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Refrigerant

A refrigerant is a substance, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and


refrigeration cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a
liquid to a gas and back again. Many working fluids have been used for
such purposes. Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became
commonplace in the 20th century, but they are being phased out because of
their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in various
applications are ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and non-halogenated
hydrocarbons such as propane.
The ideal refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties, be
noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe, including free from
toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or global
warming. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree,
choice is a matter of trade-off.
The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below
the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in
liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical
temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure,
refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by
choice of operating pressures.

The inert nature of many Halons, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and


Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), with the benefits of them being
nonflammable and nontoxic, made them good choices as refrigerants, but
their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding global warming
potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage.
In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are
Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC. Though HFC and PFC are
non-ozone depleting, many have global warming potentials that are
thousands of times greater than CO2. Other refrigerants such as propane
and ammonia are not inert, and are flammable or toxic if released.
New refrigerants were developed in the early 21st century that are safe to
humans and to the environment, but their application has been held up by
regulatory hurdles due to concerns over toxicity and flammability.
Early mechanical refrigeration systems employed sulphur dioxide, methyl
chloride and ammonia. Being toxic, sulphur dioxide and methyl chloride
rapidly disappeared from the market with the introduction of CFCs.
Occasionally, one may encounter older machines with methyl formate,
chloromethane, or dichloromethane (called carrene in the trade).
Chlorofluorocarbons were little used for refrigeration until better synthesis
methods, developed in the 1950s, reduced their cost. Their domination of

the market was called into question in the 1980s by concerns about
depletion of the ozone layer.
Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as
substitute

refrigerants

such

as

perfluorocarbons

(FCs)

and

hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They are


currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful
effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto
Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the
EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which makes
stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of
reducing their emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral
refrigerants.
Uses

Refrigerants such as ammonia (R717), carbon dioxide (R744) and nonhalogenated hydrocarbons preserve the ozone layer and have no (ammonia)
or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential.
They are used in air-conditioning systems for buildings, in sport and leisure
facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry, in the automotive

industry and above all in the food industry (production, storage, retailing).
In these settings their toxicity is less a concern than in home equipment.
Emissions from automobile air conditioning are a growing concern because
of their impact on climate change. From 2011 on, the European Union will
phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than
150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100 year warming potential of
one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO2).This will ban
potent greenhouse gases such as the refrigerant HFC-134awhich has a
GWP of 1410to promote safe and energy-efficient refrigerants.
One of the most promising alternatives is CO2 (R-744). Carbon dioxide is
non-flammable, non-ozone depleting, has a global warming potential of 1.
R-744 can be used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars,
residential air conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial refrigeration,
and vending machines. R12 is compatible with mineral oil, while R134a is
compatible with synthetic oil that contains esters.[citation needed] GM has
announced that it will start using "hydrofluoroolefin", HFO-1234yf, in all
of its brands by 2013. Dimethyl ether (DME) is also gaining popularity as a
refrigerant, but like propane, it is also dangerously flammable.
Some refrigerants are seeing rising use as recreational drugs, leading to an
extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.

Disposal
When refrigerants are removed they should be recycled to clean out any
contaminants and return them to a usable condition. Refrigerants should
never be mixed together outside of facilities licensed to do so for the
purpose of producing blends. Some refrigerants must be managed as
hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for
their transport, depending on the legislation of the country's government.
List of refrigerants
Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of
absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change
(typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat',
the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature
change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine,
alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2
refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1
refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be airconditioned.

Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of


liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by
nature of their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling
effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can also be
classified into many categories.
The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont corporation (which
owns the Freon trademark) and systematically identifies the molecular
structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. The
meaning of the codes is as follows:
Subtracting 90 from the concatenated numbers of carbon, hydrogen and
fluorine atoms, respectively gives the assigned R#.[6]
Remaining bonds not accounted for are occupied by chlorine atoms.
A suffix of a lower-case letter a, b, or c indicates increasingly
unsymmetrical isomers.
As a special case, the R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those
where the boiling point of constituent compounds differs enough to lead to
changes in relative concentration because of fractional distillation) and the
R-500 series is made up of so-called azeotropic blends. The rightmost digit
is assigned arbitrarily by ASHRAE, an industry organization.

For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine
atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates
that

the

isomer

is

unbalanced

by

one

atom,

giving

1,1,1,2-

Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular


structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethanea compound not especially
effective as a refrigerant.
The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with
a "Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a
propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds,
such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using HFC- for
hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for
hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences
among these groups.

Internal combustion engine


The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a
fuel (normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a
combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow

circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion of the hightemperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct
force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to
pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a
distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The
first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by
tienne Lenoir.
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which
combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and twostroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston
engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion
engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most
rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same
principle as previously described.[1]
The ICE is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam
or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not
consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products.
Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid
sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels
such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are

many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications


and are the dominant power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile
propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment,
internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-toweight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using
fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in
almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide
variety of aircraft and locomotives).
Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion
engines appear in the form of gas turbines. These applications include jet
aircraft, helicopters, large ships and electric generators.
Types of internal combustion engine

Engines can be classified in many different ways: By the engine cycle


used, the layout of the engine, source of energy, the use of the engine, or by
the cooling system employed.
Engine configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.

Common layouts of engines are:


Reciprocating:
Two-stroke engine
Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)
Six-stroke engine
Diesel engine
Atkinson cycle
Miller cycle
Rotary:
Wankel engine
Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)
1. Induction
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust
As their name implies, four-stroke internal combustion engines have four
basic steps that repeat with every two revolutions of the engine:

(1) Intake/suction stroke (2) Compression stroke (3) Power/expansion


stroke and (4) Exhaust stroke
1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the internal combustion engine is also
known as the suction stroke because the piston moves to the maximum
volume position (downward direction in the cylinder) creating a drop in
pressure. The inlet valve opens as a result of the cam lobe pressing down
on the valve stem, and the vaporized fuel mixture is sucked into the
combustion chamber. The inlet valve closes at the end of this stroke.
2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston
starts its movement to the minimum volume position (upward direction in
the cylinder) and compresses the fuel mixture. During the compression
process, pressure, temperature and the density of the fuel mixture
increases.
3. A Power stroke: When the piston reaches a point just before top dead
center, the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture. The point at which the fuel
ignites varies by engine; typically it is about 10 degrees before top dead
center. This expansion of gases caused by ignition of the fuel produces the
power that is transmitted to the crank shaft mechanism.
4. Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens.
During this stroke, the piston starts its movement in the maximum volume

position. The open exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the
cylinder. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve
opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. Four-stroke engines
require two revolutions.
Many engines overlap these steps in time; turbine engines do all steps
simultaneously at different parts of the engines.
Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel,
typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous
oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The
combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of
heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other
chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined
by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as
well as by the compression and other factors.
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are
derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel
fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for
the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are
designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum

gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed
with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous
biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is
produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also
be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen
gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas
made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been
conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection
cycle.
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark
ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable
electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental
engines with laser ignition have been built.
Gasoline Ignition Process
Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of
alternator or generator and leadacid battery for electrical power. The
battery supplies electrical power for cranking, and supplies electrical power
when the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during
rare run conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8
volts (for a common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator
voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the lead-acid storage battery increasingly

picks up electrical load. During virtually all running conditions, including


normal idle conditions, the alternator supplies primary electrical power.
Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide open
throttle conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical
loading to nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft horsepower. In this case the
battery supplies all primary electrical power.
Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it to
not more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MPa). When mixture is compressed, as the
piston approaches the cylinder head and maximum stroke, a spark plug
ignites the mixture.
The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts to over 30,000 volts, is
supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is a flyback system, using interruption of electrical primary system current
through some type synchronized interrupter. The interrupter can be either
contact points or a power transistor. Some ignition systems are capacitive
discharge types. CD ignitions use step-up transformers. The step-up
transformer uses energy stored in a capacitance to generate electric spark.
With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system provides a
carefully timed high-voltage to the proper cylinder. This spark, via the
spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the engine's cylinders.

While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold
weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting
problems under extreme conditions. For years the solution was to park the
car in heated areas. In some parts of the world the oil was actually drained
and heated over night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early
1950s the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather
starts, raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the gas was
burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the
intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular till electric engine block
heaters became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates.[3]
Diesel Ignition Process
Diesel engines and HCCI (Homogeneous charge compression ignition)
engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its
compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is
usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air
only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel
fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly
ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on
an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This
is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting
issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light

duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks
employ glowplugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before
starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also
have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary
and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning
fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical
apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and
accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine
control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase
efficiency and reduce emissions.
Two-stroke configuration
Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down)
for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust
strokes, alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The
most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward
motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is
then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.
Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and
mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient
and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power
per cm, a two-stroke engine produces comparable power to an equivalent

four-stroke engine. The advantage of having one power stroke for every
360 of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720 in a 4-stroke motor) is
balanced by the less complete intake and exhaust and the shorter effective
compression and power strokes. It may be possible for a two-stroke to
produce more power than an equivalent four-stroke, over a narrow range of
engine speeds, at the expense of less power at other speeds.
Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been
less fuel-efficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with
the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust
port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection,
which avoids this loss and provides more efficiency than comparably sized
four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke
engine for it to meet stringent emission standards. The problem of total loss
oil consumption, however, remains a cause of high hydrocarbon emissions.
The low-pressure direct gasoline injection developed by R Sarich was
tested by Ford in an automobile size 2-stroke engine, and in 2012, Orbital
won a contract by the Australia government for a two-stroke, direct
injection engine for airborne drones.
Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors
including direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results
have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional

counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles,


lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard
motors, and many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the advantage of
an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically
around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke engine.
The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels,
used in some locomotives and large ships. They use forced induction
(similar to super-charging, or turbocharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an
example of this type of motor is the Wrtsil-Sulzer turbocharged twostroke diesel as used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and
powerful internal combustion engine in the world with over 50% thermal
efficiency.For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are
around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for
efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.
Common

cylinder

configurations

include

the

straight

or

inline

configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but


smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a
radial configuration, which allows more effective cooling. More unusual
configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used.
Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head
at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder

called an opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and outlets are
positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow
scavenging, which, as in the four-stroke engine, is efficient over a wide
range of engine speeds. Also the thermal efficiency is improved because of
lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205
diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank
of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines.
These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended
cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the
corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and is still
used for marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators.
leadacid battery
Leadacid battery

lead acid motorcycle battery


specific energy

30-40 wh/kg

energy density

60-75 wh/l

specific power

180 w/kg

Charge/discharge
efficiency

50%-92%

Self-discharge rate

3%-20%/month

Cycle durability

500-800 cycles

Nominal cell voltage

2.105 v

Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by french physicist gaston


plante, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very
low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability
to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively
large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost,
make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current
required by automobile starter motors.
4.6.1 electrochemistry
In the charged state, each cell contains electrodes of elemental lead
(pb) and lead(iv) oxide (pbo2) in an electrolyte of approximately 33.5% v/v
(4.2 molar) sulfuric acid (h2so4).
In the discharged state both electrodes turn into lead(ii) sulfate (pbso4) and
the electrolyte loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily
water. Due to the freezing-point depression of water, as the battery
discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte
is more likely to freeze during winter weather.
The chemical reactions are (discharged to charged):
anode (oxidation):

cathode (reduction):

Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries,
overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen

gas by electrolysis of water, forming an explosive mix. The acid electrolyte


is also corrosive.
Practical cells are usually not made with pure lead but have small
amounts of antimony, tin, calcium or selenium alloyed in the plate material
to add strength and simplify manufacture.
4.6.2 voltages for common usages
These are general voltage ranges for six-cell lead-acid batteries:

Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 12.6 v to 12.8 v (2.10-2.13v per


cell)

Open-circuit at full discharge: 11.8 v to 12.0 v

Loaded at full discharge: 10.5 v.

Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 13.4 v for gelled


electrolyte; 13.5 v for agm (absorbed glass mat) and 13.8 v for
flooded cells

1. All voltages are at 20 c (68 f), and must be adjusted -0.022v/c for
temperature changes.
2. float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's
recommendation.
3. Precise float voltage (0.05 v) is critical to longevity; insufficient
voltage (causes sulfation) which is almost as detrimental as
excessive voltage (causing corrosion and electrolyte loss)

Typical (daily) charging: 14.2 v to 14.5 v (depending on


manufacturer's recommendation)

Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 15 v for no more than


2 hours. Battery temperature must be monitored.

Gassing threshold: 14.4 v

After full charge, terminal voltage drops quickly to 13.2 v and then
slowly to 12.6 v.

Portable batteries, such as for miners' cap lamps (headlamps) typically


have two cells, and use one third of these voltages.
4.6.3 measuring the charge level

A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a


measure of its state of charge.
because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction,
this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively
simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific
gravity (s.g.) Of the electrolyte, the s.g. Falling as the battery discharges.
Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating
balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the s.g.
Was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to
indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.

a battery's open-circuit voltage can be used to estimate the state of


charge, in this case for a 12 volt battery.
4.6.5 construction
the lead acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the
two electrodes. However such a construction produces only around one
ampere for roughly postmotorcycled sized plates, and for only a few
minutes.
gaston plant found a way to provide a much larger effective surface
area. In plant's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of
two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The
cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was
required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and
roughen them to increase surface area. Initially this process used electricity
from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the
cost of production of batteries greatly declined. Plant plates are still used
in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved
to increase their surface area.
faure pasted-plate construction is typical of automotive batteries.
Each plate consists of a rectangular lead grid alloyed with antimony or
calcium to improve the mechanical characteristics. The holes of the grid
are filled with a paste of red lead and 33% dilute sulfuric acid. (different
manufacturers vary the mixture). The paste is pressed into the holes in the
grid which are slightly tapered on both sides to better retain the paste. This
porous paste allows the acid to react with the lead inside the plate,
increasing the surface area many fold. At this stage the positive and
negative plates are similar, however expanders and additives vary their
internal chemistry to assist in operation. Once dry, the plates are stacked
with suitable separators and inserted in the battery container. An odd

number of plates is usually used, with one more positive plate than
negative. Each alternate plate is connected.
the positive plates are the chocolate brown color of lead (iv) oxide,
and the negative are the slate gray of 'spongy' lead at the time of
manufacture. In this charged state the plates are called 'formed'.
one of the problems with the plates is that the plates increase in size
as the active material absorbs sulfate from the acid during discharge, and
decrease as they give up the sulfate during charging. This causes the plates
to gradually shed the paste. It is important that there is room underneath the
plates to catch this shed material. If it reaches the plates, the cell shortcircuits.
the paste contains motorcyclebon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate)
and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the leadto
lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in
order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate
from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the
formation of long needlelike crystals. The long crystals have more surface
area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging.
Motorcyclebon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused
by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a
more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This
dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces
hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead
particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It
extends battery life by increasing endofcharge voltage. Sulfonated
naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of
lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.

About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead-acid battery rated


around 60 ah (8.7 kg of a 14.5 kg battery) is lead or internal parts made of
lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case.

4.6.6 separators
separators between the positive and negative plates prevent shortcircuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but
also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow
of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell.
Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and pvc or polyethylene plastic
have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but
deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators were stable in the
battery acid.
an effective separator must possess a number of mechanical
properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific
surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic
conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service,
the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of
the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent
material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable
over the battery's operating temperature range.

CHAPTER -4
LITERATURE SURVAY

4.1

VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEMS IN IC ENGINES


There are only very few work done on this topic of using vapour

absorption refrigeration system as air conditioner for the automobile. Some


of them are:
4.2

WORK DONE BY ANGELO CANTONI, ROME, ITALY


This invention comprises a vapour generator member connected to a

condenser which is itself connected, by way of a pressure reduction valve,


to an evaporator connected to an absorber which receives the liquid present
in the lower zone of the generator and from which liquid is fed to the upper
zone of the generator, there being provided in the generator a heat
exchanger through which the engine cooling liquid flows. Hence it uses
heat of the cooling water as the source of heat for the generator.
4.3 WORK DONE BY I HORUZ, BURSA, TURKEY
The work done by I Horuz consists of using exhaust heat of the
automobile as the heat source for the generator. He used two heat
exchangers one with insulation and the other without insulation for
transferring heat to the solution of the absorption system. He plotted the
results obtained after conducting various performance tests on the engine
under different running conditions.
CHAPTER - 5
AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM IN AUTOMOBILES
5.1

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that an IC engine has an efficiency of about 3540%, which means that only one-third of the energy in the fuel is converted
into useful work and about 60-65% is wasted to environment. In which
about 28-30% is lost by cooling water and lubrication losses, around 3032% is lost in the form of exhaust gases and remainder by radiation, etc. In
this airconditioning system, a physicochemical process replaces the
mechanical process of the Vapour Compression Refrigeration System by
using energy in the form of heat rather than mechanical work. The heat
required for running of this airconditioning system can be obtained from
the exhaust of any vehicle working with an IC engine, which would
otherwise be exhausted into the atmosphere.
Hence using an airconditioning system using waste heat from an
automobile System will not only prevent the loss of power from the
vehicles engine but will also produce refrigeration using the low grade
energy (i,e. exhaust) from the engine. The use of this system will also
reduce pollution by reducing the amount of fuel burned while working the
conventional vapour compression refrigerating unit.
5.2

OTHER

METHODS

OF

IMPLEMENTATION

IN

AN

AUTOMOBILE
For a road transport utilizing airconditioning system heat energy can
be supplied in two ways:

5.2.1 Using heat of combustion of a separate fuel


By using a separate fuel for working the refrigeration system i,e. a
fuel for example natural gas can be used for the working of a System. This
can be achieved by burning the fuel in a separate combustion chamber and
then supplying the Generator of a

System with the products of its

combustion to produce the required refrigerating effect. However this


prospect is eliminated since it requires a separate fuel and a separate
combustion chamber which makes it uneconomical and the system
becomes inefficient.
5.2.2 Using waste heat of the IC engine
Another method is by utilizing the heat of combustion which is
wasted into the atmosphere. By designing a generator capable of extracting
the waste heat of an IC engine without any decrease in engine efficiency,
System can be brought to work. Since this arrangement does not require
any extra work expect a small amount of work required for the pump,
which can be derived from the battery, this system can be used in
automobiles where engine efficiency is the primary consideration.

CHAPTER - 6
EXPERIMENTAL IC ENGINE

6.2 WASTE HEAT OF THE ENGINE

The main two areas through which the heat is exhausted into the
atmosphere from the engine are the cooling water and the exhaust gases. It
is necessary to calculate the amount of heat energy carried away by the
exhaust gases and the cooling water.
6.2.1 Exhaust gas heat
Volumetric efficiency of the engine, E voi = 70%. Rated speed, N =
2000 rpm Mass flow rate of air into the cylinder,
ma = VN Evoi/2
= 0.001717x2000x0.7/2
ma=0.02m3/s. Mass flow rate of fuel,
mf = ma/(A/F ratio) = 0.02/15
mf =0.001335 kg/sec Total mass flow rate of exhaust gas,
me= ma+mf = 0.021335 kg/s. Specific heat at constant volume of
exhaust gas Cpe= lkj/kgk. Temperature available at the engine exhaust, te=
300C. Temperature of the ambient air, ta = 40C Heat available at exhaust
pipe
Qe = meCpe(te-ta)
= 0.021335xlx(300-40) Qe=5.5kW
6.3 FINAL VALUE

Heat available at exhaust gas = 5.5 kW

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE AIR


CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Hot Air

Pump

Exhaust Gas
From IC
Engine

Pre
Heater
Duct

Condenser
Fan

Generator
Fan
Evaporator

Cool Air to Passenger

Capillar
y
Tube

CHAPTER - 9
ANALYSIS OF AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The air-conditioning system employing R134 is employed to
produce the required refrigerating effect. There are two operating pressures
in the system; one is the high pressure side which includes generator and
the condenser, while the other is the low pressure side which includes the
absorber and the evaporator. An expansion device is used to bring the
solution from high pressure side to low pressure side.

Using freon refrigerant the cooling effect will be takes place. Hence
the system becomes simpler and the number of components required for
the system is also reduced.

CHAPTER - 10
DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Designing involves developing each components of the system that
has to be installed on to the automobile to produce the required cooling
effect which involves generator, condenser and evaporator.

10.5 EVAPORATOR
The evaporator is of circular cross section and should be made of
copper tubes to have maximum heat transfer from the atmosphere to the
refrigerant. The tube is coiled to accommodate it inside the automobile.

10.5.1 Design of evaporator


Taking outside diameter of the tube, D0 = 0.01 m
Taking inside diameter of the tube, D j = 0.008 m
The temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator coil is t = 25C.
The refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs the latent heat and
vapourizes.
Hence, taking properties of the refrigerant at t =25C.
Density p = 999 kg/m3
Thermal Conductivity, K = 0.509 W/m C
Prandtl Number, Pr = 13.02
Dynamic Viscosity, p = 1.755x10'3Kg/ms
Velocity of the refrigerant flowing through the tube, V
= 0.71x10"3 / ( 7i/4x0.0082x999)
= 0.01414 m/s

Reynolds Number,
Re

= Vd/p
= (999x0.01414x0.008) / (1.755xl0"3) = 64.387

For forced convection through circular tubes


Nusselt Number, Nu

Nu

0.023 Re08Pr4

0.023 (64.387) 8(13.02)04

1.8 Also

hjDj/K

Inside heat transfer coefficient hi

= NuK/Di

= m/Ap

= 114.51 W/m2K

1.8x0.509/0.008 h j

Assuming the velocity with which the air is passed through the coils
be Va = 2 m/s.
Taking temperature of the air entering the evaporator, t j = 40C.
Taking temperature of the air exiting the evaporator, t0 = 20C.
Mean temperature,
tm

= ( t j + to)/2
= ( 40 + 20 )/2 tra

=30C

Properties of water at tm = 30C Density, p = 1.1 kg/m3


Thermal Conductivity, K = 0,02650W/mk
Dynamic Viscosity, p. = 1.983x10'5 Kg/ms
Reynolds number,
Re

SvDo/jx

I.lx2x0.01/(1.983xl0"3)

1109.43

0.583xRe0'471

0.583x[l 109.43]0473

Nu

15.845

AlsoNu

hoDo/K

Nusselt number,
Nu

Outside heat transfer co-efficient h0

= NuK/D0

15.845x0.02650/0.01 h0

42 W/m2K

Overall heat transfer co-efficient, 1/U

=l/hi+l/h0

1/114.351 + 1/42 = 0.03255

30.7 W/m2K

Log Mean Temperature Difference,


LMTD

LMTD

[(ts - ti) - (ts -10)] / In [(ts - ti)/(ts -10)]

[(40 - 10) - (20 - 10)] / In [30/10]

18.2 C = 18.2 + 273

291.2 K

Amount of heat absorbed by the refrigerant, Q

= mrxhfg

Latent heat of refrigerant corresponding to 10C, hf g= 2477.9 kJ/kg Mass


flow rate of the refrigerant, m r = 0.35xl0"3
Q =

0.35xl0"3x 2477.9

0.85kW

Also
Q

= UA(LMTD)

Area of flow through tubes, A

= 7tD0L
= Tix0.0l x L

Where, L is the length of the tube.


L

= Q /[Ux7iD 0x(LMTD)]
= 850/ [30.72x.35x0.01x291.2]

= 2.95 m (approx)

10.5.2 Final dimensions


Dimensions of the designed evaporator
Outside Diameter of the tube,
D0

0.01 m

Inside Diameter of the tube, Di

0.008 m

Length of the tube, L

2.95 m (approx)

10.6 GENERATOR UNIT


It is a container in the system which absorbs the refrigerant coming
from the evaporator using the solution coming from the generator. Proper
cooling should be provided as heat is liberated during the absorption
process which should be done using air.
10.6.1 Design of the generator
Heat in the solution = 0.85 kW
Heat in the refrigerant coming from the evaporator = 1.76 kW

1. Calculation of energy supplied for refrigeration effect


Input power to Air conditioner unit = 2.5 kW = 2500 W = 2500 J / sec
2. Measurement of heat extracted from cooling space.
Following observations were taken at evaporator.

Heat extracted from cooling space = H1 H2 = 77-54


= 23 kJ/Kg of air flow
Air flow rate = 0.2215 Kg/sec
Hence, heat extracted in evaporator by refrigerant /sec
= 23 * 0.2215 = 5.0945 kJ / sec
= 5094.5 J/sec = 5094.5 W
= Refrigeration Effect
Design of Heat Exchanger Unit
To find the heat removed from refrigerant during desuperheated conditions:
Compressor inlet = 4.83 bar
Compressor Outlet = 18.27 bar
Evaporator Temperature = -1OC

Condenser Temperature = 47OC


Cooling Capacity = 1.5 TR =1.5*3.5= 5.3505kW
To find temp. T2
We have,

S2= S2 + 2.3 Cp log (T2/T2)


1.7521=1.6893 + 2.3*1.0256 log (T2/320)
1.7521= 2.3588 log (T2/320) = 1.7521 1.6893
T2= 68.29OC
Refrigerating effect = h1-hf3 = 404.68 259.1
= 145.58 kJ/kg (i.e. Fig.2)
Mass flow rate (mR) = 5.3505/145.58
= 0.03675 kg/sec
Heat available for desuperheating (Q)
= mR (h2- h2) = 0.03675(437.92 417.18)
= 0.7651 kW
Q= 765.13 W
Heat extracted by circulating water in heat exchanger:
Following observations were recorded by running water through heat
exchanger.
Under steady state condition,

Heat absorbed by water in heat exchanger


Q = m* Cp * T
= 1 * 4179 * (43 33) / 60
= 696 W
5. Calculation of COP for normal air conditioning system
COP = Refrigeration Effect / Input power
To Air conditioner unit
= 5094.5 W / 2500 W
= 2.0378

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