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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
College of Textiles, Key Laboratory of Textile Science & Technology, Ministry of Education, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
ABSTRACT
ARTICLE HISTORY
This article reports the compressive behaviors of 3-D braided basalt fiber tows/epoxy composite materials
under the temperature range of 23210C with the strain-rate range of 13002300 s1 . A split Hopkinson pressure bar apparatus with a heating device was designed to conduct the out-of-plane compression tests. It was
found that compression modulus, specific energy absorption, and peak stress decreased with the elevated
temperatures, while failure strain gradually increased with the elevated temperatures. Compression modulus and peak stress were more sensitive to the temperature effect, whereas failure strain and specific energy
absorption were more easily affected by the strain rate effect. The plasticity can be divided into two types:
(a) the platform-shape plasticity; or (b) the slope-shape plasticity. The experimental condition of 150C with
1827 s1 was a dividing threshold to differentiate the compression-failure mode and the shear-failure mode.
The authentic microstructural finite element analysis results revealed that the distribution and accumulation of the inelastic heat led to the development of shear bands. Braided reinforcement had an important
influence on the damage characteristics. When the temperature was below Tg , the material underwent a
significant temperature rise during failure. But above Tg , the temperature rise was relatively steady.
Received April
Accepted October
1. Introduction
Braided composite materials have been widely applied to
structural engineering, such as high speed vehicles and aircrafts. In service, braided composite structures often experience high temperature environments. The 3-D braiding process
was invented by General Electric [1] and then further developed and patented by Florentine [2]. They have been widely
studied since the 1970s due to their advantages of high impact
resistance, high damage tolerance, and excellent net-shape
formability compared with traditional laminates. Potential
applications for 3-D braided composites include airframe spars,
fuselage frames, ship propeller blades, rocket nose cones, engine
nozzles, biomedical devices, and so forth [3]. The reinforcing materials for 3-D braided polymer composites are typically
carbon fiber, glass fiber, aramid fiber, and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene fiber [4]. Basalt fiber, produced from
basalt rock and comprised of single-ingredient raw material
melt, has been regarded as a new kind of high performance fiber
because of its satisfactory mechanical properties, high temperature resistant performance, high thermal shock resistance, low
thermal conductivity, perfect chemical stability, good electrical
insulation, and dielectric properties [58].
Temperature effect on the impact behaviors of fiberreinforced polymer composite has been well reported. Hirai
et al. [9] found that the damage area of woven glass fabric
composite increased with increasing temperature and impact
energy. Im et al. [10] found that delamination area per unit of
impact energy decreased with the increased surface temperature
KEYWORDS
-D braided composite;
thermo mechanical; nite
element analysis (FEA); strain
rate; compression
386
Z. PAN ET AL.
Figure . Photographs of (a) the [ ] four-step rectangular braided preform, (b) the vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding process, and (c) the composite section.
2. Materials preparation
The braided preform, as shown in Figure 1a, was manufactured by a four-step rectangular 1 1 braiding process with
the fiber tows array of 6 6. The basalt filament tows were
manufactured by Hengdian Group Shanghai Russia and Gold
Basalt Fiber Co., Ltd. The specifications of basalt filament tows
are illustrated in Table 1. The epoxy resin (consisting of 54.5%
bisphenol A and 45.5% modified anhydride, manufactured by
Changshu Jiafa Co., Ltd) was injected into the basalt continuous filament braided preform by a vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding process as illustrated in Figure 1b. The cure procedure of the composite material includes cured at 90C for 1 h,
110C for 3 h, 130C for 4 h, followed by slow cooling to 23C
over 12 h. The fiber volume of the composite was 46% and the
section size was 7.8 mm 7.8 mm as shown in Figure 1c.
Fiber density
(g/cm )
Yarn linear
density (tex)
Figure . (a) The temperature sweep DMA test of the epoxy resin. (b) The time
sweep DMA test of the epoxy resin.
(t
)=
(1)
(2)
(3)
where R (t) and T (t) are the respective strain gage signal of
the reflected and transmitted pulses, Ls is the sample length, Ab
and As are the respective cross-section area of bars and sample.
Equations (1)(3) are based on the assumption that the dynamic
forces on both sides of the sample are equal and can be expressed
as:
I + R = T .
(4)
387
well. The working principle of the control unit is that when the
temperature exceeds the set value, which was detected by the
thermocouple near the sample, the electromagnetic valve will
switch off automatically. As a result, the heating stops because of
the open circuit. Such an on and off control circuit ensures the
stability of the temperature field around the sample.
It is important that the incident bar and the transmission bar
were both out of the heat device during the heating process to
avoid the influence on the stress wave propagation caused by
the gradient temperature fields in the two bars. When the temperature of the sample stabilized for enough time (1520 min)
according to the relevant test standard [20], the two bars were
moved and contacted to the sample manually followed by an
impact test simultaneously to avoid the temperature loss of the
sample. All of the bars of the SHPB system had the same diameter of 14.5 mm. The samples were subjected to impact by the
incident bar in the out-of-plane direction. The movement of the
incident bar was not affected by the steel bracket owing to the
lower location of the bracket.
Figure . Schematic sketch of the SHPB testing system with a heat device.
The impact compression tests on composite samples in out-ofplane (through-thickness) direction at high strain rates were
accomplished by the SHPB system with the heating device at
the six elevated temperatures. Three times of repeatable tests
were conducted to obtain one reliable stress versus strain curves
under each temperature field at each pressure.
388
Z. PAN ET AL.
(5)
(6)
(7)
where T is the temperature, 0.35 , 0.50 , and 0.65 are the respective strain rates based on the three different gas pressures.
5.3. Stress versus strain characterization
Characteristics of the plasticity could be divided into two types
according to the ambient temperatures: (a) the platform-shape
plasticity; or (b) the slope-shape plasticity. For example in
Figure 6b, when the ambient temperature is below the Tg (from
As shown in Figure 5, strain rates of the out-of-plane compression are different due to different gas pressures. There were
three gradient strain rate regionsrespectively from 1300 to
1600 s1 , 1700 to 2000 s1 , and from 2100 to 2300 s1 the
corresponding gas pressures were 0.35, 0.50, and 0.65 MPa as
shown in Figure 5d. Even at the same gas pressure, the elevated
temperatures lead to the gradual increase of strain rates. The linear regressions between the strain rates and the temperatures are
given in Eqs. (5)(7):
Figure . The typical signals of input wave and output wave of out-of-plane compression of the -D braided composite at , , , , , and C.
389
Figure . The typical strain rate vs. time curves of out-of-plane compression of the -D braided composite: (a) at the . MPa; (b) at the . MPa; (c) at the . MPa gas
pressure under the temperature elds of , , , , , and C; and (d) the strain rates of the three corresponding dierent gas pressures.
23 to 90C), the stress versus strain curves increase nearly linearly until reaching the yield strength values followed by a slight
increasing stage of stress. When the ambient temperature is
above the Tg (from 120 to 210C), the initial stage of linearity
is not manifest but the stress versus strain curves show slopeshape plasticity.
Both the strain softening and strain hardening could be
observed during the plastic stage after yield point in each stress
versus strain curve. Such opposite mechanisms caused the fluctuation of plasticity. Completely different from the dislocation of
crystal lattices in metallic material, the plasticity of 3-D braided
composite is determined by the deformation of resin and reinforcement structure.
5.4. The effect of temperature
Figure 7 depicts the quantitative mechanical parameters, which
were extracted from the experimental data above. The polynomial regressions between the four mechanical parameters and
the temperatures are given in Eqs. (8)(19):
E0.35 = 6.32395 + 0.01920T 6.25867 104 T 2
b
0.35
+ 1.97491T 3 (R = 0.98760),
= 266.59500 + 0.14340T 0.00584T 2
+ 1.29557 105 T 3 (R = 0.95464),
(8)
(9)
b
= 13.93798 0.01967T + 3.45098 104 T 2
0.35
(10)
(11)
E0.50
b
0.50
+ 1.42659T 3 (R = 0.96635),
(12)
2
= 285.66347 0.57743T + 0.00514T 2.09628
Q0.35
b
0.50
105 T 3 (R = 0.98782),
= 17.36360 + 0.02474T 1.04659 104 T 2
+ 1.71207 107 T 3 (R = 0.93421),
4
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
b
0.65
b
= 20.82603 0.00767T + 1.90215 104 T 2
0.65
4.87986 107 T 3 (R = 0.96330),
Q0.65 = 47.61155 0.04700T 1.94402 104 T 2
(18)
(19)
390
Z. PAN ET AL.
Figure . The typical stress vs. strain curves of out-of-plane compression of the -D
braided composite: (a) at the . MPa; (b) at the . MPa; (c) at the . MPa gas
pressure under the temperature elds of , , , , , and C.
where T is the temperature; E0.35 , E0.50 , and E0.65 are the respective compression modulus at the three different gas pressures;
b
b
b
, 0.50
, and 0.65
are the respective peak stresses at the three
0.35
b
b
b
, 0.50
, and 0.65
are the respecdifferent gas pressures; 0.35
tive failure strains at the three different gas pressures; and Q0.35 ,
The 3-D color map surface graphs (Figure 10) present a visualized comprehension of the cumulative effect of temperature
and strain rate on the dynamic mechanical response of the 3-D
braided basalt/epoxy composite. It exhibits the different levels of
dependency of temperature effect or stain rate effect. Figure 10
demonstrates that the decrease of compression modulus and
peak stress is more susceptible to the temperature effect, whereas
the increase of failure strain and specific energy absorption are
more easily affected by the strain rate effect. Furthermore, the
3-D color map surface graphs offer a good access to predict
the mechanical performance in some experimental conditions,
which were not conducted in this study.
391
Figure . The mechanical properties of out-of-plane compression of the -D braided composite: (a) at the . MPa; (b) at the . MPa; (c) at the . MPa gas pressure
under the temperature elds of , , , , , and C.
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Z. PAN ET AL.
The range of
strain-rate
Compression
modulus
. MPa
. MPa
. MPa
s
s
s
.%
.%
.%
Peak tress
Failure
strain
Specic
energy
absorption
.%
.%
.%
+.%
+.%
+.%
.%
.%
.%
Hopkinson bars. Under higher temperature fields, the deformations of samples are much more distinct. At higher strain rates,
deformation and damage morphologies are much more severe.
Damage morphologies in Figures 11a and 11b show that,
between 12931827 s1 , crack and fragmentation does not
imperil the integrity of the whole composite. As a result, after
the fracture of resin, the braided reinforcement structure acts
as an important role in absorbing impact energy. However, the
catastrophic shear failure starts from the strain rates of 1827
s1 (at the temperature of 150C). The catastrophic shear mode
prevails between 18272263 s1 as shown in Figures 11b and
11c. The shear cracks propagate along the longitudinal direction
of the fiber tows through the whole braided reinforcement. To
explore the thermo-mechanical failure mechanism, an authentic microstructural FEM model was established to simulate the
two different failure and damage processes: (1) at 1675 s1 with
the temperature of 60C; and (2) at 1827 s1 with the temperature of 150C.
Figure . The stress vs. strain curves and their mechanical properties of out-ofplane compression of the -D braided composite at the dierent gas pressures
under dierent temperature elds.
393
+.
+. +. +.
resin, respectively; f is the fiber-packing factor in yarn and was
+.
+. +.
+.
defined [22] as:
+.
+.
+.
+.
2
+.
+.
+.
+.
2
2 3D2y n + 2 1
2 3D2y (m + 2 1)
+.
+.
+. +.
=
,(27)
f =
+.
+.
+. +.
3wx2 cos
3wy2 cos
Dy = 4/ ,
(28)
tows. Fiber tows was treated as a transverse-isotropic unidirec
=
Tex
/1000,
(29)
y
tional composite based on Chamis method [21] as follows:
tan = 2 tan ,
(30)
f
(20)
E11 = f E11 + m Em ,
f
where Texy ( Texy = 1200) is the tows linear density, ( =
E22 = E33 = Em 1 f 1 Em E22 ,
(21) 2.65 g/cm3 ) is the fiber density, ( = 35.5 ) is the braiding
f
(22) angle, m ( m = 6) is the number of yarns in width, n ( n = 6)
12 = 13 = f 12 + m m ,
is the number of yarns in thickness, wx ( wx = 7.5 mm) is the
f
23 = f 23 + m m ,
(23) width of the 3-D braided reinforcement, and wy ( wy = 7.5 mm)
is the thickness of the 3-D braided reinforcement.
f
G12 = G13 = Gm 1 f 1 Gm /G12 , (24)
The equivalent thermal expansion coefficient [23] and the
f
equivalent
thermal conductivity coefficient [23] vary with tem(25)
G23 = Gm 1 f 1 Gm /G23 ,
perature and f :
f + m = 1,
(26)
f f
f
11 = 11 E11 f + m Em m E11 f + Em m ,
(31)
where E11 , E22 , E33 , 12 , 13 , 23 , G12 , G13 , and G23 are the
f f
22 = 33 = 1 + 12 22 f + (1 + m )m m 11 12 , (32)
equivalent longitudinal modulus, transverse modulus, Poissons
Figure . The mechanics properties of out-of-plane compression of the -D braided composite under the coupling eect of temperature and strain rate.
Z. PAN ET AL.
394
Figure . The typical damage morphologies of out-of-plane compression of the -D braided composite: (a) at the gas pressure of . MPa; (b) at the gas pressure of .
MPa; and (c) at the gas pressure of . MPa.
f
k11 = k11 f + km m ,
f
f
k22 = k33 = k22 km k22 f + km m ,
(33)
(34)
where 11 and 22 are the longitudinal and transverse equivalent thermal expansion coefficients of fiber tows impregnated
with resin. m is the thermal expansion coefficient of the
resin. k11 and k22 are the longitudinal and transverse equivalent thermal conductivity coefficients of fiber tows impregnated with resin. km is the thermal conductivity coefficient of
resin.
Mechanical parameters of basalt fiber and epoxy resin at different temperatures are listed in Tables 4 and 5. In the present
study, f equaled to 69.2% and the thermal parameters of
395
Figure . (a) Mesh schemes of braided reinforcement; (b) mesh schemes of epoxy resin; (c) typical orientation denition of a ber tow; and (d) the SHPB testing model.
basalt fiber and resin are listed in Table 6. The equivalent thermal expansion coefficients and equivalent thermal conductivity
coefficients of the fiber tows impregnated with the epoxy resin
were calculated and listed in Table 7. The engineering constants
of the fiber tows impregnated with the epoxy resin were calculated and listed in Table 8.
396
Z. PAN ET AL.
Ef
(MPa)
Ef
(MPa)
Ef
(MPa)
Gf
(MPa)
Gf
(MPa)
Gf
(MPa)
12 f
13 f
23 f
m
k
k
km
Cf
Cm
( ) ( ) ( ) (W/mK) (W/mK) (W/mK) (kJ/kg.K) (kJ/kg.K)
introduced as a source of coupling for thermomechanical analysis. Thermomechanical analysis is important in a simulation
where extensive inelastic deformation occurs rapidly in a material whose mechanical properties are temperature dependent.
The model assumes that plastic straining gives rise to a heat
flux per unit volume of [26]:
r = : ,
pl
pl
(35)
where r pl is the heat flux that is added into the thermal energy
balance; is the inelastic heat fraction, which is assumed to be
a constant; is the stress; and pl is the rate of plastic straining. For all the plasticity models in ABAQUS, the plastic strain
increment is written from the flow potential as:
pl = pl n,
(36)
pl
(39)
D , pl ,
where = p/q is the stress triaxiality, p is the pressure stress,
In the case of dynamic loading, where adiabatic conditions where D and D are the equivalent plastic strain at ductile
tensile and uniaxial compressive
usually prevail since the heat dissipates at a rate much slower damage initiation for uniaxial
+
=
1/3 and = 1/3 are the stress
deformation,
respectively.
=
(41)
= 1,
D
where is the density and C is the specific heat of elastic-plastic
pl
pl
,
material.
D
Since the matrix of the 3-D braided composite in this study
was a kind of bisphenol A epoxy resin, the was taken as 0.25 where D is a state variable that increases monotonically with
r pl =
(37)
Table . Dynamic mechanical analysis and dynamic compression data of the epoxy
resin at dierent temperatures.
T (C)
Em (MPa)
(DMA data)
Em (MPa)
(SHPB tests,
s )
T (C)
.
.
.
.
.
.
( )
( )
k (W/mK)
k (W/mK)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
397
E22
(MPa)
E33
(MPa)
12
13
23
G12
(MPa)
G13
(MPa)
G23
(MPa)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
T
(C)
Figure . Damage morphologies and evolutionary process of compression failure mode at the temperature of C with s .
Z. PAN ET AL.
398
Figure . Damage morphologies and evolutionary process of catastrophic shear failure mode at the temperature of C with s .
0.
pl
D , pl
(42)
The shear criterion is a phenomenological model for predicting the onset of shear-band localization. The model assumes that
pl
the equivalent plastic strain at the onset of damage S is a function of the shear ratio and strain rate:
pl
(43)
S S , pl ,
pl
S
+ sin h[ fS S ] + sin h fS +
S
S
S
S
S , pl = S
,
sin h[ fS (S+ S )]
(44)
399
= 1,
pl
S S , pl
where S is a state variable that increases monotonically with
plastic deformation. At each increment during the analysis the
increase in S is computed as:
S =
d pl
0.
pl
S S , pl
(46)
(47)
Figure . Compressive stress and temperature vs. strain (a) at the ambient temperature of C with s and (b) at the temperature of C with s .
the closer to fiber tows, the less inelastic heat generation with
lower damage level. However, for fiber reinforcement, the closer
to resin matrix, the more inelastic heat generation with higher
damage level.
The distribution and accumulation of inelastic heat lead to
the development of shear bands. During the compression failure mode as shown in Figure 13, the inelastic heat accumulates
dispersedly in resin matrix between fiber tows. The scattered
damage regions, as shown in the section view, are not large
enough to connect with each other. However, during the catastrophic failure mode, as shown in Figure 14, the scattered damage regions are large enough to evolve catastrophic shear bands.
The braiding structure has an important influence on thermomechanical damage. The increase of braiding angle during
the compressive process leads to the increase of the angle as
in the top view and in the side view of the composite sample
in Figures 13 and 14. The boundary effect of braiding structure
is also a vital factor for the damage of the composite. The facetdamage regions, which contact with the Hopkinson bars, extend
the shear bands. Therefore, edge regions and corner regions
are always in a great severe damage state with easily vulnerable
removal of material.
400
Z. PAN ET AL.
7. Conclusions
High strain rate tests were successfully accomplished by the
SHPB apparatus with the heat device. Results of the experiments
indicated that the dynamic out-of-plane compression behavior
of the 3-D braided basalt/epoxy was affected by temperature and
strain rate. The following was noted:
1. The characteristics of plasticity can be divided into two
types according to the ambient temperature below or
above the Tg of epoxy resin: (a) the platform-shape plasticity, or (b) the slope-shape plasticity.
2. Compression modulus, specific energy absorption and
peak stress decrease with the elevated temperature, while
the failure strain gradually increase with the elevated
temperature. Compression modulus and peak stress are
more susceptible to the temperature effect, whereas failure strain and specific energy absorption are more easily
affected by the strain rate effect.
3. There are two threshold temperatures for strength: (a)
around the Tg and (b) around 210C.
4. The inelastic heat generated in resin matrix is more than
that in the fiber reinforcement. For resin matrix, the
closer to fiber tows, the less inelastic heat generation with
lower damage level. However, for the braided reinforcement, the closer to resin matrix, the more inelastic heat
generation with higher damage level.
5. The experimental condition of 150C with 1827 s1 is
a dividing threshold for two different failure modes: (a)
compression failure mode and (b) catastrophic shear failure mode. During the compression failure mode, scattered damage regions are not large enough to connect
with each other to evolve shear bands. However, during
the catastrophic failure mode, scattered damage regions
are large enough forming shear bands.
6. When the temperature is below Tg , once the material
fails, it undergoes a significant temperature rise. When
the temperature is above Tg , the temperature rise is relatively steady.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the National Science
Foundation of China (No. 11272087) and the Fok Ying-Tong Education
Foundation (Grant No. 141070). The financial support from the Foundation for the Author of National Excellent Doctoral Dissertation of PR China
(No. 201056), the Key Grant Project of Chinese Ministry of Education (No.
113027A), Shanghai Science and Technology Innovation Action Plan (Nos.
12521102400 and 12dz1100407), and the Chinese Universities Scientific
Fund (CUSF-DH-D-2014002) are also gratefully acknowledged.
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