'to7it

L {;.{-:.

;ii.t{/f .ii
- , l l
*

lila!

j
f,.y-ii Cir

0it"iti^_:^"/u

ijii*rv\t

re"'Pcl
oj
'zn'
las poa,utes-'-"(

E
c-

Cdr'1i?s,,;,.i
-4i

TOpfC4 : STATES
of MATTEA

(i) of^the
^t "

ni

i:aiu,i\tJi

A1r :ot*a\ne r

\-r

( lcf is *ht Sotv

1i';of Oiffere

) T,
.r, T,>Ta

'

Tr(T,
(0r ( t-l
r

.tlrat svrorf
Dortt(l
- GaS
randommotion
t hhv?

Graham'slaw: rate of effusion

of a gas a l/r[m
'Ltas
-Gas
o a r + t t l t < tha*
J L ' L : ris tLteavier
--.:par*ttles

'

r"=lov?
\llv){

pruvrJ2J-11"u{en

%: ti, -o,J"lJj,::',;:Tll

.o4$4",F.

4nwq .thz i&.at

v^f
pv

/vx*

_ 3!t)
PV:nR

lt

For
sampfeof gas under
.a.given
two different sets of
conditions,

Prvr= PzVz

P'fvG n P,T
8.31JK-'mot
0.082dm=imrTm;r

: vqT

(constantp)

( 1cm'=1x10"m" ;
1 cm3= 1 x 1o-3dm3
1 atm = 101kPa )

lkPa=1x10"Pa)

t0lKPq=16o-nY
-l
[om,qttg -,

roIx ro 3 l) q

1 C I 0 n M l -jl+

?q

IUIYID3FqX'7OD
V
- = constant
T
For a givensampleof gas undertwo differentsetsof conditions

- lzox lost?

-b,o

\_b
Tr

T2

tr
ll

r+

tl

-l--F,

-i-t

v o n ( c o n s t a n t and p)
Statethe law:
Equalvolumeof all gases at the same temperatureand
Sanl\opressurecontain
numberof molecules.
+
2Oz )
e.g CHr
COz + 2HzO
1 mol
2 mol
1 mol
1o cm3 2o cm3
10 cm3
consrfont

P ond

eg. A mixtureof 8.09 of a monoatomicgas X and an unknown

quantityof diatomicgas Y has a volumeof V m3at s.t.p. When
20.0 g of gas X is addedto the mixture,underthe same
the volumeof the mixtureis 2V m3. Calculatethe
gas Y in the mixture. [Relativeatomicmass: X = 4;

r,'f;J,^.
+)
1r+
:{y.'J='u"
113 r +t
thatgasX doesnotreactwithgasYl

2.0+
)t

In3

(ftt*)"' (f,ri)-"r

)C

"---,

>L=
t, 01

pV.nR'T
aS CalCr r latlonlv^uo/ur
(i) To calculateM,

(ii)Todetermine

(iii) To solve other gas

?V." RT

e . g : P = 1 0 1k P a
V = 800 cm3
Calculatethe numberof moles
ofgas at273K.

pv=[#)ut
pMt

RUrvt n0 unt*
Lnorqr M\ast619un*f,

T;

h:0'056

de'ruty
1*

aA
lVll':-

M{.7

Pv

PV.:ffi)ot

W--+

n n oI

eg. A manometeris a device

for measuringgas pressure.A
sampleof nitrogengas is
placedin a
manometer

Eg. Gas X is collectbdin a Eg. Determinethe density

250 cmovolumetricflask at of a substanceXat
25"C untilthepressureof
727oCand at the pressure
the gas is 73.5 kpa. The
of 410atm. Giventhe
mass of X in the flask is
relativemolecularmass of
0.1189 at 25oC.Whai is
the substance
X is 18.
theJnasq_ql!_-rcLof.X I
pV:nRT'
IThe gas constant,R, is
8.31J Ktmol-l.;

pV--n RT

L,r

pV=n(f
=nt&g
( totrro:) [ &oxro-s)

Mr--rypv

3^

(iv) To describe
behaviourof an

--------1

1
lPi>l+','

mass. The diag-ranntl6low

showsthe heightof mercuryin
lle-mEnometer. What is the
{olume)ofnitrogengas in the
nlanafieter?
[Relativeatomicmass: N =
14.0;molargas constant=
8.31JK'mol-';
760mmHg =
101kPal

t'

l/

/',

t,i
_l

tlt<

ro-trr)tr*t) 7s)(hroXrotxrO3XE
ft 3.s<rrf)t
' t5'q
| -l
3,'.o

t e3f) (21H

: t\[qt rs3M-3
sq6q6

Tr)1 ,

4
. t.)

T
'I

:0.0ffi
5Dv\-3

pO
7 6 0 " a ' lnl q : f o141e3
5oo n"n H

=6.1\xn,ap,

"{
PV=n R.T
l6.6qxr0+)v:

ffi)n..,,
V:,i.r3z<tO-'trn3

V : t3l cnnj
Es.whatfiAa chrorc#qas

is contain*in-d 10.0dm3ta;k
at27oCand 3.50atm of
pressure?

PV=n RT
(g.soxrotxror) [ rooxro-

+ ?o/ n81

=e--,) trsl) tzr3tz

maj! o[ CI2 =IDl3

'
ftcr\terra $ur phr-tial yrtssvre'
-)Mors lutd^ | typ( g{
X"t
saml?t/-)
Ust yrssvlz.
lx.t

5,

ESS-,IJRE

;i;;;#;".i"'",leq-Pgt,3

5.1Dalton'sLaw
rRct I I
5.2 Formula:

s*4 0[ tht

. M'firura of 4zuerti4aF
6sa$rt''on
reqcl!
-+hai
Jo not

o{ a ''uture 0l qli.s

5.3 (i) Definitionof partial pressureof a gas in a mixtureof gases: the

{ I +k( qa\ 6lvte i\ i^ *hc sarnc 6on{.atau h+ +l
=
l\x

(iii)Determin"fi6"?J

d 3;
Fno

li'G)+{0
I

1 2 , V , :P r V s
( : ) L r ) = P a( e t )
?+ = | alnt

Wa i tO qct +llrr. Pa'ttql Pressvre

'lv

PT

P , V ,I P 2V 2
61,

rB,6 6+il)

P, =Pr+.Pe -',$^

l= t+&-7-q

eg.^50.0
cm3of 02 at 1.0x10"Pa is miXcdwith150
cm" N2at the samepressure.What is the total
pressureof the mixtur'e?

eg.A mixtureof gasesat 101

kPa contains30% CO2,20o/o
02
and 50o/o
CO in volumes.
Calculatethe partialpressures
ot eachgas.

Pro,
=ffx

-rr"boo)-;il^
(
1
.
5
{1
0
'#?o
PN, =

Irso)( t.oxres;'

,t*frgio.qffiffi

J c, s B
atnt, 2 dm3

\_,<,/2

- +
P i --_-

pV=nRT

- lf V, n and T is given
paVa=n6RTor
(p1V1=n1RT)

eg.
ns2= 0.00125mol
nH"= 0.00125mol
V = 2.00dm3
T = 15oC
Poz=?
Pg"=?

xrorxrt'pq

q
2.o2Xtp Pa

V:00" RT
P
rO)

tt-3)cti\
0 p,nn) fo.ool25)
5o.
-?tn
x rolxro3
ev
loo
?0,-- l.soxro'^Pq
(Pq
: g.o5xrD
?url)= flr'rtRT
3t
(lg) t )
: fo'oorzs)
>r.(rooxro-3)

? ' V r : P e VVol.of
. , co r t a i n e r = 4 dlmAr .
lz
t2)tt)--ra(.a) ) t l ) : P *n o )
a+'nt t,6 : l a t

?a=3

pq
rolxro3

: 3-03y.t}\ Pa

fo,'roo-o
tso'o)tr.oxres):
) ?r: ?.5{re
{.
Pur=
7 o r =) ' l r g k ?o

2 atm,1dm{

Sawr6 {366

Tdor no o[ tu' t o{ Formula: Pof=;oPt .,

Lz)e). ps B)

+|,fl

Xa = rnolefractionof gas A ; Pt = total P

Pr= Pe+Pe

Gas B
2dm3 2 rt*

.lu1rttuoa{ th1 '

ssu.( after*eA

" use p1V1= pzV2tof$a1 - i f X e ( o r n a & n s )a n d P l

calCulatpn anopB anctthen is given

votv(r

GasA
1 dm3,3 atm

{a kac,+
""'n tradtort
d rnoto[ qasA

pressureof a gas by uSlng:-

Boyle'shw--)

4(.{ vor4v{

sa rr\

P1= totalpressureand Ps,Pe.Pc= partialpressuresof the

gases

=P4*P.tPc

(ii)Formura
(il)
Formula: P4

Jo nuf
f

rl

7(,,
l2rlc.n+qrr.8
:l.5oxt03Pq

La+ra

eg. 1 dm3N2gasat 1rrtmind 3 dm3argongas at 3

atm are introducedto a containerwiththe volume2
dm3-Calculatethe pressurein the container.

I r)tr):Pnp 3 ) (r =7u,f Ps.

2*, . $ a+$
: 5 a+r't
(3)tg) = Pn.(r
)

lar=4a+n
aKe
--note:
note:({ -thi
r\6'(,4h1
Thitr Pu,+
a'(,4 fu" 1
Pu,\ n

p mustbein Pa,V in m'

\at

e7va4ua

. 1 c m 3 = 1x 1 0 - 6 m 3 ; 1 d m 3 =1 x 1 6 3 m 3

r f i s m g c m - 3 = m xl o o g m - 3 ,p i n p a
lfJ ismg dm-3=m x 103gm{, p in pa
Finalanswerfor all calculationsmust be roundedup to the correctnumberof s.f with unit statedcleady

d-- JrnsilV
I

)s

l.u
LtR

qs

.;6J'.2; 'i*1; Ob.\i{

-/
8+ dili fo4ifi1lo,lj. u

tQ"E#ts
ag

GAS

Meaning

-GAg

Gas that obeysthe gas laws at all

conditions.

Conditionsfactors Conditions: Aflt confliti^."

to obeygas laws

Factors:r*gqddtt
,'ff
1) Volumeof qas molecules

2) thereare ,...1Y.
intermolecular
forcesof
attraction/repulsion
between
molecules.((ailrt)

lDea\3ot ohJ 3o\

lqt^'l 6ll

hi qh
Gasthatobeysthe gas lawsonlyat -presCures4ot^J
temperatures
ano
Conditions: at hightemperature
and lowpressure.
\-)rcal
Can kLavc ideailrl ,
\a9
J
Factors:
1) at hightemperature,
intermolecular
forces
are .......291,8."..
......( as the kineticenergyof the
moleculesis very high)
2) At lowpres$rre,the gas molecules
occupy ..lf$|l.q!!..... volufne.( as volumeoccupies
by
}ca,'
Aol?tdr!
the gas is laige)
t,{.{Ft
L1|_;
4at
'? '
Conditions: t0dtemperaturesand hiql.pressures.
o[ atfdcon y'.
Factors: ,.fr-'eq$,t*
,{o..tas
1) At low temperaturet,ii
are inlcrrt0lc t,rlar lorcrl.
"t"
2)' At hiohDressures.
the oas moleculesoccuDv

rs...2-?$...(.ryIqrbl
' u " ^"g" 'qgvrt )

Conditions
/
factorsnot to obey
gas laws

ie*-,

*ha t'm(

Er-qfiirrantvoruric r.-ftn{e l-ottint.).

crannpV/RTvsp

Kg'JltlI.9JSVISgeJUi{ rcpu| 5i on
I
At highpressures,
-(ltt
moltrvlet 0
-

r,\'*,,.-[cl p{ \

itrcarr{

PV

&n,

pV/nRT

I qA!
,ideuiation -+

f-l't louJ +
-

tht

- {t(

ffiiffi.ffiffi-ffi

lr! rnov{t sldtf r

Molrrr

intcrno
ortrrurar h4!s

- thereare

4-

brtonne rrlrtthco

Tl,'t

c^{(_
Sot,aokdls
l2utl clsserl0 one aadb

*
,
,aR.f _

[cttrac*ton)

At low temperatures,
- the moleculesmoves Slodor

bf a++,qHN^
."+-

verlc/.ste

;ni-l
)rccryresrlhtit)
t4ctor

(.

intarv\oldcular$xr6

of attraction

d{epdsbn..
net aftractionforcestendto pull the gas molecules
inwardsawayfrom the wall of container.
lmpact of collisonmade by the moleculeson the wall is
smhtle(

od

exerted
is
Sglf

llenr!,{h vot,vw is srcrv(

"lhaaw
f(ao

or
the attractiveforcespullthe moleculesnearerto each
other.So the measuredvolumeis smallerthanexpected.
- pV/nRT< 1

uJLrf al h;41npxesS"r<',fta\eqs
J
IJI

)
has
fosrtiw &,la*roa

--'lrfltr moleturrs
ortupyslnlf,ea+
-aI hr3Lyrcssu(, moreJrtcr
las
Ar< CIos< tO On< artolL,er
- Rtprtsion &c to Qkcw^ crqrd S
tlotcculrJ uccvr ( ia*ereqolerular

refulsron \
-TtliS fauK

.ttnr vOturyrc
OJ reo,f

3i,: > vorum(el t*a, g o,

V-r
- f fPi 2
1

- Negativedeviationis due to intermolecular

- Positivedeviationis due to Intermolecularr(Pul!104
- H2and He do not shownegativedeviationbecau'se
the
intermolecular
attraction
is insionificant
dueto
^
-o{
fhe s'na[ M0rc(urarsize
FI^ avrd He .L
Ore ^o^ Polar mol?cul2S.

tenlperature

intermolecular
fordes,the .LrzaiL(

the
deviation
(-T/.?frr:1,^,,\?rrets,

a) molecular 4ft
"ir"
size,
" The largerthe molecular
- hs g,a^qer
the van der Waals
forces, thd q46'la(
thedeviation.

(et{.cro{li" a.. w*u lnrtts, Lla\ ,3)

{Foq
FdelnBo

b) polarityof the malecule

cl-),+
/HLl3

t 0$/( (

'4r/ro,

'The Fiphq the temperature,

the
i'1.
11'r
thedeviation.

the
" Thehigherthe pressure,

- Whentemperature
decreases,
the
- Whenpressureincreases, gasmolecules
m 9.Y1.
...$1.0.ry{f......
P N H s f o l a . . * Cot
r
thegasmolecules
are .9J.9i.{ Thereforetheyexeriencp
(Cl.l,+mo.t pol
more ..i.4.t9LglttV.l.S.{
.. .19.4.(.
. .9.t... . The rnorepolarthe molecule,
)
to oneanother.Hence,they
'
- the_--..i,_
Str044tr the intermolecular
forces,
Atlrag1i91l
'
experiencemore
- the
the deviation
Areaftr
.. .tttitrmptc
tt.lq{.
. ..4!.t.|4$!.%
Or (Pulsl0^ btt"tutt
MOr(
l''lHa 6sy;31s
Polarmolecules.
e.o
- nnolarvl(r.
rs
thannon-polar
molecules,
e.g L0'

(02 d<v'rafe frrn I

tx?c(1etu-l^+aftAol.Lvl^(

co 7
Exercise:
1. Element
Y is a gasat roomconditions.
Thedensity
of Y is 1.11g dm-'ai25.0"C
and86.1kPa.
(i) Usingthe idealgasequation,
calculate
massof Y anddetermine
the relativemolecular
the identityof Y.

tY:l RT

l. o.*on,,
nr,.

f s d'

.* ,.
o,n"",,"n
o,,*"hl.H+.cnl"r,o.
,.o"""f;tt0r[]J;"';
"oir ,n"i"o;,";";
" r,",r,."

onesuchexperiment,
the arnmoniagas liberated
is driedand collected
in a 500.0cm3conlaineruntilits pressure
reaches'1
.5 x 10"Pa at 20o.C.
Calculate
theminimum,nrass
of anrmonium
chloride
neededin theexpeiiment

^::::k
i'it

{ulltl l:of"'l :l ^lul::;?:;$,#i';'li

r{alroI HHqcr
= a,0tr0:]x Il+t+tr)tii's]
51116s)(5u0:0x10,6)

I r'3/) (rrgilo)
':
3 . u r 1 r o 'n' , I

: l.{'S
3

(a

-t. One mqleo{ anygas occupiesthe samevolumeuncjerthe sametemperature

and pressure.Calculatethe volume
ct one moteot gas at standardtemperature
and pressure.

4. (i)Ammoniumnitrateis an explosive
compound
and it decomposes
at a hiqh
temoerature
-f".^n
'
accordingto the followingequation.Ta*-7 ) 5'C 911{t i^ tiq ,id
2NHrNOs(s)---*
(aHr9gl + 2Nz(9) + oz(g) ,__ Calculatethe totalvolumeof gases_colleiHfromthe decomposition 00glf ammoniumnitrateat 1.01x 105pa
f
and2loC.
\J

4[-Lo+ 2N) t 0a
"'fi'o'{l'r*ro}

cIii)i)ii)rJ)
:J

l"^ +enf - sletvc'

tottu

- D\rll nl,lr trlrl lt*"'a*l )

4 a.{{rr"t{ton
fat-t

,f

on t^'alls A
Srr^.eifa
[r, rr^,,'rq,lr'5
-J
PrtAS*'{ rg.r.r0 b17!c\ ftl

[ . . 1 ], ] r o n r " a d r

50t

,.\.|H,l..ll,...P.q!.4I.'l\^.o|?.(yJ.q|.'Ll'.i5....1:l..'aA.,.i9.4.|33+
si1h.ii(a^t...i^trm9](.c.y!4{...f.'.t*s.'.q!...9|!rlc.+.).,4....r.t.h.l.t.ll.hY1pq9.1,,'6!F,'t3.....1.q
bc+NaaArnolc(vtcap.rrl {hc

ii rngrrsr
itunJix;;;,

mo\c(vtQt 4(ar?/.. t.q"cfqt cfrVer'.r\?.q.

.r..1.h.t....f.y:y:g.4...yiyq

""'1"

5. A realgasX behavesq!-most
likean idealgas Forn molof gasX at pressure
p, the graphof volunne
V versus
t
temperature
f is shov,,n
below.
Vollhe

Z/ce'

60.

,v'

/\

^l

P>r

,24
/'/'

40-

''dzal
it i\ an
3a\?
Lau]
t{ obzls C[no,'les'

t.t\'

,,t

a/"

\\'

I&ar 1as )t rlr or l-l( B\'t17

a,)

6,tk+c7J, 7*L)''

-loo

(a)ii)Whatis tlie mostprobatrie

identityof gasX? F->:plain
youranswer.[:r]

Flttiunn'f-(rrrum..er$f.
w',tlna .v?,1)l....r.Yfll
fL.,.nqLq!+0n\.c..4r,$
.!:.l.g....Iro..ylf.
dz.f ,^J.a?tl
u-1y61;

ii

tt<qir;f

'

rrtn*1TtN
'-7

(ii) On the grapirai:o.;e,sketchand labcla graphof the varii.rtiorr

!r)vo:urnewithternleraturear a
p'while.otherconditions
lowerpressure
ie:,nain
crrnstant.t1! ;, N(iii)At pressurep and temperatuieOoC, a gas Y showsa negativeiev;dtionfronran iciealgas
h4arkthe expec'red
volurrreof gas Y on the abovegraptr,E;pGin;;; answa:..[21
oV
....1.c\!^ltv.g.
.,......\,.
- A i s a . n q p r er ! u r ? . , . . f h t .
. , 1 o t . y n. g
( ! . . n q i M g l ec y [ ( r 1 s 3 r { n i Q 6 o a.I

1.9
.: .y,v,1.(!.,
..i 1v.,.n9.F:

6. Ozone,03 , ma! be usedas a bactericidein the treaimerrtof wastewater.The concentration

of ozonein wc.iermay
be determined
usingthefollowirrg
equation:
os(g) {' 3l-(aq) + 2H' (aq)
)
Oz (g) + lg'(aq) + HaO(l)
In an experiment,500.0cm3of a vrastewatersamplewas irr:atedwithexcessof iodideions.The volumeof oxygen
gas collectedfromthe reaction?.125.0oCand 101.3 kFa was 10.0crn3. Catculatethe;concentration
of ozonein iire
wastewatersamplaunderthe aL'oveconditions
of Lempei'ature
and pressure.[6!

nRT
P\1.
i ifY'iod)
=i(t,lti)Fqt)
ici: u;b3

i: a,l1li,'!r?t

7. Ammoniais ciirectly
synthesised
from nitrogenand hydrogenby the Haberprocess.Ammoniais usedin the
manufactureof nitricacidand is alsoconvertedto nitrogenous
fertilisersto be usedin agriculture.
(a) Ammoniadoesnot exhibitan ioealbehaviouras assumetlby the kinetictheoryof gases.Explainwhy ammonia
showsthis behaviour'.[2]

Amrvtotuu
44s ho,s{*rt uotnrtre
'0""
-".l"deadf
"tt^rt"r

bufr,p!^
.W_tVg.l.:

;,"1

law. l1l

P:*q
LL

1-\.

(ci)Asampte
ofgases
.on*n=unu."1il"'\t,i,s"t
ndt)Jhanclnitrbd"en
Determine
thedensitv,
"rhlHi', of 30"Q.J3LJO3 K
of thissampleunderatnrosphe.ric_pEmfd a temperature.
R,is 6.3'lJ K'nrol-'and
pressure.
p,is-1.01'x
theatmospheric
t0t ea1
IThegasconstant,

lr.3t)(zlat-ao)
f,#Effiri{l0s

r6na14l

A.
--t. qild^-'
tffi\'

ffif"Ei-elf[_0-i!,,,

r) In liqrriclstate. th* par-licles

a,e stil:ck,s,--ly
are far less
f,ackedwith *.[ttlt, -sp.:cebetween thern, The,refcre,liquids

(oMPvetsl
bl( .
gasen.
__*__
__tiran
panicies
(ii;1"he
Conli4,v_oV-!-._
irttheliquidare,incor.rstant
rnGrion
Thekineticejergyof theparticles
inci'e
ases
_
Itr{Vuat'J((
witfr(iii)The pariiclesare heldtogettierh,yone of moie typesol __.jlt_ej11g(
!!lo!_ forces,butthssefoicesar:enotsti.onq
ertoughto tie thenrin fixedpcsiticn Hence,a tiq,ric,'r. .;ffii"]vwd_.4-yl
-.lq-fi_ngt-_hou(_ &jl_dg_ilgP(
(iv)The particles
canstillmcvepastoneanotf,eifre.eivTlieiefor'ea iiq;.tirj
6;-.r,
flow,can be tr-,cured
andassumesilre
the ceniair,er
.
---- ll_q!.(-___o{

L)

z,Xl#/1""1r^
*t?\
*,, 7.,rnn"q
l
'r
'P v l t vJ 5I,y,"r5

--'l

w 1 \lxwi
r o0: r 1 0O t a : l v r o c l u n
tzvlswl
1 v ) l I p tU
J0
tl
u

'

flrrorOE 7a- $\

nsllw,u. rtrd
('n,wrrl

'

OV \

io oU
4 4 ,",0c(n1
:,JlJ)

-nv'l'^ 3l+

*- E Pt't
[Dr* 110,qA
+2X l-ll?'Yrd

(?'"3,f
,rcd,trt

).,rs'azd

-Mt*

?rtan+vs
/1

/r
ilt

tft,.lOtvrl)vo)

slrn)orow
y,,.tbu

l$to.l J llnltlout

Jo ou)

\w l0 nv/

Jo't''

v/ns;il,r"'ba Ww).1
Uotl
(,r6i
1v5r,noJnn Y

@$avT,voJla ) la-t
s[,rol+uspodrn

1pr,lVSI

lo )+wI

llvoUqttnf,z

prnTu o+ z$uo1csnQnt
{+uor',nrrJrn vYL

lxvl?r {

' no.l'^ot

\; t 1rr:' t i r ' *t o & ,,

:i y[X
oy

)Ja lrn s

'll::'Y"v7'nb11

-,''nJrn
l.,a
L*,V .ct f,1,,,00cnora9I
-rl tu','-n1
v^ocloJ
s oE l,oL,.!,\P

l:"Li' f,aa lojon'-LTrltitrQ,r.'oaloar4-t791r9 )-va)

>t Ol) -;,

prnblt Ja ?'r^:saiJ'nodonT
vqt.4socl?p

I
n/

\vb < ,
j,
\ , 0t 1 | 0 w t l l n s

P\to;

ftzst irrfortanf)

ffi

Sutr'[aC(
(i) When particleson the
gainenoughenergyto overcomethe intemotec;ular
of the liquio.
forces
_
aHv4t*tuA
e1
theyv.rillEsr:ape6becorne -VaPilur patiites ,nJini. prccessis caiuJ _VgglIAt_U1_
(ii) In an opencontainer,the 6boveproiess ccntinue,s.g-r\ti!
no.___!fttd_
remairrs.But in a closed6cntained,
the
vapourparticles
aretraooedand tireywiil
- { 0llde ___ withwallsof the container.
A pressure
called
-----J!po"
exerted.
?'ess"c ol' ti4 ;e--;.is
(iii)some particles,
aftercolliding
withwailsof container
r0t(
or,-eg9h
other,vrill
. theirkineticenergtarrd
re-entertheliquid.Thisprocessis catled Condensj{19^
(iv) In the beginrring,
rateof evaporation
Vor llan
rateof condensation.
jll
Eventually,rateof evaporation
Z4
uA'li
rateof condensation
_
(
A constantand maximumvapourpressurecalled ea+w6IeA Vc+?ovr
PreSSvr
of the liquidis obtained.
A dynamic
ea , u i l t v t v { t
is achisvedbetweenthe liquidand its vaoour

vit)
I Vapourpressure

I a liquid

()
/apour pressureo
a solid

Pressureexertedby a vapourvrhen
rblJre
'i

{ stvie

Pressu
re exertecl
by a vapourwhen solld

and

V4|
- i _ uvr
- - - . - +6921151!
.---_--l In

? qvribrr,A I

Boilingpoint

no r r n a \b ' P

{h (

Nla,aal

'thu

s!ur( 0l

Thetemperature
at *n;.6 tht

Qt

,al(

+O

1)rrl

Melting
freezingpoinl

vn* ,

A moreQolat$)liquid
-76-Na( has

ta/a4kI----rnrermolecular
boilingpninthut
L,ql^r-{

!k_

forcesbetweenmclecules,so ii has
vapourpressure.

nL

.*zt-n

t A

,t+kfr+Et"t ,Pkk
i*+hluv(^'ov(
', valovr
t
vuy&'t(

Exercise:

l^'3U6.[rooool
1. vuaterandethanot
arebwosolvenisnormaily
usedin tnetaooratorf
l)rcs\vQ
a)A graphof vapourpressure
versustemperature
oJrg3j,"rgl.o.e.thanol
is shownbelow.

P'(Jrur(

uf ahcvrdl
buirinlp''^{
ly*^r

o{ N^+(r

tr-"*i'",.^{
Vapou

pressue

/atsn

( Mor
h
rAfurQ-

i) Lrefine
theterm vapoutpro""rru[, )

.....LU.,.v.+p.?!/r...re.l:Yt9.,
iL..tt^q....fr:llurf....3(119d....,hy....+...v.rpry./....f.4t
..ir r.1....e.r{.y:ti.h:y.m....

'.....,w..Jh..'..:}'i...t:t'r:'d'.'...[!r,.''f'....1lld.'..tr::r:1!'y'|!,'''iY:',f,'.t

C o r * a i , 1 p rt J

4lSg

0] wble( w,{h

v'rrl(e Qne. 16. T In',r laad t trV An ir\frca,sel4 tl''e vaPav( presSwrq
1af
'W"*trtlq?our
;neraa\i^?" * zwtfr a4vvo.
t
E"ag*ahon +
KEt
T+
b
65(\6\m

7tga5"^'r4'

.t

CTIRISLAU

shapesf or the unit cellsare:

ThescsevenPr.rssible
(a)cubic

4
a= b= c

{ttl

4x= 4y= 4z= 90'

Examples:NaCl,CsCl, Fe, Kl

(d)Orthorhombic

(c) Tetragonal

b)Hexagonal
,.-!--a

ffi

lliilil"

ilrs,i
[.1

'V:L/'
A = O*

llllr

a=

b=

(t) Monoclinic

ar

4.x= 4y=.1,2* 90"

E x a m p l e sC: a C O , ,S b , B r

a* bt c
4x= 4y= {z= 90o
Examples:CdSQ, PbCl.,AgNO,,
. BaCO.

a= b* c
&x= 4Y-- 4z=9Q'
ExamPles:TiOr, Sn, BaO,

rx = 4y = 90"; t,z = 12o.

Examples:SiO", FeBr, AlClr,Sc
le) Rhombonedral

b*

(gl I rrclrnrc

ax b* c
4x* LY+ 4z+9Q"
Examples:cuF?, NaHSO.,CuSO.,

4x= 4"=90";4yx9Q'
Examples: KlO,, NaHSOr, MgCl,

Cubiclattices

vdv2

l . T h c r c a r c t h r e t ' r y p e s r _ rcf u b i c l a t t i c e s .
1 a ) S i m p l ec u b i c

(b)Face-centred cubic

(c) Body-centred cubic

t { a m p l e :K C I

E x a m p t e st :? ,N a C t ,C u , A g , A u

Number of partrcles ln a cuDe

E x a m p l e sC: s C l ,N a , F e , C r , M n

l. A particle in a unit cell can be found in four different positions.

2 . I I r e a c h P o s i t i t l u i. t o n l y c o n t r i b u t c ' sa f r a c t i o n o f i r s v o l u r n e o r u l a s st o i t s u n i t
c e l l ( T a b l e2 . 2 )
Tablc 2.2

lltl

Particle at corner
oJ unit cell

Particle at s i d e
ut''it-4{,i.

P a r t i c l eoll
faie of

cell

Particle in centre
of unit cell

i Pgsition of
I narticl'e
I

Fraction of
particle per
unit cell

I
,'6

'i
I

l ' T h e t r t r m b e r o f u e a r e s te q u i d i s t a r t tp a r t i c l e so f a p a r t i c l e i n a c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e
is termed its

't'l

tr

I
rii

............11.....y.ri:r.gu..
r,
.qy.?.pt.?.+::?.r....t?{:pe.*sl....Ls....w.qtu.
ffi#$"$ (r'ot tn s.;rtabur)
(i) ln solids,pa(iclesareheld,
together
bystroilgattraciive
for'ces
in a regular3-dimensiopal
structure
inthecrystal
cailed Crilrta\ lattice)riqaur
-16-d,ri,rcrnn
*"1
(ii)Thebasicrepeating
unitinthevstructure
of a sdtiois called
the urail gzr I

(iii)Thereare 7 typesof basicunitcells/crystalsystems:_

Systemswithattea@
rightangle
hexagonal

W"
ill':'ru
ffi

The_]eas!_
symmetrical
Monoclinic structure
Triclinic

ars
a*b*c
ii l:*l
{tg-l a=o*c
t'ffi"no,-,.
vi*, 2e4val 'with no
i

?auaI

IiG-ano 1
rightanglel
, ^Y j (iv)These7 unitcellsare calh
t\i
.[&lX(v) For eachof the aboveunii

Ti{\"\
r

-l

*with h0
equalangles
and J!_u_
equalsides

unitcellsas the particiesoccupyilre co?,iEEof theseuniicellsonlv.

are 3 typeeof sub-unitcells

\-

$nt ortupy

xffi@..stq1'ta'^qi.

iI

particles
in arrunriceii

XL

1b

a.

slrnple cubic

body c(entejed
cubrc

f,a(;eceftteid cubic
(tcc)

N c p f p a r i i c l e si n a n u n i tc e l l

= /Px*)+I
\*

Thebodyand
ntredunitcells
anCthefacesof the unitcells.

6/

,1,\
r

No of particles
in an unhcell

It

\Vu"(

'

C multiprimitive
unircellsas there

,* 1"ta
centre

(vi) Numberof particlc:s

in an unitcell( = tat(iceccint)dependson the
of particiec
andtheamountof unit
F,osition
theyconiribute
to theunitcell/ Inenunti:er
of uniicellssharing
tneparlcutar
panlcie.

lfj

C'ulc,c

Ogr*,{/\
CXD:lt
( t z s r t l e t c r )p o c k e d
)

COf,P-.tr
nfW BdXL*Y)
( rnlerc atottY pr^crced
)

\ffr
rh
t4Y^Val?
I{ '
)6x-ta
t\

,, Mq.,\
.l d ? a ^ s+ '
lmf Lin rjrrabtrl)

cubics+ntdv(
E'.1 l^.q- u,,,\red

e.g graphite,diamond

O clO Na+

NaCl

face-centred
cubic
structure

face-centred
cubicstructure
.)nvm\t, r o[ grrovrtA',14 o,t
coordination
numberof Na' >6
coordination
numberof Cl-= 6

face-centred
cubic
structure
diamond

coordination
numberof
Cu atoms= 12
Eachatomhas 6 other
atomstouchingit in
eachlayer.

Svm:'v.r
htUy
( ills.- iu"'':,

Moltgitarstuct,4

Therearealso3 atoms
touchinganyparticular
atomin the layerabove
andanother3 in the
layerunderneath.

Exercise:
structureof potassiumand the cubicclose1) By usingappropriate
diagrams,discussthe hexagonalclose-packed
packedstructureof copper

' For

,^q uf the a+orqg iS :

fotatsiv",r, 41,rupdcf

'fLo

tr4o+.nA
00t1e, n rr- aLat
tJl

q\rlw

+
fj{";i

-ffi:l\,:
ffiii\:

i"i"i

f-o( col)Yr

T l , a f . l l e a . l ' n qp a * f t , n " t
tt,

4-A

rf i"r;'t<'

o:;.**-.t1
r,
:'I

i_ _": tu'

itni )
fdrr

dt.[lernt structura
I
1 Allotropesare
statedue to the differentanangementof the particles.

formsin whichthe ,"."

.l"r"nt existsin samephysical

2 essu
- eachcarbonatom undergoes
fD3
Reason:- $on
nybridisation
ingiantstructur
' eacfi carbonatom is bondedto tF
other-carboq
atoms throughstrong
2. Very hard
cantarq
bondsin
arrangement Reason: flrovl
@ral
\A a\a(\+ lW
to form diamond-type giant

Ll.arkst
MateriO\

6,Jsffitttr

coval^t
bond

3. electricalirrSvlal-0f
Reason:Att lLc I+ vavrta

- usedas
Alr"astvP\

-htqV vatoutY
tui4na *ou tt
J-

el&NA o[ each ca"bo't

a4oM hdt btp,^,ud [or
rnj.trl o detoa\\?de

/---'

4. HlqL
--f,.

't1

*(1fr\\z

J-l

6v

refractiveindex
rl^inrl

h1ql^
5.
density
Reason:'Due
to the ClotQ
packing structure
eachcarbonatomundergoes
2 hvbridisation
r)
--SD
"
eachcarbonatombondswith
othercarbonsatomsthrouoh
covalentbondsto form
hex44onAI rings.
The hexagonal
ringsare arrangedin
layerswith
Ne alc. Va'r &, uuaa)
betweenlayers
frA4rr\nI

rtferutahL-(L^a

1. softand slippery
Reason:weakvan derWaals
be+wte
n \a1114 ailow
the laversto slide'over
eachother
2. highmeltingpoint
Reason:strong C* C bond
betweenatomswithinthe layers
(StrongerthanC-Cin
diamonddue to the delocalised

G C b o nl i , r
J,/na4

,(tOl\t{a

- usedas
-'orna/v1cn*Jeld
jxwttry

Usedas
h'of,, ilqfx76tup
lvXrtaaf ' o,,d
I
\
l r ? ' r CI i f t a r , l I ,
(mr1.lv,t
^OJ .

# ctorl/
3,oYV.4e

(arcrrfiltf
pue.- s4*ta/rr,

(-( t^:^,t
,. ,;;,H$,igilf;?r

,"';\t

,.o.,e\

i-'.;{).lc'
A**

II

I ri
I
I
;t

33S,pnr

142..Irnr

Fullerence
Ceo

EachC a(omundergoes
hybridisation
Eachcarbonatomis bondedto 3
othercarbon?!rrqs,ithe 4theectron
is delocalised'withi/
the molecule.
carbonaiomsE6 bondedtoqetf'er
by stong Covalad bo,nd to
form 12 pentagonand20 hexagon
faces.

!!'

- Usedas .
elrcodat i/)
. k,-^:t./ t' 5

goodelectricalconductor
Reason: -1- of 4 valencee of
a C atomare usedfor bonding
andeachC atomhas \
delocalised
e
4. lessdensethandiamond
Reason:layeredstructurewith
,l Crrl Lr W aal!
befuieenlayers

Usedas
superconductor
at
10-40K
catalyst

1. electricalconductorwithin
the moiecule (poorelectron
delocalisation)
Reason: Eachcarbgnatomhasone

....dq
rp,setli.(
4...?l
:..c!.9.1.....

2. lowerdensitythanpraphite&
diamonddueto its holtor^,

*iifl,';'Hi.llS"a^uo
y-++
)
3. lowmeltinoooint

Reason:
..tirlttr...r.q
l(:.y.1.q.t.....
structurewithweak
intermolecular
van derWaals
forces

\ 2 ltnta3
>or,xa1

Exercise:
1. b) (i)Withthe aidof a diagram,describethe structure
of diamondandgraphite. [4]

tr?[^]U.
A.qw
) laqert
"""""""CI""

(ii)Whatis the relationship

betweendiamondandgraphitein termsof structure? t21

" " "'::r''"'"

rssl stft'

d-lbnt-'r\v,vrS )^ tho Sqrns

P"' T
f.;B.{ir,I1a.F.FiffiK-,8Fni$t
10.1(r)F,phasediagram
is a diagra.m
of-l211!t1e versus lenytt,{,*vn thatshowstheconditions
at which
a substance
existsas --l!!d--::\t
_ or. 77fr_(ii)A phasediagram
shov.,s
theeffects
of pressure
ancitempeieture
onthe lnlltcal s.tat(
of a substance
It enablesus to predictthe mosl

rtCr-bte
a a specifictemperature
and press;ure
_._of a givensubstance

t).

t,)

ttrl4cb)-

k: :

,rhtr t,,flurl
6buve

c^nd.prassu(
0chrttwt ;' t'-41etpera\vrt
''
'oti
!

t5

L'qbW'
t CtrqnoF l'is+inq'''is
't\ uM vu|ovr
w^w
C;z 0r oJt|u sub*anq
- 0/c:Ll
0^"rtDtr.
tr-(
( i i i )rAtyplcat
t y p i cphase
a
l
p h a s ediagram
d i a g r aot.
m oqurJn'uir,l'q;s
f e p u i e s u 6 s t ashown
n c e ias
s sberow:h o w n a s b, e-l[oLwt:.-o \,)b\ia^t!\
J
!
\
I
A
A
L
A
.--"u"
,t o[ th,e
.^o!
tl

a,l

0r't\\(tl

o,nt
1

pr"..rre/at,n'\

q1

A-1't1

An area/region=

A Ji^g{(

Phr\ld

line = the.setoftemperatures
andpressures
at which
lh? +d0 pfn',6er Co?X'.lt! i4

equ\ttbriu(v).

s.l

AM

o4S

ss(lle
\On

5:iT-*

Characteristric
;howsthe'conditions
C0
C0lld
of T & P at
atwhich
which
and
\A\eas<
showsthat an increasein temperatu
rc will
'- also
showsthatan increase
in pressurewiii inCraS(
-showstheconditions
t\I.v\d
of T & P at which
and_
- showsthatan increasein temperature
r n C q I f
will
- alsoshowsthatan increasein oressurewill i ^crzat (
-showsthe conditions
(otid
of T & P at which
and
- showsthatthe meltingpointof solid
lncral(
- is a condition
of temperature
andpressureat which ! 0ll
substance
coexistin equilibrium
- At triplepoint,thevapourpressu(e
of solid e4uT\\ +O
Criticalpoint, B

6t-6'r{(to qas,CL,.ai1r-40r'50rttr

$Ju'v'"m
temPerature
/"c J

tG+

are in equilibrium.
the vapourpressureof solid.
pointof solid.
the sublimation
Ua?0"' _are
in equilibrium.
pressure
thEvapour
of liquid.
theboilingpointof the liquid.
ti 4 vld
are in equilibrium.
pressure
withincreasinE
aa\
u

t r4hzsf Y\lkfhlw
- is the ' --_l_-T-r
at Whicha liquidcan be at equilibriumwith its
Ac,'
- is the nnaX'hurvl 4'er,nfXrA+u.{
underwhich a vapour can be [ondensed to
I Drcssr,rt{
its liouidby increasing
on;r.

icql \(4Vu6+r4
tr.'./Oua+,ta
bovpthe Lr t+ical
to form
, vapourcannotbe condensed
i4[d eventhough
pres'sure
houghhighpres'sure
is exerted.
exerted.
r.nd
r ia urJ ad
rI ri4urd
point,theliquidandvapourbecome inolis ttnqvtsLabt( L6fi st att 4

nyslcal S
physical
oillt X
((ii)
l U cchange
n a n g e Iin
np
point
state
t a l e tfrom
rom p
X tto
O Y.
Y.

It

t^d

r {i"r.., sotid ,tp ri4vid +d

4vvl tt d r v L 4 q \
fF
n r"M
r ^ |rrrithq
h?\

.(iii) \the curveOC slopestowardsthe right-hardsr_.de.---)r6nl,r

ll".r-

It o'r1

'tht

y'L^tvjtt?d

t,.?r(..n

t
lovJe( density)
H,4llr density)
(l.......---=iowcr
ual\*
|
vofume
=volume
pressure favoursthe more___lg,1pd1l
An
increase
rn
|
|
lWhen
A,/hon
nraacttra
r'n^aaoao
tttitt farn,re
$:7^^-tm
pressure
rncreases,
iti t will
favour the
formationof

JCTCAS(

\oA h!\

lrrsve\. ry"r"u,athisher

\\..,-l

- ,An \AUea\Q i4
ptessa< loVOu4
lh.
th?- Mo{
Mo({{ coupatt,
c'Montt, phas-e.
,,Lr.te
|
|
phase
ture is neededto melt solid.

ccan
a nincpas('frTLit
i n c p a s ( ' { T L i l i lr!
.r',,"^["rY\|'bsWj:--TnFectlQi^P.r!!vrewlllshi{f

prnh of/'tttEcq.
+hc ilffi{ffi.'ffi,ffitrSi1trS"(ffiffirtrrtatin3
nnlttrr,^pressure
/atm
J
v
roin
f
^
t|
[]orn1
'

oFC0r.

)lrcs-svia6
,r-u*inqp.l7

Y
!-

lb0(r)
Wlit^t

'C
I ttc/t ;t
point= 0.0i
friptepoint
0.0i
0.006atm
atm tttat[
, 0.006
| Triple

thq?
J',iuY.

A,

(rnurs corryaUyL^aSt)

{v
fu

TUr,!'l

ruro'clsorrd

- l'lea+ it kle61p! h*'t oro

Sur r uv,,dir qtUOl\,ar ntC )
\nv,ta' i1r ,l o\ca1t o 6or i J ,

Solid

+rc,,rl
Vil{W

,,

:
oC l.atm
= 100
Normalb.p
b.n=
l^0p^"C..
, I atm
5o.*"1
N o r m am
l .p=0oC,1atm

\ . . / . 2l
t o a8L atm
m
l \ -Critical
r l u L ; i l r Ppoint
u l n t . - J l +374'C.

__j*-VNat* 6n
2l8l___ --\ -_]':1'9_
|
r0 rivr<
tt 4K*S
i
I
t

I.ewer
*nrr\l
->&M

4\e eqvit,ba,h^
*bov<lo +lvvrt

stcle ol a \4bs\aac,.

pr csSur l;Auadv I
r'\t/+lA7porrt t^c,t-?QBs
l+

) llenu,

fi''JJT',|i;'f*\;**..Y
'l?u'4,
[iln ig?::F,'-F&

(r,ve 0C

()'l^y^,,"

tell ur llnat '.

d P'ess"ea*

wl^\Lh Sotid i I i n e T v i t i b r l v * 2
r^r,tht' r 1vd,.

CD*r^

i^(reay,
cx*e,^Gl
prersvre

YLI rrzralfrnQpolnf

i/lCf@t?l

Irtf<r 2'a'trrrrn t'apD

(0, (s)

-> tetcl|'v,'
&"ny

(otCO

lot;u funtl

CO,
ffi L,nufu
Lr,1<

oc stop(E
ro wlt

i\

OC srop(\ +o ri\t"d it

Toc'u5,q
*\o

lrassvre
t cLot

*o.a confac(

Natar
}tl",onsuLtMn(aJ.

.
,trf sorid

',

v'- l-lr0(s)
=
( Lr,o (s)
=r,

H,oft)
,o(!_)

LtzorL)
K a,o(s)G_->j
\*-i
\ . , ----,

orrl

_P1ts
-)

0L

line slof to

4 prctr rrrqt

h,

Linr ft
'tat ' lf)

6ry ^pari atto v1

, hlfa,tv(

r H4 atn
3 f,,n4 lt

ho'uu ttr eXptor4

?

((tonhnt(

4'6.8*"n8"+hf

X.rd,rn4,
6

u'Po

-)t

*a+.n/cu_'P'"(
_lp
-L,,strrid
,
,

tbofrF)rt,0 (t-)
)(R

i4

? " ,i

low-0,' drar,'t

t1 l 2 nu n 4

.1 abr ,

Ul,l^

/-J
G_)r1

rl

h tq u l
J/

futv' l,y

\rv1dtlpn- yolvr44

-) tqwu(

fL"K

r { JJvr ,t Fonuu" por'(

(o*ryac4

@.

-fo,idqKb\

n7*f

-+ absorb
^ra,t,[ e-nd,.l hpo.t<
-)- J*r."'rr,;
nrlm
a V;;';'t';t
; \

-) ^r.rr4v
q Jp,t\T-:pffie*l ./

/\ tryz{

'o*,r'^^

(nurq
corvteac,tphoJB.)
')l--/
l 4 C r(,a\t i4

'

or z ttQvtd

'

fW

juro
,-1.,0
n"
il'.+<
.-)re.du4
vow/4(

Desciipiior.i

Line/ i Eqrrilibriumon
point j tne tine/ Point

irrt reaS(
- lt showsthatan inr-:rease
in iemperature
will
subli/^atiun vapourpressureof ice.
.lepDr,t,on- lt alsoshcrvsthatan increasein pressurewilt i^crcas(
pointcf ice.
sublirnaticn

tlre

- lt shcr.rsthatan increasein temperature

will i r l C r 2 a S C
pressure
oi water.
vapour
- lt also shcwsthat en increasein Dressurewill incrza!e
boilingpoii'rtof water.

r,1urJ*{ as
l- Line

- lt showsthaithe neliingpointof ice decreast*ith increasing

pressui'G.

loc

[,ft+z

l-lowtC zxprorn?
Water

t4v,

hi4her density)

6q

ice

?-+
(

(M\htlef voiume

lo^) Q-( density)

hiqler volumebecauseof the

torniltir.,or hrldoqe,nbo,^d

JL

An increasein pressurefav.ours
the morecompactphase]ie the \
I i 4 ui d Watcr Hence,at higherpressure,a
formationot
is neecjedto melt ice.
lovla{ -- temperature

Qn
Met+i40

T',a.]-"

,rtr,I

ryqu6(
Ar',fip>k1l
Line

(oriJ
+ r,lviA

\JU

havenc timetc assumethe orderedstructure

of s0l)d iCF
the molecules

I
Pcint

Sorld
e tr11uid

? 3o'
+--I PointI

- is the

lBl

iiluidftar

h ,4lnos1 'tanru at wQ-

underwhich water

vapourcan be cohCensed
to fuate;-

Crfiiral
rnt
;oc;

- lt shorvstneterrperatui"e
at v,,hich J0lU ica
existin eouilibi'ium
at 1 atm

lrtqr'd?v'1",
i

- it shovrsthetempera',ure
at wrrichthe
of waterequals 1 atm.

and

lr!v\l

wa171

)rt\W(L

rf'

v
l -l
"O

As4a4c'/(0,

@-"

Tho sondft'tJvidtiv\e of Flr} stop(\+o (ett

(u,U^ pnts'.r.( ^
, *b vuiltrn3 yotnt,J.)
TL.! sor?d
f ttcl"td (tnB o{ CD, sroprr {o
n+

(vhpn

\-,

pr(ss,r, iAcr(asq ie
,

wt,lt,tj

trr*Q f)

/<\

( o l4ruu
\J

i\

;rhr

S-tabl
( physrcaI J*a4r
oI
tiTvd l,,Ja\9(

11col sta4q of
)r^')

u4-b,tL
t^

t\

'tr\^L

H.O

Ml/)"imv4

3^:
prtJ\vr^q to

f"rn,..rq

at voort

(o,
"4

un^Yr'

.o,r-44
co,d,/,v

tIX"tJ CU ?\
^
b,(au

z--

onfl"f ,n
I

T r i p l e p o i n t =- 5 7 o C , 5 . 1a t m
Criticalpoint:3loc , 73 atm
pt.= - 78oC,I atm
Normalsublimation

Pressure
/ atm
I

73
5.1

tI - - - - - - - - liquid ./

solid

1.0
/ oC
Temperature

porn{
Line/
point
Line

Equilibrium
on
the line/point

Solidl)Oas
Line
Liquid!gas

Nameof the
process/point

Description

- lt showsthatan increasein temperature

will increQt thevapour
pressureof solidCOz.
Sublimation
- lt alsoshowsthatan increase
in pressurewill l4crear( the sublimation
doposr+ioA point
of solidCOz.
- lt showsthatan increasein temperature
will 'lncr?as(
thevapour
Sq+ioA
Vr{POri
pressureof COz.
evAporation
intr?AS( theboiling
- lt alsoshowsthatan increase
in pressure*,,,
b q i 1 " z lQ
fon&rrCa+ra pointof CO2.

Line

- lt showsthatthe meltingpointof solidCO2

pressure.
increasing
SolidCO2
a---+
hlql^qr
density)
t.---JSn4allrf volume

Solid<:liquid

melting
I
I

inCreqr(

v4i6

liquidCO2
(

PN Lr density)
hi r,lhrr
volume
---.----J-

An increaspin pressure
favoursthe morecompactphase,ie theformation
htatttrr
of l0l'rd C0i
Hence,at higherpressure,'a

'Lri:-'I
(tr*tomettsotiodor.'

COz(l)shiftsto the left

?lzO
f
Point

p
Solid
liquidQgas

Triple
points

rittrrd and
At thispoint, (otid
arein equilibrium.
3q\
- At thispoint,thevapourpressure
of solidCOz
j I ?4ua t
uapourpressure
of liquidCO2.

Critical
point

I . ^t
hi0ltact{ ter,npcrattr(
- rsthe
underwhich CO2vapourcanbe
'
condensed
to liquidCOr.
- Abovethe
Crl+\Ca\+2$Drr4tur{ CO2 vapourcannotbe condensed
to formliquidCO2eventhou$hhighpressureis exerted.
- Abovecriticalpoint,the liquidCO2 andCO2vapourbecome
i ndis{in4yisln
a b l{

Poiat

liquidfgas

Point
E

solid$jar

Sublimation- lt showsthe temperature

at which
point
at '1atm.
eouilibrium

l0l\

dt tu

existin

tb

-l
'f

rt"1t-')turzl'

+N!o()6u'+7'*
f-ttP*o"o;'

oY\ra) 'Pa?"lq"e sr }\P4

laru.ra$
pJwt
"sxrYJ

vl assa/o\
z'tot) -,,no^q' flY)sKn^d
?wn\or\ rl\b\ls tl

e<llqdfilwt^t(t v*"v))

fu"^'rf qq'

(rt gc,14
+

(.,0.I4

Z&q
'0o)41t yvp) funy,* ql- vt a@"xtrtf llr'? -nqq'n^Ju{

"('laai:Ntf'

Cl-ri{l:, i..AlJ

'l'riple
poirrtof CO? (--1 atm, - 57oC) lies atrovethe atmospheric
1.
pressure.So COzS.Y.bllf.(.:..
at roomconditions.
oCand P > ...5-:.1...
LiquidCOecannotexistat the pressureiessthan5.1atrn.LiquidCO2existat t t :.5-..J..
atm (tn Pl9..
fon\ )

-., t^$ry so\rol f,'0e d.oean.* mz/t

I{XWJCs'-?'ttst ^+ T>-51"c
f--. Usei as ref&er
Reason:li willnotmeltandwetthefoodstuffs
whenit sublimes
i
I

2. Usedin fireextinguishable
Explanation:In a fire extinquisher,
partiattiquefaction
of CO2occurs.COz(g) ->
CO2(l)
Whenpressureis released,the liquidCO2absorbsheatfromthe surrounCings
and vapoursiedcausingwatervapour
in the air to condenseto form mist
i 3. Usedfor cloudlRpjing to inducerainfall
Explanation:WheriCO2is sprayedintothe clouds,it absorbsheatin the cloudand undergoes
sublimation.
This
I
of the cloudand causesthe watervapourto condense
( \eoct absorteol.).
I lowersthe temperature
andfallsas rain.
I
industry
| 4. Usedto makefog in entertainment
Explanation:Sublimation
of dry ice absorbsheatfrom surrounding.
Thiscausesthe nearbywatervapour/ moisture
to condenseandforma thickwhitefoo.

Exercise:
1, Thetablebelowliststhe temperature
and pressure
for thecriticalpointandthetriplepointof a substance
X

r#/iilaiil; ib-d-'
CriticalPoint

31

Triplepoint

-57

Pressure/ atm
't,).

su[!!mesat-79!rnderatmospherepreSsuie'tnerreezing@
10 atm in oressure.\)lt?y
(a) Basedon the information
givenabcve,sketchthe phasediagramof X. [a]

for every increaseof

t -'6tG

t \dt{'^)

tO*
$;.b\'nno&'o'^
,5

5
I

- tt

:il,,dJ,q,J

(n)cetct
latetn.ft*inlloin!"(!l'i 'c

nMJ,oar,nl-' ,"r-

1 f t ^ ? a t ( ' 4! ' f " (

undera pressureo{ 75 atn. l2l

o r-753 \
-5
-<t'

| (_ 1 )

.s.
.!--r".l = -+3"c/

5 a+rq

tiatn

?'t

(-ti.-<'io*.i-b7 L
to at ^/1-+ 2-o c\rJ

r/;

i;crr^*Xf;'W'
'**f..;
-43"c
*51ocl-J"c
+).

!1

'

,./

'Y

:'

sotid { tnasLtqkr Jt"rsttyo( svolte(

volu^^r'{hc"rrigJiJ X'

,ruiry
(c) Exprain
pointofX increases
thefreezing
withpiessurqG{'
\ ., f ,'t

0r lnnallervol!,/v( .[hcn li?vid \-

soridX Las l^iql^rr d-dKt

--t,:#p,lut
a,,,n
;;:;;;; :
[ fl, nl;"rt-r,,]ni[
iijj "i ffir Fr,,'q.r1l

,/ | c\'.

ts
----------1-l-'-1.-s:A-\*- )--- ----ykt---fr9s-i!4rc--dtrgsrl-s--.-:-t-'-lcq-v!'-i---lk---119r-q-l-s$B-qt--?I1!g-t

;;;;

(i)

Hoiv cen liquidX be oL'tainedfrom dry ice? [1]'

?> 5 ^+tY]'

a>_sl'c

(ii) Stateone industrialusefor dry ice. t1l

u e e J h \ re.[.rqz,an{ t\,

lreez( tl.(

{od

svcJ..a\

\c(-cr<avv't

2. The phasediagramof carbondioxiCeis givenbelovl.

Liquid

Pressure/
atm

-78
TemperaturooC

(ii) Carbondioxidein fire extinguishers

is injtggid.lom.Indicateon the abovephasediagramthe changein the
physicaistaieof carbondioXidevrhenthe pressureof a fireextinguisher
is reduced.
t31

- '-

"n;:";;w;;"")'--;i ^kol;' tea+

nm
suffalnhn#.

]ffi;,,-*,"ffi-'*t;qid,"I;;,i
..1..........7.r:

3. Carbondioxideis a gasat 25.0oCand 1.00atm.lts triplepointis at -56.4oC

and 5.11atm,and itscriticalpointis at
31.1oC
and73.0atm.

phasediagram
for carbondioxide.[3]
OCI"i"n ahO.taU-ei'tne

I .

-51+

'2

-Jl

r rrre
7 Itr'rpc 6rl

f,L

i8

(b) Carbondioxidegas can be liquefiedundersuitableconditions.

Usingthe kinetictheoryof gases,explainthe
liquefaction
of gaseouscarbondioxideat 25.0oCby increasingthe pressure.[4]

..........I?rs.
r:vf.q.
.) .s:t.r.
rt.n.......7nPy.:
.t!.y;.:.
.)..-.:.|...t.: .9.
wherr 0reg,ure I S rrtCrQGSQdfl1(

c1A\ molecul(\

boc*rlz Ctoss,-[vor,r'yrt deCreoV{.@

......Lrlsne.le,fyl,?.{..,..Yh
...M....yjgt|1....{,.rs....h.rv.mes....:LTrgr(*.0.ys.{e.rl...9.f..

!:r:rqf::1rgs-d6i;;t,;il;J-r
r;-i,rqiilitD::-: ::: :::: : :, : -

(c) Carbondioxidegas froma fireextinguisher

is oftenusedto putoutsmallfires.A whitefog is observed
when
carbondioxideis releasedfromthe fireextinguisnerl.t*I+t ,\
(0,
abso.t l"ea{
(i) Explaintheformationof thewhitefog. [2]
(q;*6"t4+ I
hJ!.en C0,

qa\

relea\ed |rc^n *tne t,re c4arnQuirlaertha- gurroy4d'rn

e

i\

tt"\Wra\vr(

. i:*1.':l...
W.ngr
...yt3e.yr..
..tr.jl:...?r:
. 1:.ri6:r:....J.t...t:r..*3
,

(ii)A fi69extinguisher
cylinder
hasan internal
volumeof 2.00dm"andcontains
1.80kg of carbondioxide.
Calculate
th. pt"Srrreoicarbondioxideoas in the cvlinderat ZS.6uCltSt

r r V : nR T

_(frfrffi
rt,rqrier)
rri':(l:::ii,;I
?-_S DtxrO'?a ta st)

-f\qn *hu

'|

'

'

:qlrndtr
ertgL.g!:...*!!
.01.i.r.........

' "
;;liia;ii;a'
+thcE
Fp;;+"s
gell#ifi 0 non-uqatll(,r
solvr'rt fiO
solvr'rt
Iti6ttifd;piiiFirfiE$jqfF$Slv-Ffit
non-uqatll( solutt

ffii,$F,fj,
-) loryrion/
is ^ ;;;;;-

;f" ;il;

ii$E$Ffr.fF,6-lvtrit
Pu'd
- -^ P.u'd
J
'F$tlp'oprfrits',?'survrn+

S
t &' nr"rrtz. Of Pa,+icle
properties
areproperties
tnatCepenJo-n'V
on frr,ruuntOI Sot*/+
1 colligative
of non-volatiie
solutein solution
butnotthenature
of thesolute)

yegg6 molzw[(

.\,

c c,.I

3 ua1,l'"
for cxarvrPltqlvtol(
I "art"o\c
tv l(

( t-tTtLfuVvapoar
6\

e$,9)

pvrQ solvcpf

L. volriiir selvc:nl

L3 ,JatL{

Wrt l"
.p.v.t. Folvont
I ricn'"'-t.ii;?i'";5ta,tr,r(
sorvt(

\ ! h e n a n o n - v o l a t r lseo l u l ei s a d o e ot c a s c l v e n l ,t h e v a p o u rp . r . s s u er er e r i e d b y t h e s o l u t i o ni s
v a p o L !pr r e s s u | ec f t n e ; : u I es c l V e n e
t t t h e s a m el s n . i p e r a t u r e .

l0Wcr

t h a nt h e

Fa ' Fl'
p
u
t
e
I
n
[.,eascn:
s O l v el i l . s r i v e r i l i r a St i r e w n o l e s u ! ' l a c e{ c r e ' , , a i : c r t a t l 1
cn
coccur.
f i c r ' ; e v e r ,i n s o l u i r c n .p a n 0 1 t h e s u i a c e i s q 6 6 . r - r p i bd. . ' t h e n o r r - v c l a t i i es < l.u l e o a r t ; c l e s .H e n c e , l e s s s o l v e n t p a n i c i e s

(ar',
;'Sc
unce
e!,i:rrii:ii(:-ri.
( $vapourtn L*W -'F*fr,lO.to.rldr)
.fl

,ffi rt)tr cjta{rr,rn

\ {xprr^atruX
0'4
I

P1\1 ?-A

r_

ni'rth ;k',bl,*fn 64S'r{^'e| -. ,r*n vo\qr,lesdve,rrfY

-*or*
E.l'', rxh-F-F"E49v4P*t
go*rcles { trl+ A|;*t*
lerretr va.potrrVu*tute'A

i':1'

t\0 Ma{t((

u)hc,,ttt c prupcrtia
r oI

llrt

s ^ v l , Qt 4 o o l
p
llaAttlL\
Colli
3atrv( frofcr{ru-r,
"nol

\-l

5A4t

ol atuonol

A0

r / o u ro A d \ 4

o[ *tot of soru{-( *hrr i\ a,,rl

,

l , ^ nt0 o I K r j 0 :

\'--

l043 a\

s o l u r t cI A i

t--+
r \--./

L)

r '/T
wotP,

lar/{tnQ

p 0tnf

rll

ul c^( T L T tg tlc sary(.

--: / t7l
fi
t2l J

hnu

-+ Grueott +t- 6annrJtCLtaaTt +0 val)our aatily I

Nw

1t ig

Aoq.vov,ftlt,
crwn rdotde

)A

.$R

PrealR

!-lr 0 wrolec.rlesaftla

[ h a - A t u c z | <#
tt {te sot'urhon&crzotY'

pa'+of .thesr. tocr

i,t, occ,prrd brl
flruuto,
rfrhcl

v,',Xh
ercr!\)w,ll
vapo(st

, r_zsS ,rro,lrfI^o/crca
l4s Ca4

6#v^

$ on"er.*.<+on

t+-

qi-tcos,ef2

s.r.[oce,
& t &fi,b,,t,orxM:glJ

" Y \rU

\u"-a ,

Cl,a"qt to
va
Ydv,r

*he (ooe* +hz wrFo.rr prfA,Eutr:.

(ort ttuuo^
CoavrtlrafuJ / . , - -

bph
lhY

.lrt
ifc"npua+
lr
0

7 ' u c P t cs o r u fy) 4

( v ), frfft, borrrn3
por,n.t
?b

\6:1

S"tr,t
f

t,tu It

xoLJ*a'1t'

Fti$:fi
,flTp-4;trd*fliffi
ffiffi"ffi3i

@ g1vatlo.noI borlln3p,rint

t bpt)

hRon

l/a |}{}c' pr.essil

lor'o

sf ssfr r er r t

-) rntrturP
* SoS."

Fsolr"en r

P^= XnPi

ts
6h sol*feusrd
t'non

in llnct+r4lTorat/
@ durrre,se
J
F,eern1 poin't

re

$+r

pf eSS:|-l re
lnrr<,rrl ng:

.Hs.eturisr.l
.g

-".t\qt\e rft?'aStrse)a
)

vayour

Pr($vr?

in sotution v l-b.:-ir pregSq-l rr=

of =,ol+-tLiorr

lg^ra '^udtn in Ct\a*'6'

ret't'lpre rE r'Lrre

,v"i|l

Thevapourpressureof a solutioncorrtaining
a non-volatile
soluteis givenby Raoult'sLaw:
Pe= Xe Peo Pa= v?poufpressure
of solution,Xn= ffiolefractionof A= na.i(na+ 6";
Poo = vapourpressure
cf puresolvent
A=solvent,B=tlealqe
/-^
Eg. Thevapourpressureof waterat 298 K is {f z f pa) Calculate
thevapourpressureof a soluticncontainin(50 e}
\-:'/
glucose( C6H12O6
) in 100g of waierat 298 K.

0.

100
It

I
ltlapot p;rssure of
O"r= s,rlverr:
jU"

g
g
H

IoT"l
t r+-------l'-

(-i
iiru+iun

l2'nn:ltt 1', i"'ii"ilg' r

:;flf;l ffi;' Jll';-#;l:tilttt")

1?il")r.'
'.'t

x 3.r-l

6,30

T'J6
-- 2 8l KPa
cltucotQ
, P.o*

29'ffiY

A<

/
't

:', (11r7?4

6
h

{ P,,J^r,,

P ,o+r, - .{ walt r

'i^ boirin3
(lncreas?
lo,nt)

rucoSL
I

zto*5
I s*tll,T'

i OIUQOiT

P
ou.l
Pot.t

boir.uthi,l\r;

J/
tl

riLp: ra ttrr>- 1aC ;

- T h c e b u i l i o s c o p icco n s t a n ti s t h e e l e v a l i o no f b o i i i n gp o r n ro f a s o l v e r iri n h e n1 n r o l eo f a n o n - v o i a t i lseo l u t ei s

drssoivedin t kg of the solvent.( oC rnol'1tg 1 ; tne ebuliioscopicconstantof water is 0.52 oC mc!-1kg-1 wfiich means
t n a t b c r i i n gp o i n to f w a t e rw i i i i n c r e a s eb i , 0 . 5 2 " C w h e n 1 r n o lc f e n " vn c n - v o t a l i l seo l u t e { ( l t , h i coho e s n c t d i s s c c i a t errs
L) rulacn I rnutz O/ sorutt
C i s r c , i , , ' ri 1
, d1 k g o f v . , a t e r .
d o c r n o t d l s ] o C i a t ?! )
(
_2\ov1\)e gr.rte5,

iltrr,ncn-vclatire
soluieoissoi.i{.rei
iirf:'sil,;snr.tnen
4ltt:1": ^i| , t uq ol ,atbt
PJ:|" t'irpa|v. bj'
ti'ieincrease
in bcilingpolnt=-aFt panicles/
it:nsprmototciissociation
x ebultioscopic
v J'
(e - gt r e i n c : i e a s e i n b o i h n g p c i nvt' o, 'ia t ewrl i e r :i ! i ' : c ic 1l l i C l i s c i s s c i v e i i n v y a i e r = ( 2 x""n3,tuili3
C.52i'C
llrrClir) i

l ' j a - ( i , c ).

Ci (ac)l

/t .:

->

2v"c

o-5) "c

7\

*"(t

"05).Lq

frr,.0/

,,,,'l'Y,;::;;...W.4.:t&.(.....:-..,
'150
Xr(ro(4

,,,.,,,...,,.ffiffi,

q"

F l e v a t i oor r+ L P = 0 ' 2 & ' C

^n

p.
l5ncrtrnJ

UeLreas<In f.

V-4Por
'1.1 p-ilrePrErcs[rE
solvsnt

of

[-

.'A''r,
f{+f

,t

S clvent
frea:airiB
Pollrt
-,r.
'ft

tI

S olution
free:ei:rq

wapor pessure
of tlr solrrticrn

rrrpcrd

Luc

('\C)

- Thecryoscopic
soluteis
constantis the depression
of freezingpointof a solvenirvhen1 molof a non-vclatile
in 1 kg of the solverrt.
dissolved
Eg the cryoscopic
constantof wateris 1.86 oCmofl kg-l

v*

Exercise:
'i2.6g of gluccs
the freezingpoirrtof a solutioncontaining
Calculate
[u1 oi*.oruud
in 150g of water.

r,(c7,nA

..

P0.,41 .

r-

r, tlr'Ur
tf -U<trl

_0.{1"a

I ntnr

?
-.;L
L

Boilirrg p*ini
i'rf s:r'rltrtir:n

-rl

.,:I

Exercise:
1 (a) Gluccseis completelymisciblewithwater.
(e4a/1999)
(i) Sketcha labeledvapourpfessurFi-temperature
graphfor pufewaterand aqueousglucoseon the samea>:is.

?r"xsrt. (atnn;

?A'o -

V<pour puA5t'rrrI

Pu'r

lzC

- V*t*
U "Ii.rm,
?.+oo
Pf\{^sul
r,rtp06

*-*2 -rronlWafuA ('(

(ii) Basedon the diagramyou havedrawnin (i) above,explainEnltativelythe effecton the vapourpressureand
the boilingpointof waterwhenglucoseis dissolved
intoits'componei-iE:--

.$rnc..gf..1P..H*{..S*.q+!*.....qn..#.f...g1dqg...*.1dS..6,'*
-vupoun'sa{r-o.1..3.$111....np

1le.e!!nisn..
.e+...v:ps:...s*t"\e.....r$
"*\1t."t...*.$*:ir
HH:.r*Lr
3y.3..s:.p.
Add't1e1
* 3t*rx3 * 31*: i lyr.ry.ll sS:*:prys*r#{fd u*+tr uarc{s
...pgr.t....:f
:lg :*qg

"8 th,

sg!*tanls occuu'eol
ql.rcqse
nolecale.
bLrnon-votarite

r,uillqleo
Pour molet^^lea
relwn 4o
r/agour preLsarc *o b (or,^)Or.

""'r""""'t'

ql,tabers ,lmofzd l,,t ,lur//,rlt

" "'u.
d"""""""'

4 q!*psP,
'
u"""""

(iii

G\,rcry td

"rqfer

@ul

Sif(Pte

?LtSttryr

;'du+,ilq6.

/ ,:-