Integrate Community Development Program (ICD)

By Sreng Sopheap, MSc. Student; Gender and Development

November 2008

During the semester of the class and preparation for the assessment, I have become so
much interested in rural livelihoods in the context of integrated development and its implication to
both man and woman. This has encouraged me to select the Integrated Community
Development (ICD) being implemented by Development and Partnership in Action, Cambodia
(DPA) for the final assessment as hoping to enhance my knowledge of gender and development
in the context of Cambodian socio-economical development.
1- Summarize of the program: (Please see annex for details)
The ICD in Stung Treng province was started in 2006 after DPA Expatriate Volunteer
studied and examined village situation of the targeted areas found that villagers had frequently
faced various problems but somehow inter-related issues. Some of the majors outlined were
community forestry logging, illegal fishing, insufficient food due to lack of skills and access to
resources, limited access to health care and education program for children. In order to cope with
above different problems, some objectives were developed to facilitate and empower villagers
(development actors) and local authority in finding proper solutions towards the proposed
components. Therefore, the ICD aims are to improve the quality of life of six indigenous village‟s
beneficiaries in Kamphun, Phluk, Kbal Romeas and Sre Kor communes, Sesan District, Steung
Trend Province: Below is the short summary of ICD objectives:

1. To build the capacity of development actors to plan and coordinate their own village
development activities in a way that is participatory, gender and culturally sensitive.
2. To support communities to manage and protect natural resources through Natural
Resource Management (NRM) planning, networking, building awareness of the relevant
national laws and establishing agreements with government authorities.
3. To support communities to improve agricultural production and village livelihoods through
introduction and trial of appropriate training, farmer-to-farmer exchanges, and
cooperative marketing.
4. To improve the health and sanitation practices of all households, especially indigenous
households, by providing clean water and community-based health education with also
focus on malaria prevention and awareness.
5. To improve educational opportunities and the ability of children and adults, especially
women and girls to read and write Khmer language, numeracy and other knowledge
related to their daily life.
6. To support the indigenous communities to preserve and document traditions and cultural
practices. (Source #1-#6: ICD, DPA Cambodia)

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 The project procedure of implementation is rooted in a very participatory based of what
the ICD has emphasized is a “rights-based approach and community organizing” (DPA, 2008).
The right based approach will then raise community's understanding, participation, capacity
building and awareness of their basic rights and how to use them properly to improve their quality
of life and situation (ibid). The community-organizing approach will then continue to strengthen
the community by forming people's organizations and handing over the management of project
activities to them and encourage self management. In addition, increasing emphasis has been
placed also on empowering “project committees and village volunteers to manage their own
development activities” (ibid). By applying these approaches can ensure there will be a greater
sustainable after the project ended.
The ICD program in Steung Treng province has also its specific expected output or
results that need to achieve by the end of 2008 as listed below:

Village development actors (VDAs) and target beneficiaries in ICD program will have
achieved active participation in local governance and a collaborative relationship with
commune councils.
VDAs and beneficiaries in ICD program will have the integration of gender equity into all
projects, and will have promoted women‟s involvement in social and development work.
VDAs and target beneficiaries in ICD program will have achieved self-management of
project activities and form people‟s organization/associations.
VDAs and target beneficiaries in ICD program will have implemented initiatives in areas
of food security, education, health, and natural resource management.
Working in collaboration with the Development Education and Advocacy Unit, the ICD will
have supported VDAs and target beneficiaries in ICD program to develop their capacity
to educate and advocate on issues raised by villagers.
The ICD will have established a project in which VDAs and target beneficiaries in two
communes in Steung Treng will develop their capacity to better manage their natural
resources, preserve culture and improve food security. (Adapted from 2006-2008 strategic
expected output or objectives)

2- Critical Assessment:
Based on the documents available from the website and the midterm review of the DPA, I
think the ICD program has both helped transform gender inequality and at the same time
reproduced gender inequality. In this paper, I first focus on the positive side (transform gender
inequality) by addressing several points that the programs have been implemented based on
some evaluated results available. Then I continue to discuss/criticize some of the inappropriate
unintended/gender blinded actions that may lead to reproduce gender inequality and contribute
to even a bigger burden to the women who are already shouldering disproportionally tasks. By
evaluating both positive and negative of the project in regarding to gender analysis, I will present
some of the recommendations that hope to be useful as tools in implementation of programs so

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that it is a gender friendly/gender awareness to address both man and woman equally. To begin
with, I would like to analyze how the ICD helped transform gender inequality.
According to the program description, one of objective of the program is capacity building
for village development actors by providing proper trainings to the communities in participating
with commune councils (CCs) in commune development plan that will allow both men and
women actively integrate their grassroots plan into commune councils plan. Prior the integration
of the grassroots plan in to CCs plan, the villagers are encouraged to have the opportunity to
prioritize their needs in five sectors ranging from natural resources, social, economic, gender and
administration (Ministry of Interior, 2008). These participatory planning processes where women
are involved and empowered to express and to rank among women‟s needs and desired
outcomes which later to be compiled into village planning as to be submitted into the commune
councils. Therefore, by assisting men and women together, to actively engage in the planning
processes will also help ensure those women‟s voices are heard; their concerns are recorded
and responded accordingly, plus also promoting more visible of women representation in the
community levels.
Second, as program also details to supporting community natural resources
management which is considered very important to help both men and women to improve their
knowledge, skills and understanding of their development activities in regarding to resources
management. Training such on Community Forestry and Community Fishery (DPA, 2008,
midterm review) are strongly needed by those communitiesi whose livelihoods are mainly
depending on natural resources such as land, forest and rivers are used for daily consumption
and as their main livelihoods survival strategies and as their assets. In developing awareness of
natural resources and exploring opportunities for both men and women will help them especially
to additionally diversify their livelihoods outcome from on-farm, off-farms and non-farm activities.
For example in the Ellis framework for livelihood strategies, the livelihoods strategies can be
derived or accessed by various social relations, institutions as well as organization depends on
the livelihoods strategies which both men and women have taken, facilitated by ICD program and
people‟s organization, then can possibly lead both livelihoods security and environmental
sustainability (Ellis, 2001). This also reflected that the program has looked into the basis of what
people have within the communities, as their main source of livelihoods from natural resources,
so providing people with more opportunities to really aware and exploit their sustainable
resources effectively really would improve the long term of their living condition.
As the population is mainly inhabited by the Se San River and surrounded by dense
forest, legal and other awareness programs by the government seem not able to reach, but such
basic legal principles that ICD initiate regarding people‟s rights over natural resources are also to
ensure that women will be able to utilize their rights to access and control their assets. This
probably also can lead to the better sustainable livelihoods and natural resources as when
people know better that they have the rights to non timber forest products (NTFP) or resources
from rivers, people may produce and maintain it more (Elliot, 2006a). The country like Cambodia
where women constitute the majority in the country and mainly are rural women face an ongoing

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threat of economic hardship, lack of awareness of their rights and understanding of legislations
and land registration processes (JICA, 2007). In addition, the control rights and access to natural
resources can be differently from men and women especially among the rural where local or
customary law might be imposed among indigenous. Sometime even given preference to certain
other groups of people from nearby villages or men as they are the one who occupied the land
first by their ability to clear and take the land, initiated their mobilizing of shifting farms; national
laws can then be used as an instrument for assisting women to demand their equal control rights
over resources as stated by Cambodian Land Law that grants communal land ownership rights
to indigenous communities where women and men do not own individual rights to land but as
communal rights (Cambodian Land Law, 1992). This offers a unique chance for indigenous
peoples, especially women to also exercise their rights to over their natural resource capital
(NGO Forum on Cambodia, 2006) and since “women some time also will be more benefited from
establishing communal rights on a group basis” (Von Benda-Beckmann, 1996.p12).
Third, the ICD program to improve agricultural production and village livelihoods through
training and farmer-to-farmer exchanges help reduce women vulnerability on her daily farming
strategies. The training and the techniques learned demonstration in combination with the use of
compost fertilizer enhance their rice yields and contributed to two to three months of improved
food sufficiency for each household (DPA, 2008, midterm review). Having more food to eat over
the year means also providing kind of social security, more time for women to participate in their
community and small business activities which can allow her to be empowered and gain some
economic independent as well as perhaps social status in the community. Moreover, the
changing in her identity as would have been viewed by the society that now women are not just
the main reproductive performers/workers but also having other skills to enhance her capacity,
diversify her income and improve her economic independent, especially for those women who
are widows or women headed household.
Besides, farmer-to-farmer exchanges may also help women to be more visible in the
community, especially women headed household, who are weak in financial and labor capital to
be able to seek and exchange their social capital from other women in rice transplanting, rice
techniques improvement strategies and other forms of reciprocal which these may allow women
to be self independent or to have access to their food security over the year. More than that, this
farmer-to-famer strategy also offers another opportunity for many other women to expose to
different knowledge sharing, information sharing and this enhancing their capacity in the
household works and also the community work level.
Fourth is another helpful element which contributes to shift or transform gender inequality
that ICD has incorporated health services, sanitation practices and providing clean water and
community-based health education with a strong focus also on malaria awareness and
prevention. One of the major concerns is also reproductive health, where sexuality among
women usually are not open to discussion nor taught in Cambodian society and with limited
to/and of female reproductive workers/doctors means that women‟s health issues related to their
reproductive health matters may not be treated or not available (Gorman et al., 1999). By making

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health, sanitation and water services available for women and through community workers will
really help reduce women‟s burden on their time to travel to clinics and fetching water as well as
cut off expenses which may be useful for some other household consumptions. Such time
poverty and human capital for poor rural are so important and women having more time to meet
their basic daily needs has an implication for poor household that may result in having more time
for other income earners and reduce their level of vulnerability (Moser, 1998). As we have been
discussing in the class so far that women daily works (reproductive works) such as collecting
water, fetching firewood, cooking, taking care of kids, the elderly and the sick are generally not
counted, not recorded, less or devalued, but these tasks have taken and occupied so much
tremendous effort of women‟s work. As result, the ICD component to include this fourth element
is quite straight contribution to gender equality where women‟s time spending on health and
travelling is reduced, her health may be checked/treated that lead to an increase in her human
asset capacity and livelihoods.
Fifth and also the last the commitment and main focus of the program on improving
educational opportunities that would enable women to read and write Khmer language,
numeracy and other knowledge related to their daily life is a fundamental key human asset for all
people. Reading and writing basic Khmer as well as in numeracy are extremely crucial for rural
people, especially people who do not speak Khmer language and women are normally left
behind, not encouraged for the education and generally to be a socially constructed and
assigned to work on reproductive tasks mainly housework where she even cannot afford to travel
to nearby town. In similarly, with the main aim to reach children, girl and women in their basic
education are one of the key factors in development and bridging the gap between man and
woman‟s ability to participate in a broader public and economic sphere and many other
development initiatives. More than that, ICD program component of literacy and numeracy would
help enable women to access to more different information which can improve the quality of her
life, such as on contraception, daily nutrition, sanitation and increases access to employment,
economic opportunities and help her to make her own decision. According to the midterm review,
it has shown that such training and capacity building has increased understanding women issues
within both family and community which resulted also in a reduction of domestic violence (DPA,
2008, midterm review). In short overall, integrated program such ICD that intents to bring
development activities such as basic education/literacy, training, access to health support,
livelihood diversifications and prevent communicable diseases may also result in improving
women‟s health, reducing child mortality, increasing women‟s livelihoods, participation and
contributing to poverty eradications (Pearson,2005) as well as response to the 3rd Millennium
Development Goals that “promote gender equality and empower women” (UNDP, 2000).
Even though the ICD has reached quite level to help transform gender inequality such as
offering more opportunities to women in term of accessing to education, livelihoods, health,
natural resource and social capital and agriculture improvement techniques, yet it has at the
same time also reproduced gender inequality. How this possible while the ICD has already
transformed gender inequality? Yes it is possible. The ICD at has failed to raise awareness to

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men of their domination over women and women‟s works burden are increasing with not much
share from men. Furthermore, the ICD also strongly reinforce and maintain the local culture,
while I have no problem with the culture but as social norm is a part of culture where women are
viewed as low, inferior, unequal and assigned to solely reproductive work which are not
recognized and that is where gender inequality continue to exist.
First, even though the program has an explicit gender component intended to reach
women to involve in community development, however, it seems that the program targeted
women on high level capacity such as in commune development planning actors that require
more knowledge of education, and this ignores the grassroots women who are also the majority
of the population who do not know how to read and write, who are poor and with limited access
to information. Not only grassroots women are left out, but also men in the villages are not made
aware of women‟s issues/burden in their households, villages and at the commune levels.
Furthermore, the strategy of ICD to provide training on chicken, pig raising and low land rice
production to women (DPA, 2008, midterm review) of so-called women‟s needs as what Sumi
Krishna (2004) pointed out that “such particularly for women‟s roles reinforce women‟s familial
nurturing role”(Krishna, 2004). And the nurturing role has been throughout the history is women‟s
role as reproductive role is unpaid and unrecognized. Another related issue to raise is that the
ICD, by its program, failing to reach men and make them understand women‟s difficulties in
various roles, and that gender equality would never be achieved as “gender is socially
constructed of represented role of women and men” (Resurreccion, lecture note, 2008a) and the
titled/labeled of being man and woman assigned by the society means different thing for many
people from society to society with different needs and often have different access to/control over
resources. These differences usually put women in a lower position of power relationship to men
and therefore men should have been made aware of what women‟s role and share burden of
their works in all dimensions. If the program really wants also women to participate in the natural
resources management program as women is not the only one who is specialized in forest nor
women alone is not totally tied to the forest or only women alone should be solely responsibilities
for household tasks as well as triple or fourth burden on her daily living, but men must be made
conscious about such these roles that women have been carrying all days. However, integrating
men to accept and acknowledge women‟s role alone is not yet sufficient, it requires a deeper
understanding of different needs and different prioritizations of men and women which are major
constrains to women in development activities as what Helen Derbyshire (2002), an independent
Gender and Social Development Consultant at DFID argues that;
“gender equality does not simply or necessarily mean equal numbers of men and
women or boys and girls in all activities, nor does it necessarily mean treating men
and women or boys and girls exactly the same… it means that recognizing that men
and women often have different needs and priorities, face different constraints, have
different aspirations and contribute to development in different ways” (pp.6).
And what‟s important is that these different challenges might had been the results of the power
relation that man has dominated over woman and by not addressing the relations between these

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power constructed, women are still not able to enjoy fairly in the development as well as
household activities.
Second, I acknowledge that the ICD has also tried to involve and mainstream women in
their activities but this mainstreaming strategy has not in return reduced women‟s workload, in
contrast increased their multiple roles. For example getting women to involve in village
development plans as it is required that women must join; this ignores their many roles and when
women returned from long heavy work in the field and enticed to participate in the meeting at
where kids need attention, care and other household roles remain untouched. Furthermore, the
concept of ensuring women‟s voice are heard and integrated into the plans seems very good but
lacking understanding of women‟s capacity and diverse roles even put her into a more additional
task and struggling for survival. Survival is almost impossible to separate from division of labor
where certain tasks assigned to her because she is a female and some other tasks assigned to
men as he is a man without working to alleviate women‟s tasks and power hierarchies.
Another point which has also been encouraged into the ICD activities is the “gender
promoter” within each village (DPA, 2008, midterm review). Gender promoter composed of 2
women (no man) in every village is essential in bringing gender awareness to villagers in the
community and also raise women image in the society. However, gender promoter in gender
awareness is rather itself a bias since the ICD has only incorporated women in this component.
How can gender be a gender sensitive while there has only women in gender promoters? Why
not man also be a gender promoter? Incorporated both with men and women into the gender
promoter will help ensure that both aware of the gender differences and this enhances both men
and women understanding their identities, power and gender relations as White‟s also pointed
out that “if gender analysis is about relationships between man and women and women‟s
identities are to be changed, then men‟s must be changed also” (White, 1994). For example, it
maybe be very difficult to send a woman as gender promoter to argue with crowded men to
understand about domestic violence as power domination over women body or demonstrating
how gender division of labor between men and women and makes men to accept as well as
share the work. Here I am not arguing that women cannot do that, but what I am concerned is
where gender equality is never be brought when lacking to bring together both man and woman
into the program and allowing sufficient times for men to be aware of their position of domination
over women (Resurreccion, lecture note, 2008b).
Third is the reinforcement/maintenance and reproducing the culture which is good since
sustainable development should not harm the current lives nor leaves bad side effects for the
future or the development should be sustained, as what the Brundtland Report also known Our
Common Future (1987) define sustainable development as “development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need”,
(Brundtland Repot, p43; cited in Elliot, 2006b.p8). But what matter is that culture is not static, it
evolves from times to times and is continually being renewed and reshaped (CIDA, 2000). Plus
as what has been argued by CIDA, “gender identities and gender relations are critical aspects of
culture because they shape the way daily life is lived in the family, but also in the wider

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community and the workplace” (ibid). An example of Cambodian culture and traditions practiced
that do not prefer women to move out of the household has limited or constrained women‟s
mobility. But this has changed. With the introduction of technology, urbanization and
globalization, majority of women now move on to work in the city such as in garment factories
where she remits monthly of her income to her family or going to abroad obtaining higher
education. And this changes in culture has helped and enhanced women‟s role and identity as
she is no longer has to be confined to reproductive roles but be able to emancipate herself and
become a breadwinner. Still ICD is not going to encourage women to go out for opportunities
where Cambodian illiterate women aged between 25-44 years consisted of approximately 40
percent compare to 22 percent for men (Minister for Women‟s Affairs, quoted in Inter Press
Service International Association, 2008). A sensitive and critical issues such as “culture” has to
be examined clearly as it is really a huge factor influence to how people/society think regarding
difference privileges between men and women as argued by Staudt and Jaquette that “cultural
values are locally reasserted and enforced, often with negative implications for gender equality”
(Staudt and Jaquette, 2006, pp45). If such culture has to be reinforced rooted, Cambodia will
loss extremely huge labor force as women participation rate in labor is the highest in the region
compared to Thailand and Indonesia (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNPA and DFID/UK, 2004).
Georgina Ashworth (1994) also had made it clear that “men and women are exposed to
different cultural conditioning, and women are constrained by the fact of biological reproduction
as well as their social reproductive roles” (Ashworth, 1994,pp.67) and of what a similar
Cambodian saying girl will be just turning around the cooking stove (Ogawa, 2004), and a man is
like gold while women is like white cloth (Soprach, 2008; CIDA, 2000) have really limited
women‟s mobility to access to public and other information needed for her daily lives; so better
need not to study or it is very common to refer to an illiterate women. However, my worry is that
why women are so socially and culturally confined into such roles of turning around the kitchen
(housewifization) serving the family forever or why a man is like gold in any circumstances he
has done, he is still be a gold, while a woman is labeled as white cloth once dropped into the
mud, she will never be cleansed. Are these of what ICD going to maintain and reinforce within
how this had been resulted from the power of man over women? This is sufficiently already to
justify that such culture needs to be reshaped and rethought in order to ensure that women will
be better present in the public and be on her own body in whatever situation she is, she should
be deserved and encouraged equal opportunity like other men. Therefore, the ICD program has
reproduced the gender inequality by not addressing what has been the domination of man over
women, division of labors or culturally that solely assigned women in doing all the household
work such as fetching firewood, collecting water, cleaning, being good soft mother and especially
in a culture where women are not really “free” of domination, and this will continually reproduce,
reinforce as well as rooted in the society of where women are projected as inferior to man.

3- Conclusion and Recommendations:

In conclusion, Integrated Community Development (ICD) has a gender understanding
component that try to mainstream women into the development initiatives in assuming that
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women as well as men will be equally benefited from participatory development in a gender and
culturally sensitive. At the same time, applying various tools and techniques that generate
women participations as well as empower women through livelihoods improvement, asset
building such as natural assets, cash earning through animal raising and farming exchange
strategies that allow poor villagers to be able to utilize and improve farming by also employing
social capital. On the other hand, as discussed earlier that the program itself claims to be a
gender sensitive but failed to address various roles of women in her daily tasks and even
reproduced gender inequality within the community. Therefore, for the project to be more gender
responsive, some preliminary steps, cautions, planning and developing the activities need to be
well-planned in the gender perspective. And below are some of recommendations that I think it
may help convey and bring more attention to the project in term of understanding gender issues
as an integral part of the developments as well as addressing the needs to the people which are
generally both man and women but women‟s needs are rarely addresses.
First, because in some cases at the community level where there are commune council
meetings in prioritizing the needs for the annual planning, men maybe not interested to
encourage women to speak as they see women‟s expression may not needed as women are
only housewives or doing simple household tasks or women know nothing. But what might be
good for the ICD is to make sure those women in grassroots who are normally the most
marginalized form into a women group with women leader representative or discuss plans
separately from men and with all rights that can really express to ensure that their voices are
really heard and their needs are matched. For example for the household health‟s care should
not be simply just a general household health care. The ICD must work also to address women‟s
health specifically besides men‟s as women‟s health like reproductive matter is not just as easy
as meeting any doctors, but female doctors or female community health educators where they
are comfortable to discuss their own health‟s problem since reproductive or sexuality is not
generally open to discussion, otherwise, many women‟s reproductive issues will go untreated. As
result, in strengthening women local groups with greater paying attention in respect to women‟s
daily roles, motivating women to involve into public sphere such as standing for the commune
council members which can later be able to address women‟s needs and help ensure that what
come from women are recorded, responded and planned for action taken and then women can
be empowered. Women empowerment and gender responsive cannot be done by putting
outsiders from the city or province to make women empower and divide everyone to be equaled.
However, it is from both men and women at the community themselves as foundation and
understanding women‟s daily roles in social, geographical and knowing where women are
present, how women manage their daily lives and time which have impacts on ability to
participate in the development program (Idemudia, 2002), these can be supported and assisted
by NGOs, government and civil society. This maybe also be done in the project life cycle
management where project designer should and must have a gender specialist in dealing and
working with all stakeholders, men and women in the village such as village chief and explain
why addressing women equally and consultation with them are so important in future sustainable

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of the project, the community and the assurance that the project funding are able to address to
the women too.
Second is lied on the Research and Need Assessment (RNA) stage that the ICD has to
be really sure that what RNA questionnaires application must also employ women to conduct the
RNA so that villagers, especially women, are able to be familiar, discuss their own issues and
solution from their own experiences as it may be really useful to discuss separately between men
and women so that women are better confident in speaking out of what are in their hearts.
Working also with such community based organization at the local/grassroots level rather by the
strategic planners who compile the work at the office, writing systematically and imagining what
kind of inventions should be developed. This will later discover better strategic plans in
responding the needs of those women in the village as it is almost impossible to make sure that
women‟s voices are heard when male domination and male censorship or interference co-exist
during the research assessment (Vinding, 1994). In addition, the gender mainstreaming and
capacity building in all level of programs planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation must
involve equally men and women. Involving women as additional participants into the all stages of
programs is not yet meant to say YES we are gender sensitive, but women participation and
involvement must be analyzed in a way that women can really participate (not passive
participation), have a voice in the planning and in an appropriate time that women can attend
without worries of disturbance of male as well as other reproductive roles. At the same time, as
programs try to reach all people both men and women, so the integration of gender awareness
must be also including into the whole organization structure where staff can see that there is also
a need in the implementing activities to work its best to make sure that women will benefit from
the program as they benefit from working with the organization, especially capacity building to
staff on how to work with women and men, not just any all seeing villagers as “beneficiaries”.
Third, as gender was mentioned earlier as socially constructed of represented role of
women and men and if gender analysis is about relationships between man and women and
women‟s identities are to be changed, then men‟s must be changed also. Therefore the ICD
must also work in both sexes equally in order to ensure that men aware and understand of the
complex role of women and accept that there can be much better when man should and must
share the burden and recognize women‟s diverse roles. Once men are able to acknowledge,
value and share the responsibility may also enhance and facilitate women to equal access to
resources, participation and benefit from the program implementation. More than that, as social
norm is a part of gender influence factor, we must not also forget culture can be shifted and
reshaped but we cannot just bring nice plan and culture from the white expert westerner into the
village and ask people to change their identities. The shift in culture should be done in a proper
way for example working to enhance girl‟s enrolment into school, encourage public participation
where women develop her public skills (if appropriate), advocating/understanding for their rights,
supporting infrastructure where women‟s mobility can be improved, and at the same time
continuously working with men so that they be conscious of their power, domination and sharing
roles and structure of work over women. Once the rooted of male domination, unrecognized of

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women‟s work, and social perceptions towards women as ONLY as household wife be no more
understood/existed as the way it has been and turn to recognize their importance in household
level, community and national as a whole. Then the new culture of paying respected to women,
understanding women‟s prioritize, needs and making sure that their daily tasks are
reduced/shared; that is where we can slowly reshape a new way of looking at women in a better
social practices and daily life.
In very short, transforming gender inequality in project such as Integrated Community
Development must really capture all dimensions and gender must be an integral part of
development in all aspects ranging from socially, economically, culturally and in policy as well as
in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation so that women‟s voices and needs are
represented and responded in all levels. In contrast, such ignorance in women different needs,
power relations, prioritization, workloads and other diverse roles as well as failing to make man
aware of their controlling over women, resources and assets is where gender inequality is
continually produced and co-existed and reproduced over times.

References:
Ashworth, Georgina (1994) “An ABC of institutionalizing gender” in Mandy Macdonald (ed): Gender
Planning in Development Agencies, meeting the challenge, Oxfam Publication, UK. pp.67
Cambodian Land Law (1992) General disposition, Article 2, retrieved on 20-10-2008
http://www.bigpond.com.kh/council_of_jurists/Foncier/fon001g.htm
Canadian International Development Agency (2000) what is Questions about Culture, Gender
Equality and Development Cooperation, 200 Promenade du Portage Gatineau, Quebec
Derbyshire, Helen (2002) Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and
Practitioners, Social Development Division, DFID.pp6
Development and Partnership in Action (2006) Integrated Community Development in Steung Treng
Province, Cambodia. Retrieved on 18-10-2008: http://www.dpacambodia.org/index.php?i=2&c=4
Development and Partnership in Action (2008) Integrate Community Development: Midterm review,
Steung Treng Province, Cambodia. Can be accessed via:
http://www.dpacambodia.org/report/ICD_ST_Midterm_Internal_Review.pdf
Elliot, Jennifer (2006a) “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods”, Introduction to Sustainable Development.
London: Routledge, p 174
, (2006b) “What is Sustainable Development?” in Introduction to Sustainable Development.
London: Routledge, p8
Ellis, Frank (2001) “A framework for Livelihoods Analysis” in Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in
Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 30

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Idemudia, Patience (2002) “Participatory Research; A tool in the production of knowledge in
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Communities refer to people/villagers or replaced “beneficiaries” as I believe that the word “beneficiaries” is
somehow very vague and look down to the people as this word views villagers will have to be benefited or
depended on the project while ignoring their participations.

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