KNU1073

INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

CHAPTER 2
Photovoltaic Technology
Assoc. Prof. Dr Wan Azlan Bin Wan Zainal Abidin
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

OUTLINE
Working Principle of PV Cells
PV Cell, Array and Module
Types of PV Systems
Applications of PV Systems

Working Principle of PV Cells

Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into
electricity at the atomic level.

Some materials exhibit a property known as the

photoelectric effect

that causes them to absorb photons of light and release

electrons.

When these free electrons are captured, an electric

current results that can be used as electricity.

 The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French

physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839.

He found that certain materials would produce small

amounts of electric current when exposed to light.

In 1905, Albert Einstein described nature of light and

photoelectric effect on which PV technology is based,

for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics.

First PV module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954.

It was billed as a solar battery and was too expensive to gain

widespread use.

 In 1960s, space industry began to make the first serious

use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft.

Through the space programs,

the technology advanced, its reliability was established, and the

cost began to decline.

During energy crisis in 1970s,

PV technology gained recognition as a source of power for nonspace applications.

PV Cell, Array and Module

By attaching metal plates to each side of the semiconductor, and

running a current through a wire connecting the plates,

engineers create a positive electrode on one side and a negative
electrode on the other.

Because electrons have a negative charge, they move toward the

positive terminal, out of the crystal and into the wire itself.

This flow of electrons is actually electricity.

This electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light or

a tool.

 The first PVs cells were clusters of semiconductor crystals

wired together.

Later, engineers improved the amount of electricity PVs

make by laying thin semiconductor films over a base.

Now, some engineers are developing nanotech

photovoltaics,

which use layers of mixed materials to maximize the amount of

light converted to electricity.

 Diagram below illustrates the operation of a basic

photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell.

Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor

materials,

such as silicon, used in the microelectronics industry.

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and

mounted in a support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic

module.

Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage,

such as a common 12 volts system.

The current produced is directly dependent on how much light

strikes the module.

Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array.

 In general, the larger the area of a

module or array, the more electricity

that will be produced.

Photovoltaic modules and arrays

produce direct-current (dc)
electricity.

They can be connected in both series

and parallel electrical arrangements

to produce any required voltage and

current.

 Although a PV array produces power when exposed to

sunlight,

a number of other components are required to

properly:

conduct,
control,
convert,
distribute, and
store

the energy produced by the array.

Types of PV Systems
Photovoltaic power systems are generally classified
according to their:

functional and operational requirements,

component configurations, and
how the equipment is connected to other power sources and
electrical loads.

The two principal classifications are:

grid-connected or utility-interactive systems and

stand-alone systems.

 Photovoltaic systems:

can be designed to provide DC and/or AC power service,

can be connected with other energy sources and energy

storage systems.

can operate interconnected with or independent of the utility

grid, and

Grid-connected or Utility-interactive
PV Systems

This system is designed to operate in parallel

with and interconnected with the electric utility

grid.

The primary component in grid-connected PV

systems is the inverter, or power conditioning
unit (PCU).

 PCU converts PV array DC power into AC power consistent

with voltage and power quality requirements of utility
grid, and

automatically stops supplying power to the grid when the utility

grid is not energized.

A bi-directional interface is made between PV system AC

output circuits and the electric utility network,

typically at an on-site distribution panel or service entrance.

This allows the AC power produced by the PV system to:

either supply on-site electrical loads, or

to back-feed the grid when the PV system output is greater than
the on-site load demand.

 At night and during other periods when electrical loads are

greater than PV system output,

the balance of power required by the loads is received from the

electric utility.

This safety feature is required in all grid-connected PV

systems.

It ensures that PV system will not continue to operate and

feed back into the utility grid when grid is down for service
or repair.

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems

Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate
independent of the electric utility grid.

They are generally designed and sized to supply certain

DC and/or AC electrical loads.

These types of systems may be powered by

a PV array only,
or may use wind,
an engine-generator or utility power as an auxiliary power source

in what is called a PV-hybrid system.

 The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a directcoupled system,

where DC output of a PV module or array is directly connected to a

DC load.

Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries), the

load only operates during sunlight hours.

These designs suitable for applications such as:

ventilation fans,
water pumps, and
small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating systems.

 In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for

energy storage.

Figure below shows a diagram of a typical stand-alone PV

system powering DC and AC loads.

 Figure below shows a diagram of a typical photovoltaic

hybrid system.

PV Semiconductor Technology
In the world of photovoltaic (PV) solar power,

there are several types of semiconductor technologies currently

in use for PV solar panels.

Two, however, have become the most widely adopted:

crystalline silicon and

thin film.

Crystalline silicon, also called wafer silicon,

is the oldest and

the most widely used material in commercial solar panels.

 There are two main types of crystalline silicon panels:

Monocrystalline Silicon
Multicrystalline (also called polycrystalline)

Monocrystalline (also called single crystal)

Monocrystalline panels use solar cells that are cut from a piece
of silicon grown from a single, uniform crystal.

The panels are among the most efficient yet most expensive
on the market.

They require the highest purity silicon.

 Multicrystalline (also called polycrystalline)

Multicrystalline panels use solar cells that are cut from

multifaceted silicon crystals.

They are less uniform in appearance than monocrystalline

cells, resembling pieces of shattered glass.

These are the most common solar panels on market (less

expensive than monocrystalline).

They are also less efficient, though performance gap has

begun to close in recent years.

The difference between polycrystalline and

monocrystalline modules

lies in the different technique used for the production of cells.

 Polycrystalline and monocrystalline modules are

excellent products

whose performance is kept unaltered over time,

few power losses over 25-year warranty term.

Such modules are ideal also for small plants given their
reduced size.

They must be installed and face southwards for their

better performance.

After those cumbersome cells came the second

generation, thin film models.

The most successful of this generation has been the

cadmium telluride (CdTe) series of cells.

Thin film solar panels are made by placing thin layers of

semiconductor material onto various surfaces,

usually on glass.

The term thin film refers to the amount of semiconductor

material used,

which is thinner than the width of a human hair and

most thin film panels are not flexible.

Thin film solar panels offer the lowest manufacturing costs,

and are becoming more prevalent in the industry.

The CdTe cells are:

much thinner,
use less material, and
are easier to produce
but they're still rigid.

 There are three main types of thin film used:

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)

Amorphous Silicon
Copper, Indium, Gallium, Selenide (CIGS)

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)

CdTe solar panels are manufactured on glass.

the most cost-effective to manufacture.

They are the most common type of thin film solar panel on the
market and

 Amorphous Silicon

Amorphous silicon is the non-crystalline form of silica.

It is less efficient at converting sunlight into electricity.

It was the first thin film material to yield a commercial product.

First used in consumer items such as calculators.
It can be deposited in thin layers onto a variety of surfaces and
offers lower costs than traditional crystalline silicon,

Copper, Indium, Gallium, Selenide (CIGS)

CIGS is a compound semiconductor that can be deposited onto

many different materials.

CIGS has only recently become available for small commercial

applications.

Applications of PV Systems
Photovoltaic technology can be used in several types of
applications.

Grid-connected domestic systems

Grid-Connected power plants
Off-grid systems for rural electrification
Off-grid industrial applications
Consumer goods

Grid-connected domestic systems

This is the most popular type of solar PV system for homes
and businesses in developed areas.

Connection to local electricity network

allows any excess power produced to feed the electricity grid and
to sell it to the utility.

Electricity is then imported from the network when there is

no sun.

An inverter is used to convert the direct current power

produced by the system to alternative power for running
normal electrical equipments.

Grid-Connected power plants

These systems, also grid-connected, produce a large
quantity of photovoltaic electricity in a single point.

The size of these plants range from several hundred

kilowatts to several megawatts.

Some of these applications are located on large industrial

buildings such as airport terminals or railways stations.

This type of large application makes use of already available

space.

It compensates a part of the electricity produced by these

energy-intensive consumers.

Off-grid systems for rural electrification

Where no mains electricity is available, the system is

connected to a battery via a charge controller.

An inverter can be used to provide AC power, enabling the

use of normal electrical appliances.

Typical off-grid applications are used to bring access to

electricity to remote areas (mountain huts, developing
countries).

Rural electrification means either:

small solar home system covering
basic electricity needs in a single
household, or
larger solar mini-grids, which provide
enough power for several homes.

Off-grid industrial applications

Very frequently used in the telecommunications field,

especially to link remote rural areas to rest of the country.

Repeater stations for mobile telephones powered by PV or

hybrid systems also have a large potential.

Other applications include traffic signals, marine navigation

aids, security phones, remote lighting, highway signs and
waste water treatment plants.

These applications are cost competitive today

they enable to bring power in areas far away from electric mains,
avoiding the high cost of installing cabled networks.

Application in
telecommunication
s field.

Consumer goods
Photovoltaic cells are used in many daily electrical
appliances, including

watches,
calculators,
toys,
battery chargers.

Other applications include power for services such as water

sprinklers, road signs, lighting and phone boxes.

Q&A