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Definitions
Scalar form
Electrical resistivity (Greek: rho) is defined by,
where
is the static resistivity of the conductor material (measured in
ohmmetres, m),
E is the magnitude of the electric field (in volts per metre,
Vm1),
J is the magnitude of the current density (in amperes per square
metre, Am2).
in which E and J are inside the conductor.
Many resistors and conductors have a uniform cross section with a uniform flow of electric current and are made of
one material. (See the diagram to the right.) In this case, the above definition of leads to:
where
R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material (measured in ohms, )
is the length of the piece of material (measured in metres, m)
A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen (measured in square metres, m).
The reason resistivity has the dimension units of ohmmetres can be seen by transposing the definition to make
resistance the subject (Pouillet's law):
Tensor generalization
The equivalent scalar equations
can be generalized to the 3d vector form[1][2]
which is also known as Ohm's law. However this equation is only valid for materials which are homogeneous
(conduction properties are uniform throughout the conductor) and isotropic (properties are independent of
orientation).
For an inhomogeneous material, E, J, and vary as a function of position r throughout the conductor. However, if
the material is isotropic, then E and J are collinear. So at all points:
For anisotropic materials, either homogeneous or inhomogeneous, E and J are not always in the same direction, so
the conductivity and resistivity become tensors. For homogeneous materials, there is no r dependence, but for the
inhomogeneous materials, E and J are first-order tensor fields (vector fields) and and are second-order tensor
fields, all defined at every point in the conductor. The equations are compactly illustrated in component form (using
index notation and the summation convention) [3]:
where ij is the Kronecker delta (identity matrix), i.e. and are still reciprocals of each other. (The sum is over j,
not i).
Causes of resistivity
Band theory simplified
Quantum mechanics states that the energy of an electron in an atom
cannot be any arbitrary value. Rather, there are fixed energy levels which
the electrons can occupy, and values in between these levels are
impossible. When a large number of such allowed energy levels are
spaced close together (in energy-space) i.e. have similar (minutely
differing energies) then we can talk about these energy levels together as
an "energy band".There can be many such energy bands in a material,
depending on the atomic number (number of electrons) and their
distribution (besides external factors like environment modifying the
energy bands).Two such bands important in the discussion of
conductivity of materials are: the valence band and the conduction band
(the latter is generally above the former). Electrons in the conduction
band may move freely throughout the material in the presence of an
electrical field.
In insulators and semiconductors, the atoms in the substance influence each other so that between the valence band
and the conduction band there exists a forbidden band of energy levels, which the electrons cannot occupy. In order
for a current to flow, a relatively large amount of energy must be furnished to an electron for it to leap across this
forbidden gap and into the conduction band. Thus, even large voltages can yield relatively small currents.
In metals
A metal consists of a lattice of atoms, each with a shell of electrons. This is also known as a positive ionic lattice.
The outer electrons are free to dissociate from their parent atoms and travel through the lattice, creating a 'sea' of
electrons, making the metal a conductor. When an electrical potential difference (a voltage) is applied across the
metal, the electrons drift from one end of the conductor to the other under the influence of the electric field.
Near room temperatures, the thermal motion of ions is the primary source of scattering of electrons (due to
destructive interference of free electron waves on non-correlating potentials of ions), and is thus the prime cause of
metal resistance. Imperfections of lattice also contribute into resistance, although their contribution in pure metals is
negligible.
The larger the cross-sectional area of the conductor, the more electrons are available to carry the current, so the
lower the resistance. The longer the conductor, the more scattering events occur in each electron's path through the
material, so the higher the resistance. Different materials also affect the resistance.[4]
contribution from dopant atoms and the resistance will decrease exponentially with temperature.
In ionic liquids/electrolytes
In electrolytes, electrical conduction happens not by band electrons or holes, but by full atomic species (ions)
traveling, each carrying an electrical charge. The resistivity of ionic liquids varies tremendously by the concentration
- while distilled water is almost an insulator, salt water is a very efficient electrical conductor. In biological
membranes, currents are carried by ionic salts. Small holes in the membranes, called ion channels, are selective to
specific ions and determine the membrane resistance.
Resistivity
(m)
Metals
108
Semiconductors
variable
Electrolytes
variable
Insulators
1016
Superconductors 0
This table shows the resistivity, conductivity and temperature coefficient of various materials at 20 C (68 F)
Material
(m) at 20 C
(S/m) at 20 C
Temperature Reference
[5]
coefficient
(K1)
Silver
1.59108
6.30107
0.0038
[6][7]
Copper
1.68108
5.96107
0.0039
[7]
1.72108
5.80107
2.44108
4.10107
0.0034
[6]
Aluminium
2.82108
3.5107
0.0039
[6]
Calcium
3.36108
2.98107
0.0041
Tungsten
5.60108
1.79107
0.0045
Annealed copper
[9]
Gold
[10]
[8]
[6]
Zinc
5.90108
1.69107
0.0037
Nickel
6.99108
1.43107
0.006
Lithium
9.28108
1.08107
0.006
Iron
1.0107
1.00107
0.005
[6]
Platinum
1.06107
9.43106
0.00392
[6]
Tin
1.09107
9.17106
0.0045
1.43107
6.99106
Lead
2.2107
4.55106
0.0039
Titanium
4.20107
2.38106
2.17106
Manganin
4.82107
2.07106
0.000002
[14]
Constantan
4.9107
2.04106
0.000008
[15]
Stainless steel
6.9107
1.45106
Mercury
9.8107
1.02106
0.0009
[14]
Nichrome
1.10106
9.09105
0.0004
[6]
Carbon (amorphous)
5104 to 8104
1.25 to 2103
0.0005
[6][19]
[20]
2 to 3105 basal
plane
3.3102 //basal plane
[21]
[22]
11012
~1013
[23]
4.6101
2.17
2101
4.8
2101 to 2103
5104 to 5102
1.8105
5.5106
Silicon
6.40102
1.56103
GaAs
5107 to 10103
5108 to 103
Glass
101010 to 101014
1011 to 1015
[6][7]
Hard rubber
11013
1014
[6]
Sulfur
11015
1016
[6]
Air
1.31016 to 3.31016
3 to 81015
Paraffin
11017
1018
Fused quartz
7.51017
1.31018
PET
101020
1021
[16]
[18]
Carbon (graphite)
Carbon (diamond)
Germanium
[22]
[24]
Sea water
Drinking water
[26]
Deionized water
[22]
[27]
[11]
[12]
[6]
[13]
[17]
0.048
[6][7]
[25]
[28]
0.075
[6]
[29]
[30]
[6]
Teflon
101022 to 101024
1025 to 1023
The effective temperature coefficient varies with temperature and purity level of the material. The 20C value is
only an approximation when used at other temperatures. For example, the coefficient becomes lower at higher
temperatures for copper, and the value 0.00427 is commonly specified at 0C.[31]
The extremely low resistivity (high conductivity) of silver is characteristic of metals. George Gamow tidily summed
up the nature of the metals' dealings with electrons in his science-popularizing book, One, Two, Three...Infinity
(1947): "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are
bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large
number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is
subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus
forming what we call an electric current." More technically, the free electron model gives a basic description of
electron flow in metals.
Temperature dependence
Linear approximation
The electrical resistivity of most materials changes with temperature. If the temperature T does not vary too much, a
linear approximation is typically used:
where
temperature), and
. The parameter
measurement data. Because the linear approximation is only an approximation, is different for different reference
temperatures. For this reason it is usual to specify the temperature that was measured at with a suffix, such as
, and the relationship only holds in a range of temperatures around the reference.[32] When the temperature
varies over a large temperature range, the linear approximation is inadequate and a more detailed analysis and
understanding should be used.
Metals
In general, electrical resistivity of metals increases with temperature. Electronphonon interactions can play a key
role. At high temperatures, the resistance of a metal increases linearly with temperature. As the temperature of a
metal is reduced, the temperature dependence of resistivity follows a power law function of temperature.
Mathematically the temperature dependence of the resistivity of a metal is given by the BlochGrneisen formula:
where
is the residual resistivity due to defect scattering, A is a constant that depends on the velocity of
electrons at the Fermi surface, the Debye radius and the number density of electrons in the metal.
is the Debye
temperature as obtained from resistivity measurements and matches very closely with the values of Debye
temperature obtained from specific heat measurements. n is an integer that depends upon the nature of interaction:
1. n=5 implies that the resistance is due to scattering of electrons by phonons (as it is for simple metals)
2. n=3 implies that the resistance is due to s-d electron scattering (as is the case for transition metals)
3. n=2 implies that the resistance is due to electronelectron interaction.
If more than one source of scattering is simultaneously present, Matthiessen's Rule (first formulated by Augustus
Matthiessen in the 1860s) [33][34] says that the total resistance can be approximated by adding up several different
terms, each with the appropriate value of n.
Semiconductors
In general, resistivity of intrinsic semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature. The electrons are bumped
to the conduction energy band by thermal energy, where they flow freely and in doing so leave behind holes in the
valence band which also flow freely. The electric resistance of a typical intrinsic (non doped) semiconductor
decreases exponentially with the temperature:
An even better approximation of the temperature dependence of the resistivity of a semiconductor is given by the
SteinhartHart equation:
Resistivity-density
product (nmg/cm3)
Sodium
47.7
0.97
46
Lithium
92.8
0.53
49
Calcium
33.6
1.55
52
Potassium
72.0
0.89
64
Beryllium
35.6
1.85
66
Aluminium 26.50
2.70
72
Magnesium 43.90
1.74
76.3
Copper
16.78
8.96
150
Silver
15.87
10.49
166
Gold
22.14
19.30
427
Iron
96.1
7.874
757
Silver, although it is the least resistive metal known, has a high density and does poorly by this measure. Calcium
and the alkali metals make for the best products, but are rarely used for conductors due to their high reactivity with
water and oxygen. Aluminium is far more stable. And the most important attribute, the current price, excludes the
best choice: Beryllium.
References
Further reading
Paul Tipler (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern
Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0810-8.
External links
New nanomaterial better efficient conductor (http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/
idUSN2041399820080320?rpc=64&pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=10150)
Resistivity & Mobility Calculator/Graph from BYU cleanroom (http://www.ee.byu.edu/cleanroom/
ResistivityCal.phtml/)
Bucknell University (http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/eLessonsHTML/Sensors/TempR.html)
License
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