature becomes drastic if the
proportion of flow passing through the radiators exceeds 80 %.
How stable is a single-pipe system? To answer this question, the same type of
simulation has been performed as previously described, i.e. investigating the effect of a
change in the valve opening of a radiator valve. A difference, however, is that in this
case this has been done only for the design outdoor temperature. The diagram below,
which is based on a flow through the radiators of 40 % of the total loop flow, shows the
effect on total heat release from the loop, as well as from the other radiators, of closing
the first radiator valve. The small circle in the diagram show the correct setting of the
valve.
168
Single-pipe system
Change of heat release [% ]
20
10
Radiator 2 - 5
0
-10
Total
-20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening of radiator valve 1 [-]
Figure 137.Change in heat released, from all radiators and from radiators 2-5, as a
function of the valve opening of radiator valve 1.
The effect on the return temperature from the loop is shown in the diagram below.
Single-pipe system
50
45
40
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 138.The effect on loop return temperature as a function of different valve

opening of radiator valve 1.
The above diagrams do not give a direct indication of the effect of a fully open valve on
the system, as the radiator valves that have been used are already almost fully open
when correctly set. However, for comparison, it can be said that if the valve had had a
kvs value of, for example, 3.0 m/h (instead of 0.7 m/h), the change in the amount of
heat released by radiators 2-5 would have amounted to + 1.8 %, with the return
temperature being 41.1 C, for a fully open valve. If the valve characteristic had been
the same, the correct setting of this valve would then have been a valve opening of
about 0.35.
169
If, instead, it is the final radiator valve (no. 5) of which the settings are changed, the
following diagrams of the effects on heat release and return temperature are obtained.
Single-pipe system
20
10
Radiator 1 - 4
-10
Total
-20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Single-pipe system
50
45
40
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

The effect on the other radiators is greater if it is radiator valve 1 that is closed, as
compared with radiator valve 5. The reverse applies for the return temperature, where
closing radiator valve 5 results in a greater increase in the return temperature. The
diagrams show in general that a closing of the valve has a considerably greater effect on
the system than does an opening of the valve. A major difference between the
behaviour of a single-pipe system and a two-pipe system is just that the return
temperature in a single-pipe system increases if any thermostatic radiator valves start to
170
close, while the reverse is the case for a two-pipe system, as previously pointed out by
Brnnstrm (1987) and others.
The supply temperature control curve characteristic (i.e. as a function of the outdoor
temperature) can be optimised in both two-pipe and three-pipe systems, so that the
desired room temperature can be maintained regardless of the outdoor temperature, and
without having to alter the flow through the radiators. This, of course, presupposes
correct balancing of the system and no disturbances, which means that this response is
likely to be the ideal, rather than as actually achieved in practice. However, it cannot be
achieved, even in theory, in a single-pipe system. The diagram below shows how the
temperatures in the rooms containing the five radiators connected to the single pipe loop
vary with outdoor temperature. The supply temperature has been optimised to give an
indoor temperature of 20 C in the room containing the first radiator, regardless of the
outdoor temperature.
22
21
20
Room 5
Room 4
Room 3
Room 2
19
Room 1
18
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Figure 141.Room temperature deviations as a function of outdoor temperature on a

single-pipe system.
6.6.2 Two-pipe system
Figure 142 shows the arrangement of the two-pipe system considered in these
simulations.
Figure 142.Schematic diagram of the two-pipe system.
171
The differential pressure across the radiator furthest from the pump (no. 5) has been
assumed to be 5 kPa, with a pipe pressure drop of 1 kPa between each radiator, in
exactly the same way as for the single-pipe system case. This gives a total system
pressure drop of 15 kPa, as illustrated in the diagram below.
p [kPa]
Pump
Rad 1
Rad 2
Rad 3
Rad 4
Rad 5
L [m]
Figure 143.Pressure distribution in the two-pipe system.
As opposed to the single-pipe system, balancing of the radiator valves in the two-pipe
system results in their being set to different valve opening, as the differential pressure
across the valves changes with distance from the pump. On the other hand, the same
size of radiators can be used, as the radiators are not affected by the return temperature
from the preceding radiator.
The following diagram shows how the valve opening of the first radiator affects total
heat release from the system and heat release from the other radiators.
Two-pipe system
20
10
Radiator 2 - 5
0
-10
Total
-20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
172
The effect of the valve opening on system return temperature is shown in the diagram
below.
Two-pipe system
50
45
40
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

Both heat emission and the return temperature are affected more in a two-pipe system
than in a single-pipe system. As previously noted, the effect on the return temperature
of a fully open valve is relatively great in a two-pipe system. However, the differential
pressure across the valve concerned in the above diagrams is 13 kPa at design flow rate
in a two-pipe system, while in a single-pipe system the corresponding differential
pressure across the valves is only 5 kPa. It can therefore be of interest to investigate the
effect of changing the valve opening of the last radiator valve (no. 5) in a two-pipe
system, across which the differential pressure is only 5 kPa. The following diagrams
show the effect on heat emission and return temperature when the valve opening of
radiator valve 5 is changed.
173
Two-pipe system
20
10
Radiator 1 - 4
0
-10
Total
-20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Two-pipe system
50
45
40
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

The return temperature increases slightly more when valve 5 is closed than it does when
valve 1 is closed. However, the greater difference in effect between changes in the
settings of the two valves occurs when they open. The increase in return temperature
when valve 5 opens is nowhere near as great as the increase caused by opening valve 1.
This effect was also noted in the earlier simulations of the larger two-pipe system with
20 radiators. However, the two-pipe system still results in a higher return temperature
in response to an open valve than does the single pipe system.
174
6.6.3 Three-pipe system

The schematic arrangement of a three-pipe system is shown in Figure 148 below.
Figure 148. Schematic diagram of a three-pipe system.

In the same way as for the single-pipe system case, the differential pressure across all
radiators is assumed to be 5 kPa, with a pipe pressure drop of 1 kPa between each
radiator. The return connection shown in the diagram above is assumed to present a
pipe pressure drop of 5 kPa at the nominal design flow rate. This gives a total pressure
drop in the system of 15 kPa, distributed as shown in the diagram below.
p [kPa]
Rad 1
Pump
Rad 2
Rad 3
Rad 4
Rad 5
L [m]
Figure 149.Pressure drops in the three-pipe system.
The following diagram shows how the valve opening of the first radiator affects total
heat release from the system and heat release from the other radiators.
175
Three-pipe system
20
10
Radiator 2 - 5
0
-10
Total
-20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
The effect of the valve opening on system return temperature is shown in the diagram
below.
Three-pipe system
50
45
40
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

Heat release and (particularly) the return temperature in a three-pipe system are affected
less by the changes than they are in a two-pipe system. The effect on the return
temperature is comparable with the corresponding effect in a single-pipe system. It
should be noted that it does not matter which valve setting is changed in the three-pipe
system: the result is the same. This is due to the fact that there is the same differential
pressure drop across all the radiator valves, and so the effect on the total flow is the
same, regardless of which valve is opened or closed. However, this is somewhat of a
simplification, as it presupposes completely stepless design of the pipe system sizes.
176
An aside in this context is that if the same pipe sizes and pipe lengths had been used
between the radiators, then it would be the radiator in the centre (no. 3 in the diagram)
that would be the design-determining radiator in the three-pipe system. This is due to
the fact that it would be this radiator across which the differential pressure would be
lowest. In a single-pipe system, the differential pressures across the radiators do not
affect each other when the system is balanced, while in a two-pipe system it is the
radiator furthest away from the pump (no. 5) that determines the design.
6.6.4 Summary
The following diagram can be drawn to illustrate the results of the simulations of
single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems, showing the effect of a change in the
valve opening of the first radiator valve in the system on the mean room temperatures in
the other rooms.
Room temperature, mean [C]
22
21
1-pipe
20
3-pipe
19
2-pipe
18
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 152.The effect of valve opening of the first radiator valve in the system on room
temperatures in the other rooms.
It can be seen from the diagram that the effect of a change in the opening of the first
valve on a single-pipe system is different from that of a valve in a two-pipe or
three-pipe system, of which latter behave in a similar manner. Regardless of the type of
system, the total flow is reduced when a valve is closed, and increased when a valve
opens. In the two-pipe and three-pipe systems, a reduction in the total flow results in a
greater differential pressure across the radiator valves. This increases the flow through
the valves of which the settings have not been changed, the effect of which can be seen
in the diagram by an increase in room temperature as the valve opening of the first valve
decreases. In the same way, an increase in the total flow means that the differential
pressure across the other valves is reduced, thus having the effect of lowering the room
temperatures as the opening of the valve increases.
Things are different, however, in a single-pipe system. Here, a reduction in the total
flow results in a lower differential pressure across the other valves, thus reducing the
flow through them. However, this cannot be seen in the above diagram, as the effect on
177
the room temperature seems to be exactly the opposite when the valve opening of the
first radiator valve is reduced. However, this is due to a different phenomenon. When a
valve is closed, the supply temperature to the next radiator on the loop increases, thus
increasing the heat release from that radiator. The combined result is that the reduction
in the radiator flow and the increase in the supply temperature counteract each other,
which explains why the room temperature first falls and then increases as the valve
opening of the first radiator valve is reduced. At first, when the valve starts to close, it
is the effect of the flow reduction that dominates, but as the flow approaches zero
through the first radiator, it is the increase in supply temperature that dominates.
If, instead, it is the last radiator valve that is closed, this effect does not arise, and so
there is no corresponding increase in the room temperatures of the other rooms. This is
shown in the following diagram, which also includes the effect of closures of valves in
two-pipe and three-pipe systems.
Room temperature, mean [C]
22
21
1-pipe
20
3-pipe
19
2-pipe
18
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 153.The effect of valve opening of the last radiator valve in the system on room
temperatures in the other rooms.
The above reasoning also explains to some extent the change in room temperature when
the valve opening of a radiator valve is changed. In two-pipe and three-pipe systems,
the return temperature depends on the distribution of the total system flow between the
radiators. A fully closed valve increases the flow through the other radiators, thus
increasing the return temperature. Although, on the other hand, a fully open valve
results in a reduced flow through the other radiators, it also substantially increases the
flow through its radiator, which has the effect of increasing the system return
temperature.
However, in a single-pipe system, flow through the other radiators is reduced when a
valve is closed. Although this ought to result in a lower return temperature, this is offset
by the increased supply temperature which, instead, results in an increase in the return
temperature. When, instead, the radiator valve is opened, the flow through all radiators
increases, which naturally increases the return temperature.
178
The diagram below shows the effect on the return temperature of changing the valve
opening of the first radiator valve in single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems.
50
2-pipe
45
3-pipe
40
1-pipe
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 154.The effect of valve opening of the first radiator valve in the system on the
return temperature.
It can be seen from the diagram that closing a radiator valve has the greatest effect on
the return temperature in a three-pipe system, which is due to the fact that the
differential pressure across the radiators is relatively low in this type of system (see
Section 6.3.6 concerning the effect of differential pressure). The differential pressure
across radiator valve 1 is considerably higher in a two-pipe system, which means that
the effect on the return temperature of closing this valve is not as great in such a system.
For the same reason, fully opening this valve has a much greater effect on the return
temperature in a two-pipe system than in a three-pipe system. If, instead, it is the
setting of the last radiator valve that is changed, the change in the return temperature of
a two-pipe system due to a fully open valve is not as great (see Section 6.3.6 concerning
the effect of the position of the valve in the system). In this case, there is little
difference between the effect in a two-pipe system and that in a three-pipe system, as
can be seen from the following diagram.
179
50
45
2-pipe
3-pipe
40
1-pipe
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 155.The effect of valve opening of the last radiator valve in the system on the
return temperature.
The following conclusions can be drawn, and views put forward, on the basis of the
simple analysis of the differences in the responses of the different systems:
Most of the difference between two-pipe and three-pipe systems is due to the fact that
the differential pressure across the radiators varies considerably more in the two-pipe
systems. It should therefore be simpler to balance a three-pipe system; this can be
compared with simplified balancing of a two-pipe system, but with the difference that
simplified balancing of two-pipe systems will virtually always result in deviations
from the ideal design settings.
The difference in sensitivity between the two-pipe and the three-pipe systems is due
only indirectly to the structures of the systems, to the extent that it is the differential
pressure that determines how great the effect of an open or closed valve will be. In
the two-pipe system, the difference depends on which valve or valves have had their
settings changed, while this is of lesser importance in a three-pipe system. In other
respects, the systems behave similarly.
The behaviour of the single-pipe system is quite different from that of the two-pipe
and three-pipe systems, whether in respect of pressure, flow or temperature
considerations. Despite this - or perhaps just because of it - the performance of
single-pipe systems seems to be quite stable. However, this is not necessarily the
case, as the static consideration approach that has been used in this work tends to
work in favour of the single-pipe system. This is due to the fact that the effects of a
flow increase, with resulting decreasing in the supply temperature to the downstream
radiators, tend to counteract each other, with the result that there is little overall effect
on the system, as seen from a static perspective. In actual fact, the flow changes
quickly, while the temperature changes only slowly, which means that the effect of a
flow disturbance can be relatively considerable before steady-state conditions are
again re-established.
180
A problem area with single-pipe systems is that of choosing an appropriate size of

radiators, with it being necessary to decide on the supply temperature of each radiator
connected to the loop. If the wrong radiator size is chosen, operational problems can
arise even if corrective countermeasures are attempted. Changing the flow through
an incorrectly sized radiator affects the supply temperature to the downstream
radiators, causing knock-on problems in the entire system.
Another problem is that of control of the supply temperature. Regardless of how this
is arranged, there will be deviations in the design heat release performance of the
radiators, as has been shown in the simulations. Further, one-pipe systems have a
serious drawback when connected to district heating systems, in that when the heat
demand falls and any thermostatic radiator valves (if fitted) close, the return
temperature rises, which is undesirable.
It must be added that the above analysis is fairly simple and very theoretical (no
physical measurements having been made to confirm the results of the simulations in
this respect), which means that the results should be regarded with some caution. In
addition, only certain aspects concerning the system's sensitivity to deviations have
been considered: for example, differences in capital or running costs, service
considerations, maintenance etc. have not been considered. This applies, of course, to
all the analyses performed in this work.
6.7
The effect of the district heating substation radiator heat

exchanger
Any deviation clearly affects the return temperature in the building's heating system. At
the same time, it also affects the return temperature on the district heating side. The link
between the district heating system and the building's heating system is provided by the
heat exchangers in the district heating substation.
The change in the district heating return temperature resulting from deviations in the
building's heating system can be due to three different factors:
A change in the return temperature of the heating system.
A change in the return temperature of the building's heating system changes the
temperature difference between the district heating water and the building's space
heating water. This causes a change in the amount of thermal power transferred, and
thus a change in the return temperature of the district heating water.
A change in the building's space heating system flow.
A change in the flow on the secondary side of the heat exchanger (i.e. the building
space heating system side) affects the coefficient of thermal transmittance. This
changes the amount of thermal power transferred, thus changing the return
temperature on the district heating side.
The above two changes affect not only the return temperature of the district heating
water, but also the supply temperature of the water in the building's space heating
system. In order to maintain the required supply temperature, it is necessary to
control the thermal power transfer, which is done by varying the flow through the
181
primary side of the heat exchanger. Again, this has the effect of changing the district
heating water return temperature.
It is the combined effect of these three changes that determines the return temperature of
the district heating water. A simple design model of a flat plate heat exchanger has
been used to demonstrate this. It is described in Appendix B, and is based on the
equations, recommendations and parameters described in Vrmevxlare (Heat
exchangers) (1994) and Fjrrvrmecentralen (District heating substation units) (1996)
from Fjrrvrmefreningen (Swedish District Heating Association) and by Hjorthol
(1990).
Two model heat exchangers have been designed: one for a high-flow system and one
for a low-flow system. The design temperatures of the high-flow system heat exchanger
are 100/43 C on the primary side, and 60/40 C on the secondary side. This gives a
terminal temperature difference of 3 C, i.e. the return temperature of the district heating
water is 3 C higher than the return temperature of the space heating water. The heat
exchanger for the low-flow system is designed for the same terminal temperature
difference, with primary side design temperatures of 100/36.3 C and secondary side
temperatures of 73.3/33.3 C. The thermal power transmission capacity at the design
outdoor temperature is 20 kW, which means that the high-flow system heat exchanger
has been designed for an NTU value of 4.0, while the low-flow system heat exchanger
has been designed for an NTU value of 5.9. The NTU value is a measure of the heat
exchanger's heat transfer capacity, and is defined as:
NTU =
where NTU
U
A
C min
=
=
=
=
UA
C min
(35)
Number of Transfer Units [-]

Coefficient of thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger [W/mK]
Heat transfer area of the heat exchanger [m]
Minimum thermal capacity flow of the heat exchanger [W/K]
The NTU value is not constant, but changes continuously during operation.
In order to investigate the effect of deviations in the radiator systems on the district
heating return water temperature, we can analyse the effect of the radiator systems'
return temperatures and flows at varying proportions of fully open radiator valves. This
was done for the radiator systems described in Section 6.3.6. The values from these
simulations can now be applied to the heat exchanger, which gives the following
diagrams for the design case at an outdoor temperature of -15 C.
182
High-flow system
District heating return temperature [C]
55
50
45
40
Return temperature
35
Return temperature and flow

Return temperature, flow and control
30
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 156.The effect of the proportion of fully open radiator valves on the district
heating return temperature (high-flow system).
Low-flow system
55
50
45
40
Return temperature
35
Return temperature and flow

Return temperature, flow and control
30
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 157.The effect of the proportion of fully open radiator valves on the district
heating return temperature (low-flow system).
The various curves in the diagrams show the effect of considering a change in the
radiator system return temperature alone, a change in both the return temperature and
the flow and, finally, the effect of a change in the return temperature and the flow, in
183
combination with control of the radiator system supply temperature. From a real-life
perspective, it is really only the final case, considering all three parameters, that is of
interest. However, comparison with the other two cases shows the magnitude of the
effects of the respective parameters on the return temperature. For example, the district
heating water return temperature is reduced only very little by a change in the radiator
system flow in the high-flow system. This reduction is greater in the low-flow system,
and for this there is hardly any need to control the district heating water flow at all in
order to maintain the necessary supply temperature. In this respect, the increase in
radiator system return temperature and the increase in radiator system flow rate tend to
counteract each other, so that there is hardly any change in the supply temperature,
despite the fact that there is a drastic change in the return temperature.
As previously pointed out, only two radiator valves (10 % of the number) need to be
fully opened for the return temperature in the low-flow system to exceed the return
temperature in the high-flow system. The same applies if it is the district heating return
temperature that is considered, as can be seen from Figures 156 and 157 above.
The following diagram, which shows the effect of the radiator system's return
temperature and flow (both high-flow and low-flow systems), provides a more general
picture of how deviations in the radiator systems affect the return temperature of the
district heating water. It illustrates conditions for the design cases, with the supply
temperature being held constant by controlling the district heating water flow. The
ringed positions indicate the ideal positions.
184
47
High-flow system
46
NTU : 4.0
District heating : 100/43 C
45
Radiator system : 60/40 C
44
43
42
41
Change in the radiator systems' flow
+ 20 %
+ 10 %
0%
- 10 %
- 20 %
40
39
38
37
36
35
Low-flow system
34
NTU : 5.9
District heating : 100/36.3 C
33
Radiator system : 73.3/33.3 C
32
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Change in the radiator system return temperature [C]
Figure 158.The effect of changes of return temperature and flow in the radiator systems
on the district heating return water temperature. The radiator system
supply temperature is maintained constant.
The above diagram shows that, in the low-flow system, the curves are somewhat closer
to each other then they are in the high-flow system, which indicates that the return
temperature of the district heating water is somewhat less sensitive to deviations in the
flow of the low-flow system. At the same time, the slope of the low-flow system curves
is somewhat steeper. This indicates that the heat exchanger - or, rather, the return
temperature of the district heating water - is somewhat more sensitive to changes in the
radiator system return water temperature when connected to a low-flow system. An
increase of 1 C in the radiator system return temperature increases the district heating
return temperature by 0.6 - 0.7 C if it occurs in a high-flow system, while the
corresponding increase if connected to a low-flow system is about 0.8 C, regardless of
the flow rate.
185
186
7 SIMULATION AND RESULTS AIR HEATER WITH VALVE GROUP
SIMULATION AND RESULTS AIR HEATER WITH

VALVE GROUP
7.1
Performing the work
The purpose of the simulations described in this chapter is to show how the particular
choice of system configuration affects both the static and the dynamic characteristics,
and how they affect the sensitivity of the system to deviations. The planning of the
simulations in this chapter is described in Chapter 5.
7.2
The optimum valve characteristic is one that is so tailored to each system that the width
of the necessary P-band is constant, regardless of the valve opening of the valve, and
thus also at a minimum. These are ideal values that show the potentials of the systems
when set up to have the least possible difficulty of control, and operating without any
deviations.
The process of arriving at the optimum valve characteristic, as described in this chapter,
has been carried out by iteration, which is quite time-consuming. The dead time and the
time constant can be arrived at by assuming a particular valve characteristic, and then
analysing the results of a step change response simulation with this characteristic. They
are then used to calculate a suitable static characteristic which, when applied in
conjunction with the particular valve authority (which depends on the size of the control
valve, and not on its characteristic), provides a new valve characteristic, which is then
used for the next iteration, and so on. The end result of this process is to arrive at an
optimum valve characteristic, giving a more or less constant P-band width when
simulating step change responses. For further reading, see Grindal (1994 and 1995),
whose work provided the inspiration for this presentation.
In Appendix B a slightly simplified method of arriving at the optimum characteristic is
described, just to give an idea of the process.
7.2.1 The reference case
The following table shows the necessary P-band widths arrived at for the six reference
cases, i.e. in which there are no deviations, and the control valve is of optimum type. In
the case of the SABO connection, which uses a three-way valve, the characteristic of the
shunt port is assumed to be partly linear and partly logarithmic, while the characteristic
of the control port has been optimised. This explains the reason for two values for the
respective balancing settings of this arrangement.
187
Valve group
Direct
District heating
SABO (Linear)
SABO (Log)
Balancing
High flow Low flow
7.3
7.1
8.7
14.1
10.6
15.9
16.5
23.2
Table 12. Necessary P-band widths with an optimum valve characteristic for each
valve group and balancing condition.
The narrowest necessary P-band width is that of the directly connected valve group,
with the high-flow and low-flow systems giving approximately the same value. For the
other connection arrangements, there is a clear difference between the values for the
high-flow and the low-flow systems, due primarily to the fact that the dead time is
considerably greater in the low-flow systems. The SABO connection requires the
widest P-band width: in fact, it can be seen from the table that the use of a SABO
connection with a logarithmic shunt port should be avoided, in order to reduce the risk
of control problems, as this arrangement requires a relatively wide P-band width. For
this reason, unless otherwise stated, any further references to, or calculations of, the
SABO connection will refer only to its arrangement with a linear shunt port.
The optimum characteristic, as used for arriving at the values in Table 12, is shown in
the following diagrams. It should again be pointed out that these characteristics have
been derived in order to produce as narrow a constant P-band width as possible,
regardless of the valve opening. This means that some of the valve characteristics may
have a somewhat unusual shape. This applies particularly for the SABO arrangement,
with a logarithmic shunt port, and so this is once again considered here. The reason for
the somewhat unusual shape of this characteristic is that the logarithmic shunt port
effects the flow in the circulation circuit for any valve opening other than fully open and
fully closed. In turn, this affects the dead time, which has to be compensated for by the
optimum valve characteristic of the control port.
For comparison, the diagrams also show the previously described linear and logarithmic
characteristics (pale lines).
188
Direct connection
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Low-flow system
High-flow system
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 159.Optimum valve characteristic for the direct connection
District heating connection

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Low-flow system
High-flow system
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 160.Optimum valve characteristic for the district heating connection.
189
SABO connection (Linear shunt port)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Low-flow system
High-flow system
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 161.Optimum valve characteristic for the SABO connection, with a linear shunt
port.
SABO connection (Logarithmic shunt port)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Low-flow system
High-flow system
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 162.Optimum valve characteristic for the SABO connection, with a logarithmic
shunt port.
In the above diagrams, the optimum valve characteristics have been matched to the
valve authorities, the characteristic of the heat-releasing component, the dead time and
the time constant for each step in the valve opening of the valve. It can be seen that
there is little difference in the optimum valve characteristic for each valve group
between high-flow and low-flow systems (possibly with the exception of the direct
connection arrangement).
The following diagrams (one for each type of balancing) show how the return
temperature is affected in the six reference cases. As previously shown (in Chapter 5),
the supply temperature is controlled as a function of the outdoor temperature, in order to
maintain the temperature of the air leaving the air heater constant at 20 C. The overall
190
efficiency of the valve groups in the design case, which is the same as the efficiency of
the air heater, is 0.48 on the air side and 0.35 on the water side for high-flow systems,
with corresponding values of 0.36 and 0.55 for low-flow systems.
High-flow system
40
38
Temperature [C]
36
34
32
30
DH
SABO (Lin)
28
26
24
22
20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 163.Return temperatures for the high-flow system reference cases.

Low-flow system
40
38
Temperature [C]
36
34
32
30
DH
28
SABO (Lin)
D
26
24
22
20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 164.Return temperatures for the low-flow system reference cases.

It can be seen from the diagrams that there is little difference in the return temperatures
from the different types of valve groups, and also that there is little difference between
the performances of the high-flow and low-flow systems in this respect. The lowest
191
return temperature is provided by the directly connected arrangement, which can also be
seen from the following table, which shows the weighted return temperatures for the
reference cases over the year.
Valve group
Direct
District heating
SABO (Linear)
Balancing
High flow Low flow
24.1
23.0
25.1
23.8
25.1
23.6
Table 13. Weighted annual return temperature for the reference cases (that is
optimum valve characteristic and no deviations).
It can be seen from the table that the return temperatures for the high-flow and low-flow
systems are more or less the same for the district heating and the SABO connections,
while the return temperature for the direct connection is slightly lower. This is due to
the controlling of the flow in the direct connection. A more flat control curve
characteristic (this means that the supply temperature does not change so much with
outdoor temperature) would result in a bigger difference, which is shown in Section 7.5.
The difference in the return temperatures from the high-flow and low-flow systems is
only little more than 1 C, which is surprisingly small. This is due to the size of the air
heater and the flow values for the respective balancing set-ups. Higher flows would
presumably have resulted in a greater difference in the return temperatures. However,
as such higher flows were not measured in the actual physical measurements, it is
doubtful whether they should be used in the simulations. But it must be pointed out that
the difference in the return temperatures between the high-flow and low-flow systems is
not particularly relevant at this stage, since focus remains on the effect of deviations on
return temperature.
In the reference cases described above, the sizes of the control valves are defined by
their maximum capacities (kvs values) of 4.0 m/h. It is thefore natural to wonder how a
different valve size would affect the optimum valve characteristic, the necessary P-band
width and the resulting return temperature. In order to quantify this, simulations of the
district heating valve group in the high-flow arrangement have been run with one larger
and one smaller valve size, that is with kvs values of 2.5 and 10.0 m/h respectively.
Each system has been correctly balanced, and the optimum valve characteristic
developed. The table below shows the results, in terms of the necessary P-band width
and the weighted annual return temperature as functions of the valve size. In addition,
the table also shows how the valve authorities are affected by the valve sizes.
192
Valve group
Opt-2.5,H,DH
Opt-4,H,DH
Opt-10,H,DH
Necessary P-band
width [C]
8.7
8.7
8.7
Return
temperature [C]
25.1
25.1
25.1
Valve authority
[-]
0.72
0.30
0.05
Table 14. The effect of control valve size on the necessary P-band width, return
temperature and valve authority.
The table shows that the size of the control valve has no effect on either the necessary
P-band width or the weighted annual return temperature. This means that the valve
authority on its own does not really affect the control performance of the system:
instead, it is the combination of valve characteristic, valve authority and the
characteristics of the heat-releasing component, together with the dynamic properties of
the system, that determine the results. It must also be emphasised that the valve
characteristics differ in the three cases represented in the table. The three optimum
characteristics are shown in the following diagram, which also shows the linear and
logarithmic characteristics (pale lines) for comparison.
District heating connection (High-flow)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Valve authority
0.72
0.30
0.05
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 165.The effect of control valve size (expressed as valve authority) on the
optimum valve characteristic.
The fact that the characteristics are different is due to the valve authorities being
different in the three cases. A low valve authority results in considerable distortion of
the characteristic, which therefore requires a considerably distorted mechanical valve
characteristic in order to compensate for it. See also Chapter 2.
It can be appropriate here to point out that corresponding simulations have also been run
for the district heating connection with a low balanced flow. The results are the same as
those described above for the high-flow system, that is with no difference in the
necessary P-band width or return temperature in response to changes in the size of the
control valve.
193
7.2.3 Varying available differential pressure

The simulations described so far have assumed a constant available differential pressure
across the valve groups. In reality, this pressure varies with the flow in the system.
When the control valve is almost closed, system flow is low, with the result that the
pressure drop in the rest of the distribution system is low, thus increasing the available
differential pressure across the valve group. The main pump characteristic also affect
the available differential pressure.
For this reason, a simulation has been run with a varying available differential pressure.
Assuming that the flow is fully turbulent, the differential pressure varies with the square
of the flow, as previously shown by Equation (32) in Chapter 5.
The differential pressure is assumed to be twice as high at zero flow as at design flow.
In the case of the high-flow system, this means that the available differential pressure is
60 kPa when the control valve is fully closed, and 30 kPa when it is fully open. If the
same size of control valve is used as in the reference case (kvs value of 4.0 m/h), there
will be no difference in the balancing. In comparison with the reference case, the only
difference that occurs is that the valve authority in the district heating connection case
drops from 0.30 to half as much, that is to 0.15. This is naturally due to the fact that the
differential pressure across the fully closed control valve is twice as high, as the
available differential pressure is also twice as high.
In the previous section it was shown that, as long as the valve characteristic was
optimised, the effect of the valve authority on the necessary P-band width and the
weighted return temperature was insignificant. There is therefore no difference in the
necessary P-band width or weighted return temperature even if the available differential
pressure varies with the primary flow through the valve group. In this case, the
optimum valve characteristic required is as shown in the following diagram, which also
shows the optimum characteristics for the three different valve sizes in the previous
section (from Figure 165).
District heating connection (High-flow)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Valve authority
0.72 (Small valve)
0.30 (Original valve)
0.15 (Varying diff. Press.)
0.05 (Large valve)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 166.The effect of valve authority on the optimum valve characteristic.
194
The diagram shows the progressive additional distortion of the optimum valve
characteristic required as the valve authority is reduced, regardless of what the change
in the valve authority depends on.
In the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise stated, the available differential pressure
across the valve groups will be assumed to be constant.
7.2.4 Summary
The simulations show that the various system arrangements have different
characteristics in terms of their potential responses to control, even before the particular
type of control valve has been selected. The concept of an optimum valve characteristic
helps to demonstrate this.
Regardless of balancing, the direct connection is the simplest type of system
arrangement to control: in the other systems, balancing affects the subsequent ease or
difficulty of control. A low flow rate increases the system dead times as far as
circulation is concerned, and thus makes control more difficult.
The difference in the requisite P-band width between the district heating connection and
the SABO connection is also related to the dead time. The diagram below shows how
the primary and secondary flows in a SABO connection can be affected by the choice of
control valve.
SABO connection (High-flow)
1.0
0.9
Relative flow [-]
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Log - Lin
0.2
Log - Log
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 167.Relative primary and secondary flows in a SABO connection, depending on

the type of control valve.
The diagram shows that the flow on the secondary side falls as the control valve is
opened, and rises to the balanced value when the valve is fully opened. As the dead
time increases with decreasing secondary flow, the result is to increase the difficulty of
control (that is the necessary P-band width) as the secondary flow is reduced. To
compensate for this, the control port must have a more linear characteristic, but at the
same time this means that the gain (that is the temperature rise of the air across the air
195
heater) increases for a small valve opening, which also complicates control of the
system. This means that the optimum characteristic of the control port will unavoidably
result in a secondary flow that is not constant. The effect of this is that the dead time in
the SABO connection will always be somewhat longer than in the district heating
connection, so that the SABO connection is also somewhat more difficult to control.
For the same reason, a logarithmic recirculation port is unsuitable, as this will increase
the system dead time and so also the difficulty of control.
Although the simulations also show that the size of the valve, or the variation in the
differential pressure of the system, affect the valve authority, this does not necessarily
automatically mean that the difficulty of control will be affected. A low valve authority
can be compensated for by a suitable choice of valve characteristic. Taking this further,
this can mean that the control valve characteristic can be chosen in such a way as to
compensate for the variation in the system differential pressure. However, this naturally
presupposes that the variation of the differential pressure in the system is known, and
this is probably uncommon.
The return temperature does not seem to be significantly affected by the choice of valve
group, and nor by the valve authority at all. Admittedly, the direct connection
arrangement results in a somewhat lower weighted annual return temperature, but the
difference is not particularly great. This is because control of the supply temperature
means that it is not necessary to reduce the flow rate very much as the outdoor
temperature rises, and so the effect on the return temperature is not as great in the direct
connection arrangement as it would have been if the supply temperature had been
constant. See Section 7.5.
The effect of balancing on the return temperature is also modest. In the low-flow case,
the weighted annual temperature is reduced by only slightly more than 1 C as the result
of balancing. However, this is not a general phenomenon, but is due to the size of the
air heater and the balanced flows. A low flow gives a low UA value, which needs to be
compensated for by a high mean temperature, so that the supply temperature is also
high, giving a correspondingly relatively high return temperature in the low-flow
system. Higher flows would presumably have resulted in a greater difference in the
return temperature, but such flows were not measured during the actual physical
measurements, and so it is doubtful whether they can be used in the simulations.
7.3
In practice, optimum valve characteristics are highly unlikely to be encountered: the

range of control valves available, whether in terms of technical performance or of price,
renders it highly improbable. In addition, it is far from clear which characteristic is
most suitable for each item to be controlled. This section therefore considers the effect
of actual valve characteristics on the systems.
Two different standardised characteristics (linear and logarithmic) are used in the
simulations in order to show the effect that the deviation in respect of the valve
characteristic always represents. It must also be pointed out that the logarithmic
characteristic is not strictly in accordance with the logarithmic standard, but somewhat
modified in order to allow the valve to close completely.
196
7.3.1 Linear and logarithmic valve characteristics

The diagrams below show the effect of linear and logarithmic valve characteristics on
the necessary P-bands of the six combinations of valve groups and balancing as used in
the reference cases. The control valve sizes are represented by a kvs value of 4.0 m/h.
For comparison, the diagrams also show the necessary P-bands for the reference cases
of the respective combinations, as achieved using the optimum valve characteristic
arrived at as described in the previous section.
Direct connection, Low-flow
40
Necessary P-band width [C]
Direct connection, High-flow

Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.0
0.0
0.2
Valve opening [-]
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 168.Necessary P-band width for direct connection with linear, logarithmic and
optimum valve characteristics.
DH connection, Low-flow
40
DH connection, High-flow
Lin
Log
35
30
Opt
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
Lin
Log
35
30
Opt
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 169.Necessary P-band width for the district heating connection with linear,
logarithmic and optimum valve characteristics.
197
1.0
SABO connection, Low-flow

SABO connection, High-flow

40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 170.Necessary P-band width for the SABO connection with linear, logarithmic
and optimum valve characteristics.
It can be seen from the diagrams that, in all cases, the logarithmic characteristic is closer
to the optimum characteristic (and results in a narrower P-band width in general) than is
the linear characteristic.
In the high-flow cases, the logarithmic characteristic results in an almost insignificant
increase in the maximum value of the necessary P-band width. However, in the
low-flow case, when used with the district heating and SABO connections, the
logarithmic characteristic results in an increase of about 30 % in the necessary P-band
width. For the direct connection case, the increase in the necessary P-band width is
approximately the same in both the high-flow and low-flow cases.
Admittedly, the linear characteristic results in a particularly narrow P-band width when
the valve opening of the control valve exceeds about 50 %, but the width increases
substantially when the control valve is nearly closed. The overall result of this is to
produce difficult control conditions in this part of the working range of the control
valve.
The weighted annual return temperatures for each of the six combinations of valve
groups and balancing, with the respective types of control valves, are shown in the table
below.
Control valve (kvs: 4.0 m/h)
Optimum
Logarithmic
Linear
System
H, D
24.1
24.1
24.1
L, D
23.0
23.0
23.1
H, DH
25.1
25.1
25.1
L, DH
23.8
23.8
23.8
H, SABO
25.1
25.1
25.0
L, SABO
23.6
23.7
23.7
Table 15. Weighted return temperatures, as determined by the reference cases and
types of control valves.
198
1.0
The difference between the real conditions of logarithmic or linear control

characteristics, and the optimum characteristic (the left-hand column), does not exceed
0.1 C in any of the reference cases, which means that the choice of type of control
valve is, in fact, of little interest as far as the return temperature is concerned.
7.3.2 Different valve sizes
Changing the size of the control valve alters its authority, and thus the effect of the
necessary P-band width. This is exemplified in the following diagrams by the effect in
the case of the district heating connection. It can be seen how the necessary P-band
width varies with the size of the linear or logarithmic control valves.
kvs: 10.0 m/h
( 0.05)
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 171.The effect of a large control valve (kvs = 10.0 m/h) with a low authority (
0.05) on the necessary P-band width when using the district heating
connection.
199
1.0
kvs: 4.0 m/h

( 0.30)
40
Lin
35
Log
Opt
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
40
Lin
35
Log
Opt
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.0
0.0
0.2
Valve opening [-]
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 172.The effect of the original control valve (kvs = 4.0 m/h) with the original
authority ( 0.30) on the necessary P-band width when using the district
heating connection.
kvs: 2.5 m/h
( 0.72)
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
Lin
Log
Opt
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 173.The effect of a small control valve (kvs = 2.5 m/h) with a high authority (
0.72) on the necessary P-band width when using the district heating
connection.
The above diagrams show how the necessary P-band rotates around the optimum line
as the valve characteristic changes. In each case, the system has been correctly
balanced, without deviations. It can also be seen that the linear characteristic is directly
unsuitable for use with a low valve authority, although becoming increasingly suitable
as the valve authority increases (that is as the valve size decreases). The effect on the
200
1.0
necessary P-band width of a linear characteristic valve, with a capacity of 2.5 m/h and a
valve authority of 0.72, is approximately the same as that of the logarithmic valve. The
difference is that the logarithmic characteristic is most difficult to control when the
valve is almost fully open, while the linear characteristic is most difficult to control
when the valve is almost fully closed. Comparison of the change in the necessary
P-band width in response to the valve opening shows that it is similar in both high-flow
and low-flow systems, although the low-flow systems require the greatest widths of
necessary P-band in all cases.
The same factors apply for the other valve groups. Unless otherwise stated, it is the
results of the simulations using the logarithmic valve characteristics that will be
described in the rest of this presentation, as this clearly provides results that are closest
to those of the optimum case as far as the necessary P-band width is concerned.
Table 16 shows the weighted return temperatures for all system configurations with
linear and logarithmic valve characteristics, as well as for different valve sizes. The
system designations describe the valve size, type of system balancing and type of valve
group.
System
2.5, H, D
4, H, D
10, H, D
2.5, L, D
4, L, D
10, L, D
2.5, H, DH
4, H, DH
10, H, DH
2.5, L, DH
4, L, DH
10, L, DH
2.5, H, SABO
4, H, SABO
10, H, SABO
2.5, L, SABO
4, L, SABO
10, L, SABO
Optimum
24.1
24.1
24.1
23.0
23.0
23.0
25.1
25.1
25.1
23.8
23.8
23.8
25.1
25.1
25.1
23.6
23.6
23.6
Control valve
Logarithmic
24.1
24.1
24.1
23.0
23.0
23.0
25.1
25.1
25.1
23.8
23.8
23.8
25.0
25.1
25.1
23.7
23.7
23.8
Linear
24.1
24.1
24.1
23.0
23.0
23.0
25.1
25.1
25.1
23.8
23.8
23.8
25.1
25.0
25.1
23.8
23.7
23.8
Table 16. Weighted return temperatures for various system configurations.

It can be seen from the table that neither the size nor characteristic of the control valve
have any significant effect on the return temperature.
7.3.3 Summary
An actual valve characteristic involves a negative deviation in the systems, as
compared with the optimum characteristic. The necessary P-band width increases. The
201
simulations show that a linear control valve is more difficult to control when it is almost
closed, while (in most cases) a logarithmic valve is closer to the optimum valve
characteristic. It is not until the valve has a high authority that a linear valve
characteristic can be considered. A high efficiency of the air heater (on the water side)
also tends to favour a linear characteristic. Brresen (1994) has developed rules of
thumb for this, which say that a linear characteristic should be selected only if the
product of the air heater efficiency (on the water side) and the valve authority equals or
is greater than 0.3. The results of this work agree well with this rule of thumb,
regardless of the type of valve group. Figure 173 (above) represents an example of this,
with the product of efficiency and valve authority having a value of 0.25 for the
high-flow system in the left-hand diagram, and 0.40 for the low-flow system in the
right-hand diagram. It can be clearly seen from the diagram that the logarithmic valve
requires a somewhat narrower maximum necessary P-band in the high-flow system,
while the linear valve is preferable (just) in the low-flow system.
The simulations also show that the choice of control valve, whether in terms of size or
characteristic, has little effect on the return temperature. Instead, it is the balancing of
the system that determines the effect on the return temperature, as described below.
7.4
Up to now, all the systems simulated have been correctly balanced. In practice, perfect
setting of the balancing valves is highly unlikely, which means that real systems depart
from the ideal to a greater or lesser extent. The effect of such departures from ideal
balancing depends on whether it is the balancing valve on the primary or on the
secondary side that is the main reason for the non-compliance, and so the two valves
will be considered individually. In the case of the direct connection, it will be
considered as if the balancing valve is on the primary side. The simulations assume that
the settings of the valve opening of the balancing valves depart from the correct values
by 0.1.
7.4.1 Primary side balancing valve
Table 17 shows the correct and incorrect settings of the primary side balancing valves in
the respective systems, as used in the simulations.
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
Valve opening [-]

More closed (- 0.1)
Correct
More open (+ 0.1)
0.27
0.37
0.47
0.27
0.37
0.47
0.29
0.39
0.49
0.31
0.41
0.51
0.22
0.32
0.42
0.25
0.35
0.45
Table 17. Correct and out of balance settings of the balancing valves on the
primary sides in the six systems considered.
202
The fact that, in some cases, the settings are quite similar in both the high-flow and
low-flow cases is due to the fact that the available differential pressures differ for the
various balancing cases.
The following diagrams show how the width of the necessary P-band is affected by the
changes in the settings of the primary side balancing valve. This valve are indicated by
I1 in the diagrams, with the deviation in the valve opening being indicated by either
- 0.1 or + 0.1.
Direct connection, Low-flow
40
Direct connection, High-flow

I1: + 0.1
Correct balancing
35
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
40
I1: + 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.0
0.0
0.2
Valve opening [-]
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure 174.The effect on the necessary P-band width of changes in the setting of the
primary side balancing valve for direct connection.
40
I1: + 0.1
Correct balancing
35
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
I1: + 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
primary side balancing valve for the district heating connection.
203
1.0
40

I1: + 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
I1: + 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I1: - 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
primary side balancing valve for the SABO connection.
It can be seen that, in all cases, there is an increase in the necessary P-band width as the
valve opening of the balancing valve on the primary side increases. Correspondingly, a
reduced valve opening narrows the necessary P-band width, which might be thought to
be favourable, until it is realised that the drawback of the reduced valve opening is that
it is not possible to achieve the design conditions, as either the flow is too low when the
control valve is fully open (for the direct connection and the SABO connection), or
because the design inlet temperature cannot be achieved (for the district heating
connection). Table 18 shows how the design exit air temperature from the air heater
(indicated by ta,out,design), and the weighted return temperature (indicated by tw,return), are
affected by the changes in the valve opening of the balancing valve on the primary
sides. In those cases when the outlet air temperature does not reach 20 C under design
conditions, with the balancing valve closed too much, the values in brackets show what
the weighted return temperature would be if, in these cases, the control curve
characteristic (the water supply temperature) was increased in order to correct the low
air temperature.
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
I1 = - 0.1
ta,out,design
tw,return
16.9
23.9 (23.7)
16.1
22.4 (22.4)
16.9
25.0 (25.2)
16.9
23.6 (23.8)
17.9
25.0 (25.1)
19.3
23.6 (23.6)
Correct
ta,out,design
tw,return
20.0
24.1
20.0
23.0
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.8
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.7
I1 = + 0.1
ta,out,design
tw,return
20.0
24.1
20.0
23.0
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.9
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.8
Table 18. Design output air temperature (ta,out,design) and weighted annual return
temperature (tw,return), as varying with changes in the settings of the
balancing valve on the primary side.
It can be seen from the table that, in most cases, there is little change in the return
temperature. The exceptions consist of those cases where the balancing valve is closed
204
1.0
too much, resulting in too low an output air temperature and thus also in low return
water temperatures. The effects of this are to produce a system that is incapable of
providing the necessary performance, as it cannot supply the necessary heating power
when called upon to do so. It can therefore be noted that the setting of the primary side
balancing valve does not have much effect on the return temperature, apart from when
overall function of the system is affected.
7.4.2 Secondary side balancing valve
Table 19 shows the correct and incorrect settings of the secondary side balancing valves
in the respective systems, as used in the simulations.
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
Valve opening [-]

More closed (- 0.1)
Correct
More open (+ 0.1)
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.08
0.18
0.28
0.48
0.58
0.68
0.10
0.20
0.30
Table 19. Correct and out of balance settings of the balancing valves on the
secondary sides in the six systems considered.
The following diagrams show how the width of the necessary P-band is affected by the
changes in the settings of the secondary side balancing valve. This valve are indicated
by I2 in the diagrams, with the deviation in the valve opening being indicated by either
- 0.1 or + 0.1.
40
I2: - 0.1
Correct balancing
35
30
I2: + 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
I2: - 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I2: + 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
secondary side balancing valve for the district heating connection.
205
1.0
40

I2: - 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I2: + 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
40
I2: - 0.1
35
Correct balancing
30
I2: + 0.1
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
secondary side balancing valve for the SABO connection.
The diagrams - and particularly Figure 177 for the district heating connection - show
that the necessary P-band width gets wider (in order to avoid instability) when the
balancing valve on the secondary side is closed more than necessary. At the same time,
the reduction in the valve opening of the valve means that the design thermal output
power cannot be achieved, as the flow through the air heater is insufficient. If, on the
other hand, the balancing valve is open more than necessary, the width of the required
P-band is reduced, which is an advantage. However, the drawback of this is that the
circulation flow is higher than desired, which can result in higher return temperatures.
This effect can be seen in Table 20, which also shows the air output temperatures for the
various cases at the design outdoor temperature. The values shown in brackets
correspond to the weighted annual return temperatures that would result if the water
supply temperature was increased in order to compensate for the insufficient flow rate.
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
I2 = - 0.1
tw,return
ta,out,design
18.8
25.0 (25.0)
11.9
20.4 (22.2)
19.6
25.1 (25.1)
13.9
21.7 (22.6)
Correct
ta,out,design
tw,return
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.8
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.7
I2 = + 0.1
ta,out,design tw,return
20.0
25.0
20.0
24.3
20.0
25.1
20.0
24.1
Table 20. Design output air temperature (ta,out,design) and weighted annual return
temperature (tw,return), as varying with changes in the settings of the
balancing valve on the secondary side.
It can be seen from the table that it is only the low-flow systems in which there is a
significant change in the weighted annual return temperature: this is because it is in
these systems that there are the greatest changes in flow in response to the incorrect
balancing settings. It can also be seen that the output air temperature changes
significantly in these systems if the balancing valve is closed more than necessary, as
206
1.0
compared with the effect in the high-flow systems. In other words, there must be quite
substantial deviations in the high-flow systems before the effects are noticed on the
outgoing air and water return temperatures, while the low-flow system is much more
sensitive in this way.
It must be pointed out that the increased valve opening of the balancing valve in the
district heating connection results in an inability to reach the design inlet water
temperature: despite this, the table above shows the outgoing air temperature as being
reached. This is because the increased water flow compensates for the reduced inlet
temperature. However, this will not necessarily always be the case, why it is necessary
to adjust the balancing valve on the primary side to ensure that there is no reduction in
the inlet water temperature. This then creates the situation in which there is a risk of
both primary and secondary side balancing valves being open more than necessary,
leading both to a high return temperature and unnecessarily difficulty in control.
7.4.3 Summary
The simulations show that any deviation in the setting of the balancing valves can have
three different possible adverse effects, which can be ranked in descending order, from
the most serious to the least serious:
- The system is unable to supply the desired thermal power under design
conditions. This situation is caused by the balancing valve on the primary or
secondary side being closed far too much. The result is a system incapable of
fulfilling its intended purpose.
- Control is more difficult than necessary. This is because the balancing valve on
the primary side is open more than necessary, or because the balancing valve on the
secondary side is closed more than necessary. This results in a system that is
unnecessarily difficult to control, with a potential risk of instability.
- The return temperature is higher than necessary, due to the balancing valve on
the secondary side being open more than necessary. The simulations indicate that
high-flow systems are considerably less sensitive to this than are low-flow systems.
As it is most important to avoid the first of these cases that is producing a system that
does not do what it is supposed to do there is a risk that both the primary and
secondary balancing valves might be set more open than necessary, simply in order to
be on the safe side. This creates a system with unnecessarily high return temperatures,
difficult to control and thus not as fast in its responses as it could have been if balancing
had been correct.
In addition, it should be pointed out that any unnecessarily high flow, whether on the
primary or on the secondary side, results in a certain degree of overcapacity. Although
this can be a benefit if, for some reason, further capacity is required, it can also be a
drawback as the control valve cannot utilise its entire operating range.
207
7.5
The control curve characteristics that describe how the water supply temperature
changes in response to a changing outdoor temperature can naturally be set more or less
arbitrarily: the main thing is to ensure that it is always possible to provide the necessary
heating power during operation. However, control of the system supply temperature is
also an important element in overall control of the system. Constant supply
temperature, for example, is regarded as complicating local control of the heat-releasing
components, as has been pointed out by Petitjean (1994) and others.
In order to provide an example of this, the performance of a system (Log-4,L,DH) has
been simulated with both a regulated water supply temperature, in accordance with the
control curve characteristic previously described, and with a constant supply
temperature of 90 C. Thus the studied system is a low-flow district heating connection
system, with a logarithmic control valve having a kvs value of 4.0 m/h.
The position of the control valve must be varied as needed to ensure that, for each value
of outdoor temperature, the required air output temperature can be maintained.
Simulation has therefore involved a number of step responses for various outdoor
temperatures, with corresponding water supply temperatures. Figure 179 shows the
static characteristic, that is how the steady-state output air temperature is affected by the
valve opening for the control valve, as indicated by the results of these step response
simulations. This is shown for a number of outdoor temperatures, from -20 C to
+20 C, at 5 C intervals, both for controlled and for constant water supply temperature.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
Constant supply water temperature

Controlled supply water temperature
Rising outdoor
temperature
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
Rising outdoor
temperature
0
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 179.Static caracteristic for a number of outdoor temperatures for systems with
controlled and constant supply water temperatures respectively.
It can be seen from the diagram that, in both cases, the slope of the static characteristic
decreases with increasing outdoor temperature, although it decreases considerably more
rapidly in the case of the system having a controlled water supply temperature than in
the case of the system having a constant water supply temperature. The slope, or gain,
affects the width of the necessary P-band, which means that the less steeping slope in
the case of the system having a controlled water supply temperature results in control
being simpler at higher outdoor temperatures.
208
The rings in the diagram show the equilibrium positions of the control valve for each
outdoor temperature, as needed in order to achieve an output air temperature of +20 C.
Joining these points produces a curve as shown in Figure 180.
1.0
0.9
Controlled
Valve opening [-]
0.8
0.7
0.6
Constant
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-20 -15 -10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 180.Necessary valve opening of the control valve in order to provide an output
air temperature of +20 C.
It should be pointed out that the shape of the curve does not really reflect the difficulty
of control, but merely shows the equilibrium positions of the valve as a function of
outdoor temperature. For example, if the water supply temperature was matched
exactly to the requirements as set by the outdoor temperature, the equilibrium position
of the valve would always be fully open, regardless of the outdoor temperature.
However, this does not say anything about control between the equilibrium positions,
but such information is given by the width of the necessary P-band, as shown for the
two cases in the diagram below.
Controlled supply water temperature
Constant supply water temperature

40
Rising outdoor
temperature
35
30
40
25
20
15
10
5
0
Rising outdoor
temperature
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening [-]
Figure 181.The necessary P-band width, according to the outdoor temperature, for
controlled and constant water supply temperatures.
209
The change in the necessary P-band width, as shown in the diagram, is in fact more or
less proportional to the change in the static characteristic, which indicates that dead time
and time constant are more or less independent of the outdoor temperature and of the
water supply temperature. An increase in the outdoor temperature results in a change in
the temperature rise of the air passing over the air heater, giving a corresponding change
in the width of the necessary P-band. In the case of the system having a controlled
water temperature, this means that the width of the P-band is substantially reduced as
the outdoor temperature rises, while the corresponding reduction in the case of the
system having a constant water supply temperature is considerably less. This can be
clearly seen in the diagram, and shows that control in general becomes simpler as the
outdoor temperature rises, even in the constant water supply temperature case.
However, the equilibrium positions (the rings in the diagram) show that, for each
steady-state condition, the difficulty of control does not actually decrease in proportion
to the rising outdoor temperature in any of the cases. The following diagram shows
how the width of the necessary P-band, at equilibrium, varies with the outdoor
temperature. It must be added that the values in the diagram constitute a measure of the
least possible difficulty of control of the system. In actual fact, the path from one
steady-state condition to another can require a wider necessary P-band than is needed at
the steady-state conditions.
40
Log-4,L,DH
Necessary P-band
(at equilibrium) [C]
35
30
Constant
25
20
15
10
5
Controlled
0
-20 -15 -10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 182.The necessary P-band width for the steady-state position of the control
valve, as a function of outdoor temperature, for the cases of a controlled
and constant supply temperature. The diagram applies for a Log-4,L,DH
system.
The fact that the necessary P-band width for the equilibrium position initially increases
with rising outdoor temperature, and then decreases, is a result of the choice of control
valve. If, instead, a linear control valve were to be used in the system, the curves for
both cases would be completely different, as shown in the following diagram.
210
40
Necessary P-band
(at equilibrium) [C]
35
Lin-4,L,DH
Constant
30
25
20
15
Controlled
10
5
0
-20 -15 -10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 183.The necessary P-band width for the steady-state position of the control
valve, as a function of outdoor temperature, for the cases of a controlled
and constant supply temperature. The diagram applies for a Lin-4,L,DH
system.
Both Figure 182 and Figure 183 show that, regardless of the outdoor temperature, a
controlled water supply temperature results in a narrower necessary P-band width than
does the case of a constant water supply temperature. The greatest difference occurs in
the case of a linear control valve, for which a controlled water temperature is almost a
necessity if the system is to be able to operate in practice. The risk of instability
declines with a controlled water temperature, which favours the use of a narrower
P-band and thus increases the speed of control.
The effect of the water supply temperature on the return temperature depends on
whether the flow on the secondary side through the air heater changes as a result of any
change in the position of the control valve. This is the case for the direct connection,
where the return temperature changes if the shape of the control curve characteristic is
changed. However, for the district heating connection, the shape of the control curve
characteristic has no effect on the return temperature as long as the system is correctly
balanced. The return temperature from the SABO connection can change in response to
a change in the control curve characteristic, but only if the choice of control valve ports
is such that the flow on the secondary side is changed when the valve opening changes,
as will be the case with, for example, a symmetrical logarithmic three-way valve with a
high authority (see Trschel, 1999).
Table 21 shows how the weighted annual return temperature changes if the system uses
a constant water supply temperature instead of a controlled temperature, in accordance
with the previously described control curve characteristics.
211
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
Supply temperature
Controlled
Constant
24.1
22.6
23.0
21.1
25.1
25.1
23.8
23.7
25.1
25.2
23.7
23.6
Table 21. Weighted annual return temperatures, for controlled and constant water
supply temperatures.
It can be seen from the table that, for the direct connection case, the return temperature
decreases if the supply temperature is constant, relative to what happens if the supply
temperature is controlled. The decrease in return temperature is somewhat greater in the
low flow case (1.9 C) than in the high-flow case (1.5 C). The change in return
temperature is insignificant for the other systems.
7.6
The effect of a fouled air heater
After having been in use for some time, the surfaces of the air heater will be fouled. To
model this case (in a simplified way), the UA value of the air heater in the simulations
has been reduced by 10 %. This has the effect of abstracting less heat from the water,
with the result that the design heating capacity cannot be achieved. In principle, the
relative reduction in the thermal power output gives rise to a corresponding reduction in
the necessary P-band width, due to proportional reduction of the system gain. This
reduction is of the order of 47 %, with the lower value being applicable for low-flow
systems. Table 22 shows how a 10 % reduction of the air heater's UA value affects the
output air temperature (in the design case) and the weighted mean annual return
temperature. The values in brackets indicate what the weighted return temperature
would be if the reduced UA value was compensated for by increasing the supply
temperature in order to achieve the design outlet air temperature.
System
Log-4,H,D
Log-4,L,D
Log-4,H,DH
Log-4,L,DH
Log-4,H,SABO
Log-4,L,SABO
Reduced UA (-10 %)
tw,return
ta,out,design
17.3
26.8 (26.8)
18.5
26.0 (26.0)
17.3
27.0 (27.2)
18.1
25.9 (26.0)
17.3
27.1 (27.3)
18.5
26.0 (26.0)
Correct UA
ta,out,design
tw,return
20.0
24.2
20.0
23.0
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.8
20.0
25.1
20.0
23.7
Table 22. Design output air temperature and weighted annual return temperature,
resulting from a 10 % reduction in the air heater's UA value.
The increase in the return temperature is noticeable in all systems, although by far the
greatest in the direct-connected systems, the return temperatures of which become
approximately the same as those in the other systems. In the direct-connection systems,
212
the flow through the air heater has to be increased in order to compensate for the
reduced UA value, during the year. However, in the other valve group arrangements,
this reduction is compensated for by increasing the inlet water temperature, which does
not have as great an effect on the return temperature.
The table also shows that the increase in the return temperature is somewhat greater in
the low-flow systems than in the high-flow systems, which means that the reduced UA
value is compensated for to a greater degree by an increased average temperature in
these systems. This explains why the effect of a reduction in the UA value has less
effect on the outlet air temperature in low-flow systems.
The simulation results of a fouled air heater indicate the effects of incorrect capacity
determination. If an air heater is too small, its UA value is too low, which is what has
been described here. The result is that the return temperature increases. Similarly, too
large an air heater should result in lower return temperatures, but this particular case has
not been simulated in this work.
213
214
8 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
This final chapter presents the most important conclusions of the work, together with a
number of discussion aspects, treating the radiator systems and the air heaters
separately.
8.1
Radiator system
The most important conclusions concerning radiator systems can be summarised in the
following points:
Both the simulations and measured results from an actual physical case show that
substantial deviations in the valve openings result in significantly increased return
water temperatures and a wide spread in room temperatures, but without significantly
affecting the total amount of heat supplied to the building.
If a building heating system is connected to a district heating supply, it is important to
maintain as low a return temperature as possible, which means that radiator valves or
balancing valves must not be open more than necessary, as this tends to result in a
substantial increase in the return temperature. In this respect, low-flow systems are
considerably more sensitive than are high-flow systems. As far as the systems
considered in this work are concerned, this can be exemplified by the fact that the
return temperatures in both systems become approximately the same if only 10 % of
the radiator valves are fully open. For this reason, it is also important not to fit valves
considerably larger than necessary, as the effect of a fully open valve increases with
its size.
In general, system design affects the interaction between the radiators and the risk of
high return temperatures in such a way that when one increases, the other decreases.
An example of this is that a flat pump characteristic curve or pressure control of the
pump, low pipe pressure drops and high balanced differential pressures all act to
reduce the interaction between the radiators, while at the same time increasing the
risk of high return temperatures if any of the valves is/are opened more than it/they
should be. On the other hand, a steep pump characteristic, high pipe pressure drops
and low balanced differential pressures increase the interaction between the radiators,
but at the same time reduce the effect of radiator valves that are open more than they
should be.
Thermostatic radiator valves are most effective in low-flow systems, partly due to the
radiators' sensitivity to flow changes, and partly because the P-band of the thermostat
is often narrower as a result of balancing of such systems.
Branch, riser and main valves all reduce the interaction between radiators if one or
more of the radiator valves is open more than it should be. On the other hand, they
have an adverse effect on the interaction if one or more of the radiator valves is
closed.
A simple analysis of a district heating heat exchanger (supplying the radiator system)
shows that an increase in the return temperature of the radiator system results in a
215
somewhat lesser increase in the return temperature of the district heating water. If, at
the same time, the flow in the radiator system increases, the effect on the district
heating return water temperature also increases. In the cases considered, it was the
low-flow system that resulted in the greatest increase in the district heating water
return temperature.
8.1.1 High-flow or low-flow balancing
It is important to point out that the systems that have been compared in this work were
balanced with either a high flow rate or a low flow rate. However, this does not
automatically mean that the process was necessarily done according to a high-flow or a
low-flow balancing method, as these concepts can be associated with completely
different levels of flows and pressures in the system. In addition, they can also include
other adjustment of the systems, such as the use of different valves or pumps.
The results of the simulations show that, regardless of the balanced flow, it is important
that the systems are actually balanced, and that balancing is carried out properly.
Provided that the systems are properly balanced, it is the performance of the low-flow
system that is the better. This is based partly on the fact that the return temperature in
such a system is lowest, and partly on the fact that thermostatic radiator valves are most
effective in such systems, which means that best use can be made of any internal heat.
In addition, there are also other effects such as lower pump energy, although this has not
been considered in this work.
It is not until the systems are called upon to deal with deviations that the benefits of a
high balanced flow become apparent. In principle, all the simulations indicate that the
effect of such deviations is greatest in low-flow systems. Admittedly, there is often
least effect upon the actual flow in such systems, but at the same time the radiators in
low-flow systems are most sensitive to any changes in the flow. A still lower balanced
flow results in even less interaction between the radiators but, at the same time, greater
sensitivity to flow changes. In low-flow systems, this sensitivity can also result in steps
being taken that actually exacerbate the problem. An example of this could be
increasing the pump pressure or raising the supply temperature to deal with
unnecessarily low room temperatures. It is therefore particularly important that the
settings of the individual valves should be carefully checked in such systems, instead of
simply making some quick change that affects the entire system. This should also, of
course, apply for high-flow systems.
The sensitivity of low-flow systems to flow changes can be seen as either an advantage
or as a drawback, depending on the results and performance required. The advantage is
that heat release from the radiators falls off more rapidly than it does in a high-flow
system, as any internal heat in the room increases. This presupposes, of course, the use
of thermostatic radiator valves. The drawback is that any undesired change in flow
conditions has more effect on the heat release.
This resolves to the question that, if the sensitivity of the system is regarded as positive
or negative, should it be as insensitive as possible to deviations, or should the radiators
react quickly to changes? At the same time, this latter alternative can mean that
deviations can be quickly detected. The following are a number of reflections on the
effects and performances of different system designs in this respect.
216
- In a system with thermostatic radiator valves, it is naturally important that the

interaction between the radiators on the system should be as little as possible when
the valves close. In order to ensure the least effect on the flow through other radiators
when a valve closes, the system should therefore be designed (and balanced) for a
high differential pressure, low pipe pressure drops and a pump characteristic with as
little slope as possible. A low balanced flow means that the radiators are sensitive to
flow changes, which can be unsuitable in this system. However, at the same time, it
means that the radiators can make best use of any internal heat. A relatively high
flow and normal supply temperature mean instead that the sensitivity of the
radiators is reduced in terms of response to changes in system flows. The drawback
of this is that it also means that the radiators do not react as quickly when internal
heat is available.
- If there is a risk that occupants of the building might fiddle with the valves, the
differential pressure should not be too high, as a low differential pressure reduces the
risk of high flow rates in the system if one or more of the valves is fully opened. To
achieve a relatively stable system, in which a deviation preferably does not result in
too great an effect, the system should be balanced to have a high flow and a low
supply water temperature. However, in order to deal with a problem quickly, it may
be beneficial to balance the system for a low flow. This has the effect that an increase
in the flow results in a significant rise in the return temperature, which will be spotted
relatively quickly by temperature measurements or simply by feeling the pipes.
- If the most important consideration is to achieve a low return temperature, the system
should be balanced for a low flow. The differential pressure should not be
unnecessarily high, and the pump characteristic should be relatively steep, all in order
to reduce the effects of any open valves in the system.
The fact that high-flow and low-flow systems have different advantages and drawbacks
means that they can be chosen to suit different requirements. In general, the simulations
show that low-flow systems result in the lowest return temperature, which is naturally
attractive to district heating utilities. At the same time, such systems are more sensitive
to deviations, which can have the effect of increasing the return temperature, but tend
particularly to result in a greater spread in room temperatures in the building.
High-flow systems, on the other hand, generally result in a lesser spread in room
temperatures, which is more likely to be of interest to building owners or operators.
8.2
The most important conclusions concerning air heaters supplied by valve groups are as
follows:
The theoretically best possible control potential of a system depends on its design,
capacities and balancing, which means that it is already determined before the control
valve is selected. When the valve is chosen, we arrive at the true control potential of
the system, which will always be poorer than the best theoretically possible. The
effect of the control valve on controllability is considerable, particularly as far as the
choice of valve characteristic is concerned. This means that, in the worst case, the
217
wrong choice of control valve can cancel out the control potential of a properly
designed and balanced valve group.
As long as the valve authority is modest, a control valve or control port having a
logarithmic valve characteristic is almost always preferable to one with a linear
characteristic. However, a high valve authority is favoured more by a straighter valve
characteristic. A three-way control valve with a linear bypass port (the B port) is
preferable, as a logarithmic bypass port makes control unnecessarily difficult.
The measurements and the simulations show that the direct connection arrangement
results in by far the lowest value of necessary P-band width, and should therefore be
the easiest to control. In addition, the controllability of this type of arrangement is
not significantly affected by the choice of balancing. However, the choice of
balancing has a considerable effect on controllability for the two other valve groups,
which have recirculation connections. In this respect, the greatest difficulty of control
occurs in low-flow systems, which is due to such systems' longer dead time.
The simulations show that, for a given air heater, the return temperature is affected
mainly by changes in the secondary flow or by a change in the coefficient of heat
transmittance (for the air heater) caused by, for example, fouling.
8.2.1 High-flow or low-flow balancing
The difference in return temperatures between the high-flow and low-flow systems that
have been considered is not great, amounting to only slightly more than 1 C in total
over the year. This is because a low flow results in a low UA value of the air heater,
which necessitates a high mean temperature difference in the air heater. As a result, an
air heater is much more sensitive to the magnitude of the flow than is a radiator, which
is relatively insensitive in this respect, which means that it is not obvious that a low
balanced flow through an air heater would result in a low return temperature. In
addition, the simulations show that any deviations in respect of balancing of the
secondary side has a considerably greater effect on the return temperature in a system
having a low balanced flow than it does in a system having a high balanced flow.
The design and control of a valve group is more forgiving of deviations in the setting of
the balancing valve from design conditions than is a radiator valve. This means that the
return temperature is not affected as much by such system deviations in air heater
systems as it is in radiator systems.
8.2.2 Balancing the valve group
The simulations show that there is a risk of the system failing to perform properly if
either the primary or secondary side balancing valves are closed too much. The effect
of a balancing valve on the primary side being opened too much is that it becomes more
difficult to control the air heater, as the width of the necessary P-band increases. This
effect is greatest in low-flow systems. However, an incorrectly balanced valve on the
primary side has no effect on the return temperatures in any of the systems, as long as
system performance can be maintained.
218
On the secondary side, a balancing valve that is open more than it need to be results in
an increase in the return temperature, and particularly in low-flow systems that are
considerably more sensitive in this respect than are high-flow systems. The advantage
of a high secondary flow rate is that control is simplified, as the dead time is reduced.
The direct connection arrangement is quite insensitive to the effect of incorrectly set
balancing valves on the return temperature. In the worst case, with an excessively
closed balancing valve, it may not be possible to achieve the design air temperature, in
exactly the same way as for the other valve groups. Raising the supply water
temperature in order to deal with the problem reduces the return temperature in a direct
connection arrangement, while doing so does not affect the return temperature in valves
groups having recirculation connections.
Chapter 7 ranked the effect of any deviations due to incorrect balancing in descending
order of seriousness. This ranking is repeated below:
- The system is unable to supply the desired thermal power under design
conditions. This situation is caused by the balancing valve on the primary or
secondary side being closed far too much. The result is a system incapable of
fulfilling its intended purpose.
- Control is more difficult than necessary. This is because the balancing valve on
the primary side is open more than necessary, or because the balancing valve on the
secondary side is closed more than necessary. This results in a system that is difficult
to control, which in the worst case can lead to instability.
- The return temperature is higher than necessary, due to the balancing valve on
the secondary side being open more than necessary. The simulations indicate that
high-flow systems are considerably less sensitive to this than are low-flow systems.
As it is most important to avoid the first of these cases - i.e. producing a system that
does not do what it is supposed to do - there is a risk that both the primary and
secondary balancing valves might be set more open than necessary, simply in order to
be on the safe side. This creates a system with unnecessarily high return temperatures,
difficult to control and thus not as fast in its responses as it could have been if balancing
had been correct.
8.2.3 Controlled versus constant supply temperature
The maximum necessary P-band width occurs at the design outdoor temperature, and is
unaffected by whether the supply temperature varies as a function of the outdoor
temperature or is constant. As the outdoor temperature rises, so the necessary width of
the P-band decreases. This decrease is considerably greater if the supply temperature is
regulated than if the supply temperature is constant. This means that a controlled
supply water temperature facilitates local control of a valve group during operation.
However, in order to avoid the system becoming unstable under any conditions, the
setting of the regulator P-band must be such as to be able to accommodate the worst
case, which is that of design outdoor temperature (that is the lowest outdoor
temperature). One way of improving the speed of response of control, and to improve
219
its performance, is therefore to arrange for the width of the regulator P-band to be varied
in response to changes in the outdoor temperature.
With one exception, the effect on the return temperature is the same, regardless of the
shape of the supply temperature control curve characteristic. This exception is that the
return temperature from a directly connected heater supplied at a constant temperature is
lower (over the year) than in the case when supply temperature is regulated.
8.2.4 Selection of the valve group
It must again be pointed out that the main reason for the direct connection arrangement
having the narrowest P-band is due to the difference in dead time between this type of
connection and the other arrangements. The measurements show that the dead time of
the direct connection arrangement in this work can be estimated as about five seconds,
regardless of balancing, while that for the other types of valve groups is about three
times as much for a high-flow balanced system, and no less than six times as much for a
low-flow balanced system.
On the other hand, the time constant of a valve group having a recirculation connection
is considerably greater (compared with the direct connection), which is illustrated by the
fact that the difference in the necessary P-band width between the direct connection
arrangement and the district heating connection arrangement is just over a factor of one
for a high-flow system, and about two for a low-flow system. This means that, to a
considerable degree, the high time constant in the district heating connection
compensates the difference in dead time.
A conclusion in this respect is therefore that the direct connection arrangement has a
considerable advantage in the form of its short dead time. At the same time, systems
with recirculation connections also have a valuable benefit in the form of their long time
constants. The dead time in valve groups having recirculation connections can be
affected in various ways: by reducing the length of the recirculation inlet connection or
by increasing the flow rates. However, as far as the first possibility is concerned, these
valve groups are often mounted on the air heater or close to it, which means that the
dead time is relatively short.
The time constant, too, can also be affected to a considerable degree in valves having
recirculation connections, by such means as increasing the length of the recirculation
return connection (see Brresen, 1985). However, this is not possible for a direct
connection arrangement, the time constant of which is difficult to influence.
The potential for accurate control is therefore greater for a valve group having a
recirculation connection than it is for the direct connection arrangement. However, such
valve groups must be correctly designed. In this respect, the direct connection
arrangement is less sensitive, as there is still going to be a relatively high probability of
a direct connection arrangement providing better control in practice than does a valve
group having a recirculation connection. But then again, there are a number of
significant drawbacks with the direct connection arrangement, such as a risk of freezing,
uneven temperature distribution in the outgoing air flow and a risk of control problems
at very low flow rates.
220
8.2.5 Choice of valve characteristic

Selection of the best valve characteristic for a control valve is not simple, and is also
naturally affected by the types available. However, it does simplify things to know
approximately what characteristic the valve ought to have, so that as good a valve as
possible can be selected. There has been considerable discussion on which
characteristic is most suitable, and much has been written on the subject. In this respect,
see particularly Grindal (1988 and 1995). The presentation in this work does not claim
to provide any further theoretical information over and above what has already been
written: instead, it describes the effect on an optimum valve characteristic of various
different system configurations.
The simulations show considerable similarities in optimum valve characteristics from
one system configuration to another. There is little difference in the optimum valve
characteristic, for example, between high-flow and low-flow systems, or between
different valve group arrangements. However, this applies only as long as the valve
authority remains relatively unchanged.
As shown in Appendix B, the optimum valve characteristic depends on the static
characteristic, the total efficiency of the valve group and the valve authority. The most
important of these factors is presumably the valve authority, as there can be relatively
substantial variations in it between different systems. It is therefore very important to
make the correct choice of control valve in terms of both characteristic and size. The
larger the valve, or the greater the variation in available differential pressure, the more
the valve characteristic needs to depart from a straight line.
221
222
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226
APPENDIX A TEST RIGS
TEST RIGS
Two test rigs have been used for making the measurements: one for the air heater (and its
associated valve group), and the other for radiators.
A.1 Test rig for the air heater with valve group
A.1.1 Arrangement of the test rig
The test rig was based on an existing facility, that had been designed for work by Per
Widn investigating the relationship between air and water temperatures. This resulted in
his licentiate thesis Luftvrmare i luftbehandlingsaggregat (Air heaters in air handling
units) in 1994.
As much as possible of the original rig was used, although the valve group was replaced
and the out-of-date measurement system was replaced. Figure A1 shows an isometric
sketch of the original facility with the ringed valve group being that which was replaced in
the new rig.
Figure A1. The original test rig, showing the valve group that was replaced when
converting to the new test rig. This diagram is taken from Widn (1994).
A-1
Combined valve group

The reason for modifying the test rig was first and foremost because the old valve group
had been arranged in the Swedish connection style, one of the effects of which is to
maintain the water flows constant on both the primary and secondary sides. This is
patently incompatible with a system designed to have variable primary flow. In addition, it
was desirable easily to be able to change the valve group and also the control valve. The
purpose of the new arrangement was therefore to give the valve group the necessary
flexibility to be operated in a number of ways, as shown in the following diagram.
Temperature sensor, Pt100
Pressure measurement
point
Balancing valve
Inductive flow sensor

Check valve
Circulation pump
Air heater
Shut-off valve
Three-way control valve
Figure A2. The new combined valve group after conversion.

By appropriate arrangement of the shut-off valves, it is possible to set the test rig up for
measurements of three different valve group arrangements, as shown in the schematic
diagrams below, in which filled shut-off valves are closed and unfilled shut-off valves are
open. The diagram also shows the designations that have been used in this work to
identify the three different arrangements.
A-2
Direct
connection
District
heating
connection
SABO
connection
Figure A3. The combined valve group can be set up to provide three different connections,
depending on which shut-off valves are open and which are closed.
Control valves
The three parallel-connected three-way control valves in Figure A2 provide a simple
means of setting up the rig to represent different control arrangements. In order to be able
to use the three-way valves also as two-way valves, the shunt connection has been given a
shut-off valve, which can be used to isolate the shunt port of the three-way control valves.
Table 1 shows data for the three control valves.
Valve
name
V341
V341
V355
Manufacturer
TA Control
TA Control
TA Control
kvs value
[m/h]
10
4
4
Control port
(charact.)
Log.
Log.
Lin.
Shunt port
(charact.)
Lin.
Lin.
Lin.
Actuator
Forta
Forta
EM52L-4
Position in
the rig
Furthest in
Centre
Furthest out
Table A1. Data for the three control valves used in the rig.
The figures below show the three control valve characteristics as used for the control port.
These curves are taken from the TA Controls product catalogue.
A-3
V355 - 4
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
kv [m/h]
kv [m/h]
V341 - 4
3.0
2.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Valve opening (H) [-]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
V341 - 10
10
The identification above each

diagram is made up of the valve
type (V341 or V355) followed
by the valves kvs value. This
principle of identification has
been used throughout this work.
kv [m/h]
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

Figure A4. The three valves' characteristics as given by the manufacturer.
The reason for this choice of control valves is that it makes it possible to compare different
valve characteristics (linear / logarithmic) for the same valve authorities, as well as
different valve authorities (kvs: 4 / kvs: 10) for the same valve characteristics.
Balancing valves
There are four balancing valves (TA Hydronics' STAD, size DN32) in the valve group,
although only two are used for adjusting the primary and secondary flows. The other two
valves are installed in the connections to the valve group, and are used for setting the
required differential pressure across the valve group. The schematic diagram below shows
the positions of the balancing valves, their functions and the identifications used in this
work.
A-4
Ip
I2
Ib
I1
I2 is used to set the required circulation flow (with the control valve fully closed)
I1 is used to set the design flow rate (with the control valve fully open)
Ip is used to set the total flow in the system (from the boiler)
Ib is used to set the flow that bypasses the valve group.
Figure A5. The positions and functions of the balancing valves in the valve group.
The reason for the bypass connection, controlled by Ib, is to ensure that the available
differential pressure across the valve group does not vary excessively, without having to
employ some form of differential pressure control, which might interfere with the function
of the other control valves. This also models the real-life situation of a system with several
valve groups.
The system flow between the boiler and the bypass connection must be considerably
higher than the design flow rate through the valve group itself. In other words, even when
the control valve is fully open, there must be a fairly substantial flow through the bypass
connection. When the control valve closes, this flow does not change very much, with the
result that there is a relatively constant differential pressure across the bypass connection,
and so also across the valve group. This means that, by varying the settings of Ip and Ib,
the magnitude of the differential pressure and, to some extent, also the amount by which it
varies, can be adjusted.
Shut-off valves
As it is necessary for the combined valve group to be rearrangeable into different
configurations, both in terms of the valve group arrangement and of the control valve, the
group contains no less than eleven shut-off valves. Most of these (seven) are new (TA
500), while some of them are from the original test rig (AJ3545T).
Pipes
The pipes are 32 mm diameter (nominal) galvanised steel tubes, insulated with glass fibre
split pipe sleeves, with aluminium foil on the outside.
Air heater
The air heater has not been changed, but is part of the original unit. It is a two-row unit
(500 x 600 mm), type designation VAH 0506.20, and supplied by the then Stratos
Ventilation.
A-5
Circulation pump
The original circulation pump in the valve group was found to be leaking quite
considerably, particularly at low water temperatures. As a result, the original (dry) pump
was replaced by a new wet pump. This new pump (Grundfos UPS 25-60 180) is a
triple-speed unit, having the following pump characteristics (as shown in the Grundfos
product catalogue).
Figure A6. Pump characteristics for the valve group's Grundfos UPS 25-60 180
circulation pump.
The main pump
The main pump supplying the boiler was also changed, in order to make it possible to
create relatively high available differential pressures across the valve group. In the same
way as for the circulation pump in the valve group, the new boiler pump (Grundfos UPS
40-180) is also a three-speed unit, having characteristics as shown below.
A-6
Figure A7. Pump characteristics for the main Grundfos UPS 40-180 pump (connected to
the boiler).
Miscellaneous
The heat source equipment is as for the original test rig, and consists of a Parca EL-150
electric boiler with a rating of 70 kW, switchable to 19 power levels, connected to a CTC
Parca Cetevac 500 litre hot water storage tank, which maintains the supply temperature at a
constant level. See Widn (1994) for a more detailed description of the system.
A.1.2 Structure of the ventilation system
The purpose of the ventilation system is to supply the air heater in the heating system with
cold outdoor air. The original ventilation system is used, with only one change: the
frequency converter that had been used to control the fan speed was replaced by a more
modern converter when the original one failed. Figure A8 shows the general arrangement
of the system.
A-7
Explanations
Uteluftsintag
Luftbehandlingsdel
Omblandningsbox
Hastighets ....
Testsektion
Trappa...
Testbatteri
Avluft
Flktdel
Delar av...
Ackumulator
Elpanna
Expansionskrl
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Outdoor air intake

Air treatment unit
Mixer box
Flow smoother
Test section
Staircase up to mezzanine
Test air heater
Exhaust air
Fan section
Parts of the heating system
(below the mezzanine)
= Hot water storage tank
= Electric boiler
= Expansion vessel
Figure A8. Arrangement of the existing ventilation system. Picture taken from Widn
(1994).
Before the incoming air reaches the air heater at the heart of the test rig, it passes through
an air treatment section that consists of a cooling coil and an electric heater. However, the
cooling coil has never actually been connected to any refrigerating machinery, and so for
this reason it has not been possible to make use of it in the measurements.
In order to ensure that the air in the ventilation duct has a uniform temperature and is
flowing with a uniform velocity, it is mixed in a mixing box, after which it passes a
perforated plate to even out the flow velocity.
An orifice plate (for measurement of the air flow rate) and a grid of temperature sensors
are installed upstream of the air heater. A similar grid of temperature sensors is installed
downstream of the air heater, and upstream of the fan portion. These items of
instrumentation are described in more detail below (A.1.4).
The final part of the ventilation system, before the air is discharged to the exhaust duct,
consists of the fan unit, made up of a fan and silencers.
A.1.3 The control system
The system can be controlled in three different ways: manual control, computer control or
automatic control.
A-8
Manual control
Manual control means that the valve opening of the control valves can be controlled
directly by means of a potentiometer, from which the desired valve opening (from 0.0 to
99.9 %) can be set directly. This method is used primarily when balancing the system.
Computer control
Most of the measurements were concerned with ascertaining how the valve opening of the
control valve affected the flow and temperature levels in the various types of systems (i.e.
in respect of the type of valve group, the type of control valve and the flow mode). This
work was performed under computer control, with the control valve being opened in 10 %
steps from originally closed to 100 % valve opening. After each step, the system was
allowed to settle to steady-state conditions, involving a wait of about 10-20 minutes, before
the next step could be taken. By using the computer to construct a program under which
the valve opening of the valve was determined by the time, it was possible essentially to
automate these measurements, which naturally facilitated the work.
Automatic control
It was also desirable to be able to produce measurements that simulated real conditions, i.e.
those in which a regulator automatically adjusts the control valve in response to the
temperature of the air leaving the air heater. The air temperature was measured by an EGL
temperature sensor (from TA Control), from which the output signal was connected
directly to the automatic system controller, and not to the measurement system. This
controller was in the form of a TA Control Xenta 302 PI controller, in which the
temperature set value, the width of the P-band and the length of the I-time could all be
adjusted. By varying the width of the P-band (and/or the I-time) the system can be induced
to oscillate, which provides an indication of the sensitivity of the system.
Setting up the three control modes was done in a straightforward manner by connecting the
control valve actuator to the required control output on a central unit. These three outputs
on the unit are in turn connected to either the potentiometer, the computer (via the
data-logger) or the conventional controller. The design of the necessary connection
system, together with programming of the computer and data-logger for the measurement
and control system, was carried out by Tommy Sundstrm and Josef Jarosz, both
employed by the Department of Building Services Systems.
A.1.4 The measurement system
The purpose of the measurement system is to collect the necessary measured data from a
number of measurement points throughout the system. The diagram below represents a
simplified schematic of the valve group, showing the measurement points and their
names/numbers, together with a table identifying the measurement points and providing
further information.
A-9
4
A
24
23
22
27
26
25
28
15
14
13
18
17
16
21
20
19
11
12
A
0 B
10
Temperature sensor for the

control system (TAC EGL)
No. in the
diagram
1-2
Name
Description
Sensor
Ta-1,8 - 1,9
Air temperature upstream of the air heater
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 - 21
Tw-2,1
Tw-1,2
Tw-1,1
Tw-2,2
Vw-1
Vw-2
DP-1
DP-2
H-ventil
H-signal
Ta-2,1 - 2,9
22 - 28
Ta-1,1 - 1,7
Water temperature, secondary side, supply

Water temperature, primary side, return
Water temperature, primary side, supply
Water temperature, secondary side, return
Water flow rate, primary side
Water flow rate, secondary side
Degree of opening, actual value
Degree of opening, set value
Air temperature downstream of the air
heater
Air temperature upstream of the air heater
Temperature sensor, Cu-Konstantan,

type T
Pt-100 (3 mm)
Pt-100 (3 mm)
Pt-100 (3 mm)
Pt-100 (3 mm)
Scylar II QN 2,5
Scylar II QN 2,5
Validyne DP15, membrane 38 (square)
Validyne DP103, membrane 38 (round)
Internal voltage in the actuator
Output voltage from the control system
type T
type T
Figure A9. Measurement points in the system.

All test points identified by letters in the above diagram are pressure measurement points.
However, only eight of them (A, B, E, F, G, H, I, K) were used. They were connected by
reinforced rubber hoses to a pressure manifold (circled in the diagram above) containing
two differential pressure sensors, with each input being controlled by a small shut-off valve
A-10
(TA 400). The pressure sensors, which are Validyne DP15 (no. 9) and Validyne DP103
(no. 10) could in turn be isolated from each other by means of a further four shut-off
valves, so that they could be used to measure different differential pressures in the system
at the same time. Two inputs on the pressure manifold were connected together in order to
be able to zero the differential pressure: these two inputs are shown in the diagram by 0.
Water temperature
The temperature of the water was measured at four points in the valve group. As seen in
the direction of flow, the supply temperature was measured upstream of the control valve
(5), the inlet temperature was measured immediately before the air heater (3), the return
temperature on the secondary side was measured immediately after the air heater (6), and
the return temperature on the primary side was measured after the shunt connection (4).
The temperature sensors were Pt100 sensors, in direct contact with the water flow. The
reason for not using sensor pockets was because they would delay the response to
temperature changes in the water. It should also be added that the Pt 100 sensors were
connected to the data-logger using the four-wire method, which means that power supply
and measurement were separated into two loops, which improves accuracy.
Air temperature
Two grids, each consisting of nine temperature sensors, were mounted in the air duct
upstream and downstream of the air heater. The temperature sensors themselves were of
type T, i.e. copper and konstantan. Each sensor was separately connected to the
data-logger. Reference temperature was measured internally in the data-logger. However,
it was found that this was not particularly appropriate, as described below in section A.1.5,
Uncertainty of Measurement.
Another temperature sensor (TA Controls EGL) was also fitted in the air duct downstream
of the air heater and connected to the control system, as described above in section A.1.3.
This sensor provided a signal to the automatic control system, and not to the measurement
system.
Water flow
Two inductive flow meters (Scylar II QN 2.5) were installed in the valve group: one (7) to
measure the flow on the primary side, and one (8) to measure the flow on the secondary
side. These flow meters were originally intended for digital recording of the flow, by
counting pulses, with each pulse corresponding to a certain quantity of water passing
through the unit. However, this was not a desirable procedure in this project, as pulse
counting involves a relatively high uncertainty of measurement at low flow rates or when
the flow changes rapidly, i.e. over a short period of time. The meters were therefore fitted
with analogue outputs, so that the flow could be measured instantaneously in the form of a
4-20 mA current signal.
Air flow
All measurements were made at a constant air flow rate. This was measured by the
existing orifice plate, installed upstream of the air heater, in the form of a 2 mm thick plate,
A-11
Mass flow [kg/s]
with a rectangular opening in the centre. Four pressure measurement points were fitted on
each side of the orifice plate, connected together and then connected to a U-tube
manometer. From this, the measured value was obtained simply visually, by reading the
manometer. The air flow rate could be controlled by varying the fan speed, under control
of its inverter, although a constant fan speed was used for all the measurements. This
involved supplying the motor at a frequency of 40 Hz, which created a differential pressure
of 39 1 kPa across the orifice plate. This equated to a mass flow of 1.01 0.01 kg/s, as
shown in the diagram below, which is a reworking of a calibration curve produced for the
plate (Widn, 19994). This reworking consisted of modifying the curve for an air
temperature of 5 C, instead of the approximately 17 C for the original curve. This was
because the incoming air temperature during this work varied between 0 C and 10 C.
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Density = 1,2565 kg/m (5 C)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Pressure drop [kPa]
Figure A10.Reworked calibration curve for the air flow measurement orifice plate.
It is of course very risky to use a 10-year-old calibration curve, and one which, in addition,
has been reworked to match it to other temperatures. Some tracer gas measurements were
therefore made in order to measure the air flow rate somewhat more accurately. This
involved supplying nitrous oxide (N2O) to the air stream immediately after the air heater.
At the same time, the concentration of the gas was measured about 7 m further downstream
in the duct. (It should be pointed out that mixing of the nitrous oxide with the air stream
should be satisfactory, as the distance between the two points includes both a bend and the
fan.) The nitrous oxide measurement showed that, if anything, the mass flow rate of the air
was somewhat higher (about 1.07 kg/s) than as indicated by the calibration curve of the
orifice plate (about 1.01 kg/s).
The valve opening of the control valve
It was most important during the measurements to obtain a continuous measure of the
valve opening of the control valve. This was done by measuring an internal voltage in the
current actuator (11), which provided a measure of the position of the valve head and thus
of the valve opening of the valve.
A-12
Figure 8 also shows an input signal to the valve (12), which is not strictly correct. This
signal comes from the control system, and is supplied to the valve actuator in order to
control opening of the valve. However, the signal is also recorded by the instrumentation
system, and so it is included in the figure.
Data-logger and measurement computer
An HP 34970A data-logger, connected to a computer in which all the measured data was
stored, was used for collecting all the measurement signals. The logger contains three
separate boards, providing a total of 28 inputs and 2 outputs. This meant that all the inputs
were in use during the measurements.
A.1.5 Uncertainty of measurement
Differential pressure - Validyne
Different measuring ranges can be used, depending on what membranes the Validyne
differential pressure gauges are fitted with. Both have been fitted with a no. 38 membrane,
providing a measurement range of 0-55 kPa. According to the manufacturer, the
maximum uncertainty of measurement is guaranteed not to exceed 0.25 % of maximum
value.
The signals from the differential pressure sensors are converted by two signal converters to
a standard 0-10 V output signal. However, this voltage has to be manually adjusted
initially. When setting up the signal converter, the first step is to zero the output voltage
signal, which is why the hydraulic short circuit has been provided on the pressure manifold
between the two connection points marked 0. If possible, the next step is to apply the
maximum differential pressure (55 kPa in this case), so that the output signal can be
adjusted to 10 V. A lower maximum differential pressure would reduce the accuracy.
Setting the signal converters was performed using a U-tube manometer connected to the
pressure manifold. After further checks of the setting, the following characteristic diagram
could be produced.
A-13
50
45
Manometer [kPa]
40
35
30
25
20
15
DP103
y = 0.9358x - 0.1651
sx = +/- 0.23
DP15
y = 0.8574x - 0.0810
sx = +/- 0.51
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Differential pressure sensor [kPa]
Figure A11.Calibration of the differential pressure sensors and their signal converters.
The diagram above shows how the voltage signal (converted to an equivalent differential
pressure) from each differential pressure sensor accords with the corresponding value on
the U-tube manometer. The dotted line in the figure represents full agreement, from which
it can be seen that the settings of the signal converters were not quite correct. The poorest
agreement is that of the DP15 differential pressure sensor. The equations shown in the
figure represent the departures between the differential pressure sensors and the U-tube
manometer. These equations have been applied to the measured values in the analyses in
order to eliminate the differences.
Statistically, the random uncertainties of measurement, or the estimated uncertainties of
measurement (Type A), as defined by BIPM (Fahln, 1992), can be calculated as the
spread of the measured values compared with the equations for correction of the values.
The standard error of the spread can be calculated from the following equation:
N
(x
sx =
where s x
N
xi
x
i =1
x)
(A1)
N2 N
=
=
=
=
Standard error of the measurement

Number of measured values
Individual measured value
Expected value of the measurement series (mean value)
A-14
In this case, x is the true value, as measured using the manometer. The standard errors
of the spreads of DP15 and DP103 can be calculated as 0.51 kPa and 0.23 kPa
respectively.
There is always some risk of misreading the value shown by a manometer. In this case, the
error has been estimated as not exceeding one scale division on the tube. This gives an
expected uncertainty of measurement (Type B) of 0.13 kPa for both DP103 and DP15.
The total uncertainty of measurement is given by:
2
Ux = k sx + w x
where U x
k
sx
wx
=
=
=
=
(A2)
Total uncertainty of measurement

Coverage factor (normally equal to 2)
Estimated uncertainty of measurement
Expected uncertainty of measurement
After correction by the equations shown in Figure A11, this gives a total uncertainty of
measurement for DP15 of 1.05 kPa, and a corresponding uncertainty of measurement for
DP103 of 0.54 kPa.
Pt100 temperature sensors
According to their manufacturer (Pentronic), the Pt100 temperature sensors have a
maximum as-delivered uncertainty of measurement of 0.05 C. This uncertainty of
measurement was regarded as satisfactory for the purposes of this work, and so the sensors
were not further calibrated in order possibly to improve the known uncertainty of
measurement. However, they were jointly calibrated in order to compare them with each
other. This simply involved running the system without the electric boiler and main pump.
Both the shunt and the bypass connection were closed at the valve group, so that the water
flow circulated past all the temperature sensors, as shown in the simplified diagram below.
The diagram shows only the relevant sensors in this context: in addition, all the shut-off
valves and valve group and bypass connections have been removed.
A-15
4
8
Figure A12.Simplified diagram of the valve group when performing common calibration of
the temperature sensors.
In order to reduce the effect of heat transfer from the warmer surroundings in the test hall
(where the test rig was installed) to the colder outdoor air in the ventilation duct, this joint
calibration was performed on a hot summer day, when the difference between the
temperature of the air in the ventilation duct and the temperature of the air in the test hall
was relatively little. Measurement continued for some hours, and showed a mean
departure of 0.03 C between all four Pt100 sensors and the mean value of them. The
maximum instantaneous difference between two sensors amounted to 0.10 C.
The mean departure as stated here has been previously defined, in Chapter 4. It is used to
describe the differences between two values, whether between measured and simulation
values, the measured value from a sensor against the mean value of all connected sensors
or simply between two individual sensors. The fact that it is the mean departure that is
used, instead of calculating the estimated uncertainties of measurement using equation
(A1), is due to the fact that such calculation is quite difficult, as the outdoor temperature
varied during the progress of the measurements. It becomes impossible to distinguish
between temporary departures and those that are due to an actual temperature change, with
the result that it is not possible to arrive at a stable mean value of the measured values from
a sensor over a given period of time, which complicates estimation of the estimated
uncertainties of measurement.
The thought behind the use of mean departures is to provide quantitative measures of the
agreement between the temperature sensors in the system, which in turn provides an
indication of the uncertainty of measurement of the sensors. This applies particularly to
the thermoelements which, in this way, can be related to the Pt 100 sensors, the uncertainty
of which is documented by the manufacturer.
Temperature sensors -thermoelements
According to their manufacturer, Pentronic, the uncertainty of measurement of the
thermoelements is not more than 0.10 C. However, as their uncertainty of measurement
depends to some extent on the way in which they are connected to the data-logger (with an
A-16
internal reference temperature producing poorer accuracy), and particularly due to the fact
that they have not been replaced since the test rig was originally built, it was essential to
check them. However, it would have been undesirable to dismantle the rig in order to
reach them: instead, they too have been checked against each other by means of a common
calibration. At equilibrium, both the air and the water temperatures in the system should
be the same, as described above in connection with common calibration of the Pt 100
sensors.
Figure A13 shows the results of this common calibration, which lasted for 24 hours with
measurements every minute. The diagram shows the mean value of the Pt 100 sensors in
the valve group (Tw), the mean value of the thermoelements in the ventilation duct
upstream of the air heater (Ta-1) and the mean value of the thermoelements in the
ventilation duct downstream of the air heater (Ta-2).
However, it must be pointed out that only two of the nine thermoelements upstream of the
air heater showed themselves to be reliable, and so the measured value from those
elements that were not working have been omitted from the analyses. But the drawback of
this is that any thermal stratification of the air upstream of the air heater would not be
picked up by the sensors, and so it was not certain that the two working sensors would
necessarily provide a representative measure of the incoming air temperature. However,
the common calibration does show that the mean value of the measured air temperature
from the two working sensors upstream of the air heater agrees well with the mean value
from the sensors after the air heater. As no heat is supplied to the incoming air flow, it is
reasonable to assume that the sensors upstream of the air heater do in fact provide a
representative measure of the mean value of the incoming air temperature. In addition, it
was found in connection with the joint calibration that the spread of measurement between
the sensors downstream of the air heater was relatively narrow. A mean departure (against
the mean value of all the sensors measurements) of only 0.26 C and a maximum
instantaneous departure of 0.80 C (for sensors Ta-2,9 against the mean value) indicates
that there is little thermal stratification in the ventilation duct. However, when heat is
supplied, some thermal stratification does occur downstream of the air heater, as described
in Chapter 3 in connection with the measurements.
A-17
16.0
Temperature [C]
15.5
Ta-1 (mean)
Ta-2 (mean)
15.0
Tw (mean)
14.5
14.0
13.5
13.0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Time [h]
Figure A13.Mean values from the water and air temperature sensors as obtained by the
common calibration.
Measurement showed that the mean value of temperature as indicated by the
thermoelements in the first grid (upstream of the air heater) differs from the mean value of
the measured water temperatures (as measured by the Pt 100 sensors) by + 0.03 C
(systematically). The corresponding value of the second grid array, downstream of the air
heater, was + 0.006 C. The mean departure between the mean temperature of the first
grid array and the mean value of the Pt 100 sensors has been calculated as amounting to
0.002 C, while the corresponding figure for the second grid array is 0.001 C. This shows
that the mean value of the measured values from the thermoelements provides a
representative measure of the true air temperature. The total uncertainty of measurement
of these sensors was estimated as being 0.10 C, which is based on the calculated values
(of the uncertainty of measurement of the Pt 100 sensors and the measured mean
departures stated above) and on what is stated by the manufacturer.
Air flow measurement - orifice plate/tracer gas
Both the existing orifice plate and tracer gas measurements were used when determining
the air flow in the ventilation duct. An adjusted calibration curve for the orifice plate
indicated a mass flow of about 1.01 kg/s of air, while the tracer gas measurements
indicated a mass flow of 1.07 kg/s. This difference can depend on three factors:
measurement error(s) when determining the air flow using the orifice plate, inward leakage
of surrounding air at the air heater or measurement error(s) when making the tracer gas
measurements.
It is difficult to estimate measurement error when using the orifice plate. Errors or
uncertainties can of course arise in connection with reading the U-tube manometer, but this
uncertainty is estimated as not exceeding 1 Pa. On the other hand, the reliability of using
an old, readjusted calibration curve has to be regarded as being a major problem in this
context.
A-18
It is possible that there is a slight inward leakage of air from the surroundings. However, it
should be more or less insignificant, as all joints in the ventilation duct, and particularly
where the duct joins the air heater, had been sealed with silicone sealant and tape.
The measurement error associated with the tracer gas measurement is estimated as about
7 % (Svensson and Johansson, 1999). In the rest of this work, it is the tracer gas
measurements that will be used as a basis for estimating the air flow. In other words, this
means that the air flow is assumed to be 1.07 kg/s, with an uncertainty of 7 %.
However, it must be pointed out that the air flow as such is not an important parameter in
the measurements: instead, the important factor is that the air flow should be relatively
constant. It is reasonable to assume that, in fact, the air flow has been constant, as the
supply frequency to the fan motor has been held constant at 40 Hz, and no changes have
been made to the ventilation system while making the measurements. This has also been
shown by the fact that the U-tube manometer, connected across the orifice plate, has
steadily shown a value of 39 Pa 1 Pa.
The Scylar II QN 2.5 water flow meter
The calibration of the flow meters from Scylar are accredit by the German DAR
(Deutscher Akkreditierungs Rat) laboratory. The measurement deviation of the meters,
and the uncertainty of measurement during calibration, were determined for three different
flows, as shown in the following table.
Meter no. 7 (Vw1, on the primary side)
Flow [l/h]
Measurement
Uncertainty of
error [%]
measurement [%]
2487.28
0.2
0.6
252.56
0.1
0.6
26.69
-1.1
0.6
Meter no. 8 (Vw2, on the secondary side)
Flow [l/h]
Measurement
Uncertainty of
error[%]
measurement [%]
2484.85
-0.3
0.6
255.99
0.5
0.6
26.68
2.2
0.6
Table A2. Measurement errors of the flow meters.
During the measurements, the flow through Vw1 (meter no. 7) on the primary side changes
drastically, which provides an opportunity to calculate the standard errors for the various
flows, as shown in Figure A14.
A-19
5.0
4.5
Standard error [% ]
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Flow [m /h]
Figure A14.Calculated standard error for flow meter Vw1 (meter no. 7) on the primary
side.
The figure shows that the standard error is low, as long as the flow exceeds 0.2 m/h.
Lower flows result in a substantial increase the standard error. It must be added that the
flow through Vw2 (meter no. 8) on the secondary side was never recorded for values less
than 0.5 m/h, which was due to the fact that, during a certain period (while making the
measurements on the directly connected air heater) the meter did not work. A check of the
standard error of Vw2 showed that it had the same values as those for Vw1 for flow rates
exceeding 0.5 m/h (see the above figure).
With the help of Table A2, and using the calculated standard errors for the meters, it is
possible to estimate the total uncertainty of measurement to give a result as shown in
Figure A15, which shows the total uncertainty of measurement for meter Vw1 (for all
flows) and for Vw2 (for flows exceeding 0.5 m/h).
A-20
Uncertainty of measurement [% ]
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Flow [m /h]
Figure A15.Estimated total uncertainty of measurement (coverage factor 2) for Vw1.

HP 34970A data-logger
The data-logger's uncertainty of temperature measurement is stated as being 1.0 C for
type T thermoelements, and as 0.06 C for Pt100 sensors (as quoted in the HP34970A
manual).
The total uncertainty of measurement of the Pt100 sensors and data-logger together can be
calculated as 0.08 C (the square root of the sum of 0.052 and 0.062), with a coverage
factor of 2.
The mean value of the thermoelements was jointly calibrated with the mean value of the
Pt100 sensors. There was little difference between these mean values, as was also the case
in respect of any difference between the readings from the Pt100 sensors. As the
data-logger was connected during the joint calibration, any measurement errors in it were
included in the value for the total uncertainty of measurement. This means that the
previously stated uncertainty of measurement, of 0.10 C, should be added with the dataloggers uncertainty of measurement for the Pt100 sensors. This gives an total uncertainty
of measurement of 0.12 C (the square root of the sum of 0.102 and 0.062), for the
thermoelements.
Calculation of thermal output power
The water side of the air heater provides a suitable means of calculating the thermal output
power from the air heater, using the following equation.
& = V
& c (t
Q
w
w
w
wi
w ,in t w ,out )
&
where Q
w
w
&
V
w
(A3)
= Thermal output power on the water side [W]

= Density [kg/m]
= Flow [m/s]
A-21
cw
t w ,in
= Specific thermal capacity [J/kgC]

= Input water temperature [C]
t w ,out = Return water temperature [C]

After converting to logarithms and differentiating, we obtain:
&
&
Q
w V
c
(t w )
w
w
=
+
+ w +
&
&
w
cw
t w
V
Q
w
w
(A4)
This enables the total uncertainty of measurement to be calculated from (Fahln, 1992):
U Q& w
U
= w
&
Q
w
w
where U
U V& w U c w
+
+
V
& c
w w
U t w
+
t
w
(A5)
= Total uncertainty of measurement, with a coverage factor of 2.
The values of density and specific thermal capacity have been assumed to be constant, at
988 kg/m and 4177 J/kgK respectively, although this represents a fairly substantial
departure for the density, amounting at most to about 1 %, while the departure of the
specific thermal capacity is only 0.3 % for this procedure.
The total uncertainty of measurement of the temperature difference amounts to 0.11 C
(multiplying the uncertainty of measurement of the Pt100 sensors by 2). The uncertainty
of measurement of the water flow depends on its magnitude. However, in most cases, the
flow on the secondary side is either about 1.1 m/h (for the high flow mode) or about
0.55 m/h (for the low flow mode). These two flow values have respective uncertainties of
measurement of 0.63 % and 0.61 %, as shown in figure A15. The following
characteristic can be plotted for these constant flows, showing the total uncertainty of
measurement of the calculated thermal output power, as measured on the secondary side.
A-22
10
8
High-flow
Low-flow
4
2
0
0
10
15
20
25
Calculated thermal output power [kW]
Figure A16.Total uncertainty of measurement of calculated thermal output power, as

measured on the secondary side.
The uncertainty of measurement of the thermal output power, as measured on the primary
side, is shown in the following diagram, which is valid for both the high-flow and
low-flow modes.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
15
20
25
Calculated thermal output power [kW]
Figure A17.Total uncertainty of measurement of calculated thermal output power, as

measured on the primary side.
The fact that the uncertainty of measurement is somewhat higher when the water flow is
measured on the secondary side is due to the smaller temperature difference. This means
that the effect of the uncertainty of measurement of temperature is greater in this case.
A-23
A.2 The radiator system test rig

A.2.1 Arrangement of the test rig
This test rig was constructed in 1998 as part of a project work at the Department of
Building Services Systems (Bengtsson and Magnusson, 1998). It was subsequently
complemented by a number of pressure measurement points and a temperature sensor for
the current work. The diagram below shows the arrangement of the test rig and the
positions of the sensors.
Radiator valve
Temperature sensors
Radiator 1
Return valve
Electric boiler
Integral
pump
Radiator 2
Inductive flow meter

B
Balancing and
shut-off valve
Pressure measurement
point
Figure A18.Schematic diagram of the radiator test rig and positions of sensors.
The distribution system to the two radiators in the test rig is arranged as a two-pipe system,
i.e. consisting of a supply pipe and a direct return. The radiators and piping system are all
mounted on a plywood panel, which is in turn mounted on wheels to enable it to be moved
if necessary. The back of the panel, behind the radiators, is clad with thermal insulation in
order to prevent the heat from the radiators being lost to the rear. The rig was installed in
the Department of Building Services System's experimental laboratories while these
measurements were being made.
Electric boiler and pump
The electric boiler is a CTC Electronic boiler, incorporating an integral 20 litre hot water
storage tank and an integral pump. The pump is a three-speed Grundfos UPS 21-40 F,
with pump characteristics as shown in Figure A19, which is taken from Grundfos' product
catalogue.
A-24
Figure A19.Pump characteristics of the Grundfos UPS 21-40 F pump incorporated in the
CTC Electronic boiler.
Radiator valves
The radiator valves are 20 mm nominal diameter TA TRV 400 valves, without thermostats.
They incorporate a special pre-setting facility, which requires a special key to operate, and
provides a presetting adjustment range from 0 (fully closed) to 10 (fully open). Figure A20
shows the valve characteristic, as stated by the manufacturer, TA Hydronics.
TRV 400 - Radiator valve

1.0
0.9
kv value [m/h]
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
10
Pre-setting
Figure A20.Valve characteristic for the TRV 400 radiator valve.

Return valves
Any adjustment of the TRIM A (DN 20) return valves that may be needed can be carried
out using an Allen key. This adjustment has been noted here in the form of the number of
A-25
turns of the key from the closed position. Figure A21 shows the characteristic of the return
valves, as stated by the manufacturer, T A Hydronics.
TRIM A - Return valve

1.4
kv value [m/h]
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Number of turns
Figure A21.Valve characteristic of the TRIM A return valve.

Balancing valves
The balancing valves (A, B and C in Figure A18) are TA Hydronics' STAD (DN 20)
valves.
Piping
The system piping is of copper. The circulation circuit which passes all three balancing
valves has a size according to DN 18, while the branches to the radiators are DN 15. The
pipes are insulated with preformed insulation and self-adhesive insulating tape (50 mm
wide and 3 mm thick) from NMC (Climaflex).
Radiators
The two radiators in the rig were supplied by Epicon, with radiator no. 1 being of the type
M11 (single panel, with a corrugated convection plate on the rear), while radiator no. 2 is
of type M10 (single panel, without a convection plate). Both radiators are 50 x 80 cm in
size.
A.2.2 The measurement system
The measured values in the system have been logged manually, i.e. without using either a
data-logger or an instrumentation computer. Figure A22 shows the positions of the sensors
in the system, together with a table of information on them.
A-26
Radiator 1
Radiator 2
4
A
No. in the
figure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
10
0 B
Name
Description
Sensor
Tw-1,1
Tw-1,2
Tw-2,1
Tw-2,2
Tw-return
Ta-room
Vw-1
Vw-2
DP-1
DP-2
Water temperature, radiator 1, inlet

Water temperature, radiator 1, return
Water temperature, radiator 2, inlet
Water temperature, radiator 2, return
Water temperature, return
Room temperature, 0.9 m above floor level
Water flow, radiator 1
Water flow, radiator 2
Pt-100 (3 mm), in pocket

Pt-100 (3 mm), without pocket
Huger
Clorius Combimeter QN 2,5
Clorius Combimeter QN 2,5
Validyne DP15, membrane 38 (square)
Validyne DP103, membrane 38 (round)
Figure A22.Measurement points in the radiator test rig, with a brief description of the
sensors.
A valve manifold has been used for the various connections needed to measure differential
pressure across various points in the radiator test rig, as shown by the circled connections
in the diagram above. This is the same manifold as was described in the section describing
the instrumentation of the air heater test rig (Section A.1.4). The positions of the four
pressure test points are marked in the diagram above, together with indication of the inputs
on the manifold (B, F, H and I) to which they were connected by reinforced rubber hose.
Water temperature
The water temperature was measured at various points in the test rig using five Pt100
sensors. These five points were the inlets to radiators 1 and 2 (numerals 1 and 3
respectively), and their return temperatures (2 and 4 respectively). The total return
temperature was also measured before the flow returned to the boiler (5). The first four
Pt100 sensors are fitted in thermometer pockets in the rig, while the last one (numeral 5) is
in direct contact with the water, i.e. without a thermometer pocket. The reason for this is
purely practical. The thermometer pockets for the first four sensors were incorporated
A-27
when the rig was first built, while the final sensor was added to the rig later and was of
such a type that no thermometer pocket was needed. However, as the rig is used only for
measuring steady-state conditions, and not for dynamic processes, the effect of the
thermometer pockets on the measured results can reasonably be presumed to be negligible.
The actual registration of the water flow temperatures while the measurements were being
made was carried out using a hand-held Technoterm 7300, which shows the temperature
directly on a display. The drawback of this method is that it takes a certain time to register
each measured value (i.e. to write it down), which means that none of the measurements
could be made simultaneously (or even over a very limited period of time). On the other
hand, the advantage of the method is that it is undoubtedly simple and requires a minimum
of equipment.
Room temperature
A combination temperature and relative humidity sensor from Huger has been used to
measure the room temperature. This is a particularly easy-to-use unit, with a display that
shows the temperature and relative humidity. It was mounted 0.9 m above floor level,
immediately in front of the radiator test rig and about 2 m from it.
Water flow
The water flow through the radiators was measured using ISS Clorius Combimeter P
inductive flow meters. These meters are fitted with analogue output boards to enable
instantaneous flow to be measured. In addition, they incorporate a display that shows the
instantaneous value. The display also shows the total volume that has passed through the
meter, expressed as m. This facility has been used by recording the change in total
volume over a given period of time, usually ten minutes, which has made it possible to
ascertain the mean value of the flows through the two radiators.
A.2.3 Uncertainty of measurement
Temperature sensors - Pt100
According to their manufacturer (Pentronic) the Pt100 sensors have a maximum
uncertainty of measurement when supplied of 0.05 C. This uncertainty was regarded as
sufficient for purposes of this work, and so the sensors were not further calibrated in order
to improve the uncertainty of measurement. The method of measuring, and the
arrangement of the test rig, did not permit any joint calibration of the sensors.
Temperature registration - Technoterm 7300
In principle, the hand-held Technoterm 7300 unit measures the resistance of the Pt100
sensors, which varies in proportion to the temperature. The unit was calibrated by
connecting it to four different resistors, which in turn had been calibrated at temperatures
of 0, 24.9, 54.2 and 76.4 C by the Monitoring Centre for Energy Research at Chalmers.
Calibration of the display unit indicated that, at all temperatures, it was displaying a
temperature 0.2 C lower than the calibrated temperatures of the resistors. Allowance for
this difference was therefore made when analysing the results.
A-28
The resolution of the display unit provides an expected error of 0.05 C which, together
with the manufacturer's stated uncertainty of measurement for the Pt100 sensors, results in
a total uncertainty of measurement of 0.07 C for a coverage factor of 2.
Room temperature sensor - Huger
The Huger sensor was stated as having an uncertainty of measurement of 1 C over the
0-40 C temperature range, and of 2 C for temperatures outside this range. As the
sensor was used for measuring room temperatures in the 20-25 C range, it can be assumed
that the applicable uncertainty of measurement was 1 C.
Water flow meter - Clorius Combimeter
The manufacturer of the flow meters, ISS Clorius International A/S, states that the
measured error of the meters amounts to 0.17 % at a flow of 250.6 l/h, to 0.51 % at a flow
of 44.9 l/h and to 0.51 % at a flow of 7.2 l/h (Bengtsson and Magnusson, 1998). The
uncertainty of measurement of calibration was assumed to be the same as previously
described (see Section A.1.5), i.e. 0.6 %.
As the meters were read, and the results calculated, manually, there is also a further
opportunity for uncertainty of measurement. Each measurement period takes ten minutes,
and reading of the volume change can introduce a maximum error of 0.0001 m, which
gives an expected uncertainty of measurement of 0.6 l/h. In addition, this method of
measuring the flow also means that each flow reading consists of a calculated mean value,
and so the estimated uncertainty of measurement can be assumed to be zero.
All this says that the total uncertainty of measurement depends partly on the uncertainty of
measurement during calibration and partly on the uncertainty of measurement when
reading the flow values. The figure below shows how the total uncertainty of
measurement varies with the flow.
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Flow [l/h]
Figure A23.Total uncertainty of measurement of the flow meters in the radiator test rig.
A-29
Differential pressure sensors - Validyne

See Section A.1.5 describing the uncertainties of measurement of these pressure sensors as
used in the air heater test rig.
Calculating the thermal output power
The thermal output power can be calculated using equation (A3). The total uncertainty of
measurement is estimated in accordance with equation (A5).
The maximum uncertainties of density and specific thermal capacity can be estimated as
1.0 % and 0.3 % respectively (see Section A.1.5). The temperature difference between
two identical Pt100 sensors increases the uncertainty of measurement by a factor of 2, to
give a total uncertainty of measurement of 0.10 C. The uncertainty of flow
measurement is as shown in Figure A23.
(when calculating the thermal output power) [% ]
As both the flow and the temperature difference vary widely in the radiator measurements,
there could be different uncertainties of measurement at the same thermal output powers.
For this reason, the diagram below shows the uncertainty of measurement when calculating
the thermal output power for different flows and temperature differences. At high
temperature differences, it is the uncertainty of determination of the density that
predominates, while at low temperature differences it is the uncertainty of measurement of
temperature that predominates. At low flows, on the other hand, it is the uncertainty of
measurement of the flow that predominates.
7
6
5
4
3
Temperature difference
5 C
7 C
10 C
20 C
50 C
1
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Flow [l/h]
Figure A24.Total uncertainty of measurement when calculating thermal output power from
the radiator test rig.
A-30
APPENDIX B CALCULATION RELATIONSHIPS
CALCULATION RELATIONSHIPS
B.1 The radiator system

The analyses of the effects of deviations on a radiator system are based on results from a
simple steady-state calculation program derived in Excel. This program is in turn based
on a number of different calculation relationships, briefly described below.
B.1.1 Room heat balance
The calculation of the amount of thermal power emitted by a radiator is based on a
thermal balance for the room in which the radiator is installed. The room temperature is
also calculated from the information in this heat balance. The following diagram is a
schematic representation of a room with a radiator.
&
Q
ventilation
&
Q
radiator
&
Q
transmission
troom
&
Q
tw,in
tw,out
int ern
&
V
w
Figure B1. Heat balance in a room with a radiator.

The thermal balance calculations are based on the following equations:
Room
& +Q
&
&
&
Q
rad
int ern = Q transmission + Q ventilation
(B1)
&
Q
transmission = UA room (t room t out )
(B2)
&
&
Q
ventilation = a Va c p ,a (t room t a ,sup ply )
(B3)
Radiator Room
& = K t n = K
Q
rad
rad
rad
lm
t
ln t
t w
w ,in t room
w ,out
t room
B-1
(B4)
Water Radiator
& = V
& c (t
Q
rad
w
w
p,w
w ,in t w ,out ) = C w t w
&
where Q
rad
&
Q
transmission
(B5)
= Thermal power output from the radiator [W]

= Thermal power loss from the room by transmission [W]
&
Q
ventilation
&
Q
= Thermal power loss from the room by ventilation [W]
UA room
a
&
V
= Total coefficient of thermal transmittance of the room [W/C]

= Density of the ventilation air [kg/m]
int ern
= Thermal power addition from an internal heating source [W]
c p ,a
= Ventilation air flow rate [m/s]

= Specific thermal capacity of the ventilation air [J/kgK]
t room
t out
= Outdoor temperature [C]
t a ,sup ply
= Supply temperature of the incoming ventilation air [C]
K rad
n
t lm
t w ,in
=
=
=
=
t w ,out
= Water return temperature [C]
t w
= Temperature drop of the water flow through the radiator (= t w ,in t w ,ut ) [C]
w
&
V
= Density of the water [kg/m]
cw
Cw
Radiator constant [W/C]

Radiator exponent [-]
Logarithmic mean temperature difference [C]
Water inlet (supply) temperature [C]
= Water flow [m/s]

= Specific thermal capacity of the water [J/kgC]
& c ) [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow of the water (= w V
w
w
All calculations are made by either analytical or iterative solution of the equations, or
combinations thereof.
B.1.2 Distribution system
The total water flow through the system depends on the total flow resistance of the
system and on the pump characteristic. However, the flow resistance varies with the
flow rate, depending on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, which means that the
flow calculations must be performed by iteration. Calculation of the flow in all parts of
the systems is based on the equations described below.
Pump
The pump characteristic is expressed in the form of a polynomial equation:
B-2
&
&
V
V
w
w
p = A + B
+ D + C
+ D F
(B6)
where A, B, C, D, E and F are constants.

In addition, the pump characteristic can be modified by speed control, in accordance
with the affinity laws (Abel et. al, 1997):
&
n2 V
= 2
&
n1 V
1
(B7)
2
n 2 p 2
=
n 1 p1 2
where: n 1
n2
&
V
1
&
V2
p1
p 2
=
=
=
=
=
=
(B8)
Original speed [r/min]

New speed [r/min]
Original flow in accordance with the original characteristic [m/s]
New flow in accordance with the new characteristic [m/s]
Original pump pressure in accordance with the original characteristic [m/s]
New pump pressure in accordance with the new characteristic [m/s]
Piping
Wadmark's empirical relationship (Abel et. al, 1997) is used to calculate the coefficient
of friction of the pipes for turbulent flow:
5.6 37 k d
kd
= 2 log
+

Re 0.9
3.7065
where:
k
d
Re
(B9)
= Coefficient of friction [-]

= Roughness of the pipe [mm]
= Hydraulic diameter (internal diameter) of the pipe [m]
= Reynolds Number [-]
The coefficient of friction with laminar flow can be calculated from the following
relationship (Abel et. al, 1997):
=
64
Re
(B10)
When the coefficient of friction has been determined, the pressure drop can be
calculated from the following equation (Abel et. al, 1997):
B-3
p =
where: p
L
L c2
d
2
(B11)
= Pressure drop in the pipe [Pa]

= Length of the pipe [m]
= Density of the water in the pipe [kg/m]
= Velocity of the water in the pipe [m/s]
It is assumed that the flow is laminar up to Re < 4000 (Abel et. al, 1997). In order to
prevent a sudden jump in calculation of the coefficient of friction when Re = 4000 is
passed, the value of the coefficient of friction changes between the laminar value and
the turbulent value via a transition zone, the size of which can be arbitrarily selected in
the program, but which in these calculations was set as 4000 < Re < 4500. Reynolds
Number is calculated in accordance with the following equation (Abel et al, 1997):
Re =
where
cd
(B12)
= Kinematic viscosity of the water [m/s]
The flow resistance is calculated from the following simple equation:

k=
where k
p
&2
V
(B13)
= Coefficient of flow resistance [Pa/(m/s)2]
It should again be pointed out that the coefficient of flow resistance is not a constant
value, but changes with the flow.
Valve
The capacity of the valve is expressed by:
kv =
where k v
&
V
p
p 0
&
V
(B14)
p 0
p 0
= The capacity of the valve [m/h]
=
=
=
=
=
Water flow through the valve [m/h]

Differential pressure across the valve [bar]
Reference differential pressure = 1 bar
Density of the water [kg/m]
Reference density = 1000 kg/m
B-4
The coefficient of flow resistance of the valve can be calculated from its capacity, using
the following equation:
k valve =
1
2
kv
(B15)
where k valve = Coefficient of flow resistance of the valve [Pa/(m/s)2]

Series connection of flow resistances
k1
k2
ktot
Figure B2. Series connection of flow resistances.

The total flow resistance is obtained from:
k tot = k 1 + k 2
or, more generally:
n
k tot = k i
(B16)
i =1
Parallel connection of flow resistances
k1
=
k2
Figure B3. Parallel connection of flow resistances.

The total flow resistance can be expressed as:
k tot =
1
1
1
+
k
k 2
1
or, more generally:
B-5
ktot
k tot =
1
n 1
i =1 k
i
(B17)
Total flow resistance

The combination of the system's series connections and parallel connections provides a
total coefficient of flow resistance for the system. With this, the system characteristic
can be expressed as follows:
&2
p system = k system V
system
(B18)
where p system = Total pressure drop in the system [Pa]

k system
&
V
system
= Total coefficient of flow resistance in the system [Pa/(m/s)2]

= Total flow in the system [m/s]
Having calculated the total flow resistance of the system, the pump operating point can
be determined using the equations for both the system and the pump characteristics.
This provides a new total flow and a new total pressure drop. The flow distribution can
be calculated from the calculated values of coefficients of flow resistance for each part
of the system, using Equation B13. This gives new values of coefficients of flow
resistance, and so on. When the calculations have clearly converged (with a tolerance
of 0.001), the system can be regarded as being in equilibrium in terms of flow and
pressure drop.
B.1.3 Thermostatic radiator valves
The thermostatic radiator valves as used in the program are ideal valves, which means
that the model does not allow for effects such as hysteresis, temperature sensitivity,
differential pressure sensitivity or dynamic aspects.
The program allows the P-band of the thermostatic valve to be set either as a constant or
as a function that is determined by the balancing of the valve. In the latter case, the
relationship between the P-band and the balancing setting is assumed to be linear, which
represents some simplification of real conditions, in accordance with the following
equation.
P band = P band max
where P band
P band max
H balanced
H max
H balanced
H max
(B19)
= The current P-band width of the valve [C]

= The maximum P-band width of the valve (when fully open) [C]
= The balanced valve opening of the valve [%]
= The maximum valve opening of the valve (= 100 %)
B-6
If thermostatic radiator valves are used - and they can be applied arbitrarily for each
radiator - the valve opening of the radiator valve is determined by the following
equation:
H=
t room t room ,design

P band
(H max H balanced ) + H balanced
(B20)
where H
= Current valve opening of the valve [%]
t rum
= Current room temperature [C]
t rum ,nskad = Desired (design) room temperature [C]
Naturally, the valve opening of the valve is restricted to a value between 0 and 100 %.
B.1.4 Media data
The program calculates the density of the water, its specific thermal capacity and its
kinematic viscosity for each case. Density and specific thermal capacity are included in
calculation of the heat release from the radiators, and are temperature-dependent. For
this reason, it is the mean value of the supply and return temperature that is used in
these calculations. The kinematic viscosity, which is also temperature-dependent, is
used in calculation of Reynolds Number, which is calculated for each section of supply
and return pipe together (to maintain mass flow balance). The following diagrams show
how the density, specific thermal capacity and kinematic viscosity change with water
temperature, being values taken from Data and Diagrams (1989). Curve matching, in
the form of a polynomial equation, has been applied in each diagram. It is these
equations that are used in the calculations.
Density of water
1005
1000
Density [kg/m]
995
990
985
980
975
970
965
y = 1.5954E-05x 3 - 5.9682E-03x 2 + 2.2423E-02x + 9.9995E+02
960
955
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Temperature [C]
Figure B4. Relationship between water density and temperature.
B-7
100
Specific thermal capacity of water

Specific thermal capacity [J/kg/C]
4230
y = -6.0996E-08x 5 + 1.8698E-05x 4 - 2.2299E-03x 3 + 1.3776E-01x 2 4.2227E+00x + 4.2246E+03
4220
4210
4200
4190
4180
4170
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Temperature [C]
Figure B5. Relationship between water thermal capacity and temperature.

Kinematic viscosity of water
2.0E-06
Kinematic viscosity [m/s]
1.8E-06
y = 3.4081E-14x 4 - 9.4201E-12x 3 + 1.0094E-09x 2 - 5.5632E-08x +

1.7818E-06
1.6E-06
1.4E-06
1.2E-06
1.0E-06
8.0E-07
6.0E-07
4.0E-07
2.0E-07
0.0E+00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Temperature [C]
Figure B6. Relationship between water kinematic viscosity and temperature.

B.1.5 Limitations
Only simple equations for the equilibrium conditions have been used, in order not to
exaggerate the scope of the model. The following notes describe the program
limitations.
B-8
- The room description is limited to the UA value, ventilation air flow rate, ventilation
air supply temperature and internal heat release. Although these parameters provide
quite a lot of information and control, they are not really suited to dealing with effects
such as the results of the use of additional insulation or the opening of windows. In
addition, there is no allowance for heat exchange with neighbouring rooms.
- The design of the distribution system is not capable of modification in terms of
re-routing or rearranging the pipes. However, the pipe sizes, lengths and materials
can be selected as required. The program is also capable of dealing only with a
traditional two-pipe system. It cannot deal with bends or T-pieces, although their
effects can instead be incorporated by treating them as additional lengths of pipe.
The maximum number of radiators is 20, and the pressure drop through the radiators
and their connection pipes is ignored. There is no allowance for possible heat losses
from the pipes, and the consequence of this is further discussed below.
- As far as the radiators themselves are concerned, the radiator exponent (n) is a critical
parameter, as it is based on a mathematical model that attempts to describe reality,
with which it is perhaps not always completely successful. However, the reason for
continuing to use the model is because of its simplicity and because it is accepted for
the purposes of most radiator contexts. In addition, it is sufficiently accurate for its
purposes under steady-state conditions, as has been shown in this work. However, it
could not be considered for dynamic applications.
- The model is not capable of simulating time-dependent processes, as its calculations
are based on steady-state thermal balances. This means that it is not possible to
investigate what happens between two steady-state conditions. It also means that it is
not possible to investigate the effect of thermal energy storage in the building
structure.
- Although density and specific thermal capacity are calculated for each case, their
values are based on the mean value of system supply and return temperatures. In
principle, the water temperature can vary between 0 C and 90 C, which indicates a
maximum possible (but unlikely) error of about 1.8 % in density, and 0.6 % in
specific thermal capacity, which combine to give a maximum possible error of just
under 2 % in the thermal output power of the radiators.
The effect of heat losses from the pipes
The simulations have not made any allowance for a possible drop in the temperature of
the radiator supply water resulting from heat losses from the distribution system. In
reality, of course, this has some effect. There are fears that this effect would be greatest
in low-flow systems, partly because the supply temperature of such systems is higher,
which would result in higher heat losses, and partly because the flow rate is lower,
which would provide more time for the higher heat losses to abstract heat. However,
this could also be countered by the fact that the flow in the pipes is lower, which would
mean that the coefficient of thermal transmittance would also be lower, and particularly
if the flow was laminar. However, Andersson and Sandberg (1989) have shown that the
lower flow does not adversely affect the total coefficient of thermal transmittance of the
pipes. They also present calculations of temperature drops in a 20 mm diameter pipe,
both for a high-flow case and for a low-flow case. After 10 m, the temperature has
B-9
fallen from 65 C to 63.1 C in the high-flow case, and from 80 C to 67.6 C in the
low-flow case. Although this is, admittedly, a considerable difference, it must be borne
in mind that the low-flow rate is only one-fifth of the high-flow rate, which partly
accounts for the high temperature drop in the low-flow case.
The following diagram shows how the heat loss from uninsulated radiator pipes is
affected by the pipe size and temperature. The values in the diagram are taken from a
Wirsbo product brochure (1998).
60
Pipe size [mm] 28
Heat release [W/m]
50
22
18
15
12
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature difference (water - room) [C]
Figure B7. Heat losses from radiator pipes (Wirsbo product brochure).
The above diagram can be used to illustrate the difference in heat losses from high-flow
system pipes and low-flow system pipes, by providing data to show how the water
temperature falls as a function of length and flow rate for a particular pipe size.
Water temperature [C]
80
70
21.8 l/h
109 l/h
43.6 l/h
218 l/h
60
50
40
30
Pipe size = 12 mm
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Pipe length [m]
Figure B8. The effect of flow and pipe length on water temperature for a 12 mm
diameter pipe.
B-10
The flow of 43.6 l/h in the diagram is equivalent to the flow through a radiator in the
simulated high-flow system, while that of 21.8 l/h corresponds to the flow through a
radiator on the low-flow system. The dotted lines show the flow in the branch (i.e. to
five radiators) for the respective systems. The pipe size used in the diagram is 12 mm,
regardless of system type. After 25 m, the water temperatures in both systems are the
same if the pipe carries the supply to only one radiator. At higher flow rates, the
temperature reduction is considerably less. It can be seen from the diagram that the
low-flow system is more sensitive to heat loss from the pipe.
Although the temperature loss from the pipes contributed to increasing the magnitude of
effects caused by deviations, it can be asked by how much the heat emissions and return
temperatures are affected by these reduction in the supply temperature? The following
diagrams show this effect for the high-flow and low-flow systems.
1000
Heat release [W]
900
Low-flow system
800
High-flow system
700
600
500
-20
-15
-10
-5
Change in inlet water temperature [C]
Figure B9. The effect of inlet water temperature reduction on heat emission from a
radiator.
B-11
40
38
36
High-flow system
34
32
30
28
Low-flow system
26
24
22
20
-20
-15
-10
-5
Change in inlet water temperature [C]
Figure B10.The effect of inlet water temperature reduction on the return temperature
from a radiator.
The diagrams show that it is in the high-flow system that both the thermal output power
and the return temperature are most affected by a reduction in the inlet temperature.
However, the reduction in inlet water temperature was seen to be greatest in the
low-flow system. A calculation of the reduction of the inlet temperature in the
high-flow system under design conditions shows that the inlet temperature to the
radiator at the farthest end of the system (BII5) is approximately 53 C, i.e. 7 C below
the design temperature. In the case of the low-flow system, the corresponding supply
temperature is about 55 C, which represents a reduction of more than 18 C. These
calculations are based on an ambient temperature of 20 C. Further calculation indicates
that the thermal output power of radiator BII5 would be about 900 W in the high-flow
system, and about 700 W in the low-flow system, with respective return temperatures of
about 35 C and 25 C. From this, it can be seen that the effect of pipe heat losses is
greatest in the low-flow system. Unless it has been considered, this represents a
substantial deviation.
However, it is not necessarily the case that the room temperature will fall by
corresponding amounts as, in one way or another, the heat losses from the pipes will
benefit the room. However, this heat release is uncontrolled, and can therefore
contribute to the scatter of the room temperatures. As it is the radiators furthest from
the heat source that receive the lowest supply temperatures, and as they also have the
lowest differential pressure across them, it is most likely that the low room temperatures
will occur in these rooms. If the problem is dealt with by raising the supply temperature
from the heat source, the effect will be to increase the mean temperature in the building
and also to increase the return temperature. The only way in which the problem can
properly be dealt with is to balance the system, with proper allowance for the reduction
in supply temperature. For this reason, careful balancing is presumably important,
particularly in low-flow systems.
B-12
B.2 Single-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems

Chapter 6 included a simple comparison of three different radiator system structures:
one-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems. The calculations for these systems have
been limited to a small system consisting of only five radiators.
B.2.1 Thermal balance in the room
The room model, containing one radiator, is the same as that already described in B.1.1.
B.2.2 Distribution system
The calculations of pressure and flows in the systems are made in the same way as
previously described in B.1.2, but with one important exception. The calculations are
simplified, to the extent that flows are assumed to be fully turbulent. This means that
the coefficients of flow resistance of the pipes can therefore be assumed to be constant,
calculated in accordance with the following well-known equation:
&2
p = k pipe V
(B21)
B.2.3 Limitations
All the limitations described in B.1.5 for the model of the radiator system also apply in
connection with the calculations for the one-pipe, two-pipe and three-pipe systems. In
addition, there are three further important limitations:
- The number of radiators is fixed, at five.
- All flow is assumed to be turbulent.
- The media data is constant, with an assumed value of 4180 J/kgC for the specific
thermal capacity, and 1000 kg/m for the density. These parameter values result in
maximum respective errors of 3 % and 0.3 %, with a total error of just below 3 % for
the calculated thermal output power.
B.3 The district heating substation radiator heat exchanger

Chapter 6 also included a consideration of the effect of the heat exchanger used between
the district heating system and the radiator system. Calculation of its performance is
carried out iteratively, as the media data for heat transfer depend on the temperature
conditions, which cannot be calculated unless details of the heat transfer are known.
The schematic diagram below represents the heat exchanger.
B-13
treturn,rad
tsupply,rad
&
Q
treturn,dh
tsupply,dh
Figure B11.The heat exchanger between the district heating water and the radiator
water (a flat plate heat exchanger).
B.3.1 Thermal balance
The thermal power transfer can be calculated from the following general relationships
for a heat exchanger (Abel et. al, 1997):
& = UA t
Q
lm
&
where Q
UA
t lm
(B22)
= Thermal power transferred by the heat exchanger [W]

= Coefficient of thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger [W/C]
= Logarithmic mean temperature difference [C]
The logarithmic mean temperature difference (for counter-flow connection) can be

calculated from:
t lm =
(t
sup ply ,dh
t sup ply,rad ) (t return ,dh t return ,rad )

t sup ply,dh t sup ply,rad
ln
t return ,dh t return ,rad
(B23)
where t sup ply,dh = Supply temperature on the district heating side [C]
t sup ply,rad = Supply temperature on the radiator side [C]
t return ,dh
= Return temperature on the district heating side [C]
t return ,rad = Return temperature on the radiator side [C]

The thermal power from the district heating side can be calculated from:
& = V
& c (t
Q
dh
dh
dh
dh
sup ply ,dh t return ,dh )
& = Thermal power from the district heating side [W]
where Q
dh
dh = Density of the district heating water [kg/m]
& = District heating water flow through the heat exchanger [m/s]
V
dh
c dh = Specific thermal capacity of the district heating water [J/kgC]
The thermal power picked up on the radiator water side can be expressed as:
B-14
(B24)
& = V
& c (t
Q
rad
rad
rad
rad
sup ply , rad t return , rad )
(B25)
& = Thermal power input to the radiator water [W]

where Q
rad
rad = Density of the radiator water [kg/m]
& = Radiator water flow through the heat exchanger [m/s]
V
rad
c rad = Specific thermal capacity of the radiator water [J/kgC]
The following relationship applies under equilibrium conditions, and if there are no heat
losses to the surroundings:
& =Q
& =Q
&
Q
dh
rad
(B26)
The thermal power transfer depends on the UA value of the heat exchanger, the flows
and the temperature levels. The U-value changes with flow and temperature, as
indicated by the following equation (Abel et. al, 1997):
dp
1
1
1
=
+
+
U dh p rad
where U
dh
(B27)
rad
dp
= Coefficient of thermal transmittance [W/Cm]

= Coefficient of thermal transmittance on the district heating side
[W/Cm]
= Coefficient of thermal transmittance on the radiator side [W/Cm]
= Metal thickness between the water flows in the heat exchanger [m]
= Thermal conductivity of the metal [W/Cm]
The coefficients of thermal transmittance can be calculated using Nusselts Number

(Hjorthol, 1990):
Nu =
where Nu
Re
Pr
C
m
n
d
= C Re n Pr m
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(B28)
Nusselts Number [-]

Coefficient of thermal transmittance [W/Cm]
Characteristic length [m]
Thermal conductivity [W/Cm]
Reynolds Number [-]
Prandtls Number [-]
Constant coefficient (= 0.2)
Constant exponent (= 0.67)
Constant exponent (= 0.4)
Prandtls Number can be calculated from:
B-15
Pr =
cp
(B29)
The model divides the flat plate heat exchanger up into a freely selectable number of
layers, defined by the number of plates. In addition, it requires the dimensions of the
plates, the distance between them and their thickness to be specified. Two different
sizes of heat exchangers have been considered in the calculations: one for the high-flow
system, and one for the low-flow system. They differ only in the number of plates, with
the former having 10 plates and the latter having 30 plates.
B.3.2 Media data
Media data has been taken from Data and Diagrams (1989). Polynomial equations
have been developed to match the curves, for use in the calculations. Those for density,
specific thermal capacity and kinematic viscosity were shown above in B.1.4. The
diagram below show the corresponding curve for the thermal conductivity of the water.
Thermal conductivity of water
Thermal conductivity [W/mC]
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
y = -1.0746E-05x 2 + 2.3310E-03x + 5.5643E-01
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Temperature [C]
Figure B12 Temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of the water.

B.3.3 Limitations
The most important limitations of the model are that:
- only static calculations are possible.
- all flow is assumed to be turbulent.
- flow distribution and flow patterns in the heat exchanger are assumed to be
homogeneous.
B-16
B.4 Derivation of radiator sensitivity

The sensitivity of the radiator to a flow change can be approximately expressed by the
following equation:
D Q& V&
2 (t w ,in
n t w
t room ) (2 n ) t w
(B30)
n
t w
&
dQ
&
Q
= The sensitivity of the radiator to a flow deviation [-]
=
&
dV
&
V
= Radiator exponent, that depends on the size and shape of the radiator [-]
= t w ,in t w ,ut = The water temperature drop through the radiator [C]
t w ,in
= The inlet (supply) water temperature [C]
t rum
= The room temperature [C]
where D Q& V&
Equation (B30) describes the relative change in thermal output power from a radiator in
response to a relative change in flow. The value of D Q& V& varies between 0 (for
infinitely high flow) and 1 (which is the maximum value, and which occurs when the
flow through the radiator is just above zero). In fairly general terms, this would mean
that a sensitivity of, for example, 0.5, would mean that a 1 % change in the flow would
result in a change of 0.5 % in the thermal output power.
B.4.1 Basic relationships
The relationship (B30) has been derived from the following equations, which describe
the radiator thermal output power as a function of its size, type and flow:
& = K t n
Q
rad
m
(B31)
& = cV
& (t
Q
w ,in t w ,out ) = C t w
(B32)
&
where Q
K rad
t m
&
V
c
C
= Thermal output power from the radiator [W]

= Radiator constant that depends on the type and size of the radiator
[W/Cn]
= Mean temperature difference between the radiator and the room [C]
= Water flow through the radiator [m/s]
= Density of the water [kg/m]
= Specific thermal capacity of the water [J/kgC]
& ) [W/C]
= Thermal capacity flow (= c V
The mean temperature difference can be approximately expressed by (from Data och
Diagram, 1989):
B-17
t m
(t
w ,in
t room ) (t w ,out t room ) = t max (t max t w )
(B33)
where t room = Room temperature [C]

t max = Maximum temperature difference (= t w ,in t room ) [C]
B.4.2 The effect of the flow on the temperature drop
First a relationship is required to be obtained that describes how the temperature drop
through the radiator changes with the flow.
Equation (B31), together with (B32) and (B33), gives:
& t K (t (t t ))n 2
cV
w
rad
max
max
w
(B34)
& in the flow produces a small change in temperature drop of

A small change of dV
dt w :
& + dV
& ) (t + dt ) K (t (t (t + dt )))
c (V
w
w
rad
max
max
w
w
n 2
(B35)
After simplification, dividing (B35) by (B34) gives:
& dt w
dV
dt w
1
1
1 +
1 +
&
t max
t w
t w
V
t w
Differentiating
&
V
n 2
(B36)
&
dt w
dV
with respect to
gives:
&
t w
V
dt w
t w
=
&
dV
&
V
D t w
For low values of
1+
&
dV
&
V
&
n
1
1
dV
&
t max
2 t max
V
1
1
t w
t w
(B37)
n
1
2
dt w
1 +
t w
&
dt w
dV
( 0) and
( 0), expression (B37) can be approximated to:
&
t w
V
B-18
D t w
&
V
1
n
1

2 t max
1
t w
t max t w
n
t max 1 t w
2
(B38)
B.4.3 The effect of the flow on the thermal output power

& results in a small change in temperature drop of dt .
A small change of flow of dV
w
&
This results in a small change of dQ in the thermal output power. Inserting these
values in equation (B32) gives the following expression:
& + dQ
& = c V
& + dV
& (t + dt )
Q
w
w
(B39)
Dividing by equation (B32) gives:

1+
& dV
& dt w
dQ
1 +
= 1 +
&
&
t w
V
Q
Differentiating
(B40)
&
&
dQ
dV
with respect to
gives the radiator sensitivity:
&
&
V
Q
&
dQ
&
&
dt w dV
Q
D
=
= 1+
+ 1 +
&
& t w
t w
dV
V
&
V
D Q& V&
For low values of
&
V
(B41)
&
dt w
dV
( 0) and
( 0), expression (B41) can be approximated to:
&
t w
V
D Q& V& 1 + D t w
(B42)
&
V
Finally, inserting equation (B38) in (B42) gives:

D Q& V&
n t w
2 t max (2 n ) t w
(B30)
B.4.4 Limitations
Following limitations must be considered:
-
Equations (B31) and (B33) are approximate.

The specific thermal capacity and the density are assumed to be constant.
All equations presuppose that the system is in equilibrium.
Relative changes in flow and temperature drop are assumed to be negligible.
B-19
B.5 Optimum valve characteristic

The work has involved deriving an optimum valve characteristic for the control valve in
some of the system configurations. This has been done by iteration, i.e. progressive
adjustment of the characteristic until the desired results have been achieved, which is
quite time-consuming. The process is described below in a simplified manner.
B.5.1 Necessary static characteristic
The purpose of employing an optimum valve characteristic is to ensure that the
necessary P-band width remains as constant as possible, which also has the effect of the
maximum necessary P-band width being as narrow as possible. The most difficult stage
when arriving at an optimum valve characteristic is determination of the necessary static
characteristic of the system, as needed to achieve this constant requisite necessary
P-band width. This requires good knowledge of all aspects of the system.
The necessary P-band width is defined by:
Pnec =
Td
KS
Tk
(B43)
where Pnec = Necessary P-band width [C]

Td = Dead time [s]
Tk = Time constant [s]
t
[C]
H
t = Change in outgoing air temperature for a ...
H = ... change in the valve opening of the control valve
K S = System gain (for a given valve opening) =
The static characteristic defines how the gain changes with the valve opening. If
dynamic processes are ignored, the necessary P-band width is the same as the gain,
which must then be constant if a constant P-band width is to be obtained. This means
that the necessary static characteristic will be a straight line, as shown in the diagram
below:
ta / ta,max [-]
1
H [-]
Figure B13.Necessary static characteristic if the effects of system dynamics are ignored.
B-20
The axes are referred to their maximum values, which means that the rise in air
temperature across the air heater (the y axis) is related to the design temperature rise.
If allowance is made for the dynamics, the change in the dead time and the time
constant as the valve opening of the control valve changes will affect the necessary
static characteristic. The way in which this occurs depends on the design of the system.
Grindal (1994) has previously shown that the system dead time is relatively constant,
and this has been confirmed by the measurements made in the work of this project.
Changing the dead time requires the velocity of the temperature wavefront to be
changed, which can be linked to the flow. The flow in a valve group having a
recirculation connection is relatively constant, and so the dead time hardly changes at
all. Although, in a direct connection arrangement, the flow does change, the design is
such that the dead time does not change with the flow.
This means that it is the change in the system time constant that affects the appearance
of the necessary characteristic, with this time constant being made up of three elements:
- The air heater
- The air duct
- The valve group
The time constant of the air heater depends on the design of the heater, and varies with
varying water and air flows as shown in the following equation (Jensen, 1978), (which
ignores the mass of air in the air heater):
Tk ,H =
where Tk ,H
Mm
Mw
UA
Ca
Cw
(M m + M w ) (UA + C a )
UA (C w + C a ) + C w C a
(B44)
= The air heater time constant [s]

=
=
=
=
=
Thermal capacity of the metal in the air heater [J/C]

Thermal capacity of the water in the air heater [J/C]
Coefficient of thermal transmittance of the air heater [W/C]
Thermal capacity flow on the air side [W/C]
Thermal capacity flow on the water side [W/C]
Constant water and air flows result in a constant time constant. The higher the water
flow rate, the shorter the air heater's time constant.
If the thermal capacity of the air in the ventilation duct is ignored, we obtain the
following time constant for the duct (Jensen, 1978):
Tk ,a =
M k (C a + k A k )
Ca k A k
(B45)
where Tk ,a = Time constant of the air duct [s]

M k = Thermal capacity of the air duct (its metal parts) [J/C]
B-21
C a = Thermal capacity flow of the air [W/C]

k = Coefficient of thermal transmittance of the internal surface of the duct
[W/mC]
A k = Surface area of the duct [m]
The time constant of the valve group depends largely on the amount of recirculation,
and can be described by the following equation (Brresen, 1985):
Tk ,s =
(B46)
ln ((1 w ) (1 ))
where Tk ,s = The time constant of the valve group [s]
= The time for the temperature wave to pass through the entire recirculation
circuit [s]
= The air heater efficiency on the water side [-]
= The proportion of flow passing through the control valve in relation to the
circulation flow [-]
The greater the valve opening of the control valve, the greater the value of and the
shorter the time constant.
The longer the pipe, and the lower the flow velocity, the longer it takes for the
temperature wave to complete a turn of the recirculation circuit, and so the longer the
time constant. When the control valve is fully open, the time constant is zero for the
valve group. It must also be pointed out that the thermal capacities of the pipes affect
the temperature front in the valve group, which increases the system time constant
(Grindal, 1984). This can be described by Equation B45, modified to apply to pipes
filled with water.
The total system time constant depends on the values of the constituent parts, but to
different degrees.
If the distance between the air heater and the temperature sensor in the air duct that
controls it is long, this element can dominate the total system time constant. A constant
air flow therefore results in a control circuit time constant that is more or less
independent of the valve opening of the control valve. This has the effect of making the
necessary static characteristic more or less linear. However, Grindal (1984) has shown
that, in most cases, the dominating time constant is determined by the recirculation
connection (where one is used). In these cases, the valve opening of a control valve
definitely affects the time constant. However, for a direct connection, it is the air heater
time constant that dominates, as there is no recirculation. The diagram below shows
examples of how the relationship between dead time and time constant varies with the
flow (related to design flow) for a number of different system arrangements. The values
are taken from the measurements made in this work.
B-22
1.0
V341-4,H,D
0.9
0.8
V341-4,L,D
Td/Tk [-]
0.7
0.6
V341-4,H,DH
0.5
V341-4,L,DH
0.4
0.3
V341-4,H,SABO
0.2
0.1
V341-4,L,SABO
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Flow (per-unit) [-]

(Flow through control valve related to design flow)
Figure B14.Measured values of the quotient of dead time and time constant for a
number of different systems, according to the flow per-unit.
The dead time in the directly connected systems is considerably less than in the other
systems, which means that the quotient of dead time and time constant in these systems
is low. In systems having a valve group, a low-flow balanced system results in a higher
quotient in general (as compared with a high-flow balanced system), which means that
the value of the requisite P-band width in such systems is also higher.
It can be seen from the diagram that the quotient of dead time and time constant changes
with the flow through the control valve, such that it is low with low flow and high with
high flow. This means that the system gain must be higher at low flows than at high
flows, which therefore introduces a bend into the necessary static characteristic, as
shown in the following diagram. The three curves in the diagram correspond to
different cases, where the dominating time constant can be related to: the valve group
(refer to systems with a circulation circuit), the air heater (refer to direct connection
systems) and the air duct. Apart from the straight line, which symbolises the necessary
static characteristic when the quotient of dead time and time constant does not change
with the valve opening, the values used in the diagram are taken from the simulations in
this work.
B-23
1.0
Temperature rise (per-unit)
( ta/ ta,m ax) [-]
0.9
0.8
Dominating time
constant can be
related to:
0.7
0.6
Valve group
0.5
Air heater
0.4
Air duct
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Valve opening [-]
Figure B15.Necessary static characteristic related to different kind of systems.

B.5.2 Valve group characteristic
In order to be able to apply the necessary static characteristic to an optimum valve
characteristic, there needs to be a relationship between the temperature rise across the
air heater and the corresponding necessary flow rate. This relationship consists of the
total efficiency of the valve group on the air side, as expressed below:
a ,s =
where a ,s
a
1
1
1 1
+ 1
a R
t a
= The total efficiency of the valve group (with the air heater) on the air
side [-]
= The air heater efficiency on the air side [-]
CR
[-]
CH
C
= w = a [-]
w
Ca
= The air heater efficiency on the water side [-]
& c
= Thermal capacity flow = V
p
CR
CH
Ca
Cw
=
=
=
=
t a
= Temperature rise across the air heater on the air side [C]
R
w
(B47)
Thermal capacity flow through the control valve [W/K]

Thermal capacity flow through the air heater [W/K]
Thermal capacity flow of the air through the air heater [W/K]
C H = Thermal capacity flow of the water through the air heater [W/K]
B-24
t w ,sup ply = Water supply temperature [C]

t a ,in
= Temperature of the entry air to the air heater [C]
If this is expressed as a per-unit function of the valve group efficiency when the control
valve is fully open ( = 1), we obtain:
a ,s
a ,max
=
a ,max
1
1 1

+ 1
a R
t a
t a ,max
(B48)
where a ,max = Maximum efficiency (which is the same value for the air heater and the
valve group at fully open control valve) [-]
t a ,max = Maximum temperature rise across the air heater (at fully open control
valve) [C]
For a valve group having a recirculation connection, the flow through the air heater is
more or less constant, which means that a is equal to a,max. For a direct connection,
is always equal to 1. this gives the following two equations:
For a valve group with recirculation:
t a
=
t a ,max
For direct connection:
t a
a
=
t a ,max a ,max
1
1
1 + w 1

(B49)
(B50)
With a direct connection, the efficiency on the air side depends on the flow. If the flow
is expressed as a per-unit value of the maximum value (i.e. with a fully open control
valve), we obtain the following diagram which shows how the per-unit temperature rise
across the air heater varies with the flow. Values have been taken from the simulations
in this work.
B-25
1.0
( ta/ ta,m ax) [-]
0.9
0.8
0.7
System
configuration
0.6
H, Direct
0.5
H, Shunt
0.4
L, Direct
L, Shunt
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Flow (per-unit) ( ) [-]
Figure B16.The effect of flow on the air temperature rise across the air heater,
depending on system configuration. H = High flow, L = Low flow,
Direct = Direct connection and Shunt = Valve group with
recirculation circuit.
B.5.3 Valve authority
The last step in arriving at the optimum valve characteristic involves consideration of
the valve authority, which links the necessary flow through the control valve with the
required kv value. An example of this is shown in the following figure, the values in
which have been taken from the simulations.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Valve authority
0.6
0.05
0.30
0.72
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Flow (per-unit) ( ) [-]
Figure B17.The effect of the valve authority on the relationship between the flow
through the control valve and its kv value.
B-26
B.5.4 Nomogram
The way in which the three elements
- the necessary static characteristic
- the total efficiency of the valve group
- the valve authority
interact to give an impression of the necessary optimum valve characteristic can be
illustrated by a nomogram, as shown below.
(ta/ta,max) [-]
1
Valve authority
Valve opening [-]
Flow (per-unit) () [-]
Total efficiency of the valve

group
1
Relative kv value (kv/kvs) [-]
Figure B18.Nomogram to produce the valve characteristic from the valve authority,
total efficiency of the valve group and system static characteristic.
The dotted line in the nomogram above illustrates the procedure for arriving at an
optimum valve characteristic, with the starting point for each point on the curve
B-27
(indicated by rings) being some arbitrary valve opening. The simplification in this
method of presentation lies in the application of a constant requisite static characteristic:
in fact, this changes with the valve characteristic, which means that it is actually
necessary to arrive at the optimum characteristic by iteration, which is done in the
simulations in this work.
B-28

Hydronic Heating Systems - The Effect of Design On System Sensitivity - Anders Truschel (Book)

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THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Building Services Engineering

Hydronic Heating Systems

Hydronic Heating Systems

Gothenburg, May 2002

SIMULATION AND RESULTS RADIATOR SYSTEM

SIMULATION AND RESULTS

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

Valve opening [%]

Coefficient of thermal transmittance [W/mK]

Control port for a control valve

1.3.1 Systems investigated

The 2-pipe radiator system considered in the analysis.

Air heater with valve group

1.3.2 Measurement and simulation

Room temperature or supply air temperature, which constitute the criterion of

Work in this field

Statistic from the Swedish District Heating Association.

radiator thermostatic control valves) (1978) must be mentioned. In addition, he and

1.4.4 System design and control

The structure of this thesis

2.1.1 Distribution systems

Schematic diagram of a 2-pipe distribution system.

Schematic diagram of a 1-pipe distribution system.

Schematic diagram of a 3-pipe distribution system.

An example of direct connection.

SABO is a large country-wide municipal housing association.

Available differential pressure in a circulation system with five radiators. It

Volume flow through the valve [m3/h]

Different expressions for the kv value of a valve, depending on the choice of

Pump and system characteristics.

New system characteristic

Figure 10. Changing the operating point in a system.

Steep pump characteristic

Change in the system characteristic

p pipe = Pipe pressure drop [kPa]

= The coefficient of flow resistance in the pipe [kPa/(m/s)x]

2.2.4 The effect of lowest balanced differential pressure

Figure 13. Increasing the differential pressure in response to a reduction in flow

2.2.5 The heat-releasing components' characteristic

Thermal power transferred [W]

= Exit temperature [C]

Thermal power transferred [W]

= Thermal power output from the radiator [W]

Thermal power output [W]

Figure 14. Flow characteristic of a radiator.

Thermal power output [W]

= Inlet (supply) temperature [C]

= Room temperature [C]

= Air heater efficiency on the air side [-]

= Input air temperature (before the air heater) [C]

= Water inlet temperature [C]

t w ,out = Water return temperature [C]

t w ,sup ply C R + t w ,out C B = t w ,in C H

t w ,sup ply = Supply temperature [C]

= Return temperature [C]

= Inlet temperature [C]

= Thermal capacity flow of air through the air heater [W/C]

Equation (15), together with (16) give the following expression:

t w ,sup ply t w ,return

Categorisation of different types of systems.

Figure 17. Four different mechanical valve characteristics - quick-opening, linear,