Professional Documents
Culture Documents
My Students1
Fall 2010
1 It
is based mostly on the textbook, Smith and Mintons Calculus Early Transcendental Functions, 3rd Ed and it
has been reorganized and retyped by Jae Lee.
Fall, 2010
Page 2 of 101
C ONTENTS
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7
7
7
10
11
13
13
14
15
15
15
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
17
17
17
17
18
20
21
22
22
22
23
23
24
24
24
24
25
25
25
26
27
27
27
28
29
29
29
2.8
2.9
3
Fall, 2010
Applications of Differentiation
3.1 Linear Approximations and Newtons Method . . . . .
3.2 Indeterminate Forms and LHopitals Rule . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Indeterminate Forms: 0/0 and Infinity/Infinity
3.2.3 LHopitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Other Indeterminate Forms . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Maximum and Minimum Values . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Absolute Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Critical Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . .
3.4.2 Critical Point Classification . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Overview of Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.3 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.4 Closest Point to Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.5 Soda Can & Highway . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.1 Spreading Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.2 Ladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.3 Car Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.4 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.5 Flying Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Rates of Change in Economics and the Sciences . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Integration
4.1 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Antiderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Sums and Sigma Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . .
4.5.2 Application of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus .
4.6 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 4 of 101
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
30
31
32
32
33
35
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
37
37
37
37
38
38
39
40
40
40
41
43
43
43
45
45
46
47
48
48
48
49
49
50
52
52
53
54
55
55
56
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
57
57
57
57
60
60
61
62
62
63
65
65
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
66
67
67
68
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
69
69
69
71
72
72
74
76
77
78
78
78
78
Integration Techniques
6.1 Review of Formulas and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Integration by Parts: No Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Integration by Parts: Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Integration by Parts Formula for Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Trigonometric Techniques of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Integrals Involving Powers of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Trigonometric Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Integration of Rational Functions using Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S(x)
6.4.2 Form I. (ax+b)(cx+d)
, where the degree of the polynomial S(x) is less than 2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
79
79
82
82
84
87
88
88
92
94
94
94
98
4.7
4.8
5
Fall, 2010
6.4.3
Form II.
S(x)
(ax+b)n ,
S(x)
,
(ax2 +bx+c)(dx2 +ex+ f )
6.5
6.6
Page 5 of 101
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 99
. 101
. 101
. 101
Fall, 2010
Page 6 of 101
Chapter 1
1.1 A Brief Preview of Calculus: Tangent Lines and the Length of a Curve.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
1.2 The Concept of Limit.
Consider the function,
x2 4
,
x2
which has the domain all real numbers except 2, i.e., R {2}.
We raise a question: As x approaches 2, what value does f approach? We think of two ways: Graphical way
and Computational/Analytical way.
f (x) =
x2 4
x2
x2+
each of which is called the onesided limit and reads that the limit of f as x approaches 2 from the left is 4
and the limit of f as x approaches 2 from the right is 4, respectively.
When both onesided limits are equal, we say that the limit of f as x approaches 2 is 4 and it is expressed by
lim f (x) = 4.
x2
2. Computation:
The given function f can be simplified by
f (x) =
x2 4 (x 2)(x + 2)
=
= x + 2.
x2
x2
x2
Fall, 2010
x2 5
g(x) =
,
x2
which has the domain R {2}. Question: as x approaches 2, what value does g approach?
1. Graph (See the figure 1.2):
(1) As x approaches 2 from the left, the graph shows that the values of g get bigger and bigger.
(2) As x approaches 2 from the right, the graph shows that the values of g get negatively smaller and smaller.
x2 5
x2
lim g(x) = +.
x2
x2+
That is, each onesided limit does not exist, which implies that as x approaches 2, the limit of g does not
exist.
2. Computation:
As x goes to 2, the numerator of g, x2 5, approaches 1. But, the denominator of g, x 2, approaches 0. It
allows us to expect that g cannot get closer to a finite number as x approaches 0. Thus, the limit of g does not
exist as x goes to 2.
We summarize as follows: A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one-sided limits exist and are
equal. That is,
lim f (x) = L, for some number L,
xa
if and only if
xa
x1
lim f (x),
x1+
lim f (x),
x1
Page 8 of 101
lim f (x).
x1
xa+
Fall, 2010
sin x
x
A NSWER. We observe
lim f (x) = 2,
x1
lim f (x) = 1,
x1+
x1
lim f (x) = 1.
x1
sin(x)
.
x0
x
lim
x
|x|
Before we move to the next example, please remember the definition of the absolute function:
{
x
when x 0
|x| =
x when x < 0.
x
.
x0 |x|
x0
x
= 1,
|x|
lim
x0+
x
= 1.
|x|
x
does not exist.
x0 |x|
Page 9 of 101
Fall, 2010
That is,
x
x
x
x
= lim
= lim 1 = 1,
lim
= lim = lim 1 = 1.
+
+
|x| x0 x x0
x0 |x|
x0 x
x0+
x
Since both onesided limits are not equal, so lim
does not exist.
x0 |x|
lim
x0
Page 10 of 101
Fall, 2010
xa
xa
x2 + 2x 3
x1
x2 + 2x 3
is continuous.
x1
A NSWER. The domain of f is R {1} and f is a rational function of polynomials. So we may expect that f
is continuous everywhere except x = 1.
1. Graph (See the figure 1.6): By the figure, we observe f is continuous everywhere except x = 1.
2. Computation: A simple computation shows
f (x) =
x2 + 2x 3 (x 1)(x + 3)
=
= x + 3,
x1
x1
which is continuous everywhere, because its graph is a line. Hence, f is continuous everywhere except
x = 1.
Page 11 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
1
and
h(x)
=
cos
x2
x
( )
1
1
1
.
Example 1.4.3. Find all discontinuities of f (x) = , g(x) = 2 , and h(x) = cos
x
x
x
A NSWER. The functions f , g, and h have the same domain R {0}. From the figure 1.7, we observe that
g and h are continuous everywhere except x = 0. It is easy to see that the function f is also continuous
everywhere except x = 0 by its graph. (See the first example in Section 1.5 Limit involving Infinity.)
From your experience with the graphs of some common functions, the following result should come as no
surprise.
Theorem 1.4.4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
n
x is continuous for all x, when n is odd and for x > 0, when n is even.
ln x is continuous for x > 0.
Theorem 1.4.5. Suppose that f and g are continuous at x = a. Then all of the following are true:
1. ( f g) is continuous at x = a,
2. f g is continuous at x = a,
f
3.
is continuous at x = a if g(a) = 0.
g
Corollary 1.4.6. Suppose that g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g(a). Then, the composition
f g is continuous at x = a.
Page 12 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
x
1
Example 1.5.1. Examine lim .
x0 x
A NSWER. By the figure 1.8, we observe
1
= ,
x0 x
1
= .
x0+ x
lim
lim
Comment: The graph, figure 1.8, of f (x) = 1/x shows that as x 0, f (x) . As x 0, f (x) gets closer
to the line x = 0. This line x = 0 is called the vertical asymptote of f .
Definition 1.5.2. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve if at least one of the following
statements is true:
lim f (x) = ,
xa
lim f (x) = ,
xa
lim f (x) = ,
xa
lim f (x) = ,
xa
lim f (x) = ,
xa+
lim f (x) = .
xa+
1
.
x2
x0
x0+
Fall, 2010
lim
x /2
x /2+
x /2
x /2+
f (x) = =
lim
x3 /2
lim
x3 /2+
lim
x 2n+1
2
f (x) = =
lim
f (x),
+
x 2n+1
2
f (x),
2n + 1
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , are all vertical asymptotes of f .
2
1
= 0.
x x
lim
lim
That is, the graph of y = 1/x appears to approach the horizontal line y = 0, as x . In this case, we call
y = 0 a horizontal asymptote of y = 1/x.
Definition 1.5.5. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L
lim f (x) = L.
or
5x 7
.
4x + 3
Page 14 of 101
5x 7
4x + 3
Fall, 2010
A NSWER. It is not easy to sketch the graph of f . So we use the analytic method.
f (x) =
5x 7 5x 7 1/x 5 7/x
=
=
,
4x + 3 4x + 3 1/x 4 + 3/x
5 7/x 5
= .
x 4 + 3/x
4
5
Thus, the curve of f has the only one horizontal asymptote y = . See the figure 1.9.
4
1.5.3 Slant Asymptote.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
1.6 Formal Definition of the Limit.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
1.7 Limits and LossofSignificance Errors.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
Page 15 of 101
Fall, 2010
Page 16 of 101
Chapter 2
Differentiation
2.1 Tangent Lines and Velocity.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
2.2 The Derivative.
2.2.1 Definition.
Definition 2.2.1. The derivative of the function f at x = a is defined as
f (a) = lim
h0
f (a + h) f (a)
,
h
(2.2.1)
ba
f (b) f (a)
.
ba
(2.2.2)
Example 2.2.2. Use the definition of the derivative to find the derivative of f (x) = 3x2 + 2x 1 at x = 1.
A NSWER. By the definition, we have
f (1 + h) f (1)
h0
h
3(1 + h)2 + 2(1 + h) 1 (3 + 2 1)
= lim
= lim (8 + 3h) = 8.
h0
h0
h
f (1) = lim
Exercise 2.2.3. Use the definition of the derivative to find the derivative of f (x) = x2 + 2x at x = 2.
h0
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
(2.2.3)
f (x) = lim
f (x) = x + 1 , where x 1.
17
Fall, 2010
2.2.2 Differentiability.
Graphical Interpretation: We recall that the continuity of f at x = a graphically corresponds to the connectedness of the graph of y = f (x) at x = a. Then what is the graphical interpretation of the differentiability?
For a differentiable function f at x = a, its graph is smoothly connected at x = a.
Relationship between Continuity and Differentiability:
1. If a function is differentiable at x = a, then is it continuous at x = a? The answer is YES. Its because a
smoothly connected graph at x = a is obviously connected.
Page 18 of 101
Fall, 2010
2. If a function is continuous at x = a, then is it differentiable at x = a? The answer is NO. For instance, the
function f (x) = |x 3| is continuous at x = 3, but it is not differentiable at x = 3, because graphically its
graph is not smooth at x = 3.
Theorem 2.2.10. If f (x) is differentiable at x = a, then f (x) is continuous at x = a.
(It is same as saying, if a function is not continuous at x = a, then it is not differentiable at x = a and so it
cannot have a derivative at x = a.)
Page 19 of 101
Fall, 2010
2. PointPoint: if a line passes through (a, b) and (c, d), then the line has the slope
formula above, the equation of the line is
yb =
bd
(x a)
ac
or
yd =
bd
(x c).
ac
(2.2.4)
bd
and so by the
ac
Applying the formula (2.2.4) to the tangent line to the curve of y = f (x) at x = a, we can get the equation of
the tangent line:
y f (a) = (slope of tangent line)(x a),
(2.2.5)
where we dont know the slope of the tangent line yet.
Here we raise two questions:
(a) If the graph of y = f (x) is a straight line, then what is the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at x = a?
In this case, the tangent line is the line itself. So the equation of the tangent line at any point is exactly
same as y = f (x).
(b) How can we find the slope of the tangent line to the curve of y = f (x) at x = a? The answer comes from
the derivative of f (x) at x = a.
The derivative of f at x = a geometrically means the slope of tangent line to curve of y = f (x) at x = a.
Now, from the formula (2.2.5), we deduce one of the most important formulas in this course: the equation of
the tangent line to the curve of y = f (x) at x = a is
y f (a) = f (a)(x a),
which you must memorize.
Example 2.2.11. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve of f (x) =
of the tangent line at x = 4.
A NSWER. We compute
f (4 + h) f (4)
=
h
(2.2.6)
)(
)
4+h 4
4+h 4
4+h + 4
=
h
h
4+h + 4
4+h4
1
=
h( 4 + h + 4 )
4+h + 4
1
f (4 + h) f (4)
1
1
=
= ,
= lim
f (4) = lim
h0 4 + h + 4
h0
h
4
4+0 + 4
which is the slope of the tangent line to the curve of f (x) = x at x = 4. By the formula (2.2.6), the equation
of the tangent line at x = 4 is
1
x
y f (4) = f (4)(x 4),
i.e.,
y 4 = (x 4) ,
i.e.,
y = + 1.
4
4
=
Page 20 of 101
Fall, 2010
f (x),
d
y,
dx
d
f (x),
dx
d f (x)
.
dx
When we compute the values of the derivative function of y = f (x) at x = a, we use the following notations:
d
d f (x)
dy
d
,
f (a),
,
y
f (x) ,
.
y ,
dx x=a
dx x=a
dx
dx x=a
x=a
x=a
Leibniz Notations will be useful especially when we discuss the Chain Rule in Section 2.5.
Page 21 of 101
Fall, 2010
3
3
Example 2.3.4. Compute the derivative of f (x) = x5 and g(t) = 1/t and h(s) = 1/ s2 .
2.3.2 General Derivative Rules: Linearity.
Theorem 2.3.5. If f and g are differentiable and c is any constant, then
(1) [ f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g (x)
(2) [ f (x) g(x)] = f (x) g (x)
(3) [c f (x)] = c f (x)
Those three rules can be expressed as one rule: for differentiable functions f and g and any constant a and b,
[a f (x) + bg(x)] = a f (x) + bg (x).
Example 2.3.6. Find the derivatives:
f (x) = x2 + x3 .
g(t) = 3t 4 .
h(s) = 2s6 + 3 s .
4x2 3x + 2 x
f (x) =
.
x
f (x) = 3x2 + 5x 2.
3
g(s) = 2 s4 + s .
s
2
h(t) = + 2t 4 3.
3t
Exercise 2.3.7. Let f (x) = 2x3 3x2 12x + 5. Find all x where f (x) > 0 and all x where f (x) < 0.
Exercise 2.3.8. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given function and point:
2
f (x) = 4 4x + at x = 1.
x
y = x3 6x2 + 5 at x = 4.
4
3
y = 6 x2 at x = 1.
x
Page 22 of 101
Fall, 2010
Prime Notation
Leibniz Notation
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
5
..
.
f
df
dx
d2 f
dx2
d3 f
dx3
d4 f
dx4
d5 f
dx5
..
.
Example 2.3.9. For f (x) = 3x4 2x2 + 1, compute as many derivatives as possible.
Exercise 2.3.10. Find f (x) of f (x) = 3x4 3x2 + 13.
Exercise 2.3.11. For f (x) = x4 , find f (x), f (x), f (x), f (4) (x) and f (5) (x).
2.3.4 Physical Meaning of Derivative: Rate of Change.
The geometrical meaning of the derivative of y = f (x) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve of y = f (x).
The physical meaning of the derivative is the (instantaneous) rate of change. From physics, the velocity
is the instantaneous rate of change of the distance and the acceleration is the instantaneous rate of change of
the velocity. Hence, in a motion of an object, the velocity v(t) is the derivative of the distance function and
the acceleration a(t) is the derivatives of the velocity v(t). That is,
a(t) = v (t) =
dv(t)
.
dt
Example 2.3.12. The motion of a particle is described by the function s(t) = 2t 3 5t 2 + 3t + 4, where s(t) is
measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the acceleration as a function of time. What is the acceleration
after 2 seconds?
Page 23 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
, where g(x) = 0. Find f (x) in terms of g(x) and g (x).
g(x)
2.4.3 Applications.
Example 2.4.9. Suppose that a product currently sells for $25, with the price increasing at the rate of $2 per
year. At this price, consumers will buy 150 thousand items, but the number sold is decreasing at the rate of 8
thousand per year. At what rate is the total revenue changing? Is the total revenue increasing or decreasing?
Example 2.4.10. A golf ball of mass 0.05 kg struck by a golf club of mass m kg with speed 50 m/s will have
83m
an initial speed of u(m) =
m/s. Show that u (m) > 0 and interpret this result in golf terms. Compare
m + 0.05
u (0.15) and u (0.20).
Page 24 of 101
Fall, 2010
d
d
g(x) = x2 = 0.
dt
dt
i.e.,
y = u7 .
d 7
dy
=
u = 7u6 .
du du
But since we are looking for the derivative of y = f (x) with respect to x, we need to multiply the whole
du
equation by
= 3x2 + 2. That is,
dx
(
)
(
)6 (
)
dy
dy du
=
Page 25 of 101
Fall, 2010
Theorem 2.5.3 (C HAIN RULE). If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composite
function h = f g defined by h(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and h is given by the product
h (x) = f (g(x)) g (x).
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then
dy
dy du
=
.
dx
du dx
In words, the chain rule says that the derivative of f g is the derivative of the outside function f multiplied
by the derivative of the inside function g.
Example 2.5.4. Use the Chain Rule to find the derivative of the function h(x) = (x2 + 1)5 .
A NSWER. The outside function f (x) = x5 has the derivative f (x) = 5x4 , while the inside function g(x) =
x2 + 1 has the derivative g (x) = 2x. Thus, by the Chain Rule, h(x) has the derivative
h (x) = f (g(x)) g (x) = 5 (g(x))4 2x = 10x (g(x))4 = 10x(x2 + 1)4 .
As you can see, when a composite function is given, it is very important to find out the outside and inside
function to get the derivative of the composite function.
Example 2.5.5. Differentiate the functions:
(
)5
y = x3 + x 1 .
f (x) =
x2 + 1 .
3
g(s) = s 4s + 1 .
8x
h(x) = 3
.
(x + 1)2
8
k(x) = 3
.
(x + 1)2
d
Example 2.5.6. Compute
100 + 8t .
dt
Remark 2.5.7 (Generalized Chain Rule). For a composite function k = ( f g) h of three functions f , g and
h, i.e., k(x) = f (g(h(x))), we have the derivative:
k (x) = f (g(h(x))) g (h(x)) h (x).
It is true by the exactly same argument as the one developed for the composite function of two functions
above.
2.5.3 Derivative of Inverse Function.
We recall from High School that g is the inverse function of f if ( f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = x and (g f )(x) =
g( f (x)) = x. The inverse function of f is denoted by f 1 . So when g is the inverse function of f , we get
g = f 1 .
Let g(x) be the inverse function of f (x), i.e., f (g(x)) = x and g( f (x)) = x. Differentiating both sides of
f (g(x)) = x with respect to x and applying the Chain Rule, we get
f (g(x))g (x) = 1,
g (x) =
i.e.,
1
f (g(x))
1
f (g(x))
provided f (g(x)) = 0.
Page 26 of 101
Fall, 2010
lim cos = 1
sin
1 cos
=1
lim
= 0.
0
0
The results above can be proved by using the graphs or LHopitals Rule (Section 3.2). The definition of the
derivative and the lemma above imply the Theorem.
lim
d
cos x = sin x
dx
d
cot x = csc2 x
dx
d
csc x = csc x cot x,
dx
Fall, 2010
Example 2.6.5. For f (x) = sin x + cos x + 149x74 , find f (75) (x) and f (150) (x), where f (75) (x) means the 75th
derivative of f (x) and f (150) (x) means the 150th derivative of f (x).
2.6.3 Applications.
Example 2.6.6. Find an equation of the tangent line to y = 3 tan x 2 csc x at x = /3.
Look at the figure 2.4 Springmass system. The vertical displacement of a weight suspended from a spring,
in the absence of damping (i.e., when resistance to the motion, such as air resistance, is negligible), is given
by
u(t) = a cos( t) + b sin( t),
where is the frequency, t is time and a and b are constants.
Example 2.6.7. Suppose that u(t) measures the displacement (measured in inches) of a weight suspended
from a spring t seconds after it is released and that
u(t) = 4 cost.
Find the velocity at any time t and determine the maximum velocity.
dQ(t)
dt
(amperes).
Page 28 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
,
xa
xba =
xb
,
xa
xa ya = (xy)a ,
xa = x(a ) ,
bc
xa = x(a
(bc ) )
(xa )b = x(ab) ,
x0 = 1.
ln
a
= ln a ln b,
b
ln ab = b ln a,
loga b =
ln b
,
ln a
ln 1 = 0,
a = eln a = ln ea .
Page 29 of 101
Fall, 2010
and
sketch a graph of the motion of the weight and find its velocity at any time t.
Example 2.7.6. Find the derivative:
2
f (x) = 3ex .
g(x) = xe2/x .
2
h(x) = 32x .
k(t) = esint .
ex ex
y= x
.
e + ex
y = e2x sin(3x).
Example 2.7.7. Find the 1000th derivative of f (x) = xex .
2.7.3 Derivative of the Natural Logarithm.
Theorem 2.7.8. For x > 0,
d
1
(ln x) = .
dx
x
Example 2.7.9. Find the derivative:
f (x) = x ln x.
g(x) = ln x3 .
h(x) = ln(x2 + 1).
k(x) = ln ln x.
( 2)
Example 2.7.10. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = ln xex at x = 1.
Example 2.7.11. The concentration x of a certain chemical after t seconds of an autocatalytic reaction is
10
given by x(t) = 20t
. Show that x (t) > 0 and use this information to determine that the concentration
9e
+1
of the chemical never exceeds 10.
Page 30 of 101
Fall, 2010
Page 31 of 101
Fall, 2010
x2 + y2 = 4 y2 = 4 x2 y = 4 x2 ,
i.e., y is a function of x and so y2 is a composite function having the variable x and thus the Chain Rule
d 2
dy
implies
y = 2y . Be careful! y is not a constant with respect to x.
dx
dx
Step 2. Solve for dy/ dx:
2x + 2y
dy
= 0,
dx
2y
dy
= 2x,
dx
dy
2x
x
= = .
dx
2y
y
This is the process known as implicit differentiation. As you can see, it is based on the Chain Rule.
Example 2.8.1. Suppose that x and y satisfy the equation
x2 xy + y2 = 1
whose graph is an ellipse. (1) Find dy/ dx and (2) find the points on the ellipse where the tangent line is
horizontal or vertical.
Example 2.8.2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of x3 y2 = xy3 + 6 at the point (2, 1).
Example 2.8.3. Find y (x) = dy/ dx for x2 + y3 2y = 3. Then, find the slope of the tangent line at the point
(2, 1).
Example 2.8.4. Find y (x) = dy/ dx for x2 y2 2x = 4 4y. Then, find an equation of the tangent line at
x = 2.
Example 2.8.5. Suppose that van der Waals equation for a specific gas is
(
)
5
P + 2 (V 0.03) = 9.7.
V
Thinking of the volume V as a function of pressure P, use implicit differentiation to find the derivative
the point (P,V ) = (5, 1).
dV
at
dP
Fall, 2010
d2 y
implicitly for y2 + 2exy = 6. Then find the value of y at the point (0, 2).
dx2
Example 2.8.8. Use implicit differentiation to find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given
point:
(1) 2(x2 + y2 )2 = 25(x2 y2 ),
(3, 1);
(2) y2 = x3 + 3x2 ,
(1, 2).
The graphs of (1) and (2) are called the lemniscate and the Tschirnhausen cubic, respectively. See the
figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Lemniscate 2(x2 + y2 )2 = 25(x2 y2 ) (Left) and Tschirnhausen Cubic y2 = x3 + 3x2 (Right)
2.8.2 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Let us recall from the Section 2.5 The Chain Rule: a function g is called the inverse function of f if
( f g) (x) = f (g(x)) = x and (g f ) (x) = g( f (x)) = x. The inverse function of f is denoted by f 1 and
so g = f 1 .
The trigonometric functions have the inverse functions when we restrict the domains of sin x, cos x and tan x by
[ /2, /2], [0, ] and [ /2, /2], respectively. The inverse functions of sin x, cos x and tan x are denoted
by either sin1 x, cos1 x, and tan1 x or arcsin x, arccos x and arctan x.
But be careful!
1
arcsin x = sin1 x = (sin x)1 =
,
sin x
which is also same to other trigonometric functions.
Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1. Considering the restricted domain [ /2, /2], sin x has the range [1, 1]. It implies that the inverse
function sin1 x has the domain [1, 1] and the range [ /2, /2].
2. Considering the restricted domain [0, ], cos x has the range [1, 1]. It implies that the inverse function
cos1 x has the domain [1, 1] and the range [0, ].
3. Considering the whole domain ( /2, /2), tan x has and range R. Its inverse function tan1 x has the
domain R and range ( /2, /2).
See the figures 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9 below on the graphs of the trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions.
Using the implicit differentiation or derivatives of inverse functions in the Section 2.5 The Chain Rule, we
deduce the following derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions.
Theorem 2.8.9.
1
d
sin1 x =
,
dx
1 x2
d
1
tan1 x =
,
dx
1 + x2
1
d
cos1 x =
,
dx
1 x2
d
1
cot1 x =
,
dx
1 + x2
Page 33 of 101
Fall, 2010
Figure 2.7: Graphs of sin x (Left) on [ /2, /2] and sin1 x (Right) on [1, 1]
Figure 2.8: Graphs of cos x (Left) on [0, ] and cos1 x (Right) on [1, 1]
Figure 2.9: Graphs of tan x (Left) on ( /2, /2) and tan1 x (Right) on R
d
1
sec1 x =
,
dx
|x| x2 1
d
1
csc1 x =
,
dx
|x| x2 1
Fall, 2010
sin y = x
y .
2
2
The equation sin y = x implies cos y = 1 x2 , because sin2 y + cos2 y = 1, i.e., cos2 y = 1 sin2 y = 1 x2
and /2 y /2. Hence, the result becomes
cos y
dy
1
1
=
=
dx cos y
1 x2
d
1
sin1 x =
dx
1 x2
1 < x < 1.
(2) Formula on Derivative of Inverse Function (Section 2.5): Since g(x) = sin1 x is the inverse of the sine
function f (x) = sin x with /2 x /2, the formula implies
g (x) =
1
f (g(x))
g (x) =
1
cos g(x)
d
1
( 1 ) .
sin1 x =
dx
cos sin x
Let sin1 x = [
/2, /2]. Then x = sin and again sin2 + cos2 = 1 implies cos2 = 1 sin2 =
d
1
sin1 x =
dx
1 x2
1 < x < 1.
Fall, 2010
Page 36 of 101
Chapter 3
Applications of Differentiation
and
where a0 , . . . , an and b0 , . . . , bm are all constants, let us discuss the limit of the rational function P(x)/Q(x) as
x a.
(1) a is a number:
(i) If Q(a) = 0 and P(a) = 0, then
P(x)
= some number.
xa Q(x)
lim
(iv) If Q(a) = 0 and P(a) = 0, then we use LHopitals Rule (Subsection 3.2.3).
(2) a = :
(i) If deg Q = m > n = deg P, then
P(x)
lim
= 0.
xa Q(x)
(ii) If deg Q = m < n = deg P, then
P(x)
= .
xa Q(x)
lim
x2 + 5
,
x1 x 1
lim
x1
,
x1 x2 + 5
lim
x2 + 1
,
x x3 + 5
lim
x3 + 5
,
x x2 + 1
lim
2x2 + 3x 5
.
x x2 + 4x 11
lim
We recall a useful theorem: Theorem 3.1 on page 88 (textbook) in Section 3.1 Computation of Limits.
Theorem 3.2.2. Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist and let c be any constant. The following then
xa
xa
apply:
37
Fall, 2010
xa
xa
xa
xa
f (x)
.
g(x)
0
If limxa f (x) = 0 = limxa g(x), then the limit is in the form of .
0
Those two forms are called the indeterminate forms. We use LHopitals Rule to compute those indeterminate forms.
3.2.3 LHopitals Rule.
Theorem 3.2.3. Suppose that f and g are differentiable on the interval (a, b), except possibly at some fixed
point c (a, b) and that g (x) = 0 on (a, b), except possibly at c.
f (x)
0
f (x)
Suppose further that lim
has the indeterminate form or and that lim
= L (or ). Then,
xc g(x)
xc g (x)
0
f (x)
f (x)
= lim .
xc g(x)
xc g (x)
lim
f (x)
The conclusion of Theorem 3.2.3 also holds if limxc g(x)
is replaced with any of the limits limxc+
f (x)
g(x) ,
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
limxc g(x)
, limx g(x)
or limx g(x)
. (In each case, we must make appropriate adjustments to the
hypotheses.)
1 cos
,
0
lim
1 cos
.
0 sin
lim
lim
x2
,
x ex
ln x
,
x ex
x2
,
x0 ex 1
lim
lim
lim
x0+
Page 38 of 101
ln x
.
csc x
ex
.
x ln x
lim
Fall, 2010
(
lim
x0
)
1
1
.
ln(x + 1) x
1
ln x.
x x
Page 39 of 101
Fall, 2010
Page 40 of 101
Fall, 2010
Fall, 2010
Step 1. Find all critical numbers in the interval and compute function values at these points.
Step 2. Compute function values at the endpoints.
Step 3. The largest function value is the absolute maximum and the smallest function value is the absolute
minimum.
Example 3.3.18. Find the absolute extrema of the given function on the given interval:
f (x) = 2x3 3x2 12x + 5 on [2, 4].
f (x) = 4x3 8x2 + 5x on [0, 1].
f (x) = x3 3x2 + 1 on [1/2, 4].
f (x) = x + 2 cos x on [0, 2 ].
Sometimes we need to use a calculator or a computer for the computation.
Example 3.3.19. Find the absolute extrema of the given function on the given interval:
f (x) = 4x5/4 8x1/4 on [0, 4].
f (x) = x3 5x + 3 sin x2 on [2, 2.5].
Page 42 of 101
Fall, 2010
f is increasing on I.
f is decreasing on I.
Example 3.4.3. Find the intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing. (Hint: Sign Chart.)
f (x) = 3x4 4x3 12x2 + 5.
y = x3 3x2 9x + 1.
y = sin2 x.
Example 3.4.4. Draw a graph of the given function showing all local extrema:
f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 24x 10.
f (x) = 3x4 + 40x3 0.06x2 1.2x. (Hint: f (x) = 12(x 0.1)(x + 0.1)(x + 10).)
3.4.2 Critical Point Classification.
Given a critical number c of a function f , how can we tell whether f (c) is a local extreme value? And if it is,
how can we tell whether its a local maximum or a local minimum?
Theorem 3.4.5 (First Derivative Test). Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and c (a, b) is a
critical number.
1. If f (x) > 0 for all x (a, c) and f (x) < 0 for all x (c, b) (i.e., f changes from increasing to decreasing
at c), then f (c) is a local maximum.
2. If f (x) < 0 for all x (a, c) and f (x) > 0 for all x (c, b) (i.e., f changes from decreasing to increasing
at c), then f (c) is a local minimum.
3. If f (x) has the same sign on (a, c) and (c, b), then f (c) is not a local extremum.
a
Classification
Example 3.4.6. Find the local extrema of the given function. (Hint: Sign Chart.)
f (x) = 3x4 4x3 12x2 + 5.
f (x) = x + 2 sin x on the interval [0, 2 ].
f (x) = 3x5 + 5x3 .
f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 24x 10.
Page 43 of 101
Fall, 2010
Page 44 of 101
Fall, 2010
Example 3.5.3. Determine where the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 24x 10 is concave up and concave down
and draw a graph showing all significant features of the function.
A NSWER. We find the critical numbers and the roots of f = 0 and form the sign chart.
f (x) = 6x2 + 18x 24 = 6(x + 4)(x 1) = 0
at x = 4 or x = 1. So f has the critical numbers 4 and 1.
f (x) = 12x + 18 = 6(2x + 3) = 0
at
Sign of f
3
2
Increment of f
Inc.
Local Max.
Dec.
Con. Down
Con. Down
Sign of
Concavity of f
3
x= .
2
Dec.
Dec.
Local Min.
Inc.
Con. Down
No Concavity
Con. Up
Con. Up
Con. Up
From the table, we conclude f is concave downward on (, 3/2) and upward on (3/2, ).
Significant Features:
1. The graph of f increases on (, 4) (1, ), while it decreases on (4, 1).
2. The graph of f has the local maximum f (4) = 102 at x = 4 and local minimum f (1) = 23 at
x = 1.
)
(
(
)
3
3
3. The graph of f is concave upward on , and downward on , .
2
2
(
)
3 79
4. The concavity of the graph of f changes at the point ,
on the curve.
2 2
Example 3.5.4. Determine the intervals where the graph of the given function is concave up and concave
down:
f (x) = x4 6x2 + 2x + 3.
g(x) = x + 3(1 x)1/3 .
Page 45 of 101
Fall, 2010
Example 3.5.8. Use the Second Derivative Test to find the local extrema of f (x) = x4 8x2 + 10.
A NSWER. We find the critical numbers and the roots of f = 0 and form the sign chart.
f (x) = 4x3 16x = 4x(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
at x = 0, 2 or x = 2. So f has the critical numbers 0 and 2 and 2.
(
)(
)
2
2
2
f (x) = 12x 16 = 12 x
x+
=0
3
3
3
0
Local Min.
Inflection
Sign of f
Local Extrema of f (x)
2
x = .
3
at
3
0
Local Max.
Inflection
Local Min.
From the table (the third row of the table comes by the Second Derivative Test), we conclude that the graph
of f has the local minimum values f (2) = (6 =f (2), while
the local maximum
value f (0) = 10.
) it has
(
)
Since the concavity of the graph changes at 2/ 3 , 10/9 and 2/ 3 , 10/9 , so they are the inflection
points of the graph.
Example 3.5.9. Find all critical numbers and use the Second Derivative Test to determine all local extrema:
f (x) = x4 + 4x2 + 1.
2
g(x) = ex .
Remark 3.5.10. If f (c) = 0 or f (c) is undefined, the Second Derivative Test yields no conclusion. That
is, f (c) may be a local maximum, a local minimum or neither. In this event, we must rely solely on first
derivative information (i.e., the First Derivative Test) to determine whether f (c) is a local extremum.
Example 3.5.11. Use the Second Derivative Test to classify any local extrema:
f (x) = x3 .
g(x) = x4 .
h(x) = x4 .
Example 3.5.12. Draw a graph of the given function showing all significant features:
25
f (x) = x + .
x
g(x) = (x + 2)1/5 + 4.
Page 46 of 101
Fall, 2010
Example 3.5.13. Determine all significant features by hand and sketch a graph:
f (x) = x ln x.
x
g(x) =
.
x+2
3.6 Overview of Curve Sketching.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
Page 47 of 101
Fall, 2010
3.7 Optimization.
3.7.1 Guideline.
We follow the guideline to solve an optimization problem.
1. If theres a picture to draw, draw it! Dont try to visualize how things look in your head. Put a picture
down on paper and label it.
2. Determine what the variables are and how they are related.
3. Decide what quantity needs to be maximized or minimized.
4. Write an expression for the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of only one variable. To do
this, you may need to solve for any other variables in terms of this one variable.
5. Determine the minimum and maximum allowable values (if any) of the variable youre using.
6. Solve the problem. (Be sure to answer the question that is asked.)
3.7.2 Area.
(3.7.1)
x + y = 20.
(3.7.2)
That is, we want to find the maximum value of A = xy where x and y satisfies x + y = 20.
From the equation (3.7.2), we have y = 20 x. Putting it into the equation (3.7.1), we get
A(x) = x(20 x).
The maximum value of A(x) = x(20 x) occurs at the critical number x = 10, which implies y = 10. Thus
the largest area is A = 100.
Example 3.7.2. You have 8 (linear) feet of fencing with which to enclose a rectangular space for a garden.
Find the largest area that can be enclosed with this much fencing and the dimensions of the corresponding
garden.
A NSWER. The largest area is A = 4 with width 2 and length 2.
x 2 y2
Example 3.7.3. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, where
a
b
a and b are nonzero constants.
Page 48 of 101
Fall, 2010
Example 3.7.5. A square sheet of cardboard 6 on a side is made into an open box (i.e., theres no top),
by cutting squares of equal size out of each corner and folding up the sides along the dotted lines. Find the
dimensions of the box with the maximum volume.
A NSWER. The maximum volume is V = 16 with width 4, length 4 and height 1.
Example 3.7.6. If 1200 cm2 of material is available to make a box with a square base and an open top, find
the largest possible volume of the box.
3.7.4 Closest Point to Curve.
Example 3.7.7. Find the point on the parabola y = 9 x2 closest to the point (3, 9). See the figure 3.4.
A NSWER. Using the usual distance formula, we find that the distance between the point (3, 9) and any point
(x, y) is
d=
(x 3)2 + (y 9)2 .
If the point (x, y) is on the parabola, it should satisfy the equation y = 9 x2 . So the distance becomes
2
2
2
d = (x 3) + (9 x 9) = (x 3)2 + x4
We want to find x minimizing the distance d. For easy computation, we find x minimizing d 2 . (Note that
x = a minimizes d if and only if x = a minimizes d 2 .)
By the First Derivative Test and the techniques/concepts in previous sections, d 2 has the minimum
value 5 at
x = 1. Therefore, the closest point on the parabola is (x, y) = (1, 8) and the closest distance is 5 .
Page 49 of 101
Fall, 2010
Example 3.7.12. The state wants to build a new stretch of highway to link an existing bridge with a turnpike
interchange, located 8 miles to the east and 8 miles to the south of the bridge. There is a 5milewide stretch
of marshland adjacent to the bridge that must be crossed. Given that the highway costs $10 million per mile
to build over the marsh and only $7 million to build over dry land, how far to the east of the bridge should
the highway be when it crosses out of the marsh? See the figure 3.5.
Page 50 of 101
Fall, 2010
The problems in this section are applications of derivatives, especially the arguments used in curve sketching.
Definitely the problems are not easy to solve. As the first step of solving a word problem, you should be able
to set up the mathematical expressions and for this work, you need to practice by solving lots of problems.
Solve Solve Solve Lots of Problems and Practice Practice Practice.
Page 51 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
r2 ,
120
i.e.,
V=
r2
120
where r is the radius of the circle covered by the oil. As time passes by, the radius of the circle increases and
so the volume also increases. It implies that r and V are functions of time t. The given information gives
dV (t) 150
=
= 20 ft3 /min.
dt
7.5
dr
The problem is to find
when r = 500. Implicitly differentiating the equation above with respect to time t,
dt
we have
(
)
d r2 (t)
dr(t)
60 dV (t)
dV (t)
2 r(t) dr(t)
=
, i.e.,
=
.
=
dt
dt
120
120 dt
dt
r(t) dt
Therefore, we deduce
dr(t)
60
2.4
=
20 =
0.76394.
dt r(t)=500 500
Based on the example above, we may set up an outline for solving a problem of related rates.
Outline:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fall, 2010
dy(t)
= 2. (Note the minus sign.)
dt
dy(t)
dx(t)
+ 2y(t)
= 0,
dt
dt
i.e.,
dx(t)
y(t) dy(t)
y(t)
dy(t)
=
=
.
dt
x(t) dt
100 y2 (t) dt
When y(t) = 8, thus we deduce the speed x (t) at which the bottom of the ladder moves away from the wall:
dx(t)
8
8
(2) = .
=
2
dt
3
100 8
Exercise 3.8.5. A 10foot ladder leans against the side of a building as in the example above. If the bottom
of the ladder is pulled away from the wall at the rate of 3 ft/s and the ladder remains in contact with the wall,
find the rate at which the top of the ladder is dropping when the bottom is 6 feet from the wall.
Page 53 of 101
Fall, 2010
Exercise 3.8.6. In the exercise above, find the rate at which the angle between the ladder and the horizontal
is changing when the bottom of the ladder is 6 feet from the wall.
3.8.3 Car Speed.
d (t) =
=
62.6.
x2 (t) + y2 (t)
(1/4)2 + (1/2)2
and so the radar gun registers 62.6 mph. Note that this is a poor estimate of the cars actual speed. For this
reason, police nearly always take radar measurements from a stationary position.
Exercise 3.8.8. A plane is located x = 40 miles (horizontally) away from an airport at an altitude of h miles.
Radar at the airport detects that the distance s(t) between the plane and airport is changing at the rate of
s (t) = 240 mph. If the plane flies toward the airport at the constant altitude h = 4, what is the speed |x (t)|
of the airplane? Based on your answers, how important is it to know the actual height of the airplane?
Page 54 of 101
Fall, 2010
3.8.4 Economics.
Example 3.8.9. A small company estimates that when it spends x thousand dollars for advertising in a
year, its annual sales will be described by s = 60 40e0.05x thousand dollars. The four most recent annual
advertising totals are given in the following table.
Year
Dollars
14,500
16,000
18,000
20,000
Estimate the current (year 4) value of x (t) and the current rate of change of sales.
A NSWER. From the table, if we plot the points (1, 14.5), (2, 16), (3, 18) and (4, 20) on the txplane (Year
vs. Dollarsplane) and connect the points, we observe a line which has the rough slope 2 near t = 4 (year 4).
By the geometrical meaning of a derivative, x (t) represents the slope and so x (4) 2. The sales equation
implies
s(t) = 60 40e0.05x ,
Exercise 3.8.10. Suppose that the average yearly cost per item for producing x items of a business product is
C(x) = 12 + 94x. The three most recent yearly production figures are given in the table.
Year
Products (x)
8.2
8.8
9.4
Estimate the value of x (2) and the current (year 2) rate of change of the average cost.
3.8.5 Flying Jet.
Fall, 2010
A NSWER. Let the observer be at the origin (0, 0) in the xyplane and the line y(t) = 600 be the path of the
flight. Then at time t, the plain is located at (x(t), y(t)). Let be the angle between the yaxis and the line
connecting two points (0, 0) and (x(t), y(t)). Since x(t) and y(t) depend on time t, the angle should also the
function of time t.
From triangle geometry, we have an equation
Key Equation in Flying Jet Problem:
tan (t) =
x(t)
y(t)
)
x (t)y(t) x(t)y (t)
sec2 (t) (t) =
,
y2 (t)
(t) =
With the jet moving left to right along the line y(t) = 600, we have y (t) = 0 and x (t) = 792. Plugging them
into the differential equation, we get
(t) =
The maximum value of (t) is 1.32 and it occurs when cos2 (t) = 1, i.e., cos (t) = 1, i.e.,
(t) = 0, , 2 , 3 , . . . , n ,
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . However, we cannot have other values of (t) except (t) = 0. (Why? For
example, (t) = means the plane flies along y(t) = 600 and it is not true.)
Therefore, we conclude that the maximum rate of angle change is 1.32 radians/second. This occurs when
= 0, that is, when the jet reaches its closest point to the observer. (Think about this; it should match your
intuition!) Since humans can track objects at up to about 3 radians/second, this means that we can visually
follow even a fast jet at a very small distance.
Exercise 3.8.12. A camera tracks the launch of a vertically ascending spacecraft. The camera is located at
ground level 2 miles from the launchpad. If the spacecraft is 3 miles up and traveling at 0.2 mile per second,
at what rate is the camera angle (measured from the horizontal) changing?
Exercise 3.8.13. Suppose a 6fttall person is 12 ft away from an 18fttall lamppost. If the person is
moving away from the lamppost at a rate of 2 ft/s, at what rate is the length of the shadow changing?
Exercise 3.8.14. Water is being pumped into a spherical tank of radius 60 feet at the constant rate of 10 ft3 /s.
Find the rate at which the radius of the top level of water in the tank changes when the tank is half full.
3.9 Rates of Change in Economics and the Sciences.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
Page 56 of 101
Chapter 4
Integration
4.1 Antiderivatives.
4.1.1 Antiderivative.
Given a function f , we want to find another function F such that F = f . We call such a function F an
antiderivative of f .
Example 4.1.1. Find an antiderivative of f (x) = x2 .
A NSWER. Notice that F(x) =
x3
is an antiderivative of f (x), because
3
( )
d x3
= x2 .
F (x) =
dx 3
)
x3
+ 5 = x2 ,
3
x3
+ 5 is also an antiderivative of f . In fact, for any constant c, we have
3
(
)
d x3
+ c = x2 .
dx 3
x3
Thus, H(x) = + c is also an antiderivative of f (x), for any choice of the constant c. This gives us a family
3
of antiderivative curves.
f (x) dx = F(x) + c
where c is an arbitrary constant (the constant of integration).
57
Fall, 2010
The process of computing an integral is called integration. Here, f is called the integrand and the term dx
identifies x as the variable of integration.
3x2 dx = x3 + c.
t 5 dt.
d ( 6)
d
A NSWER. We know that
t = 6t 5 and so,
dt
dt
( 6)
t
= t 5 . Therefore,
6
t 5 dt =
t6
+ c.
6
Theorem 4.1.6 (P OWER RULE). For any rational (in fact, any real) power r = 1,
xr dx =
xr+1
+ c.
r+1
x17 dx.
x17 dx =
x17+1
x18
+c =
+ c.
17 + 1
18
1
dx.
x3
A NSWER. We can use the power rule if we first rewrite the integrand. We have
1
dx =
x3
x3 dx =
x3+1
x2
1
+c =
+ c = 2 + c.
3 + 1
2
2x
x dx, (2)
dx.
3
x
A NSWER. (1) We first rewrite the integrand and then apply the power rule. We have
(2) Similarly,
x dx =
dx =
3
x
x1/2 dx =
x1/3 dx =
x1/2+1
x3/2
2
+c =
+ c = x3/2 + c.
1/2 + 1
3/2
3
x1/3+1
x2/3
3
+c =
+ c = x2/3 + c.
1/3 + 1
2/3
2
Page 58 of 101
Fall, 2010
xr+1
xr dx =
+ c, for r = 1
r+1
sin x dx = cos x + c
cos x dx = sin x + c
sec2 x dx = tan x + c
csc2 x dx = cot x + c
1
1
dx = tan x + c
1 + x2
ex dx = ex + c
ex dx = ex + c
dx = sin1 x + c
2
1x
1
dx = sec1 x + c
|x| x2 1
Theorem 4.1.10 (L INEARITY). Suppose that f and g have antiderivatives. Then, for any constants a and b,
A NSWER.
cos x dx + 4
(
Example 4.1.12. Evaluate
3ex
2
1 + x2
A NSWER.
e dx 2
x
4
x8 dx = 3 sin x + x9 + c.
9
dx.
1
dx = 3ex 2 tan1 x + c.
2
1+x
d
1
ln |x| =
dx
x
d
ln | tan x|.
dx
OF
1
dx = ln |x| + c
for x = 0
x
f (x)
dx = ln | f (x)| + c
when f (x) = 0
f (x)
sec2 x
dx.
tan x
Page 59 of 101
Fall, 2010
A NSWER. Notice that the numerator (sec2 x) is the derivative of the denominator (tan x). So we have
sec2 x
dx = ln | tan x| + c.
tan x
1
2x
dx,
(i)
dx, (ii) sec x dx, (iii)
3 2
2
x +1
x
3
x +1
(iv)
dx, (v) (x + 1)(x 1) dx, (vi) x sin(2x) dx.
x
A NSWER. Parts (ii) and (vi) require us to find functions whose derivatives equal sec x and x sin(2x). As yet,
we cannot evaluate these integrals.
Example 4.1.18. If an objects downward acceleration is given by y (t) = 32 ft/s2 , find the position function
y(t). Assume that the initial velocity is y (0) = 100 ft/s and the initial position is y(0) = 100000 ft.
A NSWER. We have to undo two derivatives, so we compute two antiderivatives.
(1) Antiderivative of acceleration gives the velocity of the object:
Page 60 of 101
Fall, 2010
[c f (x) + dg(x)] dx = c
a
f (x) dx =
a
f (x) dx + d
g(x) dx
a
f (x) dx +
a
f (x) dx
c
There are various types of averages: arithmetic average, geometric average, ensemble average, etc. When
we say the average, usually it means the arithmetic average. For example, the arithmetic average of three
numbers 4, 10, 1 is obtained by (4 + 10 + 1)/3 = 5. For a given function f on a closed interval [a, b], the
function f has infinitely many values. How can we compute the arithmetic average of those function values?
The average value, fave , is defined by
b
1
f (x) dx
fave =
ba a
Example 4.4.3. Compute the average value of f (x) = sin x on the interval [0, ].
A NSWER.
1
fave =
0
1
sin x dx =
Page 61 of 101
sin x dx =
0
2
.
Fall, 2010
OF
[
]x=b
= F(b) F(a)
F(x)
or
x=a
]b
F(x) = F(b) F(a)
a
or
b
F(x) = F(b) F(a).
a
This enables us to write down the antiderivative before evaluating it at the endpoints.
A NSWER. Notice that f (x) = x2 2x is continuous on the interval [0, 2] and so, we can apply the Fundamental
Theorem. We find an antiderivative by the power rule and simply evaluate:
(
(x 2x) dx =
2
)2 (
)
x3
8
4
2
x =
4 0 = .
3
3
3
0
1
x 2 dx.
x
1
4
1
x
2
2x
e dx +
dx +
12t 5 dt.
x
0
3
1
Example 4.5.5. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = sin x and the xaxis on the interval
[0, ].
Theorem 4.5.6
T HEOREM OF C ALCULUS (FTC), PART II). If f is continuous on [a, b]
x (F UNDAMENTAL
and F(x) = a f (t) dt, then F (x) = f (x) on [a, b]. That is,
d
dx
]
f (t) dt = f (x).
Example 4.5.7.
Find the derivative F :
F(x) =
F(x) =
(t 2 2t + 3) dt.
x2
cost dt.
2
The general form of the chain rule used in the 2nd example above is as follows.
Page 62 of 101
Fall, 2010
u(x)
f (t) dt = f (u(x))
a
du(x)
dx
]
b
d
dv(x)
f (t) dt = f (v(x))
dx v(x)
dx
]
[
u(x)
du(x)
d
dv(x)
f (t) dt = f (u(x))
f (v(x))
dx v(x)
dx
dx
x2
t 2 + 1 dt.
2x
(
)
Example 4.5.10. Suppose the (downward) velocity of a sky diver is given by v(t) = 30 1 et ft/s for the
first 5 seconds of a jump. Compute the distance fallen.
5
A NSWER. The distance d is obtained by the integral d =
v(t) dt = 120 + 30e5 120.2 ft.
The definite integral of velocity gives the total change of the distance function over the given time interval.
Example 4.5.11. Suppose that water flows in and out of a storage tank. The net rate of change (that is, the
rate in minus the rate out) of water is f (t) = 20(t 2 1) gallons per minute.
(1) For 0 t 3, determine when the water level is increasing and when the water level is decreasing.
(2) If the tank has 200 gallons of water at time t = 0, determine how many gallons are in the tank at time
t = 3.
A NSWER. Let w(t) be the number of gallons in the tank at time t.
(1) Notice that the water level decreases if w (t) = f (t) < 0. We have
f (t) = 20(t 2 1) < 0,
for 0 t < 1.
Alternatively, the water level increases if w (t) = f (t) > 0. In this case, we have
f (t) = 20(t 2 1) > 0,
for 1 < t 3.
w (t) dt =
0
20(t 2 1) dt.
)t=3
t3
t .
3
t=0
Since w(0) = 200, we have w(3) 200 = 20(9 3) = 120 and hence, w(3) = 200 + 120 = 320, so that the
tank will have 320 gallons at time t = 3.
Notice that although we dont know how to evaluate the integral, we can use the Fundamental Theorem to
obtain some important information about the function.
Page 63 of 101
Fall, 2010
x2
A NSWER. Notice that there are almost no function values that we can compute exactly, yet we can easily
find an equation of a tangent line! From Part II of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the chain rule,
we get the derivative
F (x) = 2x ln(x6 + 4).
So, the slope at x = 2 is F (2) = 4 ln 68. The tangent lines passes through the point with x = 2 and so we get
4
y = F(2) =
ln(t 3 + 4) dt = 0. An equation of the tangent line is then
4
y = (4 ln 68)(x 2).
Beyond Formulas: The two parts of the Fundamental Theorem are different sides of the same theoretical
coin. Recall the conclusions of Parts I and II of the Fundamental Theorem:
b
d x
Page 64 of 101
Fall, 2010
2
Example 4.6.1. Evaluate 2xex dx.
A NSWER. Notice that 2x is the derivative of x2 and x2 already appears in the integrand, as the exponent of
2
2
ex . Further, by the chain rule, for F(x) = ex ,
F (x) = ex
2
d 2
(x ) = 2xex ,
dx
which is the integrand. To finish this example, recall that we need to add an arbitrary constant, to get
2xex dx = ex + c.
Note that, in general, if F is any antiderivative of f , then from the chain rule, we have
d
du
du
[F(u)] = F (u)
= f (u) .
dx
dx
dx
From this, we have that
du
f (u) dx =
dx
d
[F(u)] dx = F(u) + c =
dx
f (u) du,
since F is an antiderivative of f . If you read the expressions on the far left and the far right sides of the
equation above, this suggests that
du
du =
dx.
dx
So, if we cannot compute the integral h(x) dx directly, we often look for a new variable u and function f (u)
for which
h(x) dx =
du
f (u(x)) dx =
dx
f (u) du,
Page 65 of 101
Fall, 2010
x cos(x2 ) dx.
sin x
dx.
x
2
x
dx.
3
x +5
The last example is an illustration of a very common type of integral, one where the numerator is the derivative
of the denominator More generally, we have the result in the following Theorem.
Theorem 4.6.5 (I NTEGRATION
For any continuous function f ,
BY
S UBSTITUTION
INVOLVED WITH
L OGARITHMIC D IFFERENTIATION).
f (x)
dx = ln | f (x)| + c
f (x)
provided f (x) = 0.
You should recall that we already stated this result in section 4.1. It is important enough to repeat here in the
context of substitution.
Example
4.6.6. Evaluate the integrals:
tan x dx.
(tan1 x)2
dx.
1 + x2
So far, every one of our examples has been solved by spotting a term in the integrand that was the derivative
of another term. We present an integral now where this is not the case, but where a substitution is made to
deal with a particularly troublesome term in the integrand.
x 2 x dx.
Page 66 of 101
Fall, 2010
x=b
u=u(b)
f (u(x))u (x) dx =
x=a
f (u) du.
u=u(a)
Caution! You must change the limits of integration (i.e., endpoints of the interval in the definite integral)
as soon as you change variables!
2
Example 4.6.8. Evaluate
x3 x4 + 5 dx.
1
It may have occurred to you that you could use a substitution in a definite integral only to find an antiderivative
and then switch back to the original variable to do the evaluation. Although this method will work for many
problems, we recommend that you avoid it, for several reasons. First, changing the limits of integration is not
very difficult and results in a much more readable mathematical expression. Second, in many applications
requiring substitution, you will need to change the limits of integration, so you might as well get used to
doing so now. See and compare the two solutions to the following problem.
3
t2
Example 4.6.9. Compute
te 2 dt.
0
t=3
te
t2
t=0
dt =
u= 92
u=0
u= 9
eu du = [eu ]u=0 2 = e 2 + 1.
9
t2
te
dt =
e du = e + c = e
u
t2
+c
t=3
te
t=0
Page 67 of 101
t2
[
dt = e
t2
]t=3
= e 2 + 1.
t=0
Fall, 2010
ln(ab) = ln a + ln b
ln(ar ) = r ln a.
ln ex = x,
er es = er+s ,
er
= ers ,
es
(er )t = ert ,
where r and s are any real numbers and t is any rational number. It is also worth to memorize
x
bx = eln b = ex ln b ,
for b > 0.
ln x
.
ln a
Page 68 of 101
Chapter 5
A=
f (x) dx.
a
x=b
A=
( f (x) 0) dx,
x=a
where y = 0 represents the xaxis. By generalizing this argument, the area A of the region under the graph of
y = f (x) (upper one) and above the graph of y = g(x) (lower one) from x = a to x = b is
x=b
A=
x=a
x=b
A=
x=a
Remark 5.1.2. The formula above is valid only when the graph of y = f (x) is higher than the graph of
y = g(x) on the interval [a, b]. The area A of the region under the xaxis and above the graph of y = f (x) from
x = a to x = b is
A=
(0 f (x)) dx.
Example 5.1.3. Sketch and find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 1 and y = x2 /2.
69
Fall, 2010
A NSWER. Step 1. Intersection. Setting x2 1 = x2 /2 and solving the equation, we get that the curves
intersect at x = 2 .
Step 2. Integral. On the interval [ 2 , 2 ], the graph of y = x2 /2 is higher than that of y = x2 1. So by
the Theorem 5.1.1, we have the area,
)
)
2 (
2 ( 2
( 2
)
x
x2
4 2
x 1 dx = 1
dx =
.
A=
2
2
3
2
2
Remark 5.1.4. This chapter is about the applications of the integral. So we will mainly focus on how to set
up the integral rather than how to solve the integral. For this reason, the solution will be enough, once it gives
the appropriate integral. That is, we will not compute the integrals in detail but leave the computation to the
students as exercises.
Example 5.1.5. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x for 0 x /2.
(sin x cos x) dx = 2
/4
Example 5.1.6. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs y = x + 2 and y = x 2 and x = 4.
Page 70 of 101
Fall, 2010
A NSWER 2. (U SING F IGURE ). If we look at the figure 5.3, then we observe the region is in fact a lying
triangle with base length 12 and height 6. Hence, the triangle has the area 12(6)(1/2) = 36, which is exactly
same as in the solution above. It is easy to see that this way of solving is much better than the solution above
(using integral). The key point to be aware of is to sketch the region and find an easier way than using the
integral.
y=d
A=
y=c
Example 5.1.8. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x 1 and y2 = 2x + 6.
2
2
2
2
Example 5.1.9. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = 3y and x = 2 + y2 .
A NSWER. Step 1. Intersection. Setting up 3y = x = 2 + y2 and solving the equation 3y = 2 + y2 , we have
that the curves intersect at y = 1 and y = 2.
Step 2. Integral. On the interval [1, 2], the graph of x = 3y is the right boundary curve while that of x = 2 + y2
is the left boundary curve of the region. Hence, by the Theorem, we have the area,
A=
1
2(
3y 2 + y
))
dy =
2(
Page 71 of 101
)
1
3y 2 y2 dy = .
6
Fall, 2010
where A(x) represents the crosssectional area of the cylinder at height x. In fact, when we collect(= integrate) all the crosssectional areas(= A(x)) within the given height(= [a, b]), we obtain the volume(=
b
a A(x) dx).
Example 5.2.1. For the tent given in the figure 5.5, find the volume.
Example 5.2.2. The Pyramid Arena in Memphis has a square base of side approximately 600 feet and a height
of approximately 320 feet. See the figure 5.6. Find the volume of the pyramid with these measurements.
A NSWER 1. By the formula, we get
V=
320
A(x) dx,
0
where A(x) is the crosssectional area at height x. If f (x) represents the side length of the square cross section
at height x, we know that f (0) = 600, f (320) = 0 and f (x) is a linear function. The slope of the line is
m=
600 0
15
=
0 320
8
Page 72 of 101
Fall, 2010
15
x + 600.
8
Since this is the length of a side of a square, the crosssectional area is simply the square of this quantity, i.e.,
(
)2
15
A(x) = f (x) = x + 600 .
8
2
Therefore, we deduce
320
V=
A(x) dx =
0
320 (
)2
15
x + 600 dx = 38, 400, 000 ft2 .
8
A NSWER 2. Look at the figure 5.6. When we lay down the pyramid and see from one side of the pyramid,
we can get the figure above. The equations of the upper and lower lines are easy to be found:
300
15
x + 300 = x + 300
(Upper Line)
320
16
300
15
g(x) =
x 300 = x 300
(Lower Line)
320
16
f (x) =
15
x + 600,
8
and thus the crosssectional area is simply the square of this quantity, i.e.,
)2
(
15
A(x) = ( f (x) g(x)) = x + 600 .
8
2
Therefore, we deduce
V=
320
A(x) dx =
0
320 (
)2
15
x + 600 dx = 38, 400, 000 ft2 .
8
Exercise 5.2.3. A church steeple is 30 feet tall with square cross sections. The square at the base has side 3
feet and the side varies linearly in between. Compute the volume.
Page 73 of 101
Fall, 2010
Exercise 5.2.4. A church steeple is 30 feet tall with square cross sections. The square at the base has side 3
feet, the square at the top has side 1/2 feet and the side varies linearly in between. Compute the volume.
Example 5.2.5. Suppose that a dome has circular cross sections, with outline
45
(90 x)
(0 x 90).
y=
2
Find the volume of the dome.
A NSWER. The (vertical) cross section is a circle of radius (45/2)(90 x) . So the area inside the circle is
(45/2)(90 x) and the volume is obtained as follows:
90
45 90
V=
A(x) dx =
(90 x) dx = 91125 .
2 0
0
Exercise 5.2.6. The outline of a dome is given by
y = 60
x2
,
60
(60 x 60),
Example 5.2.7. Revolve the region under the curve y = x on the interval [0, 4] about the xaxis and find
the volume of the resulting solid of revolution.
A NSWER. Its critical to draw a picture of the region and the solid of revolution, so that youget a clear idea
of the radii of the circular cross sections. The radius of each cross section is given by r = x . We get the
volume:
4
4
( )2
V=
x dx =
x dx.
Page 74 of 101
Fall, 2010
Exercise 5.2.8. Find the volume of the solid which is formed by revolving the region bounded by y = 2 x,
x = 0, and y = 0 about the xaxis.
In a similar way, suppose that 0 g(y) and g is continuous on the interval [c, d]. Then, revolving the region
bounded by the curve x = g(y) and the yaxis, for c y d, about the yaxis generates a solid. Once again,
the cross sections of the resulting solid of revolution are circular disks of radius r = g(y). All that has changed
here is that we have interchanged the roles of the variables x and y. The volume of the solid is then given by
V=
(crosssectional area r ) dr =
2
g2 (y) dy.
Figure 5.9: Solid formed by revolving region between y = 4 x2 and y = 1 on [0, 3 ] about yaxis
A NSWER. The radius of any
of the circular cross sections is given by x. So, we must solve the equation
y = 4 x2 for x, to get x = 4 y . Since the surface extends from y = 1 to y = 4, the volume is given by
V=
4
(
)2
4 y dy =
(4 y) dy.
Exercise 5.2.10. Find the volume of the solid which is formed by revolving the region bounded by y = ex ,
x = 0, and y = e about the yaxis.
Page 75 of 101
Fall, 2010
V=
1
( )2
y dy.
4y dy = 4
(2) the xaxis: Revolving the region R about the xaxis produces a cavity in the middle of the solid. Our
strategy is to compute the volume Voutside of the outside of the object (as if it were filled in) and then subtract
the volume Vinside of the cavity.
The solid of the outside of the object has the radius y = 1, while the one inside has y = x2 /4. Hence,
V = Voutside Vinside =
0
1 dx
2
x2
4
)2
dx =
2(
0
x4
1
16
)
dx.
(3) the line y = 2: Just like the case (2) above, we have a cavity in the middle of the solid. In this case, the
solid of the outside of the object has the radius y = 2 x2 /4, while the one inside has y = 2 1. Hence,
V = Voutside Vinside =
0
(
)
)2
2(
2
x4
x2
2
2
4 x + 1 dx.
2
(2 1) dx =
dx
4
16
0
0
Exercise 5.2.12. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 and y = 4. Compute the volume of the solid formed
by revolving R about the given line. (1) y = 4, (2) the yaxis, (3) y = 6, (4) y = 2, (5) x = 2, (6) x = 4.
Page 76 of 101
Fall, 2010
V=
0
(
)
2 x x x2 dx = .
6
Example 5.3.2. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by y = x x2 and y = 0
about the line x = 2.
A NSWER. The cylindrical shell has
1. the radius 2 x (distance between the graph and the rotation axis)
2. the height x x2
3. the thickness dx from 0 to 1.
So we have the volume in the integral form:
1
(
)
V=
2 (2 x) x x2 dx = .
2
0
Example 5.3.3 (A VOLUME W HERE S HELLS A RE S IMPLER T HAN WASHERS). Find the volume of the
solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graph of y = 4 x2 and the xaxis about the line x = 3.
A NSWER. The cylindrical shell has
1. the radius 3 x (distance between the graph and the rotation axis)
2. the height 4 x2
3. the thickness dx from 2 to 2.
So we have the volume in the integral form:
2
V=
2 (3 x)(4 x2 ) dx = 64 .
2
Example 5.3.4 (C OMPUTING VOLUMES U SING S HELLS AND WASHERS). Let R be the region bounded by
the graphs of y = x, y = 2 x and y = 0. Compute the volume of the solid formed by revolving R about the
lines (1) y = 2, (2) y = 1 and (3) x = 3.
A NSWER. (1) The cylindrical shell has
Page 77 of 101
Fall, 2010
1. the radius 2 y (distance between the graph and the rotation axis)
2. the height (2 y) y
3. the thickness dy from 0 to 1.
So we have the volume in the integral form:
1
10
V=
2 (2 y) [(2 y) y] dy =
.
3
0
(2) The cylindrical shell has
1. the radius y (1) (distance between the graph and the rotation axis)
2. the height (2 y) y
3. the thickness dy from 0 to 1.
So we have the volume in the integral form:
1
8
V=
2 [y (1)] [(2 y) y] dy =
.
3
0
(3) Notice that to find the volume using cylindrical shells, we would need to break the calculation into two
pieces, since the height of the cylindrical shells would be different for x [0, 1] than for x [1, 2]. On the
other hand, this is done easily by the method of washers, i.e., volume desired = volume of outer shell
volume of inner shell:
1 [
]
(3 y)2 [3 (2 y)]2 dy = 4 .
V=
0
Exercise 5.3.5. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the yaxis the region bounded by
y = 2x2 x3 and y = 0.
A summary of strategies for computing volumes of solids of revolution.
Volume of Solid Formed by Revolution
1. Sketch the region to be revolved.
2. Determine the variable of integration (x if the region has a welldefined top and bottom, y if the region
has welldefined left and right boundaries).
3. Based on the axis of revolution and the variable of integration, determine the method (disks or washers
for xintegration about a horizontal axis or yintegration about a vertical axis, shells for xintegration
about a vertical axis or yintegration about a horizontal axis).
4. Label your picture with the inner and outer radii for disks or washers; label the radius and height for
cylindrical shells.
5. Set up the integral(s) and evaluate.
5.4 Arc Length and Surface Area.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
5.5 Projectile Motion.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
5.6 Applications of Integration to Physics and Engineering.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
5.7 Probability.
Skip. Please read the textbook.
Page 78 of 101
Chapter 6
Integration Techniques
1
1
1
sin(ax) dx =
sin u du = cos u + c = sin(ax) + c,
a
a
a
where c is a constant.
1
a2 + x 2
dx for a = 0.
1
a2 (1 + x2 /a2 )
1
1
dx = 2
2
2
a +x
a
1
1
.
2
a 1 + (x/a)2
1
dx.
1 + (x/a)2
1
1
1
a
1
1
1
dx
=
dx
=
du
=
du
a2 + x 2
a2 1 + (x/a)2
a2 1 + u2
a 1 + u2
(x)
1
1
= tan1 u + c = tan1
+ c,
a
a
a
where c is a constant.
Example 6.1.3. Evaluate
( 4
)
10
1
2
2
(x 5) dx =
x 10x2 + 25 dx = x5 x3 + 25x + c,
5
3
where c is a constant.
For next two examples, we need the following technique.
Remark 6.1.4 (M ETHOD OF C OMPLETING S QUARE). For a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 +bx +c, we want
to find its vertex form, i.e.,
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a (x A)2 + B,
where A and B are constants and (A, B) is called the vertex of the graph of the quadratic function f . How can
we find A and B? Since the vertex is a local extremum, we use the critical number.
f (x) = 2ax + b = 0 at
79
x=
b
,
2a
Fall, 2010
.
2a
4a
1
Example 6.1.5 (Difficult). Evaluate
dx.
5 + 6x x2
2
A NSWER. First, we convert the quadratic function 5 + 6x x2 into the one of vertex form:
5 + 6x x2 = (x 3)2 + 4,
which implies
1
1
1
1
1
=
= [
=
]
( x3 )2 .
( x3 )2
2
5 + 6x x2
4 (x 3)2
1 2
4 1 2
Hence, the integral becomes
dx =
2
5 + 6x x2
1
( x3 )2 dx.
2
1
1
1
1
2
dx =
dx =
du
(
)
2
2
2
2
5 + 6x x
1 u2
1 x3
2
(
)
1
1
1 x 3
=
du = sin u + c = sin
+ c,
2
1 u2
where c is a constant.
4x + 1
2x2 + 4x + 10
dx.
A NSWER. We convert the quadratic function into the one of vertex form and of more useful form:
[(
]
)2
[
]
x
+
1
2
2
2x2 + 4x + 10 = 2 (x + 1) + 8 = 2 (x + 1) + 4 = 8
+1 .
2
With this, the integral becomes
1
4x + 1
dx
=
2x2 + 4x + 10
8
4x + 1
dx.
( x+1 )2
+
1
2
x = 2u 1,
4x + 1 = 4(2u 1) + 1 = 8u 3.
Page 80 of 101
Fall, 2010
2 8u 3
4x + 1
1
4x + 1
1 8u 3
dx =
dx =
du =
du
2x2 + 4x + 10
8 ( x+1 )2 + 1
8 u2 + 1
4 u2 + 1
2
1
2u
3
8u
3
1
1
=
du +
du =
du
du
2
2
2
2
4 u +1
4 u +1
u +1
4 u +1
[(
]
)
(
)
( 2
) 3 1
x+1 2
3 1 x + 1
= ln u + 1 tan u + c = ln
+ 1 tan
+ c,
4
2
4
2
where c is a constant. Here when evaluating the integral of 2u/(u2 + 1), we have used another substitution
v = u2 + 1.
Page 81 of 101
Fall, 2010
[
]
[ f (x)g(x)] dx =
f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x) dx
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g(x)
(6.2.1)
(6.2.2)
i.e.,
du = f (x) dx,
i.e.,
dv = g (x) dx.
u dv = uv
v du,
(6.2.3)
Fall, 2010
x sin x dx.
A NSWER. There are two functions x and sin x inside the integral. We have two choices.
Choice 1 f (x) = x and g (x) = sin x. We deduce
f (x) = 1,
g(x) = cos x.
(6.2.4)
where c is a constant.
Choice 2 f (x) = sin x and g (x) = x. We deduce
f (x) = cos x,
g(x) =
1 2
x .
2
1 2
1
x2 cos x dx.
= f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x) dx = x sin x
2
2
2
The resulting integral x cos x dx is much more difficult to solve than the original integral x sin x dx. For
this reason, we observe that the second choice is bad and it makes the integration by parts formula to be
useless.
g(x) = cos x + c,
Fall, 2010
x cos x dx.
A NSWER. If you get the integrand, x cos x, by differentiating your answer, then your answer is correct.
g(x) = x.
1
= x ln x
x dx = x ln x dx = x ln x x + c = x (ln x 1) + c,
x
where c is a constant.
Exercise 6.2.6. Evaluate
A NSWER. When you differentiate your answer and get the integrand, (ln x)2 , your answer is correct.
g(x) = cos x.
2
2
x sin x dx = x cos x + 2 x cos x dx.
(6.2.5)
For the second integral in the righthand side, we choose f (x) = x and g (x) = cos x to use the integration by
parts formula again:
f (x) = 1,
g(x) = sin x.
The integration by parts formula implies
(6.2.6)
where c is a constant.
Putting the result (6.2.6) to the equation (6.2.5), we conclude
2
2
x sin x dx = x cos x + 2 x cos x dx = x2 cos x + 2 (x sin x + cos x + c)
(
)
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + 2c = x2 + 2 cos x + 2x sin x + d,
where d is a constant.
Page 84 of 101
Fall, 2010
x2 e3x dx.
A NSWER. If you get the integrand, x2 e3x , by differentiating your answer, then your answer is correct.
g(x) = cos x.
2x
2x
e sin x dx = e cos x + 2 e2x cos x dx.
(6.2.7)
For the second integral in the righthand side, we choose f (x) = e2x and g (x) = cos x to use the integration
by parts formula again:
f (x) = 2e2x ,
g(x) = sin x.
The integration by parts formula implies
2x
2x
e cos x dx = e sin x 2 e2x sin x dx
(6.2.8)
where c is a constant.
Putting the result (6.2.8) to the equation (6.2.7), we conclude
(
)
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
e sin x dx = e cos x + 2 e cos x dx = e cos x + 2 e sin x 2 e sin x dx
2x
2x
= e cos x + 2e sin x 4 e2x sin x dx
2x
= e ( cos x + 2 sin x) 4 e2x sin x dx.
(6.2.9)
2x
Observe
that
the
last
integral
that
we
started
with.
Treating
the
integral
e sin x dx as the unknown, we can
1
e2x sin x dx = e2x ( cos x + 2 sin x) + d,
5
where we have replaced the constant for integration c/5 by d.
Remark 6.2.10. Let us solve the Example above in a different way. Let f (x) = e2x and g (x) = sin x. Then
we get
f (x) = 2e2x ,
g(x) = cos x.
The integration by parts formula implies
2x
2x
e sin x dx = e cos x + 2 e2x cos x dx.
Page 85 of 101
(6.2.10)
Fall, 2010
For the integral in the righthand side of the equation (6.2.10), we choose f (x) = cos x and g (x) = e2x to use
the integration by parts formula again:
f (x) = sin x,
g(x) =
e2x
.
2
e2x
1
e cos x dx =
cos x +
2
2
2x
e2x sin x dx
(6.2.11)
where c is a constant. Putting the result (6.2.11) to the equation (6.2.10), we conclude
( 2x
)
1
e
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
e sin x dx = e cos x + 2 e cos x dx = e cos x + 2
cos x +
e sin x dx
2
2
2x
2x
2x
= e cos x + e cos x + e sin x dx = e2x sin x dx.
So we have deduced nothing in the end. Its because we switched the order for the second integral. If we
choose f (x) = exponential function and g (x) = trigonometric function for the first integral (6.2.10), then
for the second integral (6.2.11), we should keep the order, i.e., f (x) = exponential function and g (x) =
trigonometric function for the second integral (6.2.11).
n x
n x
x e dx = x e n xn1 ex dx.
x4 ex dx.
4 x
4 x
x e dx = x e 4 x3 ex dx.
Again by the reduction formula, we have
(
)
4 x
4 x
3 x
2 x
4 x
3 x
x e dx = x e 4 x e 3 x e dx = x e 4x e + 12 x2 ex dx.
Again by the reduction formula, we have
4 x
4 x
3 x
x e dx = x e 4x e + 12 x2 ex dx
(
)
4 x
3 x
2 x
x
= x e 4x e + 12 x e 2 xe dx
4 x
3 x
2 x
= x e 4x e + 12x e 24 xex dx.
Page 86 of 101
Fall, 2010
4 x
4 x
3 x
2 x
x e dx = x e 4x e + 12x e 24 xex dx
(
)
4 x
3 x
2 x
x
x
= x e 4x e + 12x e 24 xe e dx
= x4 ex 4x3 ex + 12x2 ex 24 (xex ex + c)
(
)
= x4 4x3 + 12x2 24x + 24 ex + d,
f (x)g (x) dx =
]b
f (x)g(x)
a
f (x)g(x) dx.
x3 ln x dx.
g(x) =
x4
.
4
]2 1 2
]2 1 [ ]2
x4 [
x4 [
x ln x dx =
ln x
x3 dx =
ln x
x4
4
4
4
16
1
1
1
1
1
(
)
16
1 4
15
=
ln 2
2 14 = 4 ln 2 .
4
16
16
1
Exercise 6.2.15. Evaluate
x sin(2x) dx.
2
Integration by parts formula is the most powerful tool in our integration arsenal.
Page 87 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
1
sin (ax) dx = cos (ax) + c,
cos (ax) dx = sin (ax) + c,
a
a
1
1
tan (ax) dx = ln | cos (ax) | + c = ln | sec (ax) | + c,
a
a
1
1
sec2 (ax) dx = tan (ax) + c,
sec (ax) tan (ax) dx = sec (ax) + c
a
a
6.3.1 Integrals Involving Powers of Trigonometric Functions.
We develop the method to evaluate an integral of trigonometric functions of various forms. Two forms are
discussed:
m
n
sin x cos x dx,
and
tanm x secn x dx,
where m and n are positive integers.
Form I.
sinm x cosn x dx
sin x cos x dx =
4
where c is a constant.
Example 6.3.2. Evaluate
u4 du =
cos5 x
u5
+c =
+ c,
5
5
A NSWER. Since the integrand is of form with m = 3, we use the method (the one when m is odd).
3
4
2
4
sin x cos x dx = sin x sin x cos x dx = sin x(1 cos2 x) cos4 x dx.
Page 88 of 101
Fall, 2010
(
)
3
4
2
4
2 4
sin x cos x dx = sin x(1 cos x) cos x dx = (1 u )u du =
u6 u4 du
=
)
u7 u5
cos7 x cos5 x
cos5 x (
+c =
+c =
5 cos2 x 7 + c,
7
5
7
5
35
where c is a constant.
Example 6.3.3. Evaluate
sin x cos5 x dx.
A NSWER. Since the integrand is of form with n = 5, we use the method (the one when n is odd).
5
2 2
sin x cos x dx =
sin x (cos x) cos x dx =
sin x (1 sin2 x)2 cos x dx.
The substitution u = sin x implies du = cos x dx and so
5
sin x cos x dx =
sin x (1 sin2 x)2 cos x dx
[
]
)
( 4
2 2
2
=
u (1 u ) du =
u u 2u + 1 du =
u9/2 2u5/2 + u1/2 du
2 sin11/2 x 4 sin7/2 x 2 sin3/2 x
2u11/2 4u7/2 2u3/2
+
+c =
+
+c
11 7
3
11
7
3
)
2 sin x sin x (
=
21 sin4 x 66 sin2 x + 77 + c,
231
=
where c is a constant.
Form I-Case 2. m and n are even positive integers.
Method. We use the halfangle formulas:
sin2 x =
1 cos(2x)
,
2
and
cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
.
2
sin2 x dx.
1
1
sin(2x)
1
2
sin x dx =
[1 cos(2x)] dx =
x
+ c = [2x sin(2x)] + c,
2
2
2
4
where c is a constant.
Example 6.3.5. Evaluate
cos4 x dx.
(
1 + cos(2x) 2
4
2 2
cos x dx = (cos x) dx =
dx
2
)
(
)
1
1 + cos(4x)
1 (
2
1 + 2 cos(2x) + cos (2x) dx =
1 + 2 cos(2x) +
dx
=
4
4
2
[
(
)]
1
1
sin(4x)
1
=
[12x + 8 sin(2x) + sin(4x)] + c,
x + sin(2x) +
x+
+c =
4
2
4
32
where c is a constant.
Page 89 of 101
Form II.
Fall, 2010
tanm x secn x dx
( 2
)
3
3
2
2
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x tan x sec x dx =
sec x 1 sec2 x tan x sec x dx.
The substitution u = sec x implies du = sec x tan x dx and so
( 2
) 2
( 2
)
3
3
tan x sec x dx =
sec x 1 sec x tan x sec x dx =
u 1 u2 du
( 4
)
u5 u3
sec5 x sec3 x
=
u u2 du = + c =
+ c,
5
3
5
3
where c is a constant.
Form II-Case 2. n is an even positive integer.
Method.
1. Isolate one factor of sec2 x.
2. Replace any factors of sec2 x with 1 + tan2 x.
3. Make the substitution u = tan x.
2
4
2
2
2
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x sec x dx = tan2 x(1 + tan2 x) sec2 x dx.
The substitution u = tan x implies du = sec2 x dx and so
2
4
2
2
2
tan x sec x dx = tan x(1 + tan x) sec x dx = u2 (1 + u2 ) du
( 2
)
tan3 x tan5 x
u3 u5
+
+ c,
=
u + u4 du = + + c =
3
5
3
5
where c is a constant.
Form II-Case 3. m is an even positive integer and n is an odd positive integer.
Method.
1. Replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x 1.
Page 90 of 101
Fall, 2010
1
a2
sec x dx =
seca2 x tan x +
a1
a1
a
seca2 x dx.
sec x dx.
A NSWER 1 (T EXTBOOK ).
sec x dx =
sec x + tan x
sec x
sec x + tan x
dx =
(
)
The substitution u = sec x + tan x implies du = sec x tan x + sec2 x dx and so
sec x dx =
1
du = ln |u| + c = ln |sec x + tan x| + c,
u
where c is a constant.
A NSWER 2 (I DENTITY ). We observe
tan x +
cos x
sin x
cos x
sin x + sin2 x + cos2
sin x + 1
1
=
+
=
=
=
= sec x.
1 + sin x cos x 1 + sin x
cos x (1 + sin x)
cos x (1 + sin x) cos x
cos x
dx
1 + sin x
sin x
cos x
=
dx +
dx = ln | cos x| + ln |1 + sin x| + c.
cos x
1 + sin x
sec x dx =
tan x dx +
Here for the first integral, the substitution u = cos x is used while v = 1 + sin x is used for the second integral.
1
sec x dx =
2
cos x
dx +
1 + sin x
]
cos x
1
dx = [ln |1 + sin x| ln |1 sin x|] + c
1 sin x
2
Here for the first integral, the substitution u = 1 + sin x is used while v = 1 sin x is used for the second
integral.
The three results look different. But in fact, they are all same. One can prove this by using the basic formulas
on trigonometric functions.
Page 91 of 101
Fall, 2010
2
2
2
2
a + x and x a forsome a > 0.
Case 1. Integral involving a2 x2 .
Method. We use the substitution u = a sin with /2 /2. (One can take u = a cos with 0 .)
The identity 1 sin2 = cos2 plays the important role.
1
x
2
2
4 x = 4 4 sin = 4(1 sin2 ) = 4 cos2
= 0; and x = 1 1 = 2 sin ,
= .
x = 0 0 = 2 sin ,
6
Hence, the integral becomes
/6
] /6
[
2 sin
sin d = 2 cos
dx =
2 cos d = 2
= 2 3.
2 cos
0
4 x2
0
0
0
/6
u2 = 4 x 2 ,
x=0
2u du = 2x dx,
x dx = u du
u = 4 02 = 2; and x = 1
u=
4 12 =
3.
dx =
4 x2
1
(u) du =
u
1 du = 2 3 .
1
Example 6.3.10. Evaluate
dx.
x2 + 4
A NSWER. Let x = 2 tan with /2 < < /2. Then we have
1
1
2
dx =
(2 sec ) d = sec d = ln | sec + tan | + c,
2 sec
x2 + 4
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Page 92 of 101
Fall, 2010
WE MUST BE CAREFUL! This should not be the end of the solution, because the result is the function of
, while the integral given in the problem is the function of x. So, we should convert the resulting function
of into the function of x. How? The substitution x = 2 tan implies
x
tan = ,
2
2
cos =
,
2
x +4
x
sin =
,
2
x +4
x2 + 4 x
1
dx = ln | sec + tan | + c = ln
+ +c
2
2
2
x +4
x2 + 4 + x
2
2
= ln
+ c = ln x + 4 + x ln 2 + c = ln x + 4 + x + d,
2
where d = ln 2 + c is an arbitrary constant.
x2 1 = sec2 1 = tan2 ,
dx = tan sec d .
Hence, the integral becomes
3
3
2
2
x x 1 dx = sec tan (tan sec ) d = tan2 sec4 d
=
tan5 tan3
+
+ c,
5
3
x2 1
1
cos = ,
sin =
,
x
x
tan =
x2 1 ,
a2 x 2
a2 + x 2
x2 a2
Trigonometric Substitution
Interval
Identity
x = a sin
/2 /2
1 sin2 = cos2
x = a tan
/2 < < /2
1 + tan2 = sec2
x = a sec
[0, ] { /2}
sec2 1 = tan2
Page 93 of 101
Fall, 2010
(
2x + 3
11
dx =
dx = 2x 11 ln |x + 7| + c,
2
x+7
x+7
)
3
(
x + 2x2 + 6x + 6
x3 x 2
1
2
dx =
dx = + + 5x + ln |x + 1| + c,
x +x+5+
x+1
x+1
3
2
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Applying the Division Algorithm to a rational function P(x)/Q(x), we have
P(x)
S(x)
= R(x) +
,
Q(x)
Q(x)
where S(x) is a polynomial which has the degree less than the degree of the polynomial Q(x). We develop a
method to separate S(x)/Q(x) into several terms so that we can integrate P(x)/Q(x) much easily. We study
only three forms of S(x)/Q(x).
S(x)
6.4.2 Form I. (ax+b)(cx+d)
, where the degree of the polynomial S(x) is less than 2.
Let us start with an example.
Example 6.4.1.
3
x2 + x 2
A NSWER. We observe
It implies
dx.
1
x + 2 (x 1)
3
1
=
= 2
.
x1 x+2
(x 1)(x + 2)
x +x2
3
dx =
x2 + x 2
1
1
x1 x+2
(6.4.1)
)
dx = ln |x 1| ln |x + 2| + c,
Fall, 2010
How can we deduce the lefthand side of the equation (6.4.1) in the solution above? We use the following
technique.
Technique Using Partial Fractions (Linear Denominator)
Step 1. Factor the Denominator.
3
3
=
.
(6.4.2)
2
x + x 2 (x 1)(x + 2)
Step 2. Rewrite into Terms of Factors.
3
x2 + x 2
3
A
B
=
+
,
(x 1)(x + 2) x 1 x + 2
(6.4.3)
where A and B are constants. We will find them in the next step.
Step 3. Find Constants. Multiplying the equation (6.4.3) by (x 1)(x + 2), we get
3(x 1)(x + 2) A(x 1)(x + 2) B(x 1)(x + 2)
=
+
= A(x + 2) + B(x 1),
(x 1)(x + 2)
x1
x+2
3 = A(x + 2) + B(x 1).
3=
i.e.,
(6.4.4)
.
x2 + x 2 x 1 x + 2
The righthand side of the equation,
3
side, x2 +x2
.
1
1
x1 x+2 , is called the partial fractions decomposition of the lefthand
1
x2 + x 6
dx.
1
A
B
=
+
.
(x 2)(x + 3) x 2 x + 3
=
x2 + x 6 (x 2)(x + 3) 5 x 2 5 x + 3 5
)
1
1
.
x2 x+3
(
1
1
1
1
1
dx =
dx = (ln |x 2| ln |x + 3|) + c.
2
x +x6
5
x2 x+3
5
3x
x2 3x 4
dx.
Page 95 of 101
Fall, 2010
3x
A
B
=
+
.
(x 4)(x + 1) x 4 x + 1
+
=
+
.
x2 3x 4 (x 4)(x + 1)
5 x4 5 x+1 5 x4 x+1
Using the equation, we evaluate the given integral:
)
(
3x
4
3
3
1
dx =
+
dx = (4 ln |x 4| + ln |x + 1|) + c.
(x 4)(x + 1)
5
x4 x+1
5
ax + b
Remark 6.4.4 (A SIDE). Evaluate
dx.
(cx + d)(ex + f )
ad + bc = A (de + f c) ,
A=
ad bc
.
de f c
a f + be = B (c f + de) ,
B=
be a f
.
de c f
Therefore, we deduce
ax + b
ad bc
1
be a f
1
1
=
=
(cx + d)(ex + f ) de f c cx + d de c f ex + f
de f c
ad bc be a f
+
cx + d
ex + f
1
ad bc be a f
ax + b
dx =
+
dx
(cx + d)(ex + f )
de f c
cx + d
ex + f
)
(
1
be a f
ad bc
=
ln |cx + d| +
ln |ex + f | + c.
de f c
c
e
We can generalize the method to the fraction whose denominator has three terms.
Page 96 of 101
)
.
Fall, 2010
3x2 7x 2
dx.
x3 x
A NSWER. We rewrite the integrand as follows and find the constants A, B, and C:
3x2 7x 2
3x2 7x 2
A
B
C
=
= +
+
.
3
x x
x(x 1)(x + 1)
x x1 x+1
Multiplying the equation by x(x 1)(x + 1), we get
3x2 7x 2 = A(x 1)(x + 1) + Bx(x + 1) +Cx(x 1).
Putting x = 0 into the equation, we have 2 = A, A = 2.
Putting x = 1 into the equation, we have 6 = 2B, B = 3.
Putting x = 1 into the equation, we have 8 = 2C, C = 4. Therefore, we deduce
3x2 7x 2
3x2 7x 2
2
3
4
=
=
+
.
3
x x
x(x 1)(x + 1) x x 1 x + 1
Using the equation, we evaluate the given integral:
3x2 7x 2
dx =
x3 x
3
4
2
+
x x1 x+1
3x + 8
x3 + 5x2 + 6x
)
dx = 2 ln |x| 3 ln |x 1| + 4 ln |x + 1| + c.
dx.
A NSWER. We rewrite the integrand as follows and find the constants A, B, and C:
3x + 8
3x + 8
A
B
C
=
=
+
+
.
x3 + 5x2 + 6x x(x + 2)(x + 3)
x x+2 x+3
Multiplying the equation by x(x + 2)(x + 3), we get
3x + 8 = A(x + 2)(x + 3) + Bx(x + 3) +Cx(x + 2).
Putting x = 0 into the equation, we have 8 = 6A, A = 4/3.
Putting x = 2 into the equation, we have 2 = 2B, B = 1.
Putting x = 3 into the equation, we have 1 = 3C, C = 1/3. Therefore, we deduce
3x + 8
x3 + 5x2 + 6x
3x + 8
4 1
1
1
1
= +
.
x(x + 2)(x + 3) 3 x x + 2 3 x + 3
3x + 8
dx =
x3 + 5x2 + 6x
4 1
1
1
1
+
3 x x+2 3 x+3
)
dx =
Page 97 of 101
1
4
ln |x| + ln |x + 2| ln |x + 3| + c.
3
3
Fall, 2010
S(x)
6.4.3 Form II. (ax+b)
n , where the degree of the polynomial S(x) is less than n.
Let us start with an example.
Example 6.4.7.
2x + 3
dx.
(x 1)2
(
2x + 3
2
5
5
dx
=
+
dx
=
2
ln
|x
1|
+ c.
(x 1)2
x 1 (x 1)2
x1
Technique Using Partial Fractions (Repetition)
The main idea of the method is to separate the rational function in the following form:
2x + 3
A
B
=
+
.
2
(x 1)
x 1 (x 1)2
Generally,
A1
A2
An1
An
S(x)
=
+
++
+
.
n
2
n1
(ax + b)
ax + b (ax + b)
(ax + b)
(ax + b)n
Then the integral becomes
S(x)
dx
(ax + b)n
)
(
A2
An1
An
A1
+
++
+
dx
=
ax + b (ax + b)2
(ax + b)n1 (ax + b)n
A1
A2
1
An1
1
An
1
=
ln |ax + b|
+ c.
n
a
a ax + b
an (ax + b)
a(n + 1) (ax + b)n+1
5x2 + 20x + 6
dx.
Example 6.4.8. Evaluate
x3 + 2x2 + x
A NSWER. We rewrite the integrand as follows and find the constants A, B, and C:
5x2 + 20x + 6 5x2 + 20x + 6 A
B
C
=
= +
+
.
3
2
2
x + 2x + x
x(x + 1)
x x + 1 (x + 1)2
Multiplying the equation by x(x + 1)2 , we get
5x2 + 20x + 6 = A(x + 1)2 + Bx(x + 1) +Cx.
Page 98 of 101
Fall, 2010
(
5x2 + 20x + 6
6
1
9
9
dx
=
+
dx
=
6
ln
|x|
ln
|x
+
1|
+ c.
x3 + 2x2 + x
x x + 1 (x + 1)2
x+1
x1
Example 6.4.9. Evaluate
dx.
3
x + 4x2 + 4x
A NSWER. We rewrite the integrand as follows and find the constants A, B, and C:
x1
x3 + 4x2 + 4x
x1
A
B
C
= +
.
+
2
x(x + 2)
x x + 2 (x + 2)2
x1
1 1 1
1
3
1
=
+
.
2
x(x + 2)
4 x 4 x + 2 2 (x + 2)2
(
x1
1
3
1
1 1 1
dx =
+
dx
x3 + 4x2 + 4x
4 x 4 x + 2 2 (x + 2)2
1
1
3
= ln |x| ln |x + 2|
+c
4
4
2(x + 2)
(
)
1
6
=
ln |x| + ln |x + 2| +
+ c.
4
x+2
S(x)
6.4.4 Form III. (ax2 +bx+c)(dx
2 +ex+ f ) , where the degree of S(x) is less than 4.
Let us start with an example.
Example 6.4.10.
2x2 5x + 2
dx.
x3 + x
Fall, 2010
2 = A + B,
2 = A.
(
2x2 5x + 2
2
5
dx = 2 ln |x| 5 tan1 x + c.
dx =
2
3
x +x
x x +1
5x2 + 6x + 2
Example 6.4.11. Evaluate
dx.
(x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 5)
x2 + b
x2 + b
A NSWER. We rewrite the integrand as follows and find the constants A, B and c:
5x2 + 6x + 2
A
Bx +C
=
+ 2
.
2
(x + 2)(x + 2x + 5) x + 2 x + 2x + 5
Multiplying the equation by (x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 5), we get
5x2 + 6x + 2 = A(x2 + 2x + 5) + (Bx +C)(x + 2)
= (A + B)x2 + (2A + 2B +C)x + 5A + 2C.
Comparing the coefficients, we deduce
5 = A + B,
6 = 2A + 2B +C,
2 = 5A + 2C.
5x2 + 6x + 2
2
3x 4
3x 4
dx =
+ 2
dx,
dx = 2 ln |x + 2| +
2
2
(x + 2)(x + 2x + 5)
x + 2 x + 2x + 5
x + 2x + 5
where the second integral is a little bit complicated. See the following Remark.
Page 100 of 101
Fall, 2010
3x 4
x2 + 2x + 5
3x 4
3x 4
3x 4
].
= [
] = [(
)2
2
2
(x + 1) + 4
(x + 1)
x
+
1
4
+1
4
+1
4
2
3x 4
1
dx =
2
x + 2x + 5
4
3x 4
dx.
( x+1 )2
+
1
2
dx
,
2
=
=
=
=
x = 2u 1.
3x 4
1 3(2u 1) 4
dx =
2 du
( x+1 )2
4
u2 + 1
+
1
2
1 6u 7
7
1
u
du = 3
du
du
2
2
2
2 u +1
u +1
2 u +1
7
3 2
ln u + 1 tan1 u + c
2
2
)2
(
)
(
7
3 x+1
1 x + 1
ln
+ 1 tan
+c
2
2
2
2
(
)
7
3
2
1 x + 1
ln (x + 1) + 4 tan
+c
2
2
2
(
)
7 1 x + 1
3 2
ln x + 2x + 5 tan
+ c,
2
2
2
3x 4
1
dx =
2
x + 2x + 5
4
=
dx = 2 du,