17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

THE ROLE OF EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY ON FEED SAFETY AND HYGIENE

Mian N. Riaz, Ph.D
Texas A&M University
USA

Pellet presses and many other feed processing technologies result in an agglomerated or pelleted
feed. Recognized advantages of pelleted feed are as follows:
-

increased bulk density

less bridging in bins
less dust
reduced ingredient segregation
less feed waste
increased nutrient density
improved palatability
increased nutrient availability
decreased microbiological activity

While many processing technologies result in an agglomerated feed, only a few have sufficient
energy inputs to ensure feed safety. Feed safety is a major factor in choosing extrusion-based
methods over traditional pelleting methods. Extrusion is a hydro-thermal process where the
critical process parameters of retention time, moisture, and thermal and mechanical energy
inputs can be varied over a wide range. The feed industry has considered a provision to mandate
that all feeds are pasteurized and some form of extrusion will likely be implemented as the
processing method of choice.
The extrusion process can generally be divided into two basic categories; cooking extrusion and
forming extrusion. Both processes affect the feed as the name indicates. Cooking extrusion
elevates feed temperature to a level that often results in an expanded product (final feed bulk
density less than the bulk density of the starting raw materials). Forming extrusion is usually a
low temperature (often called cold-forming) process that increases product bulk density and
cools the feed resulting in a feed bulk density that is equal to or greater than the bulk density of
the starting raw materials.
INGREDIENTS
Raw material preparation for extrusion and related processes is very similar to that required for
pellet mill installations. Most applications employ a post-grind step. Individual whole grains are
pre-ground to reduce particle size, mixed with the balance of the recipe, and then passed through
a final post-grind step to achieve the desired particle size distribution. The correct particle size is
important for many reasons:
-

improved product appearance

reduced incidences of die orifices plugging
greater ease of cooking and pasteurization
improved retention of liquid coatings due to smaller cell size in final product matrix

Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

The process flow diagram for an extrusion application differs from the process flow for pellet
press application (Figure 1) in two major areas.
EXTRUSION

PELLETING
RawMaterialReceiving

PreGrind

Bins, Scale Mixers

FinalGrinding,Sifting

FinalGrinding

Extruder,Dryer,Cooler

Pellet Mill, Cooler

Sifting,Coating

Packaging

Figure 1: Comparison of Process Flows for Pellet Mill and Extrusion Applications
The grinding step for an extruder follows the guidelines discussed above and usually precedes a
sifting operation to remove foreign material and large particles. A magnet is usually installed
prior to the grinding step in all feed mill process flows to remove tramp metal. It is
recommended to also include a magnet just prior to the extrusion process to prevent accidental
metal from the grinding operation damaging the extruder components.
The second major difference in process flows occurs after the extrusion or pelleting steps.
Extruded products usually contain more moisture that pelleted products. This moisture must be
removed in a drying step if moisture is greater than 12-15% by weight of the extruded product.
The higher moisture levels required for most extrusion processes can lend versatility to the
process and expands the feed manufacturers product possibilities. The high temperature/short
time extrusion cooking process is able to accommodate a wide range of raw materials that might
otherwise be discarded as unqualified material.
Although extrusion does not completely eliminate toxins and other anti-nutritional or antigrowth factors, in many cases these substances or their activity is reduced to permit some level of
incorporation into the recipe. Research at the University of Nebraska indicates that certain
temperatures of extrusion are sufficient to reduce fumonisin levels (Figure 2). Studies have also
Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

Fumonisin B1 Recovered (%)

indicated that viruses, molds, and other pathogenic organisms can be destroyed by the operating
parameters employed during extrusion. However, very little published data is available on this
subject and there is a need for carefully designed studies to investigate the effects of the
extrusion process.

70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
140

y = -0.72x + 165.4
R2 = 0.9931

150

160

170

180

190

200

Extrusion Temperature (C)

Figure 2. Effect of Extrusion Temperature on Fumonisin Levels

Hardware Components
An extrusion system includes a live bin/feeder, preconditioner, extrusion cooker, and die/knife
assembly as shown in Figure 3. Each component is designed to accomplish a specific function
in the process of cooking and forming feed products. The operating conditions can be adjusted
to vary the characteristics of the finished product. The live bin/feeder provides a means of
uniformly metering the raw materials into the preconditioner and subsequently into the extruder
As the material leaves the preconditioner, it enters the extruder barrel. Here the major
transformation of the raw preconditioned material occurs which ultimately determines the final
product characteristics. The initial section of the extruder barrel is designed to act as a feeding
or metering zone to simply convey the preconditioned material away from the inlet zone of the
barrel and into the extruder. The material then enters a processing zone where the amorphous,
free flowing material is worked into dough. Most of the temperature rise in the extruder barrel is
from mechanical energy dissipated through the rotating screw. It may be assisted by the direct
injection of steam or from external thermal energy sources. The screw profile may be altered by
choosing screw elements of different pitch or with interrupted flights, or by adding mixing lobes
configured to convey either in a reverse or forward direction. All of these factors affect the
conveying of plasticized material down the screw channel and therefore the amount of
mechanical energy added via the screw.

Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

Figure 3. Extrusion System

PROCESS PARAMETERS
Extrusion and similar agglomeration techniques have been utilized to process various feedstuffs
for many years. Extrusion cooking is universally recognized as a high temperature, short time
process. The higher temperatures employed during the extrusion process present an interesting
challenge in the assessment of nutrient retention. During extrusion, the recipe and its
constituents are subjected to a succession of almost instantaneous treatments or unit operations.
These variables include moisture and temperature profiles, extruder configuration, extruder
speed, and preconditioning of the material prior to extrusion. The critical process parameters
could be summarized into four areas specific mechanical energy, specific thermal energy,
retention time, and moisture levels.
FINAL PRODUCT APPLICATIONS
Many of the advantages claimed for agglomerated or pelleted feeds are really due to the form in
which the feed is presented to the animal, and the fact that the feed has been subjected to a heat
treatment. The relative dry treatment employed during pelleting followed by a pressing step
yields a final pellet matrix that often deteriorates during transportation and handling. The
process flexibility and the processors philosophy toward total quality management are the
greatest factors in pellet quality.
The higher energy inputs and the use of moist heat during the extrusion process allow flexibility
not present in the pellet press. Low moisture or dry extrusion has been utilized in the feed
industry for many years. Although applications have usually been limited to extrusion of dietary
ingredients such as full fat soy, extrusions of complete diets without a pellet press have been
employed. Extrusion has been used to process the following feeds:
-

full fat soybeans and other high oil ingredients

piglet feed and calf starters
hygienic feeds for poultry
protein by-pass feeds for ruminants
aquatic feeds
pet foods
feeds containing high levels of wet byproducts

Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

PASTEURIZATION AND SALMONELLA CONTROL:

The feed industry is acutely aware of the need to eliminate the possibilities of food-borne
illnesses from microbial contamination which can occur at any point along the food chain.
Mandating that all feed be sterilized through processing was even considered by the United
States government as a means to ensure public safety. Even though the practical aspect of such
a mandate is questionable, feed processing techniques such as extrusion are in place that could
fill the requirements of this type of program. As early as 1965 widespread testing indicated that
moist extrusion was much more effective than pelleting in salmonella control (Table 1).
Extruded feed

Pelleted feed

Number of samples
Process temperature (C)

775
95-120

35
60-85

Process moisture (%)

25-35

11-19

Salmonella positive

21

Salmonella positive (%)

60

Table 1: Effect of Extrusion and Pelleting on Salmonella Destruction

THERMAL-DEATH-TIME STUDIES

10000
y = 1E+12e-0.3688x
Thermal Plastic Spores
E. Coli
Salmonella Senftgenber
Listeria Monocytogenes

-0.1669x

y = 4E+11e

1000

y = 3E+13e-0.4173x

Time(Seconds)

y = 8E+12e-0.4112x

100

10

1
30

50

70

90
110
Temperature (C)

130

150

170

Figure 4 Thermal Death Time Studies

Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

The graph entitled Thermal Death Time-Studies (Figure 4) indicates the time temperature
relationship required to destroy common pathogenic microbes found in the feed and food
industries. Note that E. coli, Salmonella, and Listeria are all destroyed if a temperature of 70 C
is achieved for a one second time interval during processing. The first, larger square in the graph
outlines the average time/temperature possible in a DDC preconditioner (100 C for 120
seconds). The second, smaller square outlines the operating window for the extruder barrel.
Note that the normal time/temperature employed in preconditioning and extrusion of pet foods
and aquatic feeds will easily pasteurize feedstuffs and foodstuffs.
POST EXTRUSION PROCESSING
For most dry feeds, the final moisture content needs to be less than 12 percent to prevent
mold and bacterial growth. Final products with moistures above 12% are sometimes referred to
as semi-moist products. This group of products may have moistures levels greater than 30% and
represent a category of products that cannot be processed on pellet presses. When considering a
soft-moist product one needs to determine the water activity of the product. Water activity is
the critical factor in determining the lower limit of available water for microbial growth. In
general, if the water activity of a product is less than 0.65, no microbial growth can occur.
DRYING AND COOLING
The primary purpose of drying is to reduce the level of moisture in an extrusion cooked product.
Many extruded products exit the extruder die at moisture levels above 18% which necessitates
product drying for shelf stability. In some cases, the drying process can involve additional heat
treatment of the product. One example of this is the drying at elevated temperatures to impart a
baked or toasted flavor and appearance to the product.
As mentioned earlier, many feeds are best processed at extrusion moistures between 23 to 28
percent. Some of the moisture is lost due to flash evaporation as the superheated product exits
the die and expands. Further moisture will be lost through evaporative cooling, as the product
cools during conveying or when a cooling step is employed. Pellet coolers will generally result
only in a reduction in moisture levels of about 3% and further reductions in moisture levels
require a drying step. Pneumatic conveying of products from the extruder to the dryer inlet
reduces product moisture content one to two percent. Pneumatic systems help separate sticky
products that tend to clump with belt conveyors and improve sanitation around the extruder die.
COOLING
After being dried the product requires cooling before it is packaged. If the product is packed or
stored in bulk without prior cooling, the moisture contained in the hot air and the residual
moisture in the product will condensate on the container wall as the product slowly cools in the
package or storage bin. This will result in the growth of mold and bacteria in the damp areas.
The cooler can be directly coupled to the dryer or can be a standalone unit. When more than
five to eight percent fat is applied as a coating to feed, the product is dried, and coated before
being cooled. In these instances, a vertical counter-flow cooler is used to avoid fat accumulation
on the conveyors of a horizontal cooler. After drying and cooling, it is important to screen out
any small pieces or fines that may have developed during the drying, tumbling, and cooling
operations. Those fines may be recycled back into the raw mix prior to extrusion so that no loss
of product occurs. A properly operated feed manufacturing system will average less than 3%
fines for recycling.
Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz

17th Annual ASAIM SEA Feed Technology and Nutrition Workshop

June 15-19, 2009 Imperial Hotel Hue, Vietnam

CONCLUSION
The selection of processing equipment for a feed manufacturing plant is an important decision.
Equipment that will give the highest operating efficiency and most versatility at the lowest total
cost should be chosen. When sizing equipment for any plant, it is important to determine the
rate or capacity at which the plant will be operating. The probability of future expansion must
also be considered. For example, it may cost very little extra to purchase a conveyor or storage
bin that is capable of twice the presently needed capacity. The equipment in feed-processing
plants are required to perform the following functions: receiving, storage, grinding, mixing,
conveying, extrusion cooking, drying/cooling, pumping, coating, and packaging.
The objective in the formulated feed industry today is to manufacture a diet that satisfies the
followingi:
-

targets animals nutritional requirements

meets or exceeds the customers expectations
satisfies environmental concerns
provides favorable economics

Although the focus in the past has often been strictly on economics, shifting trends in todays
society underlies the importance of environmental issues. Feeds that are environmentally
friendly are not only popular, but are being demanded by the public. The issues of today
include processing a feed in a manner that will maximize animal efficiency by freeing feedstuffs
for human consumption, reducing animal waste outputs, and eliminating food-borne illness in
the food supply chain. As formulated feeds become more sophisticated to meet the specific
physiological needs of the animal and the environmental expectations of the public, processing
technologies such as extrusion will become a factor in this industry.

Paper by Dr. Mian Riaz