ABOUT THE ORGANISATION

BHARATH HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED is one of the top

Engineering companies in India ranks among the top 12 Power Equipment
manufacturers in the world. Setup in mid-fifties, BHEL has diversified its product base
over the years and today every key sector of the economy is served by BHEL.
BHELs products cater to a wide spectrum of customers in various fields like
power generation and transmission, oil exploration and production, transportation, steel
& metals, fertilizer, petro-chemicals, refineries, cement plants, engineering industries,
non-conventional energy sources, defense etc.
More than 65% of installed capacity for electrical power in India is contributed
by BHEL with 14 manufacturing units and over 40,000 skilled manpower, BHEL has
built up tremendous engineering strength.
BHEL-Hyderabad manufactures almost all critical high technology products
required for Power Sector viz. Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine, Generator, Steam
Generator, Heat Recovery Steam Generators, Pumps & Compressors, Heat Exchangers,
Control equipment etc.

BHEL-Hyderabad has proven its capability for System Engineering and

Turnkey Execution of projects involving coal/liquid gas based power plants.
The Technology of BHEL-Hyderabad, for the products/systems is on par with
the latest/best in the world.

BHEL, Hyderabad has collaborations with leading

companies in the world like M/s. General Electric, USA, M/s. Siemens, Germany, and
M/s. Nuovo pignone, Italy.

COMPRESSORS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
A simple definition of compressor is a device used to pressurize a fluid
including liquids and gases. There are many different kinds of compressors, but the
main purpose of using a compressor is to raise the pressure of a gas.
A compressor converts shaft power to raise the enthalpy of the gas. The gas
enters the compressor at a low pressure and exits at a high pressure. The rotating shaft
is attached to a blade assembly; the rotating blades push on the gas and increase the
pressure and thereby increasing the enthalpy. Compressors can be either Positive
displacement type or Dynamic type.

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

COMPRESSORS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
(COMPRESSING FLUID BY
REDUCING
VOLUME OF COMPRESSION
CHAMBER)

RECIPROCATING

HELICAL
SCREW

ROTARY TYPE

SPIRAL
AXIAL

DYNAMIC TYPE
(ACCELERATION AND
DECLERATION OF FLUID)

CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS

STRAIGHT
LOBE

AXIAL
COMPRESSORS

SLIDE
VANE

Not too many years ago, it was common practice to use reciprocating
compressors when high pressures were required. Dynamic-type machines were used
only where larger volumes and lower pressures were involved. Dynamic compressors
were usually called blowers when air or gas was compressed to about 40 psig. The term
compressor was applied to any such machine where air or gas was compressed to a
final pressure over 50 psig. In recent years, this differentiation has become
meaningless. Industry now uses the term compressor for all types of machines
compressing air or gas.

1.3. BASIC TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

Dynamic type and Positive displacement type.
1.3.1. Dynamic-Type Compressors
Dynamic type compressors are machines in which air or gas is compressed by
the dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and pressure to the
flowing gas. Two general variations, centrifugal and axial compressors, are available.
1.

Centrifugal compressors are machines in which velocity and pressure are given to
the air or gas in a radial direction by one or more impeller-diffuser combinations

2.

Axial compressors are the machines in which velocity and pressure are given to
the air or gas in an axial direction by one or more sets of moving and stationary
rows of blades

1.3.2. Positive Displacement Type Compressors

Positive-displacement types of Compressors are machines in which successive
volumes of air or gas are confined within a closed space. The pressure is increased as
the volume of the closed space is decreased. Four general types, broken down
according to the constructional method used to carry out compression, are available.
1.

Reciprocating compressors are machines in which the compressing element is a

piston following a reciprocating motion in a cylinder.

2.

Rotary sliding-vane compressors are machines in which longitudinal vanes slide

radially in a rotor mounted eccentrically in cylinder

3.

Rotary lobe compressors are machines in which two mating lobed impellers
revolve within a cylinder and are prevented from making a contact with each
other by timing gears mounted outside the cylinder

4.

Rotary liquid-piston compressors are machines in which water or other liquids are
used, usually in a single rotating element, to displace the air or gas handled.
Although each of the positive-displacement types will vary from the other

somewhat, they can be grouped together as single class of machines for the purpose of
comparison with dynamic-type compressors. Figure shows the basic pressure-capacity
constant-speed characteristics of positive displacement, dynamic-type and centrifugal
compressors. The centrifugal compressor is essentially a variable-capacity, constantpressure machine, the axial compressor and the positive-displacement compressors are
essentially constant-capacity, variable-pressure machines.
These basic characteristics, however, represent only part of the problem of
choosing the type of compressor best suited to a specific application. Equally important
is the capacity range that can be built into a single machine. As a general rule, positivedisplacement machines are for small capacities, centrifugals are for medium capacities
and axial machines are for large capacities. As in all other general statements, however,
it must be realized that there is considerable overlap of capacity range between these
different types of compressors.
Although flow limits for centrifugal are dictated somewhat by the specific
conditions involved and design philosophy of different manufacturers, general range of
compressor selection goes as below
Positive displacement machines below 3000 m / hr.
Axial compressors above 30,000 m / hr.
Flow regions between 3000 - 12,000 m / hr. can be considered over-lapping between
positive displacement and centrifugal compressors
Flow regions between 30,000 - 1, 20,000 m / hr. can be considered over-lapping
between centrifugal and axial compressors.
4

105

104

103

Centrifugal
102

101

Axial
Reciprocating

102

103

104

105

106

Inlet Flow (m3/hr)

Fig 1.1: Application Range of Compressors

D
is
c
h
a
r
g
e
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(
P
si
a
b

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Centrifugal Compressor is one of the most critical equipment in process
industry. As these machines are highly power intensive, efforts towards improving their
efficiencies and reliabilities has been the goal of the designer. Considerable
improvement in efficiencies of these machines has been possible by incorporating new
design concepts and state-of-art technologies in the product and the associated systems.
Following are the developments in the centrifugal compressors field
1. Optimal design of impeller geometry adapted for low flow conditions
2. Standard Stage Concept
3. Design of three dimensional impellers
4. Use of dry flexible couplings
5. Use of dry gas seals
6. Use of Low solidity diffuser vanes
Optimal design of impeller geometry adapted for low flow conditions:
Considering the requirement of impellers handling low flows especially for high
pressure compressors a new chapter in manufacturing is thus opened. This has
incidentally helped in extending the range operation of impellers. The basic fact in the
design of impellers is that higher the outlet vane angle higher the head coefficient and
higher flow handling capacity. This means we have to employ low outlet angles for
impeller vanes handling low flows. Generally for vane angles less than 37.5 degrees,
we require long channel passages. It is difficult to manufacture these impellers by any
traditional methods. The efficiency and head realized in this case are definitely low.
External welded impeller manufacturing technology has over come the above
difficulties. In this the design of impeller geometry can be aimed for low flows with
low vane angles without any sacrifice in efficiency. The operating range with these
impellers is more than the impeller employed with a compromise due to manufacturing
constraint. Impellers calling for the design with outlet vane angles in the range of 15-18
degree, result in long channel passages, hence appreciably better guidance for the flow.

Standard Stage Concept: Centrifugal compressors belong to the tailor made

category product. However keeping in view of short delivery requirement cycles for the
product and availability of powerful computer systems led to possibility of
standardization of a no of components. In this effort the main focus is on the basic
element of the compressor i.e. the impeller with diaphragm known as stage. The
standard impellers are based on the inlet capacity coefficient. The inlet capacity
coefficient has been split into different ranges. For each range of capacity coefficient a
family of impeller geometry is developed with different outlet angles yielding different
levels of head coefficient. Acceptable geometry of the impeller is arrived at observing
the basic necessities of relative velocity ratios and minimum disturbance of the flow
angle with respect to the vane angle. Advantage of standard stage concept is the
Engineering cycle time is reduced to a great extent and advanced planning of raw
materials like forgings and casings with minimum allowances for final finishing.
Design of Three Dimensional Impellers: Large plant capacities call for higher
sizes of compressor models and hence increase the project costs. To make the models
more competitive a careful study has been made in evolving three dimensional
impellers with aerodynamic flow channels. Especially where the Mach number is more
than 0.85 e.g. for gases having high molecular weight or when operated at low
temperatures (say -30C) it is necessary to design the flow channel more
aerodynamically. Any mismatch between the vane orientation and the flow direction
results in higher incidence losses and thus affecting the overall efficiency of the
machine, resulting in narrow operating range. By analytical study the flow channel can
be made more smooth which however results in three dimensional shape of impeller
vane profile. A computer program (Compel and Axcent) is used for the design of three
dimensional impellers. This program gives an optimum set of three dimensional coordinates for the impeller vane geometry. Acceptable geometry can be arrived by
observing the velocity distributions in the passage. Efficiency of three dimensional
impellers is high compared to two dimensional impellers. Because of higher efficiency
power consumption will be low for three dimensional impellers. The aspect of higher
polytrophic head combining with higher tip speeds result in less number of impellers
for a given compression ratio. Hence the design of the machine becomes more compact.
With the twisted blade geometry at the inducer portion conventional methods are not
suitable for manufacturing three dimensional impellers. These impellers are
7

manufactured by using five axis NC machining facility. Another method to produce

impellers is by precision casting. Though the cost of these impellers are high, the
difference in the cost between two dimensional impeller and three dimensional impeller
design gets compensated with in a year because low operational cost and compactness
of the machine in case of three dimensional impellers.

2.2. TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Table 2.1: The centrifugal compressors used are of the following types namely:HORIZONTALLY

VERTICALLY

VERTICALLY

SPLIT

SPLIT

SPLIT

MCL

(PROCESS)
BCL

(PIPE LINE)
PCL

2MCL

2BCL

SRL

3MCL

DBCL

DMCL
2.2.1. MCL Compressor
These are multistage compressors with horizontally split casing, for pressure up
to 40kg/cm2 and capacities up to 3, 60,000m3/hr at suction condition. These are mainly
used in

2.2.2.

Ethylene plants

Refrigerating services

Gasification plants for fertilizer industry

Drug and food processing plants

2MCL Compressor
These are multi-stage compressors which group two compression stages in

series in the same machine with inter stage cooling.

2.2.3. 3MCL Compressors

These are multistage compressors which generally in corporate more than these
compression stages in a single casing. As a rule they are used in series where different
gas flows have to be compressed the various pressure levels i.e. by injecting and/or
extracting gas during compression.
2.2.4. DMCL Compressors
2 compressor stages are arranged in parallel in a single casing. The fact both
stages are identical and the delivery nozzle is positioned in the centre of the casing
makes this solution the more balanced possible.

Fig 2.1: MCL Compressor

Fig 2.2: 2MCL Compressor

Fig 2.3: 3MCL Compressor

10

Fig 2.4: 2MCL Compressor with outer casing

2.2.5.

BCL

They are multi stage compressors with vertical split casing for pressure up to
350Kg/cm2 and capacities of 50,000m3/hr at suction conditions. They are mainly used
in:-

Ammonia synthesis plants

Urea synthesis plants

Natural gas compression stations

2.2.6. 2BCL compressor

These are barrel type compressor with two compression stages in series in a
single casing.
2.2.7. DBCL compressor
Like DMCL compressor these compressors incorporate two compression stages
in parallel in a single casing.

11

Fig 2.5: BCL Compressor

FIG 2.6: BCL compressor with outer casing

12

2.2.8. PCL compressors

For compression of very high volumes, casings having double flow arrangement
are used. This reduces the casing size and permits the compressors rotating speed to be
maintained within the speed range of steam turbines. So that turbines can be directs
coupled to the compressor, eliminating gear boxes. This compressor having two suction
and one discharge nozzle.

Fig 2.7 : Vertical split PCL compressor

2.2.9. SRL compressors
The integrally geared and packaged SRL compressors are popularly known as
API 672 compressor. Single and multistage SRL compressors for low and medium
pressures, are mainly used as blowers or boosters in industries, refineries and
petrochemical plants. When large volumes of gases have to be handled at low pressure,
a packed integrally geared design provides compactness and economy.
Main features of SRL compressors:

High compression ratio with limited number of stages.

High poly-tropic efficiency.

Wide operational range.

Compact packaged arrangement.

Low noise.

Capacity-pressure control be adjustable guide vanes.

High rigidity boxed base incorporating the lube oil tank and gearbox.

13

Easy installation, accessibility and maintainance.

2.3. MAJOR COMPONENTS

1. Rotor
2. Casing
3. Diaphragms
4. Seals
5. End covers
6. Capacity control systems
7. Journal bearings
8. Thrust bearings
2.3.1. Rotor
Rotor is the part of the centrifugal compressor, which has been mostly subjected
to technical design developments. The constituent elements of rotor are shaft, impellers,
and spacers, balancing drum, seal brushes, locking rings, and thrust collar.
Assembly of rotor
Debarring of shaft
Construction of provisional keys, mounting them and dynamic balancing the
shaft.
Shrinking of impellers.
Checking concentricity and dynamic balancing after assembly of each impeller

Fig2.8: Rotor with 2-D impellers

14

Fig 2.9 : Cross Section of a BCL Compressor

2.3.2. Casings
Casing for BCL type of compressor are vertically split type.
Casings for MCL type of compressor are horizontally split type.
In horizontally split type of casings usually the bottom half casing has got the
suction and discharge has conduits which are not going to be machined, but have to be
subjected to sand blasting and grinding for smooth gas flow. Casings are generally
made of castings conforming to the following material specifications.

Steel castings
Cast iron

15

Fig 2.10: BCL Outer casing

2.3.3. Diaphragms
Diaphragms are in two halves split along the horizontal centerline. Depending
upon the characteristics of the machine and depending on the pressure and gases to be
handled the raw material its quality is selected. In a machine, diaphragms are
Suction diaphragm
Intermediate diaphragm
Discharge diaphragm
Depending upon the type of construction, diaphragms are:
Cast diaphragms for low-pressure difference.
Milled vanes diaphragms for high pressure.
In a BCL type of compressor, suction and discharge diaphragms are generally cast
ones and the intermediate diaphragms are fabricated ones, whereas in low pressure i.e.
in MCL type of compressors, all the diaphragms are cast types.

16

Fig 2.11: BCL Diaphragm

2.3.4. Seals
Seals are provided in the clearance between the moving and stationary parts of
the compressor. It helps in avoiding the wear of the rotating part. It also stops the
leakage of the gas.
Types of Seals
Labyrinth seals
Gas seals
Oil seals
Labyrinth and gas seals are in two halves whereas the oil seals are in the form of
full rings and are of floating types. Manufacturing features of labyrinth and gas seals
consist in finish machining the parting plane of two halves individually and finish
machining by holding the two halves together using special clamping fixtures.

17

2.3.5. End Covers

BCL type compressors have end covers with integral bearing housing.

CASINGS
END COVERS
DIAPHRAGMS

MCL TYPE
Horizontally split
No
Generally cast type

BCL TYPE
Vertically split
Yes
Cast and fabricated type

2.3.6 Capacity Control System

The following methods are available for maintaining the capacity, the suction
and discharge pressure content under varying process conditions:
Variation of compressor speed
Discharge throttling
Suction throttling
Adjustable inlet guide vanes (IV)
In multistage machine, IGV can only be fitted before the first stage and are
controlled manually or through a servomotor.
2.3.7. Bearings
Force-fed plain type bearings are used throughout. They are externally mounted
and can therefore be inspected without releasing the pressure inside the compressor.
Depending on the elastic behavior of the rotor, elliptical or tilting pad type main
bearings are used; they are highly effective in dampening vibrations.
The thrust bearing is of the tilting pad type, to ensure equal thrust distribution
and has collar to minimize the frictional losses due to oil entrainment.

18

Fig 2.12: Journal bearing

2.4. ASSEMBLY OF THE COMPRESSOR

Assembly of rotor
Preparation of top and bottom pack of diaphragms, each concentrically
assembled.
Pinning the upper pack of the diaphragm to the lower pack, to ensure the correct
relative position of each to one another.
Dismantle the upper half diaphragm from lower and position them on a
concentrically inspection fixture.
Assemble the seals at individual diaphragm with suitable adjustments.
Mount the rotor on concentricity inspection fixture.
Determine the correct position of rotor axially, at which the passage of all
impellers and diaphragms will be ideally located with respect to one another.
Mount the one-ring seals and oil seals at the respective position on the rotor.
Assemble the upper half of the diaphragm over the lower, with rotor inside.
Gradually guide the entire diaphragm pack with rotor into the casing using
assembly fixture
Assemble the journal bearing
Assemble the thrust bearing.

19

2.5. IMPELLERS
Impeller is the vital rotary part in the functioning of the compressor. The fluid
(gas or air) enters the impeller axially at the eye of the impeller and then flows radially
out of the impeller. The gas goes through the diffuser to the return channel and further
goes into the next impeller. It is one of the most stressed components of the compressor,
demanding highly precise manufacturing methods. Each impeller is dynamically
balanced and subjected to over speed test. They are mounted, shrink fitted and keyed
on the shaft, which is coupled to an external source (generally electric motor). This
source imparts the required energy and makes it to rotate.
In an impeller, the energy transferred is in the form of kinetic energy, which is
then converted into pressure energy in the diffuser.

The pressure ratio of any

compressor depends mainly on the impeller diameter, rotational speed and volume flow.
2.5.1 Types of Impellers
There are three types of impellers:
Open type: These are used for high heads and for small to large flow, in single
compressors only. In this type of impeller, the flow of gas is least controlled.
Semi-enclosed type: These are used for large flow usually in single stage
compressors or first stage in multi stage compressors.
Closed type: These are made of special forged steels and these are used mainly
in multistage compressor. It consists of a disc and counter disc. The grooves
are milled on the disc and vanes on counter disc.
The vanes are radial or backward curved depending on the head required. The
disc and counter disc are clamped and welded together along the vanes. The impellers
are the most stressed components; in fact there is a tendency to exploit them to a
maximum so as to reduce the number of stages.

20

2.5.2 Material of Impellers

They are made of low alloy steel which give high mechanical characteristics but
with low carbon content to ensure satisfactory welding. This material has (also good for
low temperature) having 2% chrome 1% molybdenum and 0.13 to 0.17% carbon.
Given that the weld and surround zone are the same, a phenomenon of
intergranular corrosion would appear to occur with higher carbon content. It is for this
reason that there is a need to limit the carbon content. The intergranular corrosion
weakens the metallurgical bond between grains, which leads to the mechanical
degeneration of the material. The presence of carbon in the steel greater than that
soluble in the austenitic matrix determines the potential sensitivity of the material to
intergranular corrosion.
This is prominent because carbon is principally responsible for the precipitation
of the carbides and impoverishment in chromium renders the material sensitive to
corrosion.
When the impellers are to be used in corrosive fluids, steel with higher
chromium content is used such as X12Cr13 (13% of Cr), in particular corrosive
conditions requiring very high strength, steels with still high percentage of chromium as
high as 15 - 19% may be required. Where high degree of corrosion and higher stresses
are present, recourse can be made to steel of 17-4 PH grade, with 17% of Chromium,
and 4% of Nickel (precipitation hardened at lower temperature). The steel with 9% Ni
(N9 COGNE) is used for impellers required to operate at very low temperatures up to
-196 C.

21

Fig 2.13 2-D Impeller

22

Fig 2.14 3-D Impeller

Fig 2.15. 5 Axis CNC Machine

23

2.6. PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF A CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR
The centrifugal compressor impeller imparts pressure energy and delivers a
quantity of fluid depending on its size blade geometry and thermodynamic
characteristics of the gas.
In general, the fluid is directed to the inlet flange of compressor with a
velocity of about 30m/s, after an initial expansion (to about 60m/s), enters the eye of
the first impeller.
Let the initial conditions of gas at the nozzle inlet are indicated by V 0, P0 and
T0 Volume, pressure and temperatures respectively.
The following equation gives the reduction in enthalpy
H

C12 C 02
h
andT
2 g 427
Cp

C1 = Velocity at inlet eye of 1st impeller

C0 = Velocity at suction flange
g = 9.81 m/s2

At this point the fluid enters the first impeller, which transfers a certain
quantity of energy to it, bringing it to the final condition V1, P1, and T1 Volume,
pressure, and temperature at inlet.
According to the Eulers theory, the energy given to a unit weight of fluid
passing through the channel between the two vanes of the impeller is equal to the
change of its momentum.
hu

1
u 2 C 2 cos 2 u1C1Cos 1
g

24

DIFFUSER
RETURN CHANNEL
LSD VANE

IMPELLER

ON IMPELLER SEAL
INTER STAGE SEAL

FIG 2.16: STANDARD COMPRESSOR STAGE

Velocity Triangles in Impeller

25

The three velocity vectors C1, U1, W1 forms the inlet triangle.
Since in general 1= 90 (radial inlet) the expression becomes:
hu

1
C 2 u 2 Cos 2
g

For convenience the coefficient of head may be defined:

2

c 2 Cos 2
u2

c2 u
u2

Therefore
hu

1
2 u 22 Where u 2
g

nd e
60

The polytrophic head takes account of the thermodynamic properties of the

gas. It can be seen that the thermodynamic characteristics of the gas gets changed at
the outlet as a function of the inlet conditions:
From the head equation it is observed that with constant volumetric capacity
and speed, the polytrophic head increases with molecular weight. For given head,
increase in molecular weight reduces the constant R and hence increases the
pressure ratio. It follows from the equation that denser gases are easier to compress.
If instead, when the suction temperature is increased the pressure ratio is
reduced, in order to maintain the head. Conversely, for a given fluid, with the same
volumetric capacity and the same speed (RPM), the pressure ratio increases with
reduction in the suction temperature and vice versa.
On the contrary, change in suction pressure does not affect the pressure ratio
as the product Po *Vo = R * To remains constant. The variation in the average
compressibility of gas (Zm) influences the compression ratio more in particular, as
an increase of Zm corresponds to a decrease of pressure ratio and vice versa.
Dimensionless Coefficients
a) Head coefficient( ):
It is defined as the ratio between tangential compressors of C2u and u2 hence,
26

 = C2u / u2
According to Eulerian equation,
Heff = u2/g
b) Flow coefficient at the impeller outlet (2)
Depends on 2 value and on flow rate Q1 explicit, it is expedient to introduce
the ratio between C2r and u2.
2 = C2r / u2 = Q1/b2D2u2
This second parameter is called flow coefficient at the impeller outlet.
Two are particularly important for sizing and characterizing the impeller.
The two dimensionless coefficients and 2 allow to completely identifying the
velocity triangle at outlet both is dimensionless form and dimensional form, u 2 being
known.
and 2 are not independent to each other.
C2u=u2- C2r /tg2
=1- 2 /tg2 = 1- 2 cot g2
Thus depends on 2 by angle 2.

2.7. STAGE DESIGN CRITERIA

The purpose of this calculation is:
-Verify that the machine is able to give the required head at the envisaged speed (to
define the impeller diameters, vane outlet angle and rotating speed).
-Calculate the outlet impeller width as a function of specific volumes
-Verify the absorbed power.
-Calculate the adiabatic and polytrophic efficiencies.
Evaluation of velocities at nozzle C0 and at 1st impeller eye C1
Calculation of the enthalpy reduction corresponding to the kinetic energy increment:
27

h = (C12- C02)/(2g*427) (cal/kg)

The temperature reduction then is: T= h/CP (C)
The actual temperature in the first impeller section is T1- T
The following expression gives the pressure decrement:
dh= vdp
Valid for isentropic transformations and in finite differential equation form:
h=vm* p
Considering an average specific volume vm (m3/kg) between the known conditions at
nozzle v0 and the conditions still unknown v1 at impeller section.
The vm value is established by sequence approximations, starting from vm =v0.
Then the initial expansion efficiency is introduced. This factor takes into account
that the pressure decreases more than the kinetic energy increment due to losses.
Normal value for this is:
= 0.94
The pressure loss is:
p = (427* h)/ (* vm) (kg/cm2)
And the new pressure:
p1=p0- p (kg/cm2)
We have the corresponding:
v1=(ZmR T1)/p1
Zm mean compressibility at initial/final expansion condition.
We can assume
vm=(v0+v1)/2
Possibly a second approximation can be performed taking as starting point

v m=

vm and proceed as above.

We now have p1, T1,v1 values at the impeller eye and we can start the stage by stage
calculation.
w relative velocity
u impeller tip speed
C absolute velocity
actual angle
28

The wheel energy is:

1

hu =
C 2 u 2 Cos 2
g

the angle 1= 90 (radial inlet)

Now define for head coefficient:
2=C2u/u2
Flow coefficient or capacity coefficient is defined as
2= C2r/u2
The relation between head and flow coefficient is given by
2theoritical=1- 2 cot 2
In reality due to slippage
2< 2theoritical
The slip factor:
Usually:
Then

= 2/ 2theoritical
=0.86

2=0.86(1- 2 cot 2)

The choice of flow coefficient is made in relation to the 2

(e.g. 2=90 then 2=.4 to .38)
Defining the head and flow coefficients and knowing the inlet velocity we can
calculate the inlet kinetic energy
h1= C12/2g
And the outlet K.E.
h2= C22/2g
Then the available energy of the impeller is total energy absorbed less the kinetic
energy
h= hu-( h2- h1)
Taking the impeller efficiency i
h= i hu-( h2- h1)
The impeller efficiency is a function of width/external diameter
Assuming a value for impeller efficiency as a starting point we can calculate T2,p2,v2
and the theoretic outlet width
B2t=(G r2)/(d2 2 u2)

29

G= weight flow kg/s

Then the actual width B2 = B2t /fc
Where fc is the correction factor taking the vane thickness
fc is fuction of n,d2, 2
Where n is the number of vanes and the number of vanes is chosen according to the
outlet angle.The thickness is function of the outer diameter.
At the end of last stage final recovery is calculated taking the efficiency 0.35.
As the final conditions are obtained pf,Tf,vf we calculate
= pf/p0
te=Tf-T0
tA=T0((k-1/k)-1)
Head effective

Heff =hu

Adiabatic head

Ha=Z0RT0(k/k-1) ((k-1/k)-1)

The we can calculate adiabatic efficiency in two different ways

A = tA/ te

A= Ha/ Heff

The power for compression

P=(G*Heff)/102

(kw)

The mechanical losses and the thrust bearing losses must be added.
Finally politropic efficiency is calculated
p =(k-1/k)/(n-1/n)
A = ((k-1/k)-1)/ ((n-1/n)-1)

30

2.8. APPLICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Industry
Gas turbine
Iron and steel

Application
Power
Drive
Blast furnace
Bessemer converter
Cupola
Coke oven

Mining and
metallurgy

Power
Furnace

Natural gas

Production
Distribution
Processing

Service or process

Typical gas
handled

Compression
Compression
Combustion
off gas
Oxidation
Combustion
Compression

Air
Air
Air
blast furnace gas
Air
Air
Coke oven gas

For tools and

machinery
Copper and nickel
purification
Pelletizing (iron ore
concentration)
Re-pressuring oil wells
Transmission
Natural gasoline
separation
Separation
refrigeration

Air
Air
Air
Natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas

Refrigeration

Chemical

Various processes
Air conditioning

Utilities

Industrial and
commercial
Steam generators

Propane and
methane
Butane, Propane,
Ethylene, ammonia,
special refrigerants
Special refrigerants

Soot blowing
Combustion
Cyclone furnace
Manufacturing
Distribution

Air
Air
Air
Fuel gas
Fuel gas
Air
Air

Paper making

Agitation
Power for tools and
machines
fourdrinier vacuum

Material handling
Gas engines

Conveying
Supercharging

Air

City gas
Miscellaneous

Sewage treatment
Industrial power

Air and water vapour

31

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR TESTING

Every centrifugal compressor after assembly is subjected to several stringent
tests to assess the mechanical performance. Thermodynamic performance test is also
conducted whenever specified.
BHEL is manufacturing centrifugal compressor with technique from Nuovo
pignone, Italy. So far more than 260 compressors had been successfully
manufactured, tested and supplied to cater for various applications for several
petrochemical, fertilizer and refinery plants.
As compressors are critical equipment a high quality of testing is required.
This is ensured by quality testing methods and practices and modern state of are test
facilities. BHEL is equipped with test facilities for carrying out the following tests
for compressors and turbines as per international standards API 617, API 612, PTC
10 and custom specification.
1. No load Mechanical run test.
2. Rotor Insensitivity test.
3. String Mechanical run test.
4. Completed unit test.
5. Thermodynamics performance test.
6. Static Seal/Gas leak test.
7. Full load, Full Speed, Full pressure test.

3.1. No load Mechanical Run Test

No load mechanical run test is carried out to verify the overall conditions of
the unit assembly and helps in maintaining a high quality of the product. They
generally reveal the manufacturing defects, if any and demonstrate the mechanical
performance of the machine.
The following are verified during Mechanical run test

Rotor balance
32

Bearing alignment, clearances and adequacy of lubrication.

Clearance at interstage labyrinth seals and liquid film shaft seals.

Freedom from internal rubs.

Absence of oil leakage and restriction in the lube and seal oil
channels in the compressor casing.

Trouble free and smooth running of the unit, at maximum continuous

speed for a period of 4 hours.

Avoidance of abnormal conditions at over speed or trip speed (110%

of MCS)

Location of first critical speed of the machine, in respect of flexible

shaft units.

Shaft relative vibrations and casing absolute vibrations.

Run outs on the shaft at low speeds.

Noise level.

Rotor response to unbalance.

MRT testing procedure

The compressor can be directly driven by a variable speed steam turbine, or
alternatively by a driven arrangement consisting of an electric motor, hydraulic
coupling and gear box. By varying the oil let into the hydraulic coupling, it is
possible to vary the speed of the secondary shaft from about 500 to 1000 to 3000
rpm. Further speed increase is obtained form the step-up gearbox, which in turn is
connected to the compressor through a flexible coupling.
The compressor is tested under vacuum with the help of high capacity
vacuum pumps. This will reduce the friction and windage losses and hence the
33

power consumption and temperature rise during the test run. The compressor
discharge hood temperature will shoot up, if discharge pipe of the compressor is
connected to atmosphere instead of the vacuum line.
During the test rum, the bearings are supplied with oil form a centralized
lube oil console. Which will pump oil at the required pressure and temperature. The
system consists of twin coolers, high-grade duplex filters and control valves.
The compressor is started from stand still and the speed is increased in 10%
increments till the maximum continuous speed is reached. The compressor is kept at
this speed for 4 hours. After this period, the compressor is made to over speed at
110% of maximum continuous speed for 15 minutes. During the deceleration, the
first critical speed is located and vibrations due to shaft run-outs are recorded.

3.2. Rotor insensitivity test

This test is used to ensure the sensitivity and capability of the rotor to bear
the heavy load at high speed and other field conditions.

3.3. String mechanical test

In this test compressor is driven by its own job driver. The whole job is held
on the frame and all the pipes and instruments are assembled to the job. Then the
compressor is run at maximum continuous speed for 4 hours. After the duration,
while running the compressor all the control devices and instruments are checked for
proper operation and also they check the reliability of the frame.

3.4. Complete unit test

In this type of test, the actual job turbine or motor is used for the test.
Generally, all the active components, such as couplings, base plate, oil piping are
used during the test.

3.5. Thermodynamic performance test

34

This is carried out to predict the thermodynamic performance of the machine

with a specified gas of known properties and under specified conditions.
A compressor can be tested with a suitable test gas, whose physical and
thermodynamic properties are well known and the results are converted into
expected performance of the compressor for its design specified gas under its design
operating conditions.
This test is conducted in two classes. Class I test is conducted on specified
gas at specific operating conditions. Class II test is conducted on the gas which
cannot be used in the compressor for specified conditions. In class II tests, the test
results are to be converted to performance data expected on the specified gas undr
specified conditions, using the perfect gas laws.
Thermodynamic test Procedure
The prescribed test gas is admitted at low parameters and purged for 3 times.
After the gas analysis is satisfactory, the compressor is started at low running after
obtaining their test parameters, such as inlet pressure, temperature, gas flow, speed,
discharge pressure, discharge temperature etc. are recorded.
From the recorded values, the computations of results are made. During the
test run, every effort is made to locate the incipient surge. The performance
characteristics such as pressure vs flow, power vs flow, polytropic vs flow etc are
plotted.

3.6. Static seals/Gas leak test

After completing the mechanical run test, liquid film shaft end seals are
assembled in position. The compressor is pressurized to the operating pressure by an
inert gas such as nitrogen. A differential pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2 is maintained
between the seal oil inlet and the gas from inside. Since the seal oil is at higher
pressure. It will prevent the gas from leakage from the compressor. The shaft is
turned slowly and leakage seal oil across the HP seals is measured. With this, ir is
possible to judge the fitness of the seals.

35

Gas leak test is conducted after assembling of end seals to the casing. Then
compressor casing is pressurized for 30minutes upto rated discharge pressure is
obtained. After acquiring the rated discharge pressure total casing and all casing
joints are checked for leakages with soap solution/leak detector.

3.7. Full speed, Full pressure and Full load test

This test is conducted is used to known the capability, mechanical
performance of the compressor at full load, full speed and full pressure condition.
Many times full load tests are prescribed for certain critical applications like
hydrogen recycle compressors for Hydro-cracker where the compressors are
required to be run by creating operating conditions close to the site. This is achieved
by using a mixture of helium and nitrogen.

36

CONCLUSION
Hence the study of centrifugal compressor is performed in B.H.E.L. with the
help of the guide allocated to us. In this process we had studied the way the design is
selected according to the need of the customers. After the selection of the design all
the parts of centrifugal compressor such as impellers, diaphragm, rotor, oil seals,
casing and many other parts are prepared. Each parts is further classified in many
types each having its specification. The next step is the assembly of all the parts
according to the layout. During assembly some minor tests are carried out such as
hydraulic test and balancing test and after assembly of the centrifugal compressors
all the major tests such as no load test, full load test, seal test and many more are
being carried out .these test are carried out so that there is no malfunctioning of the
components during the delivery of the compressors. During the production of the
centrifugal compressor the main aim of the industry is the better quality and service
with a better efficiency.

37

REFERENCES
1.

R.K.Rajput, Thermal Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.

2.

R.Yadav, Steam and Gas turbines, Central Publishing House Ltd., Allahabad.

3.

Meherwan P.Boyce, Centrifugal Compressors, Pennwell corporation, Tulsa,

Oklahoma.

4.

Mischina, H. and Gyobu, I. Performance Investigations of Large Capacity

Centrifugal Compressors. Paper No. 78-Gt-3, ASME New York.

5.

Balje, O.E. Turbo machines-A Guide to Design, Selection and Theory, Wiley
& Sons, New York.

6.

Studies on centrifugal compressor stage BHEL corporate R& D Report number

RD509302, April 1993.

7.

Nuovo Pignone. Standard Impeller Geometry & Performance graphs.

38