Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Turbo-electric distributed propulsion opportunities, benefits and challenges

Devaiah Nalianda Riti Singh

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Devaiah Nalianda Riti Singh , (2014),"Turbo-electric distributed propulsion opportunities, benefits and challenges", Aircraft
Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal, Vol. 86 Iss 6 pp. 543 - 549
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Turbo-electric distributed propulsion

opportunities, benefits and challenges
Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND At 05:06 12 March 2015 (PT)

Centre for Propulsion, School of Engineering, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

Abstract
Purpose With the predicted rise in air traffic, a growing need exists to make the aviation industry more environmentally sustainable in the
long-term future. Research has shown that the turbo-electric distributed propulsion system (TeDP) could be the next disruptive technology that has
the potential to meet the ambitious environmental goals set for the N 3 time frame. This however will require the use of superconductivity,
application of high-temperature superconducting materials and cryogenic liquids. This paper provides a brief overview of the technology and further
discusses the benefits, advantages and new opportunities that may arise from the application of the technology.
Design/methodology/approach This paper provides a brief overview of the technology and further discusses the benefits, advantages and new
opportunities that may arise from the application of the technology.
Findings Implementation of superconducting technology is currently one of the greater challenges faced and hence this article also reviews some
of the key considerations to enable utilisation of cryogenic fuels in the future.
Originality/value This paper provides a viewpoint and reviews some of the work undertaken in the field. It also provides a perspective on some
new possibilities and advantages from using TeDP with cryogenic fuels.
Keywords Turbo-electric distributed propulsion, Disruptive technology, Liquid hydrogen, Liquid methane, Challenges, Benefits
Paper type Viewpoint

Nomenclature

extreme natural calamities such as high-intensity tropical

cyclones and further result in submergence of coastal areas
through flooding. Every one of these effects will have serious
and detrimental socio-economic implications. The report goes
onto further state that with anticipated high uncertainty and
new risks, it will threaten our ability to anticipate and plan for
future adaptation needs. The lack of action on climate change
not only risks putting prosperity out of reach of millions of
around the world; it threatens to roll back decades of
sustainable development (World Bank, 2012a).
As the world becomes increasingly concerned with climate
change, international civil aviations contribution towards it is
in focus. It has been estimated that civil aviation accounts for
approximately 2-3 per cent of total anthropogenic CO2
emissions and 12 per cent of the emissions from transportation
sources (ICAO, 2013; IPCC, 2007).
Over the years, the industry has consistently invested in
improving technology and infusing it into commercial
application with an aim to always remain profitable. With fuel
expenses being a significant part of an airlines operating cost,
the core focus of technology development has been to
constantly improve fuel economy, maintaining landing and
takeoff (LTO) cycle noise and NOx within certification limits
and improving safety/reliability. Consequently, in the past 40
years, these improvements have led to a reduction of 70 per
cent in fuel consumption and a decrease in noise by 75 per
cent (Airbus, 2013).
Trends in the past 40-50 years have shown that the growth
in air traffic has been resilient to any external shock and has
stoically grown through crises. With the key long-term drivers
of the aviation industry being global economic growth, BRIC
and emerging countries with high growth rates, rising
middle-class populations with larger disposable incomes and
increasing urbanisation, the global passenger traffic is

Symbols
CO
CO2
LH2
SOx

Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Liquid hydrogen
Sulphur oxide

Definitions, acronyms and abbreviations

BRIC
GWP
HWB
HTS
TeDP
UHC

Brazil Russia India China

Global warming potential
Hybrid wing body
High temperature superconductivity
Turbo electric distributed propulsion
Unburnt hydrocarbons

Introduction
The World Bank report of November 2012 discusses the
impact of the world being warmer by 4C. Without serious
policy changes and mitigation measures in place, this would be
the predicted rise in temperature by the end of the century.
The predicted effects of this 4C rise are devastating. It will
result in highly unpredictable global weather patterns, which
would increase the risk of large-scale seasonal changes and
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Turbo-electric distributed propulsion

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Volume 86 Number 6 2014 543549

expected to grow at an average rate of approximately 4.5-5.0

per cent per year through the year 2050. If left unmitigated,
such a growth rate would lead to the aviation industrys
environmental foot print undergoing a significant increase,
and hence the aviation industrys future impact on the
environment has now become a cause for growing global
concern.
In the long-term future, apart from key factors such as
fluctuating fuel prices and stronger competition from
advancement in ground transport systems, stringent
environmental regulations will be critical in influencing the
direction taken by future technological and operational
advancements. To ensure its environmental sustainability and
economic viability for the future, whilst catering to the
increasing demand, the aviation industry has consequently set
out to achieve ambitious future environmental goals (Kim,
2010; European Commission, 2011). These goals are
challenging and to effectively achieve them, every aspect of the
aviation industry is now under scrutiny for potential
performance improvements. In terms of aircraft and
propulsion system technology, it is evident that evolutionary
improvements to conventional technology will be largely
insufficient to meet these goals. Therefore, now pursuing a
more revolutionary approach, the aviation industry has set out
to discover disruptive technologies.

distributed propulsion as one of the next promising disruptive

technologies (World Bank, 2012b; ATAG, 2010). The
assessments indicate that the concept will change the nature of
the way the aircraft will interact and affect the environment
and hence amongst many evaluated options, despite a
significant number of technological challenges, TeDP system
on a HWB airframe has the necessary potential to eventually
achieve these targets (Kirner et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2013). It
is therefore opined that eventually history could repeat itself
and result in TeDP replacing the conventional jet engine.

Genesis of the TeDP system on a HWB airframe

For over 60 years, the basic tube and wing design of
commercial jet aircraft has remained largely the same. As
explained by Liebeck (2004), the design over the years was
centred on two critical design challenges faced, whilst defining
the pressurized passenger cabin for a very large airplane the
cabin surface area per passenger available for emergency
egress and cabin pressure loads are most efficiently taken in
hoop tension. Over the years, even though aircraft have
become significantly more efficient in terms of fuel
consumption and reduced emissions and noise, the basic
shape has largely been the same with all improvements being
evolutionary, rather than revolutionary. To transition to a
more efficient and revolutionary design, the constraint for
taking pressure loads in hoop tension was relaxed and it was
assumed that an alternate efficient structural concept could be
developed. Removal of this constraint became pivotal for the
development of the HWB (Liebeck, 2004).
With the purpose of achieving a design that could achieve
the stipulated N 3 fuel consumption, emission and noise
goals the propulsion system for the HWB airframe has also
undergone significant transformation since early days of
conceptualisation, primarily driven by the fact that an
optimum architecture should have a fully integrated airframe
and propulsion system (Sehra and Whitlow, 2004).
Initial concepts in the field considered conventional podded
gas turbine engines for the propulsion systems. As illustrated
in Figure 1, one of them was a simple arrangement using large
numbers of small gas turbines to provide the thrust required
(Ameyugo et al., 2006). Concepts such as these were found to
be challenging in terms of practical application and needed to
be further developed to achieve ambitious future
environmental targets. As the conceptual designs developed,
they pivoted towards a more distributed propulsion concept
wherein the power generated through core engines is
transmitted to distributed fans, which produced the thrust for
the aircraft.
The next challenge was establishing the most efficient
method of transmitting power from the core engine to the
propulsor fans. Of the several concepts investigated, the key
alternatives included either using mechanical transmission or
producing electrical power and further transmitting it via a
distribution network to several electrically driven fans,
through electrical motors. Both the methods are found to be
largely inefficient. If conventional technologies were to be
utilised, they would result in low efficiency factors, thereby
leading to poor performance and hence higher fuel
consumption than conventional systems (Smith, 2013;
Gohardani et al., 2011).

The next disruptive technology

The conventional jet engine transformed civil aviation. The jet
engine and its effect on the utilisation of aero-piston engines
for aircraft propulsion is a prime example of a disruptive
technology, basically uprooting the long-serving piston
engine. The impact felt after the Second World War, soon
caused a profound change in aeronautics and aviation. The
benefit that the jet engine provided, in comparison to its
predecessor, was that it flew over the weather system and
provided comfort and safety (Geels, 2006). Since then, even
though the jet engine itself has undergone several evolutionary
improvements to make it more fuel efficient and
environmental friendly, with its vast utilisation and reliance on
fossil fuels, the technology is becoming a victim of its own
success.
Disruptive technologies are innovations that change the
rules of the game, introducing a new value proposition. They
may have to outperform the technologies they seek to replace,
but they must necessarily offer new and valuable features that
will justify their implementation, whilst maintaining the
highest safety standards. If enough momentum can be
gathered, the new disruptive technology will evolve to replace
its predecessor (Noppel and Singh, 2007).
The search for future disruptive technologies in aviation
requires cross-disciplinary effort. This effort will be focused
primarily on feasible airframes and propulsion systems, their
optimal integration, application of alternative fuels, safety, and
reliability and with an aim to reduce environmental impact
and operating cost. Multi-objective assessments have
indicated that significant changes in vehicle and propulsion
system designs are required to meet the ambitious
environmental targets (ICAO, 2013; Kim, 2010; European
Commission, 2011) of the future. The aviation industry
recognises the hybrid wing body (HWB) aircraft and
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Figure 1 Simple distributed propulsion arrangement

Advantages, opportunities and challenges

The current concept being pursued is that of the TeDP and the
application of the concept of superconductivity to reduce
electrical power transmission losses. The use of high-temperature
superconducting (HTS) technologies for power transmission will
be the key enabling technology for realisation of the TeDP
concept. NASAs N3X (Kim et al., 2013) and Cranfield
Universitys BW11 (Smith, 2013) concept aircraft are typical
examples of this concept (Figures 2 and 3).
During the past six years, Cranfield University has engaged
in a number of projects concerning distributed propulsion.
The work has resulted in a number of interesting design
studies (Kirner et al., 2013; Smith, 2013; Haglind and Singh,
2006; Mantic-Lugo et al., 2013) and patentable concepts
(Singh et al., 2013) aimed at improving the technology and its
development towards future implementation.

The key opportunities of such an integrated system (TeDP on

a HWB) include the possibility of designing for reduced drag,
providing greater flexibility in packaging, more efficient
structural design and a fully integrated propulsion system with
boundary layer ingestion. Depending on its configuration/
arrangement, some of the well-known advantages of the
concept will include achieving very high effective bypass ratios
whilst retaining the superior thermal efficiency of large core
engines and correspondingly lower fuel burn, environmental
emissions and aircraft noise.
However, there may also exist potential opportunities
associated with transient behaviour. Most of the studies on TeDP
to date have focused on a particular airframe and mission, usually
steady-state. Given the complexity of the subject, this is indeed a

Figure 2 NASAs N3-X conceptual aircraft using turbo-electric distributed propulsion

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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Volume 86 Number 6 2014 543549

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Figure 3 BW 11 conceptual aircraft using turbo-electric distributed propulsion

propulsion fans, the thrust split between the propulsor fans and
the core propulsion units, ingestion of boundary layer,
development of the enabling technology superconducting
electrical technology for power transmission (generators and
motors), the airframe-propulsion system integration and the
choice of fuels that may be used. It is therefore evident that a
large number of critical design aspects and a multitude of
corresponding design variables make the design process highly
complex and challenging.
One of the more challenging aspects of the technology,
however, will be the practical application and successful
implementation of superconductivity and HTS technology.
This technology will necessarily require the utilisation of
cryogenic refrigeration systems and hence the use of cryogenic
fluids such as LH2 or Liquid Methane. This application, as all
the other aspects of this novel technology even though
challenging, promises to deliver of some interesting benefits.
Correspondingly, one of the current research interests in this
field at Cranfield University is the conceptual development of
cryogenically fuelled TeDP systems on a HWB.

valid way to proceed. However, transients have an impact on

clearances within the turbo machine components, and hence
impact the gas turbine performance. Peak temperatures during
transients define the maximum power that the engine cycles can
deliver. Gas turbine maximum cycle temperatures during
transients are now so high that (given local temperature
variations) it is possible that some element of dissociation
occurs. If so, the cycle will deliver lower power than usual
calculations may suggest. Some of the products of dissociation
may be carried through the high-pressure turbine in a frozen
state. Avoidance of the very high temperatures during transients
may, therefore, not only impact the life of the hot section but also
the cycle performance.
Even though these effects are currently being speculated,
future research may need to consider the interaction of the
components of a hybrid electrical propulsion system (core gas
turbine and the electrical propulsion system) during off-design
and transient performance. This will then enable establishing
the fundamental design aspects of hybrid electrical
propulsions which may be critical in enabling the limiting of
large peaks, prevalent during excursions in engine shaft speeds
and core temperatures during these operating regimes. It will
therefore enable establishing the elements of gas turbine and
electrical propulsion system design which may need to be
addressed for optimal overall design configurations of hybrid
electrical systems.
There may also possibly be other advantages given the
differing behaviours of gas turbines, electric machines and
stored electric power, which may be worth considering in the
fullness of time.
Along with these opportunities and advantages as described,
lie significant design challenges. Some of the critical aspects of
the technology that define the design search space include the
design of HWB airframe, design of the propulsion technology
which includes the gas turbine based core and distributed

Liquid hydrogen
Depleting fossil fuel resources has long been the primary
reason for the industry to source other more abundantly
available fuel and therefore apart from utilising it as a coolant,
liquid hydrogen is also being considered as one of the primary
contenders to fuel the TeDP system. Consideration has been
given in the past to using hydrogen in H2 fuel cells. However,
given the high power requirements of an aircraft, combustion
systems are found to be more beneficial in comparison to
electrochemical systems when considered from a weight
perspective (Snyder et al., 2009).
The concept of using hydrogen as a fuel in aviation has been
considered for many decades (Brewer, 1991), but almost
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Turbo-electric distributed propulsion

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Volume 86 Number 6 2014 543549

always in all these cases even though the technology was

proven to some extent, cost and availability always became the
limiting factor. Some of the main advantages of hydrogen are
that its utilisation can produce significant environmental
benefits if produced utilising renewably generated electricity
essentially derived from methane or from water using the
process of electrolysis.
Hydrogen as a fuel has been extensively evaluated in the past
(Brewer, 1991; Haglind and Singh, 2006). These studies have
established the benefits of using hydrogen and have further
investigated its potential in reducing the environmental impact of
aviation. It has a very high calorific value, 2.8 times that of
kerosene, however when compared in terms of fuel required to
carry the same amount of energy, LH2 as fuel will weigh 2.8
times lesser than kerosene while occupying a volume four times
larger (Haglind et al., 2006).
In terms of environmental efficiency, application of
hydrogen enables a significant benefit in reducing emissions
by completely eliminating the emission of CO, CO2, SOX
UHC and smoke, with the main by-product of combustion
being water. Further, as a direct consequence of the
combustion-related properties of hydrogen, emissions of
nitrous oxides could be significantly reduced when adopting it
as a fuel. Hydrogen, as a cryogenic liquid is an excellent heat
sink and has up to 4.9 times the cooling capacity in
comparison to kerosene. Some of the key applications of this
advantage include using it as a coolant to achieve conditions
for superconductivity, HTS component cooling and to
improve core engine cycle efficiency through intercooling and
recuperation (Fulton, 1993).
Its characteristic disadvantages include low specific weight,
low cryogenic temperatures (very low boiling point of
253C) and small size of the hydrogen molecule (Sehra and
Whitlow, 2004). From these disadvantages stem some of the
significant challenges associated with efficient use of hydrogen
as a fuel. These challenges include material embrittlement,
greater leakage potential and hence heavy and extremely
complex design for fuel storage and delivery systems (Sekaran
et al., 2014). In terms of emissions, combustion of hydrogen
produces 2.6 times the amount of water vapour as burning a
mass of kerosene with equal energy content and hence will
produce a higher amount of contrails (Ponater et al., 2006;
Westenberger, 2003). The International Commercial Aviation
Organisation environmental report of 2013 currently assesses
level of scientific understanding (and consequently the
established global warming potential) of linear contrails and
cirrus contrails, as low and very low, respectively. In the field of
contrail research even though significant uncertainties still
remain, notable progress has been made with further
investigations being actively pursued (Noppel, and Singh, 2008;
ICAO, 2013). Therefore, if the detrimental environmental
effects of contrails were to be further established, there would
then be the strong possibility of the introduction of future
environmental taxation policies aimed at its mitigation. With
aviation being the only form of transportation contributing
towards the production of contrails, this scenario would be
significantly challenging to the introduction and application of
LH2 as a fuel.
However, interestingly this apparent disadvantage may well
be converted to an opportunity by utilizing it for the possible

management of regional climate control. As water is the main

constituent of engine exhaust, the droplet size of the water
could be managed through condensation, it could result in
either the formation of contrails and contrail-induced cirrus
clouds resulted, leading to global warming and if smaller than
the wave length of light could be used for diffraction of suns
radiation, resulting in global cooling. This would result in
aviation contributing to manage climate stability, rather than
being a potential climate hazard, particularly in terms of global
warming (Noppel et al., 2009; Singh, 2014).
Another significant challenge is the cost. Currently, the
production of LH2 incurs a very high cost with the current
methods of production being very energy intensive. An added
challenge would be to therefore produce LH2 economically and
without producing CO2. The necessity therefore arises for
development methods to not only sequester CO2 but also to
develop new renewable manufacturing methods at practical and
cost effective production rates. Additionally, the requirements of
the aviation industry will necessitate sufficient infrastructure in
place to meet consumer demands whilst ensuring high safety
standards during production, distribution and storage.
The final and one of the most important challenges would
be safety. Even though over the years significant experience
has been accrued in working with and operating LH2 systems
safely, application within the aviation industry would require
significant further improvement in terms of basic system
design and procedures in storage/handling (Sehra and
Whitlow, 2004). Additionally significant measures will need to
be introduced to improve public perception and acceptance of
the technology.

Liquefied methane
A more practical alternative to LH2 and under consideration
as a possible fuel for the TeDP system is the use of liquefied
methane. With its widespread application as a fuel in other
industries and inherent advantages liquefied methane could be
perceived to have the necessary potential to enable the
technological transition from conventional kerosene to LH2 in
the aviation industry.
Some of the key advantages when compared with LH2 are its
storage temperatures/pressures and its availability. Its storage
temperature (boiling point of 161C) is much higher than LH2
and similar to it could be used to improve efficiency of the gas
turbine cycle through incorporation of intercooled recuperated
cycles. It may be stored at ambient pressure, owing to high
condensation temperatures relative to other cryogenic fluid and
unlike LH2 is not known to cause material embrittlement
(Bradley and Droney, 2012; Sehra and Whitlow, 2004).
Furthermore, when compared with conventional kerosene for
the same energy content it would produce 25 per cent lower
CO2, 60 per cent higher water vapour and a near 100 per cent
reduction in particle emission(IATA, 2013).
Liquefied methane, however, does have its disadvantages
when it comes to the application under discussion. When
compared with kerosene, liquefied methane has a 16 per cent
higher energy content but 39.2 per cent lower energy density
by volume and hence will require similar fuel system
modifications as for LH2, and therefore suffers similar design
challenges and possible weight penalties (Bradley and Droney,
2012; Saynor et al., 2003). Further, when compared with
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Turbo-electric distributed propulsion

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Volume 86 Number 6 2014 543549

kerosene the energy density of methane in terms of both

volume and mass is much lower than that of LH2 and would
necessitate a large storage volume and hence the energy
benefit that may be accrued will be much lower. Another
significant challenge is its higher cryogenic temperature, which
makes it unsuitable whilst considering HTS material range
currently being envisaged for the TeDP application (Bradley
and Droney, 2012).
An aspect of liquefied methane that needs significant further
consideration is its production. Natural gas, which is an
abundantly available fossil fuel, is essentially composed of
methane. Even though recent developments in hydraulic
fracturing technology have provided access to large reserves of
shale natural gas and methane is known to be less polluting
than kerosene, it still is a fossil fuel and releases greenhouse
gases when burnt. There are therefore a number of
environmental, technical, logistics and safety issues that need
significant consideration before these resources may be
effectively used by the aviation industry.
In light of increasing energy demand and environmental
awareness, producing liquefied methane from biomass as an
alternative fuel has also been perceived as one of the potential
solutions. The fuel may be produced from a variety of ways
which include fermentation of organic matter under anaerobic
conditions or gasification of biomass to produce syngas followed
by the Sabatier or the FischerTropsch process. However, if
eventually aimed at achieving a carbon neutral application,
adequate consideration will need to be given to assess the actual
CO2 emissions from production to final application of liquid
methane and its adequate availability for industry requirements.

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Conclusion
With the predicted growth rate in air traffic in the long-term
future, the aviation industry, as we know it today, will be
environmentally unsustainable. If we are to achieve any of the
ambitious and necessary environmental targets set for the N 3
timeframe and beyond, the industry will necessarily need to
move away from the safe and evolutionary developmental path
adopted by it in the past 50 years and transition towards a
more aggressive and revolutionary approach in the future.
TeDP is a challenging and revolutionary technology which
holds the promise of enabling the aviation industry to
eventually realise its N 3 environmental goals. This will,
however, require the application of HTS technology as a key
enabler and hence will necessitate the use of cryogenic fluids
such as LH2 and liquid methane.
This paper provides an overview of this novel technology
and further discusses some of the key advantages and benefits
it has to offer, with improved transient performance being a
new possibility. In terms of using cryogenic fluids, even
though application of these liquids as fuels and coolants could
well be the route to achieving the ambitious targets set forth,
there exist significant challenges on the path towards
realisation of the technology.

References
Airbus (2013), Global market forecast 2013-2032, available
at: www.airbus.com/company/market/forecast/ (accessed 10
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Turbo-electric distributed propulsion

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Devaiah Nalianda and Riti Singh

Volume 86 Number 6 2014 543549

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Corresponding author
Devaiah Nalianda can be contacted at: devaiah.nalianda@
cranfield.ac.uk

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