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the market was called into question in the 1980s by concerns about
depletion of the ozone layer.
Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as
substitute
refrigerants
such
as
perfluorocarbons
(FCs)
and
Refrigerants such as ammonia (R717), carbon dioxide (R744) and nonhalogenated hydrocarbons preserve the ozone layer and have no (ammonia)
or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential.
They are used in air-conditioning systems for buildings, in sport and leisure
facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry, in the automotive
industry and above all in the food industry (production, storage, retailing).
In these settings their toxicity is less a concern than in home equipment.
Emissions from automobile air conditioning are a growing concern because
of their impact on climate change. From 2011 on, the European Union will
phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than
150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100 year warming potential of
one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO2).This will ban
potent greenhouse gases such as the refrigerant HFC-134awhich has a
GWP of 1410to promote safe and energy-efficient refrigerants.
One of the most promising alternatives is CO2 (R-744). Carbon dioxide is
non-flammable, non-ozone depleting, has a global warming potential of 1.
R-744 can be used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars,
residential air conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial refrigeration,
and vending machines. R12 is compatible with mineral oil, while R134a is
compatible with synthetic oil that contains esters.[citation needed] GM has
announced that it will start using "hydrofluoroolefin", HFO-1234yf, in all
of its brands by 2013. Dimethyl ether (DME) is also gaining popularity as a
refrigerant, but like propane, it is also dangerously flammable.
Some refrigerants are seeing rising use as recreational drugs, leading to an
extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.
Disposal
When refrigerants are removed they should be recycled to clean out any
contaminants and return them to a usable condition. Refrigerants should
never be mixed together outside of facilities licensed to do so for the
purpose of producing blends. Some refrigerants must be managed as
hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for
their transport, depending on the legislation of the country's government.
List of refrigerants
Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of
absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change
(typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat',
the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature
change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine,
alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2
refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1
refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be airconditioned.
For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine
atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates
that
the
isomer
is
unbalanced
by
one
atom,
giving
1,1,1,2-
circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion of the hightemperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct
force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to
pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a
distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The
first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by
tienne Lenoir.
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which
combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and twostroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston
engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion
engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most
rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same
principle as previously described.[1]
The ICE is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam
or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not
consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products.
Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid
sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels
such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are
position. The open exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the
cylinder. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve
opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. Four-stroke engines
require two revolutions.
Many engines overlap these steps in time; turbine engines do all steps
simultaneously at different parts of the engines.
Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel,
typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous
oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The
combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of
heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other
chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined
by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as
well as by the compression and other factors.
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are
derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel
fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for
the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are
designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum
gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed
with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous
biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is
produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also
be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen
gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas
made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been
conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection
cycle.
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark
ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable
electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental
engines with laser ignition have been built.
Gasoline Ignition Process
Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of
alternator or generator and leadacid battery for electrical power. The
battery supplies electrical power for cranking, and supplies electrical power
when the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during
rare run conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8
volts (for a common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator
voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the lead-acid storage battery increasingly
While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold
weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting
problems under extreme conditions. For years the solution was to park the
car in heated areas. In some parts of the world the oil was actually drained
and heated over night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early
1950s the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather
starts, raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the gas was
burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the
intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular till electric engine block
heaters became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates.[3]
Diesel Ignition Process
Diesel engines and HCCI (Homogeneous charge compression ignition)
engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its
compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is
usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air
only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel
fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly
ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on
an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This
is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting
issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light
duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks
employ glowplugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before
starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also
have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary
and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning
fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical
apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and
accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine
control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase
efficiency and reduce emissions.
Two-stroke configuration
Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down)
for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust
strokes, alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The
most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward
motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is
then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.
Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and
mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient
and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power
per cm, a two-stroke engine produces comparable power to an equivalent
four-stroke engine. The advantage of having one power stroke for every
360 of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720 in a 4-stroke motor) is
balanced by the less complete intake and exhaust and the shorter effective
compression and power strokes. It may be possible for a two-stroke to
produce more power than an equivalent four-stroke, over a narrow range of
engine speeds, at the expense of less power at other speeds.
Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been
less fuel-efficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with
the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust
port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection,
which avoids this loss and provides more efficiency than comparably sized
four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke
engine for it to meet stringent emission standards. The problem of total loss
oil consumption, however, remains a cause of high hydrocarbon emissions.
The low-pressure direct gasoline injection developed by R Sarich was
tested by Ford in an automobile size 2-stroke engine, and in 2012, Orbital
won a contract by the Australia government for a two-stroke, direct
injection engine for airborne drones.
Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors
including direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results
have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional
cylinder
configurations
include
the
straight
or
inline
called an opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and outlets are
positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow
scavenging, which, as in the four-stroke engine, is efficient over a wide
range of engine speeds. Also the thermal efficiency is improved because of
lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205
diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank
of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines.
These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended
cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the
corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and is still
used for marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators.
leadacid battery
Leadacid battery
30-40 wh/kg
energy density
60-75 wh/l
specific power
180 w/kg
Charge/discharge
efficiency
50%-92%
Self-discharge rate
3%-20%/month
Cycle durability
500-800 cycles
2.105 v
cathode (reduction):
Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries,
overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen
1. All voltages are at 20 c (68 f), and must be adjusted -0.022v/c for
temperature changes.
2. float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's
recommendation.
3. Precise float voltage (0.05 v) is critical to longevity; insufficient
voltage (causes sulfation) which is almost as detrimental as
excessive voltage (causing corrosion and electrolyte loss)
After full charge, terminal voltage drops quickly to 13.2 v and then
slowly to 12.6 v.
number of plates is usually used, with one more positive plate than
negative. Each alternate plate is connected.
the positive plates are the chocolate brown color of lead (iv) oxide,
and the negative are the slate gray of 'spongy' lead at the time of
manufacture. In this charged state the plates are called 'formed'.
one of the problems with the plates is that the plates increase in size
as the active material absorbs sulfate from the acid during discharge, and
decrease as they give up the sulfate during charging. This causes the plates
to gradually shed the paste. It is important that there is room underneath the
plates to catch this shed material. If it reaches the plates, the cell shortcircuits.
the paste contains motorcyclebon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate)
and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the leadto
lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in
order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate
from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the
formation of long needlelike crystals. The long crystals have more surface
area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging.
Motorcyclebon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused
by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a
more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This
dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces
hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead
particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It
extends battery life by increasing endofcharge voltage. Sulfonated
naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of
lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.
4.6.6 separators
separators between the positive and negative plates prevent shortcircuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but
also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow
of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell.
Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and pvc or polyethylene plastic
have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but
deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators were stable in the
battery acid.
an effective separator must possess a number of mechanical
properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific
surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic
conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service,
the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of
the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent
material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable
over the battery's operating temperature range.
CHAPTER -4
LITERATURE SURVAY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that an IC engine has an efficiency of about 3540%, which means that only one-third of the energy in the fuel is converted
into useful work and about 60-65% is wasted to environment. In which
about 28-30% is lost by cooling water and lubrication losses, around 3032% is lost in the form of exhaust gases and remainder by radiation, etc. In
this airconditioning system, a physicochemical process replaces the
mechanical process of the Vapour Compression Refrigeration System by
using energy in the form of heat rather than mechanical work. The heat
required for running of this airconditioning system can be obtained from
the exhaust of any vehicle working with an IC engine, which would
otherwise be exhausted into the atmosphere.
Hence using an airconditioning system using waste heat from an
automobile System will not only prevent the loss of power from the
vehicles engine but will also produce refrigeration using the low grade
energy (i,e. exhaust) from the engine. The use of this system will also
reduce pollution by reducing the amount of fuel burned while working the
conventional vapour compression refrigerating unit.
5.2
OTHER
METHODS
OF
IMPLEMENTATION
IN
AN
AUTOMOBILE
For a road transport utilizing airconditioning system heat energy can
be supplied in two ways:
CHAPTER - 6
EXPERIMENTAL IC ENGINE
The main two areas through which the heat is exhausted into the
atmosphere from the engine are the cooling water and the exhaust gases. It
is necessary to calculate the amount of heat energy carried away by the
exhaust gases and the cooling water.
6.2.1 Exhaust gas heat
Volumetric efficiency of the engine, E voi = 70%. Rated speed, N =
2000 rpm Mass flow rate of air into the cylinder,
ma = VN Evoi/2
= 0.001717x2000x0.7/2
ma=0.02m3/s. Mass flow rate of fuel,
mf = ma/(A/F ratio) = 0.02/15
mf =0.001335 kg/sec Total mass flow rate of exhaust gas,
me= ma+mf = 0.021335 kg/s. Specific heat at constant volume of
exhaust gas Cpe= lkj/kgk. Temperature available at the engine exhaust, te=
300C. Temperature of the ambient air, ta = 40C Heat available at exhaust
pipe
Qe = meCpe(te-ta)
= 0.021335xlx(300-40) Qe=5.5kW
6.3 FINAL VALUE
Hot Air
Pump
Exhaust Gas
From IC
Engine
Pre
Heater
Duct
Condenser
Fan
Generator
Fan
Evaporator
Capillar
y
Tube
CHAPTER - 9
ANALYSIS OF AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The air-conditioning system employing R134 is employed to
produce the required refrigerating effect. There are two operating pressures
in the system; one is the high pressure side which includes generator and
the condenser, while the other is the low pressure side which includes the
absorber and the evaporator. An expansion device is used to bring the
solution from high pressure side to low pressure side.
Using freon refrigerant the cooling effect will be takes place. Hence
the system becomes simpler and the number of components required for
the system is also reduced.
CHAPTER - 10
DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Designing involves developing each components of the system that
has to be installed on to the automobile to produce the required cooling
effect which involves generator, condenser and evaporator.
10.5 EVAPORATOR
The evaporator is of circular cross section and should be made of
copper tubes to have maximum heat transfer from the atmosphere to the
refrigerant. The tube is coiled to accommodate it inside the automobile.
Reynolds Number,
Re
= Vd/p
= (999x0.01414x0.008) / (1.755xl0"3) = 64.387
Nu
0.023 Re08Pr4
1.8 Also
hjDj/K
= NuK/Di
= m/Ap
= 114.51 W/m2K
1.8x0.509/0.008 h j
Assuming the velocity with which the air is passed through the coils
be Va = 2 m/s.
Taking temperature of the air entering the evaporator, t j = 40C.
Taking temperature of the air exiting the evaporator, t0 = 20C.
Mean temperature,
tm
= ( t j + to)/2
= ( 40 + 20 )/2 tra
=30C
SvDo/jx
I.lx2x0.01/(1.983xl0"3)
1109.43
0.583xRe0'471
0.583x[l 109.43]0473
Nu
15.845
AlsoNu
hoDo/K
Nusselt number,
Nu
= NuK/D0
15.845x0.02650/0.01 h0
42 W/m2K
=l/hi+l/h0
30.7 W/m2K
LMTD
291.2 K
= mrxhfg
0.35xl0"3x 2477.9
0.85kW
Also
Q
= UA(LMTD)
= 7tD0L
= Tix0.0l x L
= Q /[Ux7iD 0x(LMTD)]
= 850/ [30.72x.35x0.01x291.2]
= 2.95 m (approx)
0.01 m
0.008 m
2.95 m (approx)