EARTH

SCIENCE

Clearly distinguish between chemical weathering and

mechanical weathering.
Mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks
into smaller particles by abrasion, frost wedging, etc.
Chemical weathering is the chemical alterationof minerals
in the rock due to the action of water, oxygen and acids in
the soil, and dissolution of carbonates. The minerals
actually react with the acid ground-water to form other
minerals, and some go into solution. Minerals like feldspar
break down into clay minerals and so on. Mechanical

weathering is favoured by cold dry climates, and chemical

weathering is favoured by warm, humid climates.
Explain fully the difference between residual and transported
soil. Make labeled diagrams to illustrate characteristics of
residual and transported soil.
Soil that remains at the place of formation is called
residual soil. It is usually formed from chemical or physical
weathering and eventually covers the parent rock. The
characteristic of residual soil depends on the parent rock.
The weathered pieces of rocks that have been carried by
several agents like wind and water and finally breaks
down into further small pieces to settle down is called
transported soil. They are very fertile as they consist of
minerals from a variety of transported rocks.

RESIDUAL SOIL
Residual soils are products of
chemical weathering and thus
their
characteristics
are
dependent
upon
environmental
factors
of
climate,
parent
material,
topography and drainage, and
age.
These conditions are optimized
in the tropics where well
drained
regions
produce
reddish lateritic soils rich in
iron
and
aluminum
sesquioxides and kaolinitic

TRANSPORTED SOIL
Transported soil is a soil that
is brought from another
area. It is carried in by
rivers and the wind blowing.
Soil erosion is what causes
transported soil.

clays.

ReadMore:
http://ascelibrary.org/action/sh
owAbstract?
page=77&volume=111&issue
=1&journalCode=jgendz&

Explain the origin of the mantle rock.

The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky
body large enough to have differentiation by density. The
interior of the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial
planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a
layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle
is a silicate rocky shell about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) thick
that constitutes about 84% of Earth's volume. It is
predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves like
very viscous liquid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich
in iron and nickel, which occupies about 15% of Earth's
volume. Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the
shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust
of crystallized melt products near the surface, upon which
we live. Information about structure and composition of
the mantle either result from geophysical investigation or
from direct geoscientific analyses on Earth mantle derived
xenoliths.
Discuss the relationship of climate to weathering and
erosion.
.Both processes contribute to the rock cycle. Weathered
rock particles are eroded. Without agents of erosion (wind,

moving water, ice, gravity), weathered particles would

remain in the same place. Through erosion, however,
weathered particles are carried to new locations and
deposited where they could eventually lithify into
sedimentary rock, which could then metamorphose into
metamorphic rock, and further down the road, melt and
re-solidify into igneous rock.
Describe the four methods to prevent the erosion of farm
soil.
Soil erosion can be a major problem for you if you have a
garden, plant beds or a farm. Preventing soil erosion is a
responsibility that we all have to take seriously. There are
several things that you can do to prevent soil erosion and
protect your plantings.
1. Prevent soil erosion by planting vegetation, trees,
ground cover, shrubs and other plants. Roots from these
plants will help hold soil in place on the ground. Soil will
not blow away due to wind, or be washed away from rain
as easily.
2. Create windbreaks, which are barrier rows planted
along the windward exposure of a plot of land. Windbreaks
made out of trees, such as evergreen trees or bushes help
prevent erosion by preventing wind from blowing across
your land.
3. Grow cover crops on farm land. When land is not being
used during the off season, cover crops can help prevent
soil erosion due to wind and rain. Legumes (beans) are
often used as cover crops.
4. Apply mulch to retain moisture and also help prevent
soil erosion. Topsoil is not as likely to be washed or blown
away when it is covered by mulch. Mulch is often used in
flower beds.
5. Construct surface runoff barriers, such as edging made
of bricks or stones, can help prevent soil erosion by

minimizing runoff. If runoff is minimized, soil is less likely

to be carried away by groundwater runoff.
6. Use contour farming when farming on sloped areas.
This conservation technique is to follow the actual
topography of a slope when planting crops. Using the
natural lay of the land in this way can also prevent soil
erosion.
7. Try terrace farming and gardening to decrease
groundwater runoff. Create nearly level layers of crops on
a hillside.
http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk/hkss/eng/education/GS/eng/hkg/chapter4.htm
http://www.public.asu.edu/~kwhipple/c_clim_eff.html.

Distinguish between the terms in the following pairs: soil

creep and sheet wash, slumping and landslide.
Downhill creep, also known as soil creep or commonly just
creep, is the slow downward progression of rock and soil
down a low grade slope; it can also refer to slow
deformation of such materials as a result of prolonged
pressure and stress while sheet wash ,is
A flow of
rainwater that covers the entire ground surface with a thin
film and is not concentrated into streams
b

Roering, Joshua J., James W. Kirchner, and William E. Dietrich. "Evidence for
nonlinear, diffusive sediment transport on hillslopes and implications for
landscape morphology." Water Resources Research 35.3 (1999): 853-870.
Rosenbloom, N. A., and Robert S. Anderson. "Hillslope and channel evolution in a
marine terraced landscape, Santa Cruz." California: Journal of Geophysical
Research 99.B7 (1994): 14-013.

A slump is a form of mass wasting that occurs when a

coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or rock
layers moves a short distance down a slope .Movement is
characterized by sliding along a concave-upward or planar
surface. Causes of slumping include earthquake shocks,
thorough wetting, freezing and thawing, undercutting, and
loading of a slope. While A landslide is a type of "mass
wasting." Mass wasting is down slope movement of soil

and/or rock under the influence of gravity. A landslide is a

movement of mass rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
The failure of the slope happens when gravity exceeds the
strength of the earth materials.

How could the removal of topsoil from one area be beneficial

to another area?
The effects of moderate grazing, topsoil removal and hay
transfer on species diversity and abundance on a
eutrophic fen grassland site in northern Germany of
Schleswigs-Holstein (54 13' N, 10 01' E) within the
Eider Valley pasture landscape were examined. Vegetation
monitoring spanned four growing seasons from 2002 to
2005 where species occurrence was designated as target
species or dominant species and further assigned to five
ecological groups. Groundwater and soil properties were
also taken into consideration as one of the four blocks
remained nearly inundated by the high water table. Soils
nutrient analysis was conducted in addition to monitoring
light conditions at a predetermined height. Soil seed bank
samples were taken within all four blocks following the
removal of topsoil and were analyzed over a period of one
year for seedling emergence.
http://www.landfood.ubc.ca/soil200/soil_mgmt/soil_erosion.htm

Describe the step by step process from rock to fertile soil.

In the mineralization process, complex organic compounds
become simpler organic compounds, and simple organic
compounds eventually lose all their carbon to become
inorganic NH4+ which can be converted to NO3-. The
mineralization process takes place step-wise by the processes

of AMINIZATION, AMMONIFICATION, and NITRIFICATION.

Aminization and ammonification are performed by
heterotrophic microorganisms and nitrification is brought about
mainly by autotrophic soil bacteria.
Heterotrophs require organic carbon compounds for their
energy source.
Autotrophic organisms get their energy from the oxidation of
organic salts and their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the
air.
AMINIZATION
Heterotrophic soil microorganisms are diverse and include
numerous groups of bacteria and fungi. Each group is
responsible for one or more steps in the many reactions that
result in organic matter decomposition. The end products of the
activities of one group furnish the substrate for the next, and so
on down the line until the material is decomposed. Aminization
is one of the final steps in the decomposition of nitrogenous
materials. Simple proteins are hydrolyzed (bonds are broken
and water molecules added) to form amines and amino acids.
The process can be represented as follows:
proteins = R-NH2 + CO2 + energy + other products
AMMONIFICATION
The amines and amino acids released by aminization are used
by other soil heterotrophs and broken down further to
ammoniacal compounds. This process, called ammonification,
can be represented as follows:
R-NH2 + HOH = NH3 + R-OH + energy The ammonia produced
by this process may be used in several ways in the soil. Be
converted to nitrite and nitrate by the process of nitrification.
Be used directly by plants.
Be used by soil microorganisms. Be tied up by certain types of
soil clays.
NITRIFICATION:
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is called nitrification. It
is an oxidation process and releases energy for the use of soil
microorganisms. The conversion is a two step process in which

ammonium is first converted to nitrite (NO2) and nitrite is

converted to nitrate (NO3). The conversion of ammonium to
nitrite is performed by a number of soil microorganisms but the
most important is a group of obligate autotrophic bacteria
known as NITROSOMONAS. This process can be represented as
follows:
2 NH4+ + 3 O2 = 2 NO2- + 2 H2O + 4 H+
The conversion of nitrite to nitrate is also performed by a
number of soil microorganisms but is performed mainly by
another group of obligate autotrophic bacteria known as
NITROBACTER. This process can be represented as follows: 2
NO2- + O2 = 2 NO3The resulting NO3 is highly mobile in soils and is easily lost
from the soil with water that moves downward laterally through
a soil profile. This NO3- is a potential pollutant if it reaches
surface and ground water supplies.
Explain why granite usually weathers into sand.
Granite is a common type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock
which is granular and phaneritic in texture. This rock
consists mainly of quartz, mica, and feldspar. Occasionally
some individual crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than the
groundmass, in which case the texture is known as
porphyritic.. When granite and other similar rocks
weather, two primary effects are seen. On a large scale,
exfoliation joints are produced as the granite weathers. On
a small scale, grus is formed as the minerals within the
granite break apart.
What is the role of each of the following in relation to
weathering, lichens, earthworms,gophers, and shrubs?
Lichens are composite organisms. This means that lichens
consist of two individual organisms that coexist with each other in
a symbiotic relationship. Lichens usually consist of fungi and
either algae or cyanobacteria (a bacteria that undergoes
photosynthesis like plants). Lichens contains microscopic
filaments that find their way into small cracks between rocks,

repeatedly engorging and shrinking to increase the size of the

gaps. This allows more lichens to enter and continue creating
fissures in the rock. Lichens also produce oxalic acid, which
siphons calcium carbonate from within the rock to its surface
and replacing it with a weaker compound, thereby making it
easier for the rock to erode. The calcium carbonate is then easily
washed away by rain.
A lot of animals physically weather rocks and rock particles.
Gophers for example, break apart the earth when they bore
underground, separating rock compounds to dig tunnels. Other
animals like worms and termites also decompose rocks and
minerals in the same fashion. Animal death serves as an indirect
form of biological weathering. When animals die, they decay,
releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This carbon dioxide
can then combine with water to form carbonic acid, a chemical
capable of decomposing minerals.
Biological weathering, and weathering in general, is a crucial
process to life on Earth. When rocks are broken down physically or
chemically, nutrient rich minerals are released, nourishing plants.
Often the types of plants growing in a certain area depend on how
the rock and soil have been weathered. The water cycle is also
heavily influenced by biological weathering. Agents of biological
weathering, plant roots especially, create crevices and tunnels
that act as paths used in natural water filtration, cleaning the
groundwater that many organisms depend on. As seen with the
gopher burrows, biological weathering is an excellent way to
create suitable habitats for many creatures; burrows for gophers,
caverns for bats, small crevices for plants and lichens weathering provides all of these diverse homes for the equally
diverse organisms that dwell within them.
http://btryon86.hubpages.com/hub/How-Does-Biological-Weathering-Happen