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Vegetableoil
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Avegetableoilisatriglycerideextractedfromaplant.[1]Theterm"vegetableoil"canbenarrowlydefinedasreferringonly
toplantoilsthatareliquidatroomtemperature,[2]orbroadlydefinedwithoutregardtoasubstance'sstateofmatteratagiven
temperature.[3]Forthisreason,vegetableoilsthataresolidatroomtemperaturearesometimescalledvegetablefats.In
contrasttothesetriglycerides,vegetablewaxeslackglycerinintheirstructure.Althoughmanyplantpartsmayyieldoil,in
commercialpractice,oilisextractedprimarilyfromseeds.
Onfoodpackaging,theterm"vegetableoil"isoftenusediningredientslistsinsteadofspecifyingtheexactplantbeingused,
especiallywhentheoilusedislessdesirabletotheconsumerorifamixisused.

Contents
1 Usesoftriglyceridevegetableoil
1.1 Culinaryuses
1.2 Hydrogenatedoils
1.3 Industrialuses
1.4 Petfoodadditive
1.5 Fuel
2 Production
2.1 Mechanicalextraction
2.2 Solventextraction
2.3 Hydrogenation
2.4 Deodorization
2.5 Occupationalexposure
2.6 Yield
3 Particularoils
3.1 Compositionoffats
4 History
5 Usedoil
6 Negativehealtheffects
7 Productlabeling
8 Seealso
9 Notesandreferences
10 Otherreferences
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

Usesoftriglyceridevegetableoil
Oilsextractedfromplantshavebeenusedsinceancienttimesandinmanycultures.Asanexample,ina4,000yearold
kitchenunearthedinIndiana'sCharlestownStatePark,archaeologistBobMcCulloughofIndianaUniversityPurdue
UniversityFortWaynefoundevidencethatnativesusedlargeslabsofrocktocrushhickorynuts,thenboiledtheminwaterto
extracttheoil.[4]Archaeologicalevidenceshowsthatoliveswereturnedintooliveoilby6000BC[5]and4500BCinpresent
dayIsraelandPalestine.[6]

Culinaryuses
Manyvegetableoilsareconsumeddirectly,orindirectlyasingredientsinfoodarolethattheysharewithsomeanimalfats,
includingbutter,ghee,lard,andSchmaltz.Theoilsserveanumberofpurposesinthisrole:
Shorteningtogivepastryacrumblytexture.
Textureoilscanservetomakeotheringredientssticktogetherless.
Flavorwhilelessflavorfuloilscommandpremiumprices,someoils,suchasolive,sesame,oralmondoil,maybe
chosenspecificallyfortheflavortheyimpart.
Flavorbaseoilscanalso"carry"flavorsofotheringredients,sincemanyflavorsareduetochemicalsthataresoluble
inoil.
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Secondly,oilscanbeheatedandusedtocookotherfoods.Oilssuitableforthisobjectivemusthaveahighflashpoint.Such
oilsincludethemajorcookingoilssoybean,rapeseed,canola,sunflower,safflower,peanut,cottonseed,etc.Tropicaloils,
suchascoconut,palm,andricebranoils,areparticularlyvaluedinAsianculturesforhightemperaturecooking,becauseof
theirunusuallyhighflashpoints.

Hydrogenatedoils
Unsaturatedvegetableoilscanbetransformedthroughpartialorcomplete"hydrogenation"intooilsofhighermeltingpoint.
Thehydrogenationprocessinvolves"sparging"theoilathightemperatureandpressurewithhydrogeninthepresenceofa
catalyst,typicallyapowderednickelcompound.Aseachcarboncarbondoublebondischemicallyreducedtoasinglebond,
twohydrogenatomseachformsinglebondswiththetwocarbonatoms.Theeliminationofdoublebondsbyaddinghydrogen
atomsiscalledsaturationasthedegreeofsaturationincreases,theoilprogressestowardbeingfullyhydrogenated.Anoil
maybehydrogenatedtoincreaseresistancetorancidity(oxidation)ortochangeitsphysicalcharacteristics.Asthedegreeof
saturationincreases,theoil'sviscosityandmeltingpointincrease.
Theuseofhydrogenatedoilsinfoodshasneverbeencompletelysatisfactory.Becausethecenterarmofthetriglycerideis
shieldedsomewhatbytheendfattyacids,mostofthehydrogenationoccursontheendfattyacids,thusmakingtheresulting
fatmorebrittle.Amargarinemadefromnaturallymoresaturatedoilswillbemoreplastic(more"spreadable")thana
margarinemadefromhydrogenatedsoyoil.Whilefullhydrogenationproduceslargelysaturatedfattyacids,partial
hydrogenationresultsinthetransformationofunsaturatedcisfattyacidstounsaturatedtransfattyacidsintheoilmixturedue
totheheatusedinhydrogenation.Partiallyhydrogenatedoilsandtheirtransfatshavebeenlinkedtoanincreasedriskof
mortalityfromcoronaryheartdisease,[7]amongotherincreasedhealthrisks.
IntheUS,theStandardofIdentityforaproductlabeledas"vegetableoilmargarine"specifiesonlycanola,safflower,
sunflower,corn,soybean,orpeanutoilmaybeused.[8]Productsnotlabeled"vegetableoilmargarine"donothavethat
restriction.

Industrialuses
Vegetableoilsareusedasaningredientorcomponentinmanymanufacturedproducts.
Manyvegetableoilsareusedtomakesoaps,skinproducts,candles,perfumesandotherpersonalcareandcosmeticproducts.
Someoilsareparticularlysuitableasdryingoils,andareusedinmakingpaintsandotherwoodtreatmentproducts.Dammar
oil(amixtureoflinseedoilanddammarresin),forexample,isusedalmostexclusivelyintreatingthehullsofwoodenboats.
Vegetableoilsareincreasinglybeingusedintheelectricalindustryasinsulatorsasvegetableoilsarenottoxictothe
environment,biodegradableifspilledandhavehighflashandfirepoints.However,vegetableoilsarelessstablechemically,
sotheyaregenerallyusedinsystemswheretheyarenotexposedtooxygen,andtheyaremoreexpensivethancrudeoil
distillate.Synthetictetraesters,whicharesimilartovegetableoilsbutwithfourfattyacidchainscomparedtothenormal
threefoundinanaturalester,aremanufacturedbyFischeresterification.Tetraestersgenerallyhavehighstabilitytooxidation
andhavefounduseasenginelubricants.Vegetableoilisbeingusedtoproducebiodegradablehydraulicfluid[9]and
lubricant.[10]
Onelimitingfactorinindustrialusesofvegetableoilsisthatallsuchoilsaresusceptibletorancid.Oilsthataremorestable,
suchasbenoilormineraloil,arethuspreferredforindustrialuses.Castoroilhasnumerousindustrialuses,owingtothe
presenceofhydroxylgrouponthefattyacid.CastoroilisaprecursortoNylon11.

Petfoodadditive
Vegetableoilisusedinproductionofsomepetfoods.AAFCOdefinesvegetableoil,inthiscontext,astheproductof
vegetableoriginobtainedbyextractingtheoilfromseedsorfruitswhichareprocessedforediblepurposes.Insomepoorer
gradepetfoods,theoilislistedonlyas"vegetableoil",withoutspecifyingtheparticularoil.[11]

Fuel
Vegetableoilsarealsousedtomakebiodiesel,whichcanbeusedlikeconventionaldiesel.Somevegetableoilblendsare
usedinunmodifiedvehiclesbutstraightvegetableoil,alsoknownaspureplantoil,needsspeciallypreparedvehicleswhich
haveamethodofheatingtheoiltoreduceitsviscosity.Theuseofvegetableoilsasalternativeenergyisgrowingandthe
availabilityofbiodieselaroundtheworldisincreasing.

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TheNNFCCestimatethatthetotalnetgreenhousegassavingswhenusingvegetableoilsinplaceoffossilfuelbased
alternativesforfuelproduction,rangefrom18to100%.[12]

Production
Theproductionprocessofvegetableoilinvolvestheremovalofoilfromplantcomponents,typicallyseeds.Thiscanbedone
viamechanicalextractionusinganoilmillorchemicalextractionusingasolvent.Theextractedoilcanthenbepurifiedand,
ifrequired,refinedorchemicallyaltered.

Mechanicalextraction
Oilscanberemovedviamechanicalextraction,termed"crushing"or"pressing."Thismethodistypicallyusedtoproducethe
moretraditionaloils(e.g.,olive,coconutetc.),anditispreferredbymost"healthfood"customersintheUnitedStatesandin
Europe.Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofmechanicalextraction.[13]Expellerpressingextractioniscommon,thoughthe
screwpress,rampress,andGhani(poweredmortarandpestle)arealsoused.Oilseedpressesarecommonlyusedin
developingcountries,amongpeopleforwhomotherextractionmethodswouldbeprohibitivelyexpensivetheGhaniis
primarilyusedinIndia.[14]Theamountofoilextractedusingthesemethodsvarieswidely,asshowninthefollowingtablefor
extractingmowrahbutterinIndia:[15]
Method Percentageextracted
Ghani[16] 2030%
Expellers 3437%
Solvent

4043%

Solventextraction
Theprocessingofvegetableoilincommercialapplicationsiscommonlydonebychemicalextraction,usingsolventextracts,
whichproduceshigheryieldsandisquickerandlessexpensive.Themostcommonsolventispetroleumderivedhexane.This
techniqueisusedformostofthe"newer"industrialoilssuchassoybeanandcornoils.
Supercriticalcarbondioxidecanbeusedasanontoxicalternativetoothersolvents.[17]

Hydrogenation
Oilsmaybepartiallyhydrogenatedtoproducevariousingredientoils.Lightlyhydrogenatedoilshaveverysimilarphysical
characteristicstoregularsoyoil,butaremoreresistanttobecomingrancid.Margarineoilsneedtobemostlysolidat32C
(90F)sothatthemargarinedoesnotmeltinwarmrooms,yetitneedstobecompletelyliquidat37C(98F),sothatit
doesn'tleavea"lardy"tasteinthemouth.
Hardeningvegetableoilisdonebyraisingablendofvegetableoilandacatalystinnearvacuumtoveryhightemperatures,
andintroducinghydrogen.Thiscausesthecarbonatomsoftheoiltobreakdoublebondswithothercarbons,eachcarbon
forminganewsinglebondwithahydrogenatom.Addingthesehydrogenatomstotheoilmakesitmoresolid,raisesthe
smokepoint,andmakestheoilmorestable.
Hydrogenatedvegetableoilsdifferintwomajorwaysfromotheroilswhichareequallysaturated.Duringhydrogenation,itis
easierforhydrogentocomeintocontactwiththefattyacidsontheendofthetriglyceride,andlesseasyforthemtocome
intocontactwiththecenterfattyacid.Thismakestheresultingfatmorebrittlethanatropicaloilsoymargarinesareless
"spreadable".Theotherdifferenceisthattransfattyacids(oftencalledtransfat)areformedinthehydrogenationreactor,and
mayamounttoasmuchas40percentbyweightofapartiallyhydrogenatedoil.Hydrogenatedoils,especiallypartially
hydrogenatedoilswiththeirhigheramountsoftransfattyacidsareincreasinglythoughttobeunhealthy.

Deodorization
Intheprocessingofedibleoils,theoilisheatedundervacuumtonearthesmokepoint,andwaterisintroducedatthebottom
oftheoil.Thewaterimmediatelyisconvertedtosteam,whichbubblesthroughtheoil,carryingwithitanychemicalswhich
arewatersoluble.Thesteamspargingremovesimpuritiesthatcanimpartunwantedflavorsandodorstotheoil.
Deodorizationiskeytothemanufactureofvegetableoils.Nearlyallsoybean,corn,andcanolaoilsfoundonsupermarket
shelvesgothroughadeodorizationstagethatremovestraceamountsofodorsandflavors,andlightensthecoloroftheoil.
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Occupationalexposure
Peoplecanbreatheinvegetableoilmistintheworkplace.TheU.S.OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)
hassetthelegallimit(Permissibleexposurelimit)forvegetableoilmistexposureintheworkplaceas15mg/m3total
exposureand5mg/m3respiratoryexposureoveran8hourworkday.TheU.S.NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyand
Health(NIOSH)hassetarecommendedexposurelimit(REL)of10mg/m3totalexposureand5mg/m3respiratoryexposure
overan8hourworkday.[18]

Yield
Sometypicalyields
Yield
Crop
(MT/ha)
Palmoil[19]

4.0

Coconutoil[20]

1.4

Canolaoil[21]

1.4

Soybeanoil[21]

0.6

Sunfloweroil

0.6

[20]

Particularoils
Thefollowingtriglyceridevegetableoilsaccountforalmostallworldwideproduction,byvolume.Allareusedasboth
cookingoilsandasSVOortomakebiodiesel.AccordingtotheUSDA,thetotalworldconsumptionofmajorvegetableoils
in2007/08was:[22]
Oilsource

Worldconsumption
(millionmetric
tons)

Notes

Palm

41.31

Themostwidelyproducedtropicaloil,alsousedtomakebiofuel

Soybean

41.28

Accountsforabouthalfofworldwideedibleoilproduction

Rapeseed

18.24

Oneofthemostwidelyusedcookingoils,canolaisavariety(cultivar)of
rapeseed

Sunflower
seed

9.91

Acommoncookingoil,alsousedtomakebiodiesel

Peanut

4.82

Mildflavoredcookingoil

Cottonseed

4.99

Amajorfoodoil,oftenusedinindustrialfoodprocessing

Palmkernel

4.85

FromtheseedoftheAfricanpalmtree

Coconut

3.48

Usedinsoaps,cosmeticsandcooking

Olive

2.84

Usedincooking,cosmetics,soapsandasafuelfortraditionaloillamps

Notethatthesefiguresincludeindustrialandanimalfeeduse.ThemajorityofEuropeanrapeseedoilproductionisusedto
producebiodiesel,oruseddirectlyasfuelindieselcarswhichmayrequiremodificationtoheattheoiltoreduceitshigher
viscosity.Thesuitabilityofthefuelshouldcomeaslittlesurprise,asRudolfDieseloriginallydesignedhisenginetorunon
peanutoil.
Othersignificanttriglycerideoilsinclude:
Cornoil,oneofthemostcommoncookingoils.Asof2006theUSproducedabout1.09millionmetrictons[23]ofcorn
oil,whichisusedforcookingoil,saladdressing,margarine,mayonnaise,preparedgoodslikespaghettisauceand
bakingmixes,andtofrypreparedfoodslikepotatochipsandFrenchfries.
Grapeseedoil,usedincookingandcosmetics
Hazelnutandothernutoils
Linseedoil,fromflaxseeds
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Ricebranoil,fromricegrains
Saffloweroil,aflavorlessandcolorlesscookingoil
Sesameoil,usedasacookingoil,andasamassageoil,particularlyinIndia
Aapalmoil,usedinculinaryandcosmetics
AcmellaoleraceaJamboilhasspilantholisextractedfromtheflowers,
leavesandstemfromjambu
AnnonamuricataGraviolaoilisantibacterial,astringent,hypotensiveand
sedativetonameafew
AstrocaryumaculeatumTucumoiltucumapulpisusedtomanufacturesoap.
Brazilnutoil,culinaryandcosmeticsuse
Carapaoil,pharmaceuticaluseandantimosquitocandle
MauritiaflexuosaBuritioil,cosmetics(skinandhaircare)
PassifloraedulisPassionfruitoilhasvariedapplicationsincosmetics
manufacturingandforusesasahumanoranimalfood.
PentaclethramacrolobaSejeoil,pharmaceuticalandcosmeticsuse

Jamboil

Compositionoffats

Guavaoil

PracachyorPentaclethramacroloba

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Vegetableoils
Type

Saturated
fatty
acids[24]

Processing
Treatment

Mono
unsaturated
fatty
acids[24]

Polyunsaturatedfattyacids
Total
poly[24]

linolenic
acid
(3)

Oleic
acid
(9)

Linoleic
acid
(6)

Smoke
point

Avocado

11.560

70.554

13.486

12.5

480F
(249C)[25]

Canola(rapeseed)

7.365

63.276

28.142

10

10

400F
(204C)[26]

Coconut

91.000

6.000

3.000

350F
(177C)[26]

Corn[27]

12.948

27.576

54.677

58

28

450F
(232C)

Cottonseed

25.900

17.800

51.900

54

19

420F
(216C)[27]

Flaxseed/Linseed
(European)[28]

7.500

15.500

79.000

64

15

11

225F
(107C)

Olive

14.000

72.000

14.000

1.5

15

380F
(193C)[26]

Palm

49.300

37.000

9.300

10

40

455F
(235C)

Peanut

16.900

46.200

32.000

32

48

437F
(225C)[27]

Safflower(>70%
linoleic)

8.000

15.000

75.000

410F
(210C)[26]

Safflower(high
oleic)

7.541

75.221

12.820

410F
(210C)[26]

Soybean

15.650

22.783

57.740

50

24

460F
(238C)[27]

Sunflower(<60%
linoleic)

10.100

45.400

40.100

0.2

39.8

45.3

440F
(227C)[27]

Sunflower(>70%
oleic)

9.859

83.689

3.798

440F
(227C)[27]

Cottonseed
Hydrogenated
(hydrogenated)[24]

93.600

1.529

0.587

0.287

Palm
(hydrogenated)

Hydrogenated

47.500

40.600

7.500

Soybean
Hydrogenated
(hydrogenated)[24]

21.100

73.700

0.400

0.096

Valuesaspercent(%)byweightoftotalfat.

History
Suchoilshavebeenpartofhumancultureformillennia.Poppyseed,rapeseed,linseed,almondoil,sesameseed,safflower,
andcottonseedwereusedsinceatleastthebronzeagethroughouttheMiddleEastandCentralAsia.[1]In1780,Carl
WilhelmScheeledemonstratedthatfatswerederivedfromglycerol.ThirtyyearslaterMichelEugneChevreuldeducedthat
thesefatswereestersoffattyacidsandglycerol.
Inmoderntimes,cottonseedoilwasmarketedbyProcter&Gambleasacreamedshorteningin1911.Ginningmillswere
happytohavesomeonehaulawaythecottonseeds.Theextractedoilwasrefinedandpartiallyhydrogenatedtogiveasolidat
roomtemperatureandthusmimicnaturallard,andcanitundernitrogengas.ComparedtotherenderedlardProcter&
Gamblewasalreadysellingtoconsumers,Criscowascheaper,easiertostirintoarecipe,andcouldbestoredatroom
temperaturefortwoyearswithoutturningrancid.
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SoybeanswereanexcitingnewcropfromChinainthe1930s.Soywasproteinrich,andthemediumviscosityoilwashighin
polyunsaturates.HenryFordestablishedasoybeanresearchlaboratory,developedsoybeanplasticsandasoybasedsynthetic
wool,andbuiltacar"almostentirely"outofsoybeans.[30]RogerDracketthadasuccessfulnewproductwithWindex,buthe
investedheavilyinsoybeanresearch,seeingitasasmartinvestment.[31]Bythe1950sand1960s,soybeanoilhadbecomethe
mostpopularvegetableoilintheUS.
Inthemid1970s,Canadianresearchersdevelopedalowerucicacidrapeseedcultivar.Becausetheword"rape"wasnot
consideredoptimalformarketing,theycoinedthename"canola"(from"CanadaOillowacid").TheU.S.FoodandDrug
AdministrationapproveduseofthecanolanameinJanuary1985,[32]andU.S.farmersstartedplantinglargeareasthatspring.
Canolaoilislowerinsaturatedfats,andhigherinmonounsaturatesandisabettersourceofomega3fatsthanotherpopular
oils.Canolaisverythin(unlikecornoil)andflavorless(unlikeoliveoil),soitlargelysucceedsbydisplacingsoyoil,justas
soyoillargelysucceededbydisplacingcottonseedoil.

Usedoil
Alargequantityofusedvegetableoilisproducedandrecycled,mainlyfromindustrialdeepfryersinpotatoprocessing
plants,snackfoodfactoriesandfastfoodrestaurants.
Recycledoilhasnumeroususes,includinguseasadirectfuel,aswellasintheproductionofbiodiesel,soap,animalfeed,pet
food,detergent,andcosmetics.It'stradedasthecommodity,yellowgrease.
Since2002,anincreasingnumberofEuropeanUnioncountrieshaveprohibitedtheinclusionofrecycledvegetableoilfrom
cateringinanimalfeed.Usedcookingoilsfromfoodmanufacturing,however,aswellasfreshorunusedcookingoil,
continuetobeusedinanimalfeed.[33]

Negativehealtheffects
Hydrogenatedoilshavebeenshowntocausewhatiscommonlytermedthe"doubledeadlyeffect",raisingthelevelofLDLs
anddecreasingthelevelofHDLsintheblood,increasingtheriskofbloodclottinginsidebloodvessels.[34]
Ahighconsumptionofoxidizedpolyunsaturatedfattyacids(PUFAs),whicharefoundinmosttypesofvegetableoil(e.g.
soybeanoil,cornoilthemostconsumedinUSA,sunfloweroil,etc.)mayincreasethelikelihoodthatpostmenopausal
womenwilldevelopbreastcancer.[35]Asimilareffectwasobservedonprostatecancer[36]andskincancer[37]inmice.
Duetotheirsusceptibilitytooxidationfromtheexposuretooxygen,heatandlight,resultingintheformationofoxidation
productssuchasinflammatoryperoxidesandhydroperoxides,[38][39]plantoilsrichinpolyunsaturedfattyacidshavealimited
shelflifeandregularconsumptionofrancidoils(fromprolongedstorageoroverheating)mayhavenegativehealth
consequences.

Productlabeling
Thereisincreasingconcernthattheproductlabelingthatincludes"vegetablefat"or"vegetableoil"initslistofingredients
maskstheidentityofthefatsoroilspresent.Thishasbeenmademorepressingasconcernshavebeenraisedoverthesocial
andenvironmentalimpactofpalmoilinparticular,especiallygiventhepredominanceofpalmoil.[40]
InCanada,palmoilisoneoffivevegetableoils,alongwithpalmkerneloil,coconutoil,peanutoilandcocoabutter,which
mustbespecificallynamedinthelistofingredientsforafoodproduct.[41]Also,oilsinCanadianfoodproductswhichhave
beenmodifiedorhydrogenatedmustcontaintheword"modified"or"hydrogenated"whenlistedasaningredient.[42]Amix
ofoilsotherthantheaforementionedexceptionsmaysimplybelistedas"vegetableoil"inCanadahowever,ifthefood
productisacookingoil,saladoilortableoil,thetypeofoilmustbespecifiedandlisting"vegetableoil"asaningredientis
notacceptable.[41]
From13December2014allfoodproductsproducedintheEuropeanUnionwillbelegallyrequiredtoindicatethespecific
vegetableoilusedintheirmanufacture,followingtheintroductionoftheFoodInformationtoConsumersRegulation[43]

Seealso
Algaeculture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oil

Cholesterol

Decorticator
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Deodoriser
Essentialoils
Fattyacid
Foodextrusion
Fragranceoil

VegetableoilWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Lipid
Listofmaceratedoils
Listofvegetableoils
Neem
Nonfoodcrops

Oleochemistry
Vernoniaoil
Vegetableoilrecycling

Notesandreferences
1.AlfredThomas(2002)."FatsandFattyOils".Ullmann'sEncyclopediaofIndustrialChemistry.Weinheim:WileyVCH.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_173.
2.ParwezSaroj.ThePearsonGuidetotheB.Sc.(Nursing)EntranceExamination.PearsonEducationIndia.p.109.ISBN81317
13385.
3.RobinDand(1999).TheInternationalCocoaTrade.WoodheadPublishing.p.169.ISBN1855734346.
4."4,000yearold'kitchen'unearthedinIndiana".ArchaeoNews.January26,2006.Retrieved20060731.
5.RuthSchuster(December17,2014)."8,000yearoldoliveoilfoundinGalilee,earliestknowninworld",Haaretz.Retrieved
December17,2014.
6.EhudGalilietal.,"EvidenceforEarliestOliveOilProductioninSubmergedSettlementsofftheCarmelCoast,Israel",Journalof
ArchaeologicalScience24:11411150(1997)Pagnol,p.19,saysthe6thmillenniuminJericho,butcitesnosource.
7.TransFatTaskForce(June2006)."TRANSformingtheFoodSupply(Appendix9iii)".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary25,
2007.Retrieved20070109.(Consultationonthehealthimplicationsofalternativestotransfattyacids:SummaryofResponses
fromExperts)
8."Margarine".CodeofFederalRegulationsTitle21,ChapterI,SubchapterB,Part166.USFoodandDrugAdministration.April1,
2011.Retrieved20111101.
9.LindaMcGraw(April19,2000)."BiodegradableHydraulicFluidNearsMarket".USDA.Retrieved20060929.
10."CassScenicRailroad,WestVirginia".GWWCA.Retrieved20111101.
11."Ingredientstoavoid".TheDogFoodProject.Retrieved20070626.
12.NationalNonFoodCropsCentre.GHGBenefitsfromUseofVegetableOilsforElectricity,Heat,TransportandIndustrialPurposes,
NNFCC10016(http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/ghgbenefitsfromuseofvegetableoilsforelectricityheattransportandindustrialp
urposesnnfcc10016)
13.Hossain,Amjad(2012)."Kalu".InIslam,SirajulJamal,AhmedA.Banglapedia:NationalEncyclopediaofBangladesh(Second
ed.).AsiaticSocietyofBangladesh.
14.JanetBachmann."OilseedProcessingforSmallScaleProducers".Retrieved20060731.
15.B.L.AxtellfromresearchbyR.M.Fairman(1992)."Illipe".Minoroilcrops.FAO.Retrieved20061112.
16.Aziz,KMA(2012)."Ghani".InIslam,SirajulJamal,AhmedA.Banglapedia:NationalEncyclopediaofBangladesh(Seconded.).
AsiaticSocietyofBangladesh.AghaniisatraditionalIndianoilpress,drivenbyahorseorox.
17.Eisenmenger,MichaelDunford,NurhanT.Eller,FredTaylor,ScottMartinez,Jose(2006)."Pilotscalesupercriticalcarbon
dioxideextractionandfractionationofwheatgermoil".JournaloftheAmericanOilChemists'Society.83(10):863868.
doi:10.1007/s1174600650386.
18."CDCNIOSHPocketGuidetoChemicalHazardsVegetableoilmist".www.cdc.gov.Retrieved20151127.
19.MalaysianPalmOilIndustry(http://www.palmoilworld.org/about_malaysianindustry.html),palmoilworld.org
20.OilStapleCropsCompared(http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/oilcropscompared1.htm),gardeningplaces.com
21.Globaloilyields:Havewegotitseriouslywrong?(http://www.aocs.org/Membership/informArticleDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1102),
DenisJ.Murphy,August2009,aocs.org
22.January2009(PDF).Oilseeds:WorldMarketandTrade.FOP109.USDA.20090112.,Table03:MajorVegetableOils:World
SupplyandDistributionatOilseeds:WorldMarketsandTradeMonthlyCircular(http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/Current.a
sp)
23.CornRefinersAssociation.CornOil(http://www.corn.org/wpcontent/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf)5thEdition.2006
24."Nutrientdatabase,Release24".UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture.AllvaluesinthiscolumnarefromtheUSDANutrient
databaseunlessotherwisecited.
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Furtherreading
Gupta,MonojK.(2007).Practicalguideforvegetableoilprocessing.AOCSPress,Urbana,Illinois.ISBN9781
893997905.
Jee,Michael,ed.(2002).OilsandFatsAuthentication.BlackwellPublishing,Oxford,England.ISBN1841273309.
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Salunkhe,D.K.,Chavan,J.K.,Adsule,R.N.andKadam,S.S.(1992).WorldOilseedsChemistry,Technology,and
Utilization.VanNostrandReinhold,NewYork.ISBN0442001126.

Externallinks
"FatsandCholesterol:OutwiththeBad,InwiththeGoodWhatShouldYou
WikimediaCommonshas
Eat?".TheNutritionSource.HarvardSchoolofPublicHealth.Retrieved
mediarelatedtoVegetable
20141112.
oils.
Dobarganes,M.CarmenMrquezRuiz,GloriaSbdio,JeanLouisetal.
(eds.)."FryingOils:Chemistry,Analysis,andNutritionalAspects".LipidLibraryoftheAmericanOilChemists
Society.Retrieved20141112.
"Vegetableoilyields,characteristics:JourneytoForever".journeytoforever.org.Retrieved20090504.
"NationalNonFoodCropsCentre".www.nnfcc.co.uk.Retrieved20090504.
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