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INTRODUCTION TO IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
Year 10

Rosa Pereira

7th May 2016

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01

Chemistry

Chemistry

Raymond Chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter
and the changes it undergoes

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02

Chemical
reactions

Chemical Reaction
A process in which at least one new substance is produced as a
result of chemical change.

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A Chemical Reaction
Reactants

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Products

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Learning Check
A. How does an equation indicate a change in
the identity of the reacting substances?
B. How did the yellow and green reactants
combine?
C. Did all the reactants form product? Why or
why not?
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A. How does an equation indicate a change in

the identity of the reacting substances?
The formulas of the reactants are different
than the formulas of the products.
B. How did the yellow and green reactants
combine?
1 yellow combined with 1 green.
C. Did all the reactants form product? Why or
why not? No. There were more yellow
reactants than green.
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Writing a Chemical Equation

Chemical symbols give a before-and-after picture
of a chemical reaction
Reactants
MgO

Products
CO

+ Mg

magnesium oxide to form carbon monoxide

reacts with carbon
and magnesium
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Learning Check
12 oz of dough, 4 oz mushrooms, 12 slices pepperoni,
8 oz cheese and 5 oz tomato sauce are used to make
a pizza. Write a recipe in words for putting together a
pizza.

How would you write the recipe as an equation?

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Example: Combine 12 oz dough + 4 oz

mushrooms + 12 slices pepperoni + 8 oz
cheese + 5 oz tomato sauce and heat 30
minutes at 350C to produce 1 pizza
12 oz dough + 4 oz mshrm
+ 12 pep + 8 oz chse
+ 5 oz tom sauce
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1 pizza

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Reading A Chemical Equation

4 NH3 + 5 O2

4 NO + 6 H2O

Four molecules of NH3 react with five molecules O2

to produce four molecules NO and six molecules of
H2O
or
Four moles NH3 react with 5 moles O2 to produce
four moles NO and six moles H2O
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A Balanced Chemical Equation

Same numbers of each type of atom on each side of
the equation
Al

Al2S3

2Al +

3S

Al2S3

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Not Balanced
Balanced

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Matter Is Conserved
H2

Cl2

2 HCl

+
Total atoms
2 H, 2 Cl

+
=

Total Mass
=
2(1.0) + 2(35.5)
73.0 g
=
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Total atoms
2H, 2 Cl
Total Mass
2(36.5)
73.0 g

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Law of Conservation of Mass

In any ordinary chemical reaction, matter
is not created nor destroyed

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Balance Equations with Coefficients

Coefficients in front of formulas balance each type
of atom
4NH3 + 5O2

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4NO + 6H2O

4N

4N

12 H

12 H

10 O

10 O

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Steps in Balancing An Equation

Fe3O4 + H2

Fe + H2O

Fe:

Fe3O4 + H2

3 Fe + H2O

O:

Fe3O4 + H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O

H:

Fe3O4 + 4 H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O

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Learning Check
Fe3O4 + 4 H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O

A. Number of H atoms in 4 H2O

1) 2

2) 4

3) 8

B. Number of O atoms in 4 H2O

1) 2

2) 4

3) 8

C. Number of Fe atoms in Fe3O4

1) 1
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2) 3
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3) 4
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Solution
Fe3O4 + 4 H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O

A. Number of H atoms in 4 H2O

3) 8
B. Number of O atoms in 4 H2O
2) 4
C. Number of Fe atoms in Fe3O4
2) 3
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Learning Check
Balance each equation. The coefficients for each
equation are read from left to right
A.

Mg

+ N2

1) 1, 3, 2
B.

Al

Mg3N2

2) 3, 1, 2

3) 3, 1, 1

+ Cl2

1) 3, 3, 2
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AlCl3
2) 1, 3, 1

3) 2, 3, 2

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Learning Check
C. Fe2O3 + C
1) 2, 3, 2,3
D.

3) 1, 1, 2, 3
Fe +

2) 2, 1, 1, 1

Al + H2SO4

1) 3, 2, 1, 2
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2) 2, 3, 4, 3

Al + FeO

1) 2, 3, 3, 1
E.

Fe + CO2

Al2O3

3) 3, 3, 3, 1
Al2(SO4)3 + H2

2) 2, 3, 1, 3
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3) 2, 3, 2, 3
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Solution E5
A. 3 Mg
B. 2 Al

+
+

N2

Mg3N2

3 Cl2

2 AlCl3

C. 2 Fe2O3 + 3 C

4 Fe + 3 CO2

D. 2 Al + 3 FeO

3 Fe +

E. 2 Al + 3 H2SO4
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Al2(SO4)3

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Al2O3

+ 3 H2
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2.2.Chemical reactionsreactions- REVERSIBLE

REVERSIBLE L.O.

1. Understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions (Limited
to the effects of heat and water on hydrated and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II) chloride.)
2. Demonstrate kmnowledge and understanding of the concept of equilibrium
3. Predict the effect of changing the conditions (concentration, temperature and pressure) on other
reversible reactions
4. Describe and explain the essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process
including the sources of hydrogen and nitrogen (hydrocarbons or steam and air)

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2.2. Irreversible reactions

Most chemical reactions are considered irreversible the products that are
made cannot readily be changed back into their reactants.

For example, when wood burns it is

impossible to turn it back into unburnt
wood again!

Similarly, when magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form

magnesium chloride and hydrogen, it is not easy to reverse the
reaction and obtain the magnesium.

2.2.What are reversible reactions?

Reversible reactions occur when the backwards reaction (products
reactants) takes
place relatively easily under certain conditions. The products turn back into the reactants.

+
(reactants)

(products)

For example, during a reversible reaction reactants A and B react to make

products C and D.
However, products C and D can also undergo the reverse reaction, and react
together to form reactants A and B.

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2.2. Reversible biochemical reactions

Many biochemical reactions (those that take place inside organisms) are reversible.
For example, in the lungs, oxygen binds to haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells to
create oxyhaemoglobin.
When the red blood cells are transported to tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates
back to haemoglobin and oxygen.

Hb

4O2

Hb.4O2

There are also some very important industrial reactions, like the Haber process,
that are reversible.

2.2. Heating copper sulfate

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2.2.Heating ammonium chloride

An ammonium salt can be made by reacting ammonia with an acid. Some of the
salt will decompose back into the reactants when heated.
ammonia
NH3 (g)

+
+

hydrogen
chloride

ammonium
chloride

HCl (g)

NH4Cl (s)

NH4Cl decomposes back into

NH3 and HCl gases when
heated

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NH4Cl reforms in the

cooler part of the test
tube

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2.2.Reversible or irreversible?

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2.2. What is dynamic equilibrium?

In some reversible reactions, the forward and backward reactions largely occur in
the same conditions and at the same rate.
These reactions are said to be in dynamic equilibrium there is no overall change
in the amount of products and reactants, even though the reactions are ongoing.
reactant A

reactant B

product

+
Dynamic equilibrium can only take place in a closed system, otherwise the products would escape.
A closed system is one in which no substances are either added to the system or lost from it. Energy
can, however, be transferred in or out at will.
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2.2.Setting dynamic equilibrium

The position of dynamic equilibrium is not always at a
half-way point, i.e. when there are equal amounts of products and reactants.
It may be at a position where there are mainly reactants with a little product,
or vice versa.
The position of equilibrium is influenced by two main factors:
 temperature
 concentration (or pressure for reactions involving gases)

Adding a catalyst speeds up the time it takes to reach equilibrium,

but does not change the position of equilibrium.

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2.2.Dynamic equilibrium

 It is dynamic at the molecular or ionic level

 Both forward and reverse processes occur at equal
rates
 A closed system is required
 Macroscopic properties remain constant

2.2. True or false?

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2.2. Opposing change-Le Chateliers principle

Chatelier`s Principle- Whenever a change is made to a reversible reaction in
dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to try and oppose the change.
Condition

Effect

Temperature

Increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium in the direction

that takes in heat.

Concentration

Pressure

Increasing the concentration of a substance shifts the

equilibrium in the direction that produces less of that substance.

Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction

that produces less gas.

2.2. Exothermic and endothermic reactions

All reactions are exothermic (give out heat) in one direction and endothermic
(take in heat) in the other.
If the temperature is increased:
 equilibrium shifts to decrease the temperature
 equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction

If the temperature is decreased:

 equilibrium shifts to increase the temperature
 equilibrium shifts in the exothermic direction

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2.2. Opposing changes in temperature

Nitrogen dioxide is in constant equilibrium with dinitrogen
tetroxide. The forward reaction is exothermic and the
backwards reaction is endothermic.
nitrogen dioxide

dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g)

N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the temperature is increased?

 The equilibrium will shift to decrease the temperature, i.e. to the left
(endothermic).
 More NO2 will be produced.
If the temperature is decreased, more N2O4 will be produced.

2.2.Concentration and equilibrium

Changing the concentration of a substance affects the equilibrium of
reversible reactions involving solutions.
increasing the
concentration of
substance A

decreasing the
concentration of
substance A

equilibrium shifts to
decrease the amount of substance
A

equilibrium shifts to
increase the amount of
substance A

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2.2. Opposing changes in concentration (1)

Bismuth chloride reacts with water to produce a white precipitate
of bismuth oxychloride and hydrochloric acid.
bismuth
chloride

water

bismuth
oxychloride

BiCl3 (aq)

H2O (l)

BiOCl (s)

hydrochloric acid

2HCl (aq)

What will happen if more H2O is added?

 The equilibrium will shift to decrease the amount of water, i.e. to the
right.
 More BiOCl and HCl will be produced.
If H2O is removed, more BiCl3 and H2O will be produced.

2.2.Opposing changes in
concentration (2)
Chlorine gas reacts with iodine chloride to produce iodine trichloride.
chlorine

iodine
chloride

Cl2 (g)

ICl (l)

pale green

brown

What effect will adding more Cl2 have on the

colour of the mixture?
What effect will removing Cl2 have on the colour
of the mixture?

iodine
trichloride
ICl3 (s)

yellow
It will become more
yellow.
It will become more
brown.

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2.2.Pressure and equilibrium

Changing the pressure has an effect on the equilibrium of reversible reactions involving
gases.
If the pressure is increased:

 equilibrium shifts to decrease the pressure

 equilibrium shifts in the direction of fewest molecules

If the pressure is decreased:

 equilibrium shifts to increase the pressure

 equilibrium shifts in the direction of most molecules

2.2.Opposing changes in pressure

Nitrogen dioxide is in constant equilibrium with dinitrogen tetroxide. Two molecules
of nitrogen dioxide react to form one molecule of dinitrogen tetroxide.
nitrogen dioxide

dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g)

N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the pressure is increased?

 The equilibrium will shift to reduce the number of molecules, i.e.
to the right (only 1 molecule).
 More N2O4 will be produced.
If the pressure is decreased, more NO2 will be produced.

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Learning check

2.2.What is ammonia?
Ammonia is an important compound in the manufacture of fertilizer
and other chemicals such as cleaning fluids and floor waxes.
It is made industrially by reacting nitrogen with hydrogen in the Haber
process. It is a reversible reaction, so it never goes to completion.

Why is this a problem for companies making ammonia?

nitrogen

hydrogen

ammonia

N2 (g)

3H2 (g)

2NH3 (g)

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2.2. The Haber process

2.2.What is yield?
The amount of product made in a reaction is called the yield and is usually
expressed as a percentage.

ammonia yield (%)

The yield of ammonia produced by the Haber process depends on the temperature and pressure of the reaction.

pressure (atm)

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2.2.What is the Haber compromise?

The highest yield of ammonia is theoretically produced by using a low
temperature and a high pressure.
In practice, these conditions are not used. Why?

Lowering the temperature slows down the rate of reaction. This means it takes longer for
ammonia to be produced.
Increasing the pressure means stronger, more expensive equipment is needed. This increases the cost of
producing the ammonia.

A compromise is reached to make an acceptable yield in a reasonable timeframe

while keeping costs down.

2.2. Temperature, pressure and yield

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2.2.Changing the yield of ammonia

2.2. The Haber compromise

To produce a high yield of ammonia, but with a fast rate of reaction and without
the need for overly expensive equipment, the Haber process is carried out at 450 C
and 200 atmospheres.
The most important factor in deciding what conditions to use is therefore not
yield, but total cost.
What costs are involved in the industrial production of ammonia?
 raw materials
 equipment
 energy
 wages

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2.2.Maximizing productivity
What else can be done to maximise productivity in the
manufacture of ammonia?
 An iron catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction. It speeds up both the forward and
backward reaction, so the position of equilibrium is not affected.
 The ammonia is cooled, liquefied and then removed as it is produced. This causes the
equilibrium to shift to the right to produce more ammonia.
 Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and given another chance to react.

2.2.Temperature, pressure and yield

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2.2.Stages of the Haber process

Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

2.2. Examples of Reversible reactions

H2O(s)

H2O(l)

CO2(aq)

CO2(g)

UV light

3O2(g )

2O3(g)
CFCs

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