Soil profile

The vertical section exposing a set of horizons, from

the ground surface to the parent rock, is termed a soil profile. Most soils,
especially in temperate climates, conform to a similar general pattern of
horizons, often represented as "ideal" soil in diagrams. Each main horizon
is denoted by a capital letter, which may then be followed by several
alphanumerical modifiers highlighting particular outstanding features of
the horizon. While the general O-A-B-C-R sequence seems fairly universal,
some variation exists between the classification systems in different parts
of the world.

Layer
Soil generally consists of visually and texturally distinct layers, also called
profiles, which can be summarized as follows from top to bottom:
O) Organic matter: Surficial organic
deposit with litter layer of plant residues
in relatively non-decomposed form.
A) Surface soil: Organics mixed with
mineral matter. This layer of mineral soil
contains the most organic matter
accumulation and soil life. This layer
eluviates (is depleted
of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic
compounds, and other soluble
constituents. When eluviation is
pronounced, a lighter colored "E"
subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the
base of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may
also be the result of a combination of
soil bioturbation and surface processes
that winnow fine particles from
biologically mounded topsoil. In this
case, the A-horizon is regarded as a
"biomantle".
B) Subsoil: Subsurface layer reflecting
chemical or physical alteration of parent
material. This layer accumulates iron,
clay, aluminum and organic compounds,
a process referred to as illuviation.
C) Parent rock, also known as
substratum: The parent material in
sedimentary deposits. Layer of large
unbroken rocks. This layer may

accumulate the more soluble compounds

.
R) Bedrock: The parent material in
bedrock landscapes. This layer denotes
the layer of partially weathered bedrock
at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the
above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses of hard rock
that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils
formed in situwill exhibit strong
similarities to this bedrock layer. These
areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the
other profiles.

O horizon[edit]
This layer generally forms above the mineral soil or occurs in an organic
soil profile. The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer
dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic material derived
from dead plant and/or animal residues which is in varying stages of
decomposition. The O horizon is generally absent in grassland regions.
The O horizon usually occurs in forested areas and is commonly referred
to as the forest floor. The O horizon should be considered distinct from the
layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains
no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons
may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain
decomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance,
fragments of rotting leaves), and O2 horizons contain only welldecomposed organic matter, the origin of which is not readily visible. O
horizons may also be divided into three subordinate O horizons denoted
as: Oi, Oe, and Oa.

P horizon[edit]
These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O horizons
in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation
comes from their common name, peats. They may be divided into P1 and
P2 in the same way as O Horizons. This layer accumulates iron, clay,
aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation.[2]

A horizon[edit]
The A horizon is the topmost mineral horizon, often referred to as the
'topsoil'. This layer generally contains enough partially decomposed
(humified) organic matter to give the soil a color darker than that of the
lower horizons. The A horizons are often coarser in texture, having lost
some of the finer materials by translocation to lower horizons and by

erosion. This layer is known as the zone in which the most biological
activity occurs. Soil organisms such
asearthworms, potworms (enchytraeids), arthropods, nematodes, fungi,
and many species of bacteria and archaea are concentrated here, often in
close association with plant roots. Thus the A horizon may be referred to
as the biomantle.[3][4] However, since biological activity extends far deeper
into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A
horizon.

E horizon
E", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon
that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and aluminum oxides,
which leaves a concentration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the
sand and silt sizes. These are present only in older, well-developed soils,
and generally occur between the A and B horizons.The E horizon often
has a pale color that is generally lighter in color than either the horizon
above or below it. E horizons are commonly found in soils developed
under forests, but are rare in soils developed under grasslands. In regions
where this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified
firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended
with the designation "e" (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In
soils that contain gravels, due to animal bioturbation,
a stonelayer commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.
The above layers may be referred to collectively as the "solum". The
layers below have no collective name but are distinct in that they are
noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes.

B horizon
B horizons form below an O, A, or E horizon and they have undergone
sufficient changes during soil genesis, such that the properties of their
original parent material are no longer discernible. The B horizon is
commonly referred to as the "subsoil". In humid regions, B horizons are
the layers of maximum accumulation of materials such as silicate clays,
iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides, and organic material. These materials
typically accumulate through a process termed illuviation, wherein the
materials gradually wash in from the overlying horizons. Accordingly, this
layer is also referred to as the "illuviated" horizon or the "zone of
accumulation". In addition, it is defined as having a distinctly different
structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s)
below. The B horizon may also have stronger colors (higher chroma) than
the A horizon. In arid and semiarid regions, calcium carbonate or calcium
sulfate may accumulate in the B horizon.
As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3
types under the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the
opposite nature to an A3 dominated by the properties of the B horizons
below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have

a concentration of clay, minerals, or organics and feature the highest soil

development within the profile. B3 horizons are transitional between the
overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.
The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is
generally at the discretion of the individual worker.
Plant roots penetrate through this layer, but it has little humus. It is
usually brownish or reddish due to residual clay and iron oxides.

C horizon]
The C horizon (parent material) is below the B Horizon. This layer is little
affected by soil-forming processes and they thus have a lack of
pedological development. In other words, the C horizon is the
unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A and B horizons). It may
or may not be the same as the parent material from which the solum
formed. The C horizon forms as the R horizon weathers and rocks break
up into smaller particles. The C horizon is below the zones of greatest
biological activity and it has not been sufficiently altered by soil genesis
to qualify as a B horizon. In dry regions, carbonates and gypsum may be
concentrated in the C horizon. While loose enough to be dug with a
shovel, C horizon material often retains some of the structural features of
the parent rock or geologic deposits from which it formed. The A and B
layers usually originated from the C horizon. The upper layers of the C
horizon may in time become a part of the solum as weathering and
erosion continue. The C Horizon may contain lumps or more likely large
shelves of unweathered rock, rather than being made up solely of small
fragments as in the solum. It contains rocks with cracks and crevices.

D horizon
D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system
are "any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in general
character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable designation [it]
may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization between it
and the overlying horizons" (MacDonald et al., 1990, p. 106).

R horizon
R horizons are the layers of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the
soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons are composed largely of
consolidated masses of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils
formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.

L horizon]
L (limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has
been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic
organisms. Included are coprogenous earth

(sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found

as a remnant of past bodies of standing water.

Vertisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Vertisols are clayrich soils that undergo significant vertical cracking during the dry seasons. Typically
forming under grassland vegetation in basin or rolling hill landscapes, they are best
suited for use as pastureland and for the cultivation of plants, such as rice, that thrive in
standing surface water. Their very low water permeability when wet and unstable
structure make them unsuitable for most other commercial uses. Although broadly
distributed on every nonpolar continent, they occupy just over 2 percent of the land
area on Earth, primarily in subtropical or tropical zones of Australia, India, and Africa
and in parts of the western United States (California and Texas) and Europe (Austria
and the Balkans).

Vertisol soil profile, showing a clay-rich horizon that is prone to severe cracking under dry
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Vertisols are characterized by a content of 30 percent or more by mass of clay-size

particles throughout the upper half-metre (1.6 feet) of the soil profile, by centimetre-size
(0.4-inch) cracks open to the land surface during the dry season, and by distinct
evidence of strong vertical mixing of the soil particles through shrinking and swelling
processes accompanying drying and rewetting periods. A definite annual dry season
and a parent material conducive to alkaline pH and to the formation of swelling
smectite-type clayminerals are believed to be essential to the development of these
soils. The topographic setting for Vertisols usually has a crumpled look created by a
complex array of mounds and depressions known as gilgai microreliefthe direct result
of shrink-swell cycles over long periods of time.

Aridisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Aridisols are dry,
desertlike soils that have low organic content and are sparsely vegetated by drought- or
salt-tolerant plants. (Not included in this order are soils located in polar regions or highelevation settings.) Dry climate and low humus content limit their arability without
irrigation. Covering only about half of the arid regions of the Earth, they account for
18.5 percent of the nonpolar continental land area, being second only toInceptisols in
extent. Aridisols occur extensively in the southwestern United States and Australia,
northwestern Mexico, and the Sahara and across Asia south of the steppe regions.

Aridisol soil profile, showing a low-humus surface layer atop a clay and calcium carbonate horizon.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Aridisols are characterized by a surface horizon (uppermost layer) that is light in colour
with very low humus content, by dry soil conditions for most of the year, and by a
significant accumulation of translocated (migrated) layer silicate clay, soluble salts, or
sodium ions. Soils lacking any of these characteristics are also classified as Aridisols if
a layer of calcium carbonate,gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), or cemented silica is
present below the surface horizon. As these soils mature under the slow weathering
conditions of their arid environments, they tend to show subsurface clay and calcium
carbonate accumulations and develop surface pebble layers (the desert pavement).
Aridisols differ from Inceptisols, another soil order of low humus content, primarily by
their drier (or more saline) soil condition.

Entisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Entisols are soils
defined by the absence or near absence of horizons (layers) that clearly reflect soilforming processes. Occupying just under 11 percent of the nonpolar continental land
surface of the Earth, they are formed on surface features of recent geologic origin, on
underlying material that is highly resistant to weathering, or under conditions of extreme
wetness or dryness. Typical geographic settings include areas of active erosion or
deposition (i.e., steep slopes or floodplains), areas of quartzite bedrock or
quartz sand (i.e., major desert and dune regions), and wetlands. Arid Entisols covering
vast areas in Arctic and Antarctic regions also have been mapped. They often are

associated with urban areas because of the tendency for human settlement to
concentrate on river delta or coastal lands. They also can be created by disturbing the
land, as in extraction, the moving of earth materials, or the disposal of waste products.
Despite their lack of distinct horizons (an optimal condition for agricultural soils),
Entisols are commonly arable if given an adequate supply of plant nutrients and water.

Entisol soil profile, showing little surface or subsurface horizon development.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Entisols differ from mere weathered earth materials (saprolite) by the partial formation
of a surface horizon. They differ from Inceptisols, another soil of recent origin, by a
lesser subsurface accumulation of transported clay.

Ineptisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Inceptisols are soils
of relatively new origin and are characterized by having only the weakest appearance
of horizons, or layers, produced by soil-forming factors. They are the most abundant
on Earth, occupying almost 22 percent of all nonpolar continental land area. Their
geographic settings vary widely, from river deltas to upland forests to tundra
environments. For example, they occur in the Mississippi valley, central Europe, the
Amazon region, northeastern India, Indonesia, and Alaska. They are usually arable with
appropriate control of erosion or drainage.

Inceptisol soil profile, showing little evidence of the accumulation of humus, clay, or minerals
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Inceptisol soil profiles give some indication of clay minerals, metal oxides,
orhumus accumulating in layers, but such accumulation is not sufficient to classify the
soil into an order defined by characteristic surface or subsurface horizons. They
commonly are found either with underlying weathering-resistant parent material (for
example, quartzite or siliceous sandstone) or in topographic settings conducive to soil
erosion or waterlogging.
Inceptisols differ from Entisols in that they exhibit more well-developed soil horizons. By
definition, however, they may not form on volcanic-ash parent material (reserved
for Andisols), develop in an arid climate (reserved forAridisols), contain permafrost
(reserved for Gelisols), or exhibit seasonal cracking and swelling (characteristic
of Vertisols).

Mollisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Mollisols are
characterized by a significant accumulation ofhumus in the surface horizon, or
uppermost layer, which is almost always formed under native grass vegetation. They
are highly arable soils used principally for growing grain and cereal crops, often
inspiring the name breadbasket for the regions where they dominate. Covering
approximately 6 percent of the nonpolar continental land area on Earth, they are found
primarily in subhumid to semiarid grasslands in Europe, Asia, the Argentine Pampa, the

Great Plains of North America, and the Palouse region of the northwestern United
States.

Mollisol soil profile, showing a typically dark surface horizon rich in humus.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

The important mineral nutrientscalcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodiumare

found through most, if not all, layers of the Mollisol soil profile. Below the
surface horizon, Mollisols do not show major accumulations ofhumus or translocated
(migrated) aluminum- and iron-bearing minerals. The uppermost zone has a
characteristic dark colour, making for a striking profile and giving clear evidence of the
decomposition of grass roots and of the wet-dry cycles over millennia that are essential
to the formation of these soils.
Mollisols differ from Alfisols (another important agricultural soil) by their higher humus
content, from Vertisols (another soil of grassland origin) by their lack of cracking or
swelling, and from Ultisols (like Mollisols, a humus-rich soil) by their greater retention of
available metal nutrients.

Alfisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Alfisols are arable soils
with water content adequate for at least three consecutive months of the growing
season. Prior to cultivation they are covered with natural broad-leaved deciduous forest
vegetation, sometimes interspersed with needle-leaved evergreen forest or with grass.
Occupying just under 10 percent of the nonpolar continental land area onEarth, they
are found primarily in cool, moist regions of the Northern Hemisphere (the north-central
United States and north-central Europe extending into Russia) and in subhumid or
Mediterranean climatic regions of both hemispheres (western Africa south of the

Sahara, northeastern Brazil, and southern Australia). The principal agricultural crops
grown on Alfisols are corn (maize), wheat, and wine grapes.

Alfisol soil profile, showing a brown, humus-rich surface horizon and a red, iron-rich subsurface
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Alfisols typically exhibit well-developed, contrasting soil horizons (layers) depleted in

calcium carbonate but enriched in aluminum- and iron-bearing minerals. Below the
surface horizon lies a region with significant accumulation of translocated (migrated)
layer silicate clay. This region, called the argillic horizon, is characterized by a relatively
high content of available calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium ions.
Alfisols are lower in humus content than Mollisols (a similar soil order) and do not have
the calcium carbonate accumulation of that soil type. They are less extensively leached
of metal ions and develop in cooler climates than theUltisols, a clay-rich soil order of
warmer regions.

Oxisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Oxisols form
principally in humid tropical zones under rainforest, scrub and thorn forest, or savanna
vegetation on flat to gently sloping uplands. They are typically found on old landscapes
that have been subject to shifting cultivation for millennia. Intensive plantation
agriculture is possible if lime and fertilizers are applied with careful management to
prevent erosion. Oxisols occupy 7 percent of the nonpolar continental land area
on Earth, mostly in the equatorial regions of South America and Africa.

Oxisol soil profile, showing a thick red subsurface horizon rich in clay and metal oxides.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

Oxisols are characterized by a thick subsurface layer (the oxic horizon) that
contains kaolin-group clay minerals and metal oxides in a finely textured matrix with
very little or no easily weathered silicates. Ferromagnesian parent materials (minerals
containing both iron and magnesium) are also thought to be essential, since loss of
silica and oxidation of iron are important pathways in Oxisol formation.
Oxisols differ from Ultisols in not having a layer of translocated (migrated) clay
accumulation and from Vertisols in not containing significant amounts of swelling clay
minerals.

Ultisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Ultisols are reddish,
clay-rich, acidic soils that support a mixed forest vegetation prior to cultivation. They are
naturally suitable for forestry, can be made agriculturally productive with the application
of lime and fertilizers, and are stable materials for construction projects. Occupying just
over 8 percent of the nonpolar continental land area on Earth, they are found in humid
temperate or tropical regions, including the southeastern United States and China, and
in the humid tropics in South America and Africa.

Ultisol soil profile, showing a humus-rich surface horizon above a leached layer that may appear
Soil Survey Staff. 1998. Dominant Soil Orders and SubordersSoil Taxonomy 1998, United States of America.
Map and Soil Photographs, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Soil Survey Center,
Lincoln, Nebraska. NSSC 5502-0898-01.

Ultisols are found in geologically old landscape settings. They are characterized by
a humus-rich surface horizon (the uppermost layer), by a layer of clay that has migrated
below the surface horizon, and by a nutrient content low in available calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. The well-developed, extensively leached soil
horizons are enriched in kaolin-group clay minerals and in metal oxides and appear as
red or bleached layers.
Ultisols differ from Alfisols by their few mineral nutrients and high content of aluminum.
They differ from Oxisols by the lackor sometimes deep displacementof a horizon
enriched in aluminum and iron oxides and in kaolin clay minerals.