Marine and Petroleum Geology 04 "0887# 710728

Submarine fans and related depositional systems II] variability in

reservoir architecture and wireline log character
M[ Richardsa\\ M[ Bowmanb
a

BP Exploration Alaska Inc\ P[O[ Box 085501\ Anchora`e\ Alaska U[S[A[

b
BP Exploration Technolo`y\ Sunbury on Thames\ TW05 6LN U[K[
Received 10 June 0885^ revised 7 June 0887^ accepted 19 June 0887

Abstract
The architecture and heterogeneity of deep!marine clastic reservoir systems can be assessed at three scales[ At the macroscale\
lateral and vertical variations in the stacking patterns of submarine fans or fan complexes fundamentally a}ects the shape and scale
of a reservoir and its trapping geometry[ At the mesoscale\ the distribution and type of architectural elements\ "e[g[\ channel!levees\
lobes\ sheet sands# within the fan system have a major impact upon reservoir compartmentalisation and the distribution\ continuity
and connectivity of sand:shale bodies[ Finally\ at the microscale\ the vertical and horizontal arrangement of reservoir and non!
reservoir facies and lithotypes de_nes ~ow units which fundamentally control ~uid ~ow and production performance[
Each type of submarine fan and related deep!marine clastic reservoir system "sand!rich fans\ mixed sandmud ramps etc[# exhibits
a predictable arrangement of architectural elements which form the basic building blocks of the system[ These features control
reservoir architecture\ seismic expression and the geometry of sandbodies and non!reservoir section[
A suite of reservoir architectural models is proposed for di}erent deep!marine clastic systems using unpublished and cited data
from outcrop and subsurface studies[ These conceptual models are idealised simpli_cations which provide a preliminary framework
for understanding broad scale reservoir archsitecture and wireline!log character within contrasting types of fan and related systems[
The models are of value in the exploration for turbidite reservoirs by highlighting the risk on reservoir presence and distribution
from an appreciation of the architectural style[ Within appraisal and production they provide a basic framework from which an
objective reservoir description can be made[ Use of such conceptual analogue models for reservoir description will not adequately
re~ect the reality and individuality of a speci_c reservoir[ Their use in understanding detailed reservoir complexity should therefore
be approached with caution[ 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[
Keywords] Submarine fans^ Depositional systems^ Reservoir architecture

0[ Introduction
Appropriate description and characteristics of sandbody
geometry\ reservoir architecture and heterogeneity is
essential in all stages of the exploration\ development
and production value chain[ In frontier exploration\ a
knowledge of reservoir architecture will constrain risk
assessment and help the development of appropriate drill!
ing strategies[ In appraisal and development\ under!
standing reservoir architecture provides constraints on
in!place hydrocarbon volumes and recovery strategy for
reservoir depletion and also facilities planning[ Accurate
representation of the permeability architecture of the res!
ervoir is achieved through understanding sandbody geo!
metries\ shale distributions and their associated porosity!
 Corresponding author[ Tel[] 9933 0113 721999^ Fax] 9933 0113
651888^ E!mail] richardmtbp[com

permeability variations[ These are critical for assessing

uncertainty and optimising production strategies "Bryant
+ Flint\ 0882^ Krum + Johnson\ 0882^ Halderson +
Lake\ 0873^ Halderson + Damsleth\ 0889^ Reynolds\
0883^ Cossey\ 0883#[
This paper reviews the reservoir architecture and
characteristics of submarine!fan and related depositional
systems[ It illustrates how changes and di}erences in the
architectural elements of di}erent systems a}ect reservoir
complexity and heterogeneity[ The work is based on a
review of published studies supplemented by unpublished
information from subsurface and outcrop analyses[
The synthesis reviews reservoir architecture and het!
erogeneity at two scales[ The _rst includes the type\
character and spatial distribution of di}erent archi!
tectural elements such as channel!levees and lobes[ These
architectural elements control broad scale reservoir com!
partmentalisation\ sandbody and shale continuity and

S91537061:87:,*see front matter 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
PII] S 9 1 5 3 7 0 6 1 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 3 1 6

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M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

connectivity[ Limited studies to date suggest a priori link

between recovery e.ciency and fan type with primary
depositional fabrics controlling production charac!
teristics[ In these cases recovery e.ciencies are sig!
ni_cantly higher for sand!rich systems "e[g[\ De|Ath +
Schuleyman\ 0870^ Maher + Harker\ 0876# than their
muddy counterparts\ "e[g[\ Tyler\ Galloway\ Garret +
Ewing\ 0873^ Tyler + Gholston\ 0877^ Cutler\ Montoya
+ Ucok\ 0889#[ This relationship re~ects the overriding
impact of net to gross together with sand! and shale!body
architecture on reservoir performance[ The second scale
of reservoir heterogeneity assesses the lateral and vertical
variation in stacking patterns and the impact of shape
and scale of a reservoir\ together with its overall trapping
geometry[ This larger scale of investigation demands con!
sideration of the fan system evolution and its impact on
fundamental changes in sand! and shale!body archi!
tecture within the reservoir envelope[ This is particularly
important because many reservoirs consist of a suite of
stacked turbidite systems\ each with their own sandbody
and shale geometries and architecture[ Careful con!
sideration of the di}erences in architectural style within
the reservoir may well impact optimal reservoir devel!
opment and depletion planning[
1[ Variability of deep!marine clastic systems
This paper does not provide a detailed review of deep!
marine clastic systems given the reviews published else!
where "Reading\ 0880^ Walker\ 0881^ Reading + Orton\
0880^ Reading + Richards\ 0883^ Stow\ Reading + Col!
linson\ 0885^ Richards\ Reading + Bowman\ 0887#[ How!
ever\ it is important to brie~y summarise the classi_cation
framework to appreciate the range in external geometry
and internal character of these systems[
Submarine fans re~ect a complex interplay between a
wide variety of allocyclic and autocyclic controls "Fig[ 0#[
These result in a wide spectrum of fan types\ such that
no single model can be used to describe their variability
in facies\ sandbody geometry\ reservoir architecture and
seismic expression "Fig[ 1#[ Three key parameters are
used here to categorise the variability of deep!marine
systems]
"a# the method of sediment supply to the fan
"b# the number of entry points to the basin system
"c# the dominant grain size of the system[
The classi_cation framework used here highlights the
end!members of a hybrid association of fan types[ Each
end!member displays a predictable seismic geometry\
acoustic character\ reservoir distribution and range of
trapping stypes "Reading + Richards\ 0883^ Richards
et al[\ 0887#[ This forms the basis for a discussion of
architectural styles and wireline!log expression of di}er!
ent turbidite reservoirs presented in this paper[

Fig[ 0[ Controls on the development of basin margin deep!marine clastic

systems[ The depositional record of deep!marine clastic systems re~ects
the complex interplay between a range of autocyclic and allocyclic
controls[ The operation of these controls\ acting singly\ or in combi!
nation\ results in a wide spectrum of deep!marine clastic system types[

Sand ] shale contents cited in this paper refer to the

total proportion of sand occurring within the mapped
extent of the complete depositional system[ They are not
restricted to the sand!rich proportions of the fan\ ramp
or apron[ In addition\ the wireline!log responses pre!
sented for di}erent types of deep!marine clastic systems
have been taken from core!calibrated subsurface exam!
ples[ Careful calibration of log information with core
shows that log!shape and signature can be used to
broadly distinguish the lithology and facies character of
di}erent fan systems\ provided that the properties mea!
sured by the logs provide a representation of primary
depositional fabrics[
The examples cited in this paper highlight those cases
where the signatures of gamma ray "GR#\ spontaneous
potential "SP# and resistivity logs broadly mimic lithology
and grain!size trends observed in core from equivalent
stratigraphic intervals[ The use of log facies without core
for calibration is fraught with problems[ No individual
log pattern is unique to a particular environment\ such
that interpretations based solely on the basis of log shape
alone are at best tenuous[
2[ Reservoir architectural elements and patterns
Submarine!fan and related systems exhibit a pre!
dictable arrangement of architectural elements which
vary between fan type "viz[ sand!rich\ mixed sandmud\
etc[^ Mutti + Normark\ 0876^ Reading + Richards\ 0883^
Pickering et al[\ 0884#[ These architectural elements con!

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

712

Fig[ 1[ Classi_cation of deep!marine clastic systems by "a# sediment!supply mechanism\ "b# dominant grain size and "c# the number of entry points
to a basin "after Richards et al\ 0887#[ Four main groups of deep!marine clastic systems are identi_ed including gravel!rich\ sand!rich\ mixed sand!
mud rich and mud!rich systems[ The apices of each ternary diagram represent both the nature of sediment supply and the number of entry points
feeding the basin[ On this basis\ single!point source submarine fans\ multiple!point!source submarine ramps and line!source slope aprons are
recognised[ Submarine ramps and fans generally display more organised and predictable sandbody architectures and facies distributions and\
therefore\ form attractive targets for hydrocarbon exploration and development[ By contrast\ the internal architecture and degree of organisation of
line source slope aprons show a greater variability\ thus de_nition and delineation of potential reservoir facies carries signi_cantly higher risk[
Additional text annotations include commonly used terms for contrasting types of deep!marine clastic systems cited in the literature[

trol the overall reservoir architecture and seismic

expression of deep!marine clastic systems "Fig[ 2#[ As a
general rule\ submarine ramps and fans display more
organised and predictable sandbody architectures and
facies distributions[ As a result they present attractive
targets for hydrocarbon exploration and development[
Each of these broad categories of turbidite systems exhi!
bit similar architectures and facies distributions[ Changes
in reservoir geometry tend to be related to the number of
feeders to the system[ By contrast\ the internal archtecture
of line!sourced slope aprons show greater variability in
architecture and less organisation[ This distinction
between organised and less organised systems is used
below as the basis for discussing di}erences in archi!
tectural styles within each class of deep!marine clastic
system[

2[0[ Gravel!rich systems

These systems "Fig[ 3# are generally small scale " 4
49 km in radius# and commonly associated with high
gradients[ Reservoir trapping mechanisms developed are
dominantly structural[
Gravel!rich slope aprons commonly develop adjacent
to relict or active submarine fault scarps[ Sediment is
mainly dervied from wasting and submarine rock fall
from footwall scarps "Fig[ 4a#[ The systems are the sub!
marine equivalents of talus or colluvium cones[ The
development of reservoir is largely controlled by the litho!
logical character of the footwall[ Close proximity to the
provenance area commonly leads to poor sorting prior
to sediment release into the basin[ Depositional products
re~ect a wide variety of mass!~ow processes and include

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M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

Fig[ 2[ Principal architectural elements of deep!marine clastic systems based on outcrop\ wireline log and seismic data "Modi_ed after Reading and
Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Submarine fan\ ramp and slope apron
systems display a predictable arrangement of architectural elements\ which vary between turbidite system class[

both channelised and non!channelised chaotic boulder

and cobble beds\ intraformational rotational slumps and
exotic clasts[ The coarse!grained facies are commonly
interbedded with turbidite sandstones and mudstones
"Surlyk\ 0867^ Ineson\ 0878#[ Ephemeral input of more
sandy material from up!dip alluvial fans and fan deltas
may liberate sand!grade material to the apron leading to
reservoir development on the medial and outer fringes of
the apron[
Gravel!rich submarine fans and ramps typically form
broad\ wedge!shaped sediment bodies[ These are domi!
nated by relatively poor reservoir quality conglomerate
and sandstone in their proximal parts[ They comprise
admixtures of debris derived from rock!fall and debris
~ows "Facies A and F of Mutti + Ricc!Lucchi\ 0861^
Surlyk\ 0867^ MacDonald\ 0875^ Ineson\ 0878^ Prior +
Bornhold\ 0878#\ as well as thick!bedded gravel! and
sand!rich high!density turbidites with erosive bases "Fig[
4b#[ The best reservoirs commonly lie in the medial parts
of the system where sand!rich\ high!density turbidites
predominate "Facies B\ Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861^ cf
Lowe\ 0871#[ Rapid lateral and vertical facies variations
are the dominant depositional motif in both fan and
ramp[ This has signi_cant implications for sandbody con!
tinuity and connectivity on a small scale "e[g[\ 099s m#[
The distal margins of the systems pass abruptly into thin!
bedded turbidites and interbedded\ hemi!pelagic shales
"Ineson\ 0878^ Facies D\ Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861^
Prior + Bornhold\ 0878#[
Examples of this type of system include the {T| Field
developments "Toni\ Ti}any + Thelma# and South\ Cen!

tral and North Brae _elds in the Jurassic syn!rift suc!

cession of the North Sea Basin "Harms\ Tackenberg\
Pickles + Pollock\ 0870^ Stow\ Bishop + Mills\ 0871^
Roberts\ 0880^ Turner + Allen\ 0880#[ In these\ the res!
ervoir inter_ngers with organic!rich mudstone source
rocks of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation[
Conglomerate!rich systems display broadly blocky SP
or gamma wireline log responses[ Identi_able trends in
log patterns are di.cult to recognise[ Conglomerate! and
sandstone!rich intervals are also di.cult to distinguish
without recourse to high!resolution tools such as dipme!
ters[ These will often separate intervals of chaotically
dipping conglomerate from more consistently dipping
sandstone[

2[1[ Sand!rich systems

These are submarine!fan\ slope apron and ramp sys!
tems with more than 69) sand through the extent of the
system "Fig[ 5#[ This net to gross value marks a lower
limit for a change in seismic character and reservoir archi!
tecture of deep!marine clastic systems[ Sand!rich systems
are generally small scale "ca 049 km radius# and sourced
from incision or failure of relict sand!rich shelves or by
direct access to littoral drift cells "Reading + Richards\
0883#[ Reservoir trapping mechanisms are dominantly
structural in character[ Di}erential compaction may pro!
vide additional stratigraphic trapping potential within
the fan "e[g[\ Frigg Fan] Heretier\ Lessel + Wathne\ 0868^
McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874^ Balder\ Jenssen\ Bergs!

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

714

Fig[ 3[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross deposition environments and log responses of gravel!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systems are further
divided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permission of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published literature and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed in the text[
The wireline log data provide a general view of the types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs where
down hole logging tools remotely image primary reservoir properties and fabric[

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M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

Fig[ 4[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within gravel!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and submarine ramp systems
based on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems may be locally derived\ and contain _ne!grained slope material\
leading to poor reservoir quality[ Greater reservoir potential exists within the submarine fan and ramps because of the more common development
of active feeder systems and the down dip development of sandy apron fringes within the medial and distal fan:ramp fringe[ Lithology symbols within
wireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease of representation[

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

716

Fig[ 5[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of sand!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systems
are further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permission
of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed in
the text[ Note the overall clean\ block!shaped nature of the logs throughout the sand!rich systems[ The wireline log data provide a general view of
the types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs where down hole logging tools remotely image
primary reservoir properties and fabric[

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M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

lien\ Rye!Larson + Lindholm\ 0882^ Sarg + Skjold\

0871#[
Little detailed information is available in the published
literature concerning the internal reservoir architecture
of sand!rich slope aprons[ One example is the Palaeocene
T19:T29 systems of the North Viking Graben in the
North Sea Basin[ They are likely to be disorganised sys!
tems of limited basin!ward extent\ which form isolated
wedge!shaped sand bodies parallel to a basin margin[
Coarse!grained high!density turbidites and sandy debris
~ow units developed adjacent to the margins of these
systems would form the principal reservoir targets "Fig[
6a# "Shanmugam et al[\ 0883^ Shanmugan + Moiola\
0883^ 0884a#[ Reservoir lithofacies appear to be domi!
nated by discontinuous sandbodies which pinch!out lat!
erally over short distances "Shanmugan + Moiola\
0884a#[ In consequence\ successful interwell correlation
of sandbodies in reservoirs is unlikely without supporting
dynamic data "e[g[\ RFTs#[ More distal elements of the
apron would probably include thickly bedded sandstone
turbidites with increasing basinward interbedding of
hemipelagic mudstone[
Sand!rich fan and ramp systems are typically domi!
nated by channelised sand bodies in the upper part of the
fan[ These pass down!dip into channelised lobes0 "Nelson
+ Nilsen\ 0873^ Busby!Spera\ 0874^ Kleverlaan\ 0878\
0883^ Cossey + Kleverlaan\ 0884^ Hilton\ 0884#[ Studies
of outcrop and subsurface examples demonstrate that the
proximal\ medial and distal parts of the system show
similar sand!shale ratios through the extent of the fan or
ramp "Fig[ 6b#[ The midfan comprises elongate lobes
which at a larger scale coalesce to form a broad sand!
sheet "e[g[\ Link + Welton\ 0871^ Heller + Dickinson\
0874^ Chann + Dott\ 0872^ Kleverlaan\ 0878^ Busby!
Spera\ 0874] Link + Nilsen\ 0879^ Smith\ 0884#[ Reservoir
facies are dominated by high density turbidites and:or
sandy debris ~ows "Facies B of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\
0861^ Shanmugan et al[\ 0884b# arranged into broad\
lenticular channels and lobate\ channelised sheets[ There
are minor thin!bedded turbidites developed during fan
abandonment and in marginal areas of the fan[ Reservoir
continuity and connectivity is typically very good within
fan lobes although individual sandbodies may vary in
areal extent with slump and debris ~ow related sands
being of the lowest lateral continuity "Shanmugan et al[\
0884b#[ Lobe abandonment sequences often provide
internal barriers which a}ect reservoir plumbing "e[g[\
McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874#[
Mid!fan sections are dominated by abrupt vertical
changes from mudstone into thick\ amalgamated sand!
stones\ The sandstones of the mid!fan sequence show
little evidence for cleaning!upward trends in wireline!log
data\ whilst cored intervals show an absence of coars!
0
The term {lobe| is used here in the context of the original de_nition
of Mutti "0868# to denote unchannelised fan related deposits[

ening!upward grain size trends[ Examples of sand!rich

ramps and fans include the Jurassic\ early post!rift
Magnus and Miller systems and Palaeogene Frigg\ Cod\
Balder\ Andrew and Forth fans of the North Sea Basin
"Heretier et al[\ 0868^ Sarg + Skjold\ 0871^ McGovney +
Radovitch\ 0874^ Kessler\ Zany\ Engelhorn + Eger\ 0879^
Brewster\ 0880^ Garland\ 0882^ Rooksby\ 0880^ Alex!
ander\ Scho_eld + Williams\ 0881^ Dixon et al[\ 0884^
Shanmugan et al[\ 0884b#[
Sand!rich fan systems have a limited range of log motif[
Blocky "{box car|# to poorly developed _ning!upward\
shaling!upward log signatures appear to dominate\
re~ecting the sand!rich nature of both channel and chan!
nelised!lobe facies "McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874^
De|Ath + Schuleyman\ 0870#[ These may succeed a thin
basal interval which exhibits a coarsening!upward and:or
cleansing!upward motif[
2[2[ Mixed sandmud rich systems
Mixed sandmud rich sytems refer to those fans and
related deep!marine clastic environments where sand!
] shale percentages lie in the range 2969) "Fig[ 7#[ They
are commonly formed by direct sediment input from large
mixed load delta\ shoreline and coastal plain systems[
Mixed sandmud rich fans and ramps form moderate
scale features "09249 km radius# and account for a major
proportion of the published geological record of deep!
marine clastic systems "Reading + Richards\ 0883#[ Slope
aprons are less common\ but of similar scale[
Mixed sandmud rich slope aprons are characterised
by a variety of mass!~ow processes leading to complex
and commonly disorganised lithofacies distributions
"Fig[ 8a#[ Systems are dominated by slump packages of
deformed hemi!pelagic shales and thin!bedded turbidites[
Slide blocks are also common\ together with chutes _lled
with slope mudstone or thick and thin!bedded turbidites
and debris ~ows "Nelson + Maldonado\ 0877^ Hill\ 0873^
Shanmugan + Moiola\ 0883#[ Gullies and constructional
channel systems may traverse the slope apron surface
feeding more stable areas of the system where laminated
mudstone and sandy mudstone predominate[ Local
development of sandstone turbidites within gully and
channel areas may lead to discontinuous\ often lenticular
packages of potential reservoir sandstone "Surlyk\ 0876#[
The disorganised nature and complex distribution of
potential reservoir facies preclude such systems as pri!
mary exploration targets[
Mixed sandmud rich submarine fans and ramps are
dominated by two main architectural elements^ channel!
levee complexes and depositional lobes "Figs 7\ 8b^
Walker\ 0867^ Normark\ 0867^ Normark\ Piper + Hess\
0868\ Droz + Bellaiche\ 0874^ Bouma + Deville!Wickens\
0883#[ The apparent dominance of either of these
elements in seismic data\ is controlled by the net to gross
and grain size of the system[ Increased mud content

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

718

Fig[ 6[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within sand!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine ramp systems
based on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems may be locally derived and contain _ne!grained slope material\
leading to poor reservoir quality[ Sand!rich submarine ramp and fan systems display similar sand ] shale ratios throughout the full extent of the
systems^ a feature in direct contrast to their more mixed sand!mud counterparts[ Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been further
di}erentiated for ease of representation[

729

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

Fig[ 7[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of mixed sandmuch rich deep!marine clastic systems[
Systems are further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the
permission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analogues
reviewed in the text[ Note the variability in log responses within each of the mixed sandmud systems[ The wirelinelog data provide a general view
of the types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs where down hole logging tools remotely image
primary reservoir properties and fabric[ Note the potential development of relatively clean sandstones within slope apron systems related to slope
failures[ Careful analysis of FMS:SHDT dipmeter and Cybil type logging tools may provide a means of remotely imaging slump and slide packages
of slope aprons from the more coherent and predictable architectures associated with submarine fans and ramps[

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

720

Fig[ 8[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within mixed sandmud "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine ramp
systems based on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems comprise slides and slumps dominated by locally derived
slope clastics with isolated\ ponded sandstones[ Submarine!fan and ramp counterparts display variable sand ] shale ratios depending on location
within the system and the type of architectural element penetrated in a well bore "cf channel!levee vs lobe#[ Sand ] shale ratios vary with channel!
levees\ whilst associated lobe deposits show a proximaldistal decline in sand content[ Note that the sand ] shale ratio within the core of the system
may compare super_cially with a sand!rich fan or ramp[ Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease of
representation[

721

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

results in a reduction in the relief and acoustic expression

of lobes and an apparent increase in channel!levee com!
plexes as the principal architectural element of the system
"Reading + Richards\ 0883#[ Both structural and strati!
graphic traps are common in these systems "Walker\
0867#[ Internal traps may be associated with lobe swit!
ching and abandonment[ Additional drilling targets may
also develop within inner and mid!fan channels by back!
_lling and ~ow stripping "Piper + Normark\ 0872#[
Such fan systems display a high degree of variability at
reservoir scale with consequent implications for reservoir
property variations and sandbody continuity:
connectivity[ Examples of mixed sandmud rich fan and
ramp systems include the Forties\ Nelson and Gannet
fan and ramp systems\ North Sea Palaeogene "Kulpecz
+ Van Geuns\ 0889^ Armstrong\ Ten Have + Johnson\
0876^ Bowman\ 0887^ Whyatt\ Bowen + Rhodes\ 0880^
Wills\ 0880#\ the Miocene Yowlumne Field\ San Joaquin
Basin California "Berg + Royo\ 0889# and the Permian
Spraeberry Trend of West Texas "Tyler + Gholston\
0877#[
The two architectural elements of mixed sandmud
fans and ramps lead to di}erent reservoir architectures
and levels of heterogeneity[ Channel!levee systems form
the conduits through which sediment is distributed to the
main area of the fan "Fig[ 8b#[ The channel!levees may
be mud!_lled where there is rapid fan abandonment[
They may also comprise a coarse!grained\ highly het!
erogenous channel!_ll\ ~anked by levee siltstone and
mudstone "Winn + Dott\ 0868^ Walker\ 0867\ 0874^
Weuller + James\ 0878^ Tyler et al[\ 0873^ Mutti et al[\
0874^ Schuppers\ 0881\ Zelt + Rossen\ 0884^ McGee\
Bilinski\ Gary\ Pfei}er + Sheiman\ 0883^ Maha.e\ 0883^
DeVries + Lindholm\ 0883^ Clark\ 0884#[ Channel!_ll
facies vary from sandy conglomerate and pebbly sand!
stone with thick!bedded\ high!density turbidites "Facies
A and B of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861# to _ne!grained\
thin!bedded turbidites and hemipelagic mudstones "Fac!
ies C and D of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861#[ Individual
sandstones are commonly lenticular and erosively based[
Constructional lobes form overlapping\ layered sand
bodies with a high reservoir heterogeneity potential[ Sand
content is highest within the core or apex and decrease
towards lobe margins[ The lobe core may be dominated
by massive\ thick!bedded high!density turbidites "e[g[\
Kulpecz + Van Geuns\ 0889^ Kleverlaan\ 0878^ Bouma +
Deville!Wickens\ 0883#[ Where more classical turbidites
occur\ "Stevens Fan] Webb\ 0870^ MacPherson\ 0867^
Marnosa!Arenacea Fan] Ricci!Lucchi + Valmori\ 0879#
they form poorly developed cycles "e[g[\ the Stevens Fan]
Webb\ 0870^ MacPherson\ 0867^ Marnose!Arenacea
Fan] Ricci!Lucchi + Valmori\ 0879^ Auger Field] McGee
et al[\ 0883#[
Mixed sandmud rich fan systems show a wide range in
log response depending on location[ Within the channel!
levee system\ two log motifs appear to be most common[

At the levee margin corsening!upward "cu#\ cleaning!

upward "decreasing# gamma "GR# or SP pro_les re~ect
progressive stacking and amalgamation of thin!bedded
turbidites deposited by overbank ~ows[ The second log
motif is a broadly _ning!upward "fu#\ shaling!upward
"su# occasionally ratty trend\ re~ecting stacked inter!
bedded channel!_ll and conglomerate and sandstone tur!
bidites\ separated by _ner grained turbidites and
hemipelagic mudstone[ Depositional lobes display erratic
but broadly cleaning!upward:coarsening!upward grad!
ing into shaling!upward:_ning!upward signatures "Mac!
Pherson\ 0867^ Webb\ 0870#[ Similar log responses are
recorded at the fan fringe where the cu:fu cycles occur as
gamma!ray bows with limited SP or GR de~ection from
the shale baseline[

2[3[ Mud!rich systems

These are systems where the overall sand content is less
than 29) "Fig[ 09#[ They are common in basins with
mature alluvial drainage systems\ having large source
areas\ particularly where river and deltaic feeder systems
are dominated by _nd!grained suspended load[ Mud!rich
systems are volumetrically the most important deep water
clastic systems in the world|s oceans today "e[g[\ Kolla\
Kostecki\ Hendersen + Hess\ 0879\ Damuth + Kumar\
0864^ Mchargue + Wenn\ 0875^ Kolla + Coumes\ 0876^
Weimer\ 0889#[ Exploring and exploiting reservoirs
within such systems presents a major challenge today in
ocean basins o} continental margins[ Mud!rich aprons\
fans and ramps are large scale systems "492999 km
radius\ Reading + Richards\ 0883#[
Mud!dominated slope aprons are similar to their sand!
ier and mixed sandmud counterparts "Fig[ 00a#[ The
slope margin is characterised by erosional gullies and
rotational slumps generated by sediment loading and
foundering together with curvilinear extensional faults
related to down!slope translation of submarine slide
masses "Gorsline + Emery\ 0848^ Nardin\ Hein\ Gorsline
+ Edwards\ 0868#[
The base of the apron is dominated by silt! and mud!
dominated lobes\ debris ~ow masses and uneven top!
ography generated by the compressional toes of slides[
The nature of depositional processes within the slope
apron leads to a complex and irregular distribution of
mainly _ne!grained lithofacies[ Reservoir potential is
generally low^ slope aprons more commonly form seals
to more organised systems[ Potential reservoir quality
sandstones may develop where retrogressive slumping
exhumes relict coarser grained shelf and upper slope
deposits[ Catastrophic failure of these deposits maylead
to the deposition of sands within topographic lows at the
base of the apron system[ Similarly\ slide gullies located
along the margins of the slope apron may form conduits
for basinward sediment transport particularly where

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

722

Fig[ 09[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of mud!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systems
are further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permission
of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed in
the text[ Note the variability in log responses in each of the mud!rich systems[

723

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

Fig[ 00[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within mud!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine ramp systems
based on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Mud!rich slope apron systems dominated by slides and slumps characterised by locally
derived slope clastics[ Isolated\ ponded sandstones and siltstones may develop through failure of local up!dip deltaic depocentres[ Submarine!fan
and ramp counterparts display variable sand ] shale ratios depending on location within the system and the type of architectural element penetrated[
Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease of representation[

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

deltas prograding to the shelf edge\ feed sediment directly

into the basin[
Mud!rich fan and ramps are typically large systems
"up to 0999s km# and dominated by well developed chan!
nel!levee compexes "Fig[ 00b#[ Good quality reservoir
sands are generally restricted to heterogenous channel!
_lls within the axis of channel!levee complexes "Imperato
+ Nilsen\ 0889^ Weimer\ 0889\ 0884#[ The outer fan area
is dominated by thin sheet sands of limited reservoir
quality[
Mud!rich fan systems are dominated by large scale\
ratty cleaning!upward "decreasing# GR or SP wireline
pro_les re~ecting a broadly coarsening!upward grain size
pro_le[ This is attributable to the advance and build!up of
thin!bedded\ levee!margin turbidite sands[ Superimposed
thinner\ cleaning!upward log characters may re~ect the
depositional record of crevasse units[ Small scale shaling!
upward ratty pro_les record heterogenous channel!_ll
gravelly and sandy turbidites separated by _ner silt!grai!
ned turbidites and hemipelagic muds[

724

3[ Conclusions
The highly variable reservoir architecture of deep!mar!
ine clastic systems re~ects the complex interplay between
a range of autocyclic and allocyclic controls[ It is essential
to appreciate this variability when de_ning hydrocarbon
potential\ assessing risk\ and developing a strategy for
exploitation of a basin[
The architectural elements of the four main types of
turbidite system vary in a predictable and systematic
manner[ These architectural elements are a fundamental
control on reservoir geometry and the distribution of
pay and non!pay\ which\ in turn\ impact permeability
architecture and production performance[
Complexity is compounded where reservoirs comprise
stacked turbidite systems of signi_cantly di}erent res!
ervoir architecture "Fig[ 01#[ Such stacked reservoir sys!
tems are relatively common phenomena[ Here\
predictions of reservoir architecture based upon a single
model will fail to appreciate the spatial changes in res!

Fig[ 01[ Schematic representation of subsurface architecture and log responses from a complex reservoir system[ The gradual evolution from sand!
rich to mud!rich depositional systems re~ects the gradual abandonment of basin deposition over time[ Studies of many clastic turbidite reservoirs
show them to commonly comprise an association of di}erent deep!marine clastic systems rather than any single submarine fan\ ramp or apron type[
Recognition of these di}erences in architectural patterns and contrasting scale of heterogeneity will have a signi_cant impact on understanding
sandbody connectivity\ reservoir property distributions\ recovery e.ciency and production behaviour for turbidite reservoirs[

725

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710728

ervoir geometry and shale architecture[ This will have

a direct commercial impact through erroneous reserves
assessment and development planning[
In exploration and appraisal\ an awareness of di}erent
architectural elements and styles and their relationship
to sand thickness and net reservoir distribution will aid
in the risk assessment of prospects[ In production and
reservoir management\ a detailed understanding of the
organisation of reservoir and non!reservoir facies within
architectural elements provides the basic framework for
understanding reservoir quality distribution\ ~uid ~ow
and production performance[ The starting point for all
these studies lies in the careful description\ analysis and
facies interpretation of core data[ Once complete\ core
observations and interpretations can be used to calibrate
wireline logs and aid in the interpretation of rock proper!
ties from seismic data[ It is only at this stage that mean!
ingful links can be drawn between the character and
origin of depositional units within cored wells\ and the
log signatures and acoustic response of adjacent\ uncored
intervals within the reservoir section[
The conceptual models of reservoir architecture pre!
sented in this paper provide a framework for the analysis
of deep!marine clastic reservoir systems[ They are widely
applicable as predictive paradigms for exploration[ They
will not re~ect the detailed nuances of individual reservoir
systems at a small scale[ As such\ their value in devel!
opment and production is that they provide the starting
point rather than a _nal solution to reservoir description
and performance prediction[
Acknowledgements
This paper summarizes a signi_cant volume of work
carried out over the past seven years as part of an internal
research applications project in BP focused on the sedi!
mentology and stratigraphy of deep!marine\ basin mar!
gin turbidite systems[ The results presented here represent
a summary of numerous technical studies and discussions
held with geoscientists and reservoir engineers in British
Petroleum on deep!marine clastic outcrop and reservoir
systems[ It is by necessity brief in its content and does
not fully document the wealth of help\ guidance and
discussions provided by fellow colleagues in BPX[ The
authors gratefully acknowledge their help and con!
tributions to the subject over the past seven years[ The
authors are grateful to Jed Damuth and an anonymous
referee for providing constructive suggestions on further
improving the manuscript[ This paper is published with
the permission of BP Exploration Company Limited[

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