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Science Authors
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Ray Bowers Toronto, Ontario
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Advisory Panel Mississauga, Ontario

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Project Team
Kate Baltais Kathleen ffolliott Louise MacKenzie
Vaia Barkas Susan Green Sandra Magill
Dianne Broad Lynne Gulliver Donna Picheca
Cecilia Chan Brian Hotson Eileen Pyne-Rudzik, Ph.D.
Julie Czerneda Keith Lennox Theresa Thomas
Dawna Day Harris May Look Judy Wilson

Contributors
Gabriel Ayyavoo, Francis Liberman C.H.S., Scarborough
Beth Lisser, Rick Hansen S.S., Mississauga
Philip Marsh, Rick Hansen S.S., Mississauga
Heather Mace, Ottawa-Carleton District School Board
Angela Vavitsas, Northern S.S., Toronto
Ron Thorpe, Marc Garneau C.I., Toronto

Photo Research
Karen Taylor

Art Direction
Alex Li

Cover Design
Anthony Leung

Interior Design
Anthony Leung
Alex Li

Page Layout
David Cheung
Anthony Leung

Illustration
Crowle Art Group
Alan Barnard
Cynthia Watada
Kevin Cheng
David Cheung
Anthony Leung
Ack n ow l e d g e m e n t s

Curriculum and Assessment Consultant Review Panel

Marietta (Mars) Bloch Gabriel Ayyavoo
Toronto District School Board Francis Liberman C.H.S., Scarborough
Katherine Bellomo
Senior Science Consultant Toronto District School Board
Philip Marsh Pearl Bradd
Peel District School Board Riverside S.S., Windsor
Zoltan Koritar
Northern S.S., Toronto
Technology Consultant
Crystal Potvin
Mike Newnham
Confederation S.S., Val Caron
Thames Valley District School Board

Reviewers
Accuracy Reviewers
Ortwin Baldauf
Christopher J. Clovis, B.Sc. (Hons), B.Ed., Ph.D.
Glendale S.S., Hamilton
University of Windsor
Andrew Booth
L. Kott, Ph.D.
Cobourg D.C.I. East, Cobourg
Research Scientist, Canola
Breeder/Biotechnologist, Department of Plant Debbie Chambers
Agriculture, University of Guelph North Addington Education Centre, Cloyne
Ellen Larsen, Ph.D. Joe D’Amico
Department of Biology, University of Toronto St. Mary C.S.S., Pickering
David Malloch, Ph.D. Robert Day
Department of Botany, University of Toronto Cardinal Newman C.S.S., Scarborough
Amish Parikh, B.Sc., M.D. Laura Elgar
Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto Stouffville D.S.S., Stouffville
Clayton Ellis
Central Technical School, Toronto
Safety Reviewer
Bruce Evans
Brian Ryder
St. Joan of Arc C.H.S., Maple
Westmount S.S., Hamilton
Pauline Fidler
Chesley D.H.S., Chesley
Catholicity Reviewers
Istvan Hegedus
Naz Fiscaletti Humberside C.I., Toronto
St. Francis Xavier S.S., Mississauga
George Hewitt
Sister Gabriel Riddle, cps Iroquois Falls S.S., Iroquois Falls
Francis Liberman C.H.S., Scarborough
Dave Oehring
Kirkland Lake C.V.I., Kirkland Lake (Retired)
Alison Paul
Northview Heights S.S., North York
Mark Potvin
Sir Robert Borden H.S., Nepean
Donna Taylor
Iroquois Ridge H.S., Oakville
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s

UNIT 1 4.3 Protein Synthesis

4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production
93
95
Cellular Functions 2 4.5 Cellular Respiration
Case Study Ethanol or Fossil Fuels?
98
102
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting Fermentation 103
CHAPTER 1 Investigation 2 Factors Affecting the Rate of
The Chemistry of Life 4 Photosynthesis 104
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells 6 Chapter Summary 105
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage 13 Chapter Review 106
1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage 17
Case Study Diet and Disease 21 Exploring Careers 108
1.4 Proteins 23 Achievement Task 110
1.5 Nucleic Acids 26 Unit Review 112
Investigation 1 Building Molecular Models 29
Investigation 2 Testing for Compounds in Foods 31
Chapter Summary 33
Chapter Review 34
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity 116
CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure and Function 36 CHAPTER 5
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure 38 Mitosis and Meiosis 118
2.2 Cell Structures 41 5.1 Mitosis 120
2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles 48 Case Study The Demand for Human Tissue 129
Case Study Ethics and Stem Cell Research 57 5.2 Meiosis 131
Investigation 1 Characteristics of Cells 58 5.3 Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction 143
Investigation 2 Estimating an Object’s Size with Investigation 1 Observing Cells in the Process
the Microscope 59 of Meiosis 147
Chapter Summary 61 Investigation 2 Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis 148
Chapter Review 62 Chapter Summary 149
Chapter Review 150
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport 64 CHAPTER 6
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell 66 Genetics and Heredity 152
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water 68 6.1 The Origins of Genetics 154
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport 72 6.2 Genetic Analysis 160
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles 75 6.3 Genetics After Mendel 168
Case Study Drug Addiction and the Cell 79 Investigation 1 Mendelian Inheritance Patterns 180
Investigation 1 A Study of Osmosis: Determining Investigation 2 Human Traits Following
the Solute Concentration of Potatoes 80 Mendel’s Patterns of Inheritance 182
Investigation 2 Effects on Permeability 82 Chapter Summary 183
Chapter Summary 83 Chapter Review 184
Chapter Review 84

CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 4 Genetics and Society 186
Cells at Work 86
7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 188
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy 88 7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees 201
4.2 Enzymes 90 7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics 210

Table of Contents v
Case Study What Genes Can Tell Us 225 10.2 The Structure and Function of the
Investigation 1 Gel Electrophoresis Simulation 228 Human Heart and Blood Vessels 324
Investigation 2 DNA Extraction 230 10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and
Chapter Summary 231 Disease 335
Chapter Review 10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms 341
Investigation 1 Exercise and Pulse Rate 345
Exploring Careers 234 Investigation 2 Measuring Blood Pressure 346
Achievement Task 236 Investigation 3 Fetal Pig Dissection 349
Unit Review 238 Chapter Summary 354
Chapter Review 356

Exploring Careers 358

UNIT 3 Achievement Task 360
Unit Review 362
Internal Systems 242

CHAPTER 8
Nutrition and Digestion 244
UNIT 4
8.1 Nutrition 246 Diversity of Living
Case Study Health and the Media 254
8.2 The Digestive System 256 Things 366
8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their
Associated Enzymes 267 CHAPTER 11
8.4 Digestion in Other Organisms 275 Classification 368
Investigation 1 What Effect Does Temperature
Have on an Enzyme? 279 11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life 370
Investigation 2 Enzyme Activity in Fruit 281 11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Evolution 377
Chapter Summary 282 Case Study Biodiversity and Aquaculture 382
Chapter Review 284 Investigation 1 Using a Dichotomous Key 384
Chapter Summary 385
Chapter Review 386
CHAPTER 9
Respiration 286
CHAPTER 12
9.1 The Respiratory System 288
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
9.2 The Physiology of Respiration 294
9.3 Respiratory Disorders 300
and Viruses 388
Case Study Health and the Global Community 305 12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and
9.4 Comparing the Respiratory Systems in Eubacteria 390
Various Organisms 306 12.2 Viruses 400
Investigation 1 Measuring Lung Capacity— 12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology 405
A Comparative Approach 309 Case Study Viruses: Research Versus Risk 412
Investigation 2 The Effect of Airways of Investigation 1 Observing Bacteria 413
Different Diameters 311 Investigation 2 Preparing and Observing
Chapter Summary 312 Stained Bacteria 414
Chapter Review 314 Chapter Summary 415
Chapter Review 416
CHAPTER 10
Circulation 316 CHAPTER 13
10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the Protists, Fungi, and Plants 418
Components of Blood 318 13.1 The Protists 420
Case Study Fair Testing for Athletes? 323 13.2 The Fungi 427

vi Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
13.3 The Plants 434 Investigation 1 A Test for Protein in Seeds 523
Investigation 1 Growing Moulds 445 Investigation 2 Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites 524
Investigation 2 Improving the Growth of Yeast 446 Chapter Summary 525
Chapter Summary 447 Chapter Review 526
Chapter Review 448
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 14 Plant Structure and Function 528
The Animal Kingdom 450 16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function 530
14.1 Simple Animals 452 Case Study Using Plants to Fight Pollution 539
14.2 Wormlike Animals 457 16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions 541
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing 16.3 Water and Food Transport 545
Complexity 462 Investigation 1 Examining Monocot and Dicot
14.4 Joint-Legged Animals 465 Stems 551
14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons 469 Investigation 2 Examining Plant Tissue 552
Case Study Cloning and the Cattle Industry 477 Chapter Summary 553
Investigation 1 Study of a Crayfish Body Plan 478 Chapter Review 554
Investigation 2 Stream Study 479
Chapter Summary 481
CHAPTER 17
Chapter Review 482
Plant Growth and Development 556
Exploring Careers 484 17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations 558
Achievement Task 486 17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant
Unit Review 488 Growth 568
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting the Growth of
Plants 574
Investigation 2 Investigating Gravitropism 576
UNIT 5 Chapter Summary 577
Chapter Review 578
Plants: Anatomy,
Exploring Careers 580
Growth, and Functions 492 Achievement Task 582
Unit Review 584
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants 494 Appendix
Glossary
15.1 Plants in Nature 496
Answers to Numerical Problems
15.2 Plants in Agriculture 502
Index
Case Study Canada’s Laws on Pesticide Use 509
Photo Credits
15.3 Plants in Industry 514
15.4 Plants in Medicine 519

Table of Contents 1
 UNIT

1 Cellular Functions

I
By the end of this unit, t all started in 1665 when Robert Hooke first viewed what he called cells
you will be able to: through his homemade microscope. It continues today as biologists use
the latest high-tech electron microscopes to reveal the mysteries of cells.
 Demonstrate an understanding of
cell structure and function and the You don’t have to be a biologist, however, to benefit from knowledge about
processes of metabolism and cells. Whether you realize it or not, issues concerning cells affect you in
membrane transport
 Investigate the fundamental
molecular principles and
mechanisms that govern energy-
transforming activities in all living
matter, whether it be animal, plant,
or microbial
 Demonstrate an understanding of
the relationship between cell
functions and their technological
and environmental applications

b) Scanning electron micrograph

(SEM) of a monocyte

c) Scientist looking of cells through

a) A replica of Hooke’s microscope modern light microscope

2
your everyday life. Does that new low-fat diet you want to try actually work
and is it safe? Why is there such controversy surrounding the use of anabolic
steroids in sports? Should the government spend millions of tax dollars to
equip hospitals with MRI machines? What’s the best way to clean up an oil
spill? These questions have one thing in common: they can best be answered
using an understanding of cellular functions.
In this unit, you will study the dynamic processes by which nutrients and
waste material are moved in, out, and around cells. You will investigate
molecules that make up the structure of cells and others that play important
roles in cell metabolism. You will examine the structures within cells that not
only ensure the health of each individual cell, but also the health of the
entire organism. You will gain the knowledge about cells necessary to make
important decisions throughout your entire life, decisions that could affect
your health and the world around you.

BIOLOGY HEADLINES

 Cell Transplant Procedure Seen as Major
Breakthrough in Treating Diabetes
A team of Edmonton doctors has removed insulin-
producing cells known as islet cells from the pan-
creas of deceased human donors. The islet cells
were then successfully transplanted into the livers
of 14 Canadians with type 1 diabetes. After the
transplant procedure, the diabetics no longer re-
quired daily insulin injections. The pioneer cell
transplant procedure has been hailed as a major
breakthrough in treating diabetes.
 Lack of MRI Machines Tests the Patience of
Medical Patients
Imagine feeling sick, but having to wait up to 12
months to find out what was wrong. Such delays
face many Canadians waiting to receive an MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging) test. MRI technol-
ogy is extremely reliable and accurate for diag-
nosing conditions such as cancer and brain
tumours, but it is also extremely expensive. A sin-
gle machine can cost millions of dollars to purchase
and hundreds of thousands of dollars each year to
operate. Who will pay the bill?
 Oil Company Uses Single-Cell Microbe to Purify
Oil Sands
In the past, energy company Syncrude Canada has
managed to cut costs at its Fort McMurray oilsands
refining site by getting the bugs out of the process.
But now it wants to invest over two million dollars
to put bugs back into it! Pseudomonas bacteria will
be used in one of a series of research projects to
improve recovery rates from heavy oilsands mined
at the Fort McMurray site. It is hoped that the bac-
teria will be useful in removing impurities like ni-
trogen compounds found in the Syncrude oil.
Bacteria have been used before to clean up oil
spills, but this is the first time they will be used
to purify oil.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learn-
ing by proposing recommendations to Health Canada
for allocation of funds for public health campaigns. You
will research the diseases most affecting Canadians today
and analyze which disease or diseases could be most
impacted by increased public awareness. You will also
consider the social and economic impacts of public
health campaigns, and how public awareness can be
most effectively achieved. See page 110.

3
 CHAPTER 1

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Chemistry of Life
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 identify and describe the structure
and function of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5,
Investigation 2)
 view and manipulate computer-
generated, three-dimensional
molecular models of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5)
 carry out biological tests for
macromolecules found in living
organisms (Investigation 1)
 explain how the scientific
knowledge of cellular processes is
used in technological applications
(1.1, 1.2, 1.3)

FIGURE 1.1 All life depends on the reactions of molecules in a watery

environment.

4
A ntelopes and grasshoppers, fish and Douglas fir. Life occurs in an
amazing number of different forms, but all consist of a few kinds of
molecules made up of a few different kinds of atoms. How do these atoms
and molecules produce such a variety of living things?
The bonding of atoms produces molecules of a specific structure or shape.
The structure of a particular molecule determines its function. A small change
in one portion of a molecule can mean an important difference in its struc-
ture and a vast difference in its function. For example, a change in the
hemoglobin molecule of only one sub-unit out of a chain of 146 results in
sickle-cell anemia in people who have this altered hemoglobin in their red
blood cells. Symptoms include weakness and pain.
Even simple-appearing molecules such as water show the importance
of structure to function. Fifty to ninety-five percent of any living organism
is water and the structure of water gives it remarkable properties. Ions, such
as sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+), account for about 1%, and the remain-
der of most cells consists of four types of compounds: carbohydrates, pro-
teins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These substances interact in a watery
environment. In this chapter, you will gain the understanding to appreciate
these important molecules of the cell and examine how chemical structure
and function are applied in technologies as diverse as magnetic resonance
imaging, production of baby food, and miniaturizing of electronic circuits.

Discovering Biology
Water: An excellent solvent
1. Place a small glass on a saucer and fill the glass to the brim with water.
2. A solvent is the substance in which a solute is dissolved. Slowly add salt
to the glass one spoonful at a time.
CHECKPOINT
3. Record how many spoonfuls of salt the water can hold before the glass
overflows. Brainstorm what you know
 What changes have taken place? about elements and how
they link to one another.
 How can the water hold so much salt without overflowing?

Element

CHAPTER 1 Cell Compounds 5


WORD ORIGIN
Atom from the Greek atomos,
meaning “indivisible” or unable
to divide. Democritus kept
breaking grains of salt into
smaller pieces and asked his
students if the pieces were still
salt. He claimed he would
eventually obtain atoms—
pieces that could no longer be
broken down.
INFOBIT
Many biological terms in this
unit originate from the Greek
language. This is partially be-
cause Greek philosophers such
as Democritus and Aristotle
were among the first to study
science. Present-day scientists
have used words originating
from the Greek language to
create modern scientific words
as a tribute to the work of the
ancient Greeks.
6 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe how atoms, ions, and molecules are important to biological compounds
 represent the structure of important biological molecules in different ways
 identify and describe the structure and biological functions of water
 relate characteristics of acids and bases and the use of the pH scale to conditions in
living organisms
To understand how cells work it is nec-
essary to understand some chemistry.
The field of biochemistry studies the
chemical reactions that take place in
cells. The same compounds are pre- e– e–
sent and the same essential metabolic
processes go on in organisms as differ-
hydrogen hydrogen
ent as bacteria and humans. The prin-
atom atom
ciples of chemistry and the mechanisms
e–
of chemical reactions apply inside and
outside the cell in the intracellular and
extracellular fluids. Reactions that take e–
place in cells must be very efficient be-
cause the formation of by-products could
a hydrogen molecule
be toxic and also waste energy.
The Greek philosopher Democritus
chose the term “atom” nearly 3000 years
ago. Today, despite the discovery of sub- oxygen atom
atomic particles, the atom is regarded as e– e–
the basic unit of matter just as the cell is
e– e– e–
regarded as the basic unit of life. Six types e–
of atoms (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy-
gen, phosphorus, and sulfur) make up hydrogen hydrogen
about 99% of all living organisms. e– e–
atom atom
Atoms bond to one another to form e– e–
compounds. Bonds are formed by the
sharing or transfer of electrons present
in the atoms. Compounds are molecules
made up of at least two different kinds
of atoms. In most important biochemi- b water molecule
cal compounds these bonds are covalent.
Covalent bonds involve a sharing of
electrons between the atoms in the com- FIGURE 1.2 Covalent bonding. A covalent bond
pound (figure 1.2). Covalent bonds may forms when two atoms share one or more pairs
be single, double, or triple, depending of electrons.
on how many pairs of electrons are a) Two atoms of hydrogen have come together,
shared. (For example, in a single bond and each shares its electron with the other; this
one pair of electrons is shared; in a dou- completes the outer shell and gives stability.
b) Two hydrogen atoms are linked with one oxy-
ble bond two pairs are shared. gen atom; two pairs of electrons are shared,
Ionic bonds occur when one atom one pair between each of the hydrogen atoms
donates an electron to another atom and the oxygen atom.
 Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)

(Figure 1.3). This transfer of an electron

a)
causes the atom losing the electron to
e–
become positively charged and the atom
gaining the electron to become nega-
tively charged. The charged atoms are
called ions. The attraction of opposite
charges between the ions results in the
formation of an ionic bond.
If the electrons are shared between electron
atoms, but not equally shared, the bond transfer
is a polar covalent bond. One atom has e–
a slight positive charge (δ+ ) and the other
has a slight negative charge (δ–). Polar co-
valent bonds are important in biological
compounds because of the attraction
between areas of slight positive and slight
negative charge on the compound.
Sodium ion (Na+)
Substances present in cells can be Chloride ion (Cl–)
divided into two classes: organic and in-
organic compounds. Organic compounds ionic
contain carbon. Carbon is a unique and compound
(Na+Cl–)
important element in living systems
because of its ability to form strong, sta-
ble covalent bonds. Examples of organic
salt crystals
compounds include carbohydrates, pro- b)
teins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Inorganic
compounds are not generally part of the
structure of living cells, but in some
species, for example some corals, they FIGURE 1.3 Ionic bonding.
are an integral part. Most inorganic sub- a) When sodium and chlorine atoms come together, sodium loses its third shell elec-
tron to chlorine, and becomes a sodium ion with a net positive charge. Having gained
stances in cells are in the form of ions
an electron, the chlorine atom becomes a chloride ion, with a net negative charge.
such as sodium, chloride, and bicar- b) The sodium and chloride ions are now attracted to each other because they are
bonate ions. Two important exceptions oppositely charged. An ionic bond is formed.
to this rule are the water molecule and
the carbon dioxide molecule. These
Another symbol system represents
molecules are inorganic compounds that O
the structure of molecules. These rep-
are essential for cell metabolism.
resentations are known as structural for- H H
mulas. Structural formulas use the
Representation of Molecules Rather than water molecule
same symbols as molecular formulas
draw each atom that makes up a chem-
ical compound, chemists have invented to represent the atoms, but structural H
symbol systems to represent molecules. formulas also show how the atoms mak-
ing up the molecule are bonded to one H C OH
One such system in use is known as a
molecular formula. Molecular formulas another (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5). C O
Since biologically important molecules H H
show the number of atoms of each type H
that make up a compound; the formulas consist almost exclusively of covalent C C
bonds, these bonds are represented in OH H
use symbols such as “C” to represent OH OH
carbon, “H” to represent hydrogen, and a structural formula by a line between C C
“O” to represent oxygen. Perhaps the atoms. Each line in a structural formula H OH
most well-known molecular formula is represents a shared pair of electrons. glucose molecule
H2O. Subscripts, such as the “2” in H20, Many of the molecules made by cells
are used to show the number of each are very complex; some protein FIGURE 1.4 Structural
kind of atom present in the molecule. molecules consist of thousands of atoms. formulas

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 7


H C
O H
H H C C
OH
water molecule
FIGURE 1.5 Structural formulas
WORD ORIGIN
Polymer and monomer from
the Greek poly, meaning
“many,” mono, meaning “one”
and meris, meaning “parts.”
Polar from the Latin polus,
meaning “end of axis.”
INFOBIT
PEBBLES (Probes Encapsulat-
ed by BioListic Embedding) are
biosensors that allow scientists
to observe chemical processes
within a living cell. These poly-
mer spheres can be as small as
20 nanometers (1nm = 10–9 m) in
diameter. Dye is placed into the
polymer and when the PEBBLE
is injected into the cell, the dye
will become fluorescent if acti-
vated by a wavelength of light.
As the targetted ion or molecule
in the cell changes, the fluo-
rescence will increase or
decrease. This technology has
potential applications in learn-
ing what happens to the chem-
istry of a cell when it is affect-
ed by disease or drugs.
WEBLINK
To view and manuipulate a
three-dimensional model of the
water molecule, go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
8 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
H
OH
a)
C O H H O
H
H N C C
b) c)
OH H H R OH
OH
C C
H OH
glucose molecule amino acid molecule
Cells are able to make these large
molecules by joining smaller sub-unit
molecules together into chains known as
polymers. Polymers are large molecules
consisting of identical or similar build-
ing-block molecules strung together. The
arrangement is somewhat like the beads
in a necklace: each bead represents
the building-block molecule and the
whole necklace represents the poly-
mer. The individual building-block
molecules are known as monomers.
Cells make a wide variety of polymers
using relatively few monomers. For ex-
ample, glucose is the monomer molecule
of the polymer glycogen (Figure 1.7). All
the reactions that take place in cells are
collectively termed metabolism. The re-
actions that build up substances like
polymers through a series of steps are
anabolism. Those that break down com-
pounds into simpler forms are
catabolism. FIGURE 1.7
Three-dimensional representations a) A glucose molecule: a simple sugar or
of molecules are based on patterns of monosaccharide.
diffraction of X rays by crystals. They b) A polymer of glucose units forming a starch
molecule in a slice of raw potato.
c) A complex, branched polymer of glucose
units making up glycogen globules in the liver.
include space-filling models that show
the surface shape of the molecule and
computer-generated ribbon diagrams
that highlight particular areas or do-
mains within the molecule (Figure 1.6).
Water: A Polar Molecule
Life as we know it on Earth could not
FIGURE 1.6 A computer–generated ribbon
diagram follows the winding of the polypeptide
exist without water. Consider that water
chains and highlights the structure of different makes up 50–90 percent of nearly all or-
domains in the molecule. ganisms, and wherever water is found

Proton behaviour
is responsible
for safer, better
medical imaging
Protons in the nucleus of atoms are
like tiny magnets. Magnetic reso-
nance imaging (also known as MRI)
relies on this property of protons to
create detailed medical images. In an
MRI scanner, a person is placed into
a machine capable of producing a
very strong magnetic field. When the
magnetic field is turned on, the pro-
tons in the atoms of the person’s body
tissues line up with the magnetic field
(much as a compass lines up with the
earth’s magnetic field). When the
magnetic field is turned off, the pro-
tons return to their original position.
As the protons return to their
pre-magnetic state, they emit radio
waves that are received by special
on our planet, life is also found—
whether it is in hot springs, the deep-
est depths of the sea, or on the frozen
water making up polar ice caps.
Water has a number of unique prop-
erties due to its molecular structure and
three-dimensional shape. Water is a
polar covalently bonded molecule. This
means there is competition between the
atoms for the shared electrons making
up the bond. In the case of water, the
oxygen atom has a larger, more posi-
tively charged nucleus than the two hy-
drogen atoms. As a result, the shared
electrons tend to spend more time near
the oxygen atom than they do near the
hydrogen atoms. This results in an un-
equal sharing of electrons and a differ-
ence in charge between the ends or
poles of a water molecule: the oxygen
end of the molecule tends to have a
slightly negative charge, while the
detectors built into the MRI scanning been developing an MRI scanner
machine. The strength of the radio small enough to be used during sur-
signal depends on the number of pro- gical procedures.
tons in the particular type of tissue.
A computer forms an image of the tis-
sue based on the differences in the
number of radio waves detected and
the time it takes the protons to return
to their original position.
While conventional X rays show
good detail of bone structure, MRI
scans have the huge advantage of
also showing the soft tissues of the
body, such as tendons, ligaments,
muscles, and brain tissue. Cellular
processes resulting from trauma or
disease may result in a different
repertoire of cell compounds and
therefore also of atoms present in the
individual’s cells. As a result, MRI
scans are often used to diagnose ath-
letic injuries and cancer in the many
non-bony areas of the body. So far,
no known harm is caused to humans
by strong magnetic fields.
A scientific team from Canada’s
National Research Council (NRC), led FIGURE 1.8 MRI scans show soft tissue
by NRC scientist John Saunders, has detail much better than X rays do.
δ−
O slight negative FIGURE 1.9 Polar covalent
charge bonding. In the water
molecule, the oxygen atom
attracts the shared electrons
more strongly than the hydro-
gen atoms do. The electrons
are shifted toward the oxygen
atom, giving it a partial nega-
tive charge (because elec-
trons are negatively charged)
H H
and giving the hydrogen
slight positive atoms a partial positive
δ+ δ+ charge
charge. Partial is indicated
electrons
here by the Greek symbol
delta, δ. The bonds are polar
covalent and the molecule as
hydrogen end has a slightly positive a whole is polar.
charge. Such charge differences result
in what are known as polar molecules.
See Figure 1.9 for further explanation.
Because of their polar structure,
water molecules tend to form weak bonds
with each other. These bonds, known as
hydrogen bonds, are weak attractions
between the polar ends of water and
CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 9
INFOBIT
Scientists studying a 175-million-
year-old meteorite that landed
in India in 1865 have found in-
dications that water once
flowed on the surface of Mars.
Grains from the meteorite con-
tain a high proportion of sub-
stances that are soluble in
water. Also, images from the
Mars Orbiter camera suggest
the presence of water-carved
gullies on the planet. These
discoveries have piqued the
interest of scientists, who
believe that life cannot evolve
without water.
FIGURE 1.11 Water’s power
as a solvent.
a) The components of a crys-
tal of table salt, Na+ and Cl– ,
are attracted to the charged
regions of the water
molecule—sodium to the neg-
ative charge of water’s oxygen
atom and chlorine to the posi-
tive charge of water’s hydro-
gen atoms.
b) Pulled from the crystal,
sodium and chloride ions be-
come surrounded by water
molecules.
c) The process repeats until
the ions are evenly dispersed
in the aqueous solution.
10 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
other similar molecules (Figure 1.10). Van der Waal’s interactions are non-
Although each hydrogen bond is weaker specific weak attractive forces between
than either an ionic or a covalent bond, atoms or molecules that are the result
the effect of the billions of bonds that form of random fluctuations in the distribu-
in even a small amount of water is quite tion of electrons. Both polar and
strong. This effect is similar to the way nonpolar molecules have van der Waal’s
weak individual strands of a rope com- interactions. Hydrophobic interactions
bine to produce a rope of greater occur because nonpolar molecules are
strength. excluded from mixing with polar
There are other weak forces that op- molecules like water and so tend to as-
erate within and between molecules. sociate with each other. Hydrophobic in-
teractions are very important in cell
membranes.
H
+ –
O Water and Cell Processes: Cohesion
O H
+ H Because water is polar it has unique
H – –
properties. For example, water
+
+ molecules tend to stick together (cohere).
– H
H O This helps explain how water columns
O H –
move within plants to carry dissolved
–
+ + H minerals from the roots to the leaves.
H The mutual attraction of water molecules
H – O
– is the reason that it takes so much en-
O H
+
ergy to transform liquid water into
H –
+ H steam. It also explains the high boiling
+
– + H O point of water relative to other molecules
–
of similar mass, and its high specific heat
capacity.
O
H Hydrogen bond
H High Specific Heat A high specific heat
means that water requires a large
FIGURE 1.10 Hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen amount of heat energy to produce a
bonds between water molecules are indicated change in temperature, and it tends to
by the dotted lines. These bonds exist because
of the attraction between hydrogen atoms, with
retain the heat. This means that water
their partial positive charge, and the unshared moderates temperature change, allow-
electrons of the oxygen atom, with their partial ing Earth to have a moderate climate
negative charge. able to support the development and
evolution of life.
sodium and
water
(solvent) chloride ions
dissolved
H in water
O
H
sodium
chloride
(solute)
Cl– Na+
a b c
Density Solid water (ice) is less dense
than liquid water. Ice has a more rigid
structure, because it has the maximum
number of hydrogen bonds. This leaves
more space between water molecules,
so the mass per unit volume (density) is
less than that of liquid water. This
explains why ponds freeze from the
top down—a very important property in
supporting life.
Solvent Properties Water is a very good
solvent. This means that other com-
pounds dissolve readily in water—a
property that allows your blood to carry
dissolved nutrients, minerals, and gases
to and from your cells (Figure 1.11).
Dissociation Another important prop-
erty of water is its ability to dissociate
(to form ions). In a simplified way, we
can regard this dissociation as water
molecules breaking down to form
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions
(OH–). H+ and OH– are two of the most
reactive ions in the body.
H2O 2 H+ + OH–
Acids, Bases, and pH
Other compounds besides water break
down and release H+ or OH–. Compounds
that add H+ to a solution are known as
acids and compounds that take up H+ are
called bases. The more H+ that is in a so-
lution, the more acid it is; conversely, the
more OH– that is in a solution, the more
basic it is. Acids and bases are very com-
mon in and around living things: vinegar,
lemon juice, and gastric (stomach) juice
in humans are acidic; pancreatic juice in
humans is basic. The amount of H+ ion in
a cell is normally far less than the amount
of water. However, many vital cellular pro-
cesses, such as the proper functioning of
the metabolic reactions that maintain life,
require H+ or are strongly influenced by
the number of H+ ions in the cell.
The pH scale is a measure of the
acidity of a solution. The pH scale ranges
H+ concentration
(mol.L–1) pH
ACIDIC
battery acid
hydrochloric acid
lemon juice, gastric (stomach) juice
cola, beer, wine, vinegar
tomatoes
black coffee
urine
NEUTRAL pure water
human blood
seawater
baking soda
Great Salt lake
household ammonia
household bleach
oven cleaner
lye
BASIC
FIGURE 1.12 Common substances and the pH scale. The pH scale measures the
concentration of hydrogen ions per litre of solution. The most acidic substances on
the scale have the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, while the most basic (or
alkaline) substances have the least concentration of hydrogen ions. The scale is log-
arithmic, so that a difference of one unit on the pH scale means a 10 times differ-
ence in concentration. Wine, for example, is 10 times as acidic as tomatoes and 100
times as acidic as black coffee.
from 0–14, with a pH of 0 being the most M AT H L I N K
acidic and a pH of 14 the most basic. A
pH of 7 is neutral, neither acidic nor The pH value is defined as the
basic. Pure water has a pH of 7. Figure negative log of the concentra-
tion of H+ in a solution. For every
1.12 lists the pH of some body fluids and unit change in pH, there is a 10
other common solutions. times change in the concentra-
Human blood should be within a pH tion of H+, so a pH of 4 means a
range of 7.35–7.45 and any movement H+ concentration of 10–4 mol • L–1
away from this pH results in a clinical (0.0001 mol • L–1), while a pH of 5
means a H+ of 10–5 (0.00001
problem. Some reactions in the body mol • L–1) The hydrochlorie acid
such as the beginning of digestion of the in Figure 1.12 is 10–1 mol • L–1
proteins in your food require a low pH. (0.1 mol • L–1).
CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 11
 However, the cells in the area of low pH
must be supported by protection from
the effects of acidity.
A Problem with Acid
The tissues of almost all living organ-
isms are very sensitive to acid solutions.
If the pH of an organism’s internal
environment becomes too acidic, this
taffects the structures of proteins in the
organism’s cells and tissues as well as
the chemical reactions in the cells.
Organisms worldwide are suffering
due to the effects of acid rain. Acid rain,
also called acid precipitation is defined
as rain or snow with a pH of less than
5.6. Because of the way the pH scale
works, a decrease by a difference of one
unit on the scale means that the sec-
ond solution is 10 times more acidic than
the first solution. Rainfall with pH as low
as 4.3 has been recorded in southern
Ontario. Figure 1.13 illustrates how acid
rain forms.
Some scientists believe that all of the
organisms living in areas subjected to
acid rain will be affected. For example,
acid precipitation leaches the soil of some
of the metals normally found there. This
has the effect of destroying plant roots or
interfering with their ability to absorb nu-
trients. When these metals wash into
OH (hydroxyl radical)
pollution rain
cloud
SO2 H2SO4
(sulfuric acid)
NO2 HNO3
NO (nitric acid)
acid
rain
a b
FIGURE 1.13 How acid rain forms
a) Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), combine with hydroxyl rad-
icals (OH–) in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These com-
bine with atmospheric water to create acid precipitation.
b) A stand of trees in Ontario damaged by acid rain.
12 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
lakes, they can interfere with the gills of
fish, preventing them from obtaining oxy-
gen. As fish and other organisms die, the
lakes die too. Hundreds of lakes in
Ontario and Quebec are sick, dying, or
already dead.
Acid rain is also a leading cause of a
worldwide reduction in amphibian pop-
ulations—frogs, toads, and salamanders.
The exact reason for the mass decline
and near extinction of many species is
not known. However, it is suspected that
the accumulation of H+ in their habitat—
particularly during spring runoff—is in-
terfering with their ability to lay eggs and
with the survival of their young. Leaching
of metals into the water causes damage
to spawn, adversely affecting fertilization.
The metals are also suspected of dam-
aging larvae and intermediate “tadpole”
forms. As a result, in addition to de-
creased numbers, amphibian populations
are displaying increased rates of abnor-
malities, such as missing limbs and/or
eyes.
Acid rain is probably not the only
cause of the stress on amphibian popu-
lations. It is likely a complex interaction
between loss of habitat, global warming,
ozone depletion, and pesticide use.
Research is currently under way to
explain the factors responsible.
 Section 1.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Covalent and ionic bonds differ.
Describe two of these differences.
2. Using words and the appropriate dia-
grams or formulas, describe the dif-
ferences between a molecular formula,
a structural formula, a space-filling
model, and a ribbon diagram in the
representation of molecules.
3. Water is a polar molecule. Explain.
4. Hydrogen bonds form between water
molecules. Hydrogen bonds do not
form between methane (CH 4 )
molecules. Using diagrams, illustrate
why.
5. At the beginning of winter, a friend sug-
gests skating on a large local pond.
Explain, using scientific reasoning, the
need to be cautious about the thickness
of the ice. Identify two biological pro-
cesses that depend on the same
principle.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. The structural formula for a molecule
with a molecular formula of C6H12O6 is
shown in Figure 1.5. Draw other struc-
tural formulas possible for this
molecule. Predict whether or not these
alternative structures would behave in
the same chemical manner in cells.
Provide reasons for your answer.
7. Figure 1.12 shows the relationship be-
tween pH and gastric juice, urine,
distilled water, and blood. Propose
other possible ways of representing this
information.
8. The pH of human blood is stabilized at
7.35-7.45. Explain what might hap-
pen if the pH rises or falls above or
below this range.
Making Connections
9. “Water is life.” Explain this statement.
Present your ideas using an
Agree/Disagree chart.
10. “Without control of its water resources,
a society does not control its life.”
Analyze and describe the scientific, so-
cial and environmental aspects of this
issue.
11. Propose ways in which effects of acid
rain on the environment can be ad-
dressed.
12. Acid rain impacts the environment. It
also affects society and the economy in Investigation
a variety of ways. Explain. Refer to page 29,
Investigation 1

WORDORIGIN

Saccharide from the Greek

sakcharon, meaning “sugar.”
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage
CH2OH
Key Understandings H O H
H
When you have completed this section, you will be able to: OH H
 identify and describe the structure of carbohydrates HO OH
 understand the formation of polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis H OH
 relate the ability to increase energy stored in muscles to physical training glucose

FIGURE 1.14 The structural

Carbohydrates include the biologically
important molecules, sugars and
starches. These molecules provide short-
term energy to cells (Figure 1.14). In
carbohydrates, as in other organic
molecules, carbon provides the back-
bone of the molecule. Structurally,
carbohydrates consist of carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen. Like many other or-
ganic molecules, carbohydrates may be
monomers or polymers. The monomer
forms of carbohydrates are known as
monosaccharides. For example,
glucose is a monosaccharide. The
molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6
(Figure 1.15).
formula of glucose. Glucose
is an important molecule in
organisms for two major rea-
sons. It can be broken down
quickly for the release of en-
ergy for metabolism in cells,
and it is the monomer for the
synthesis of larger carbohy-
drate molecules.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 13


FIGURE 1.15 Carbohydrates
in foods. Breads, cereals, and
pasta are important in our
diet. These foods are all rich
in carbohydrates, one of the
four main types of biochemi-
cal compounds.
Disaccharides are sugars that consist of
two monosaccharides. Examples include
maltose and sucrose (Figure 1.16).
Maltose is made from two glucose
molecules, and sucrose, commonly
known as table sugar, is made from the
combination of glucose and another
monosaccharide known as fructose.
Disaccharides form by dehydration
synthesis (also known as a condensa-
tion reaction). In dehydration synthesis
a molecule of water is split out as the
bond is formed. Disacharides are booken
down into monomers by hydrolysis, in
which a molecule of water is used up as
a bond is broken to yield two smaller
products. See Figure 1.17.
Sweet Tooth
The average Canadian consumes about
57 kg of sugar a year. Your food, soft
drinks, sports drinks—just about every
prepared food you eat—has an added
sweetener. Traditionally, most of this
sugar has been in the form of sucrose
refined from sugar cane grown in
Caribbean countries, thus providing an
important economic export for those
countries. Recently a technique has been
developed to convert the glucose in
North American–produced corn syrup to
the much sweeter-tasting sugar, fructose.
This new, lower-priced sweetener, called
high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), has had
a major economic impact: the two
largest users of sucrose in the world,
Pepsi and Coke, have completely
switched to HFCS, and the economies of
some Caribbean nations have been ad-
versely affected as a result.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate
molecules (complex carbohydrates) that
are polymers of monosaccharides such
as glucose. Some important polysac-
charides include starch, glycogen and
cellulose. Starch is the energy storage
molecule in plants and a good source of
energy for human cells. Glycogen is the
short-term energy storage molecule in
human cells. Cellulose is the molecule
that makes up plant cell walls.
Differences between the polysaccharides
are caused by differences in their molec-
ular structure. Organisms must break
down polysaccharides to obtain useable
glucose molecules. For example, your

HOCH2 HOCH2 CH2OH

H O H H O OH H O H HOCH O H
2
H H H
OH H O OH H OH H O H HO
HO H HO
CH2OH
H OH H OH H OH OH H

maltose sucrose

FIGURE 1.16 The structural formulas of maltose and sucrose

glucose  glucose  maltose  water

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

Dehydration
H O H H O H Synthesis H O H H O H
H H H H
 H 2O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH Hydrolysis HO OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH

FIGURE 1.17 Carbohydrates follow a building blocks model

Two units of the monosaccharide glucose link to is reversible. Under the right conditions, and
form the disaccharide maltose. In this dehydration with the hydrolysis of a water molecule, a single
synthesis, water is also a product of the reac- maltose molecule can yield two glucose
tion. The double arrows indicate that the reaction molecules.

14 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

body breaks down starch and glycogen
by hydrolysis—starch within your di-
gestive system and glycogen within your
cells (Figure 1.18). The glucose released
from the starch molecule in this way is
then available for use for cell metabolism.
However, humans and most other ani-
mals cannot break down cellulose into
molecules of glucose. Instead, cellulose
passes undigested through our digestive
system serving as dietary fibre.
potato liver
a STARCH b GLYCOGEN
Glycogen storage You probably know that
running a marathon requires several
months of training. One of the main
reasons for this requirement has to do
with the polysaccharide glycogen. Cells,
such as muscle cells, use glucose for
energy. However, only so much glucose
can be carried in the blood, so the extra
glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscle cells. Glycogen is composed
of about 50 000 glucose sub-units. As the
algae
c CELLULOSE
CHAPTER 1
Investigation
Refer to page 31,
Investigation 2
WEBLINK
To view and manipulate three-
dimensional models, go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
FIGURE 1.18 Examples of
complex carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides, like other
large polymer molecules,
have complex three-dimen-
sional structures, as seen in
starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The different three-dimensional
structure of polysaccharides is
due to the different locations
of the bonds between the
glucose monomers in each
molecule.
a) Starch is a form of carbo-
hydrate storage in many
plants. Starch granules can be
seen within the cells of a slice
of raw potato.
b) Glycogen is a form of car-
bohydrate storage, here seen
as glycogen globules in the
liver.
c) Cellulose, visible as fibres
running through cell walls,
provides structural support for
plants.
The Chemistry of Life 15

FIGURE 1.19 Dr. Warren
Wakarchuk’s research made a
technological advance in re-
sponse to a need in society.
16 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
glucose in the blood is used by cells for
energy, the liver and muscle cells break
down glycogen by hydrolysis. This allows
the cell to replenish the glucose. An
athlete’s training improves the ability of
muscle cells to store much more glyco-
gen. Without this large amount of stored
energy, the muscles would run out of en-
ergy and the runner would not be able to
finish a long race such as a marathon
or a triathlon.
Building Carbohydrates in the Lab We nor-
mally think of carbohydrates as a short
term energy source, but some of them
have other important tasks. Some of
these carbohydrates help protect infants
from disease-causing microorganisms.
For infants the best source of car-
bohydrates, other nutrients, and anti-
bodies is their mother’s breast milk.
However, for some mothers-including
those who have adopted babies, breast-
feeding is not an option. It has been a
challenge for scientists to manufacture
the special carbohydrates found in
Section 1.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. List the similarities and differences be-
tween monosaccharides, disaccharides,
and polysaccharides.
2. Name one monosaccharide, one dis-
accharide, and one polysaccharide and
describe the biological importance of
each.
3. Using diagrams illustrate why a de-
hydration reaction may be consid-
ered the reverse of a hydrolysis
reaction.
4. “Hitting the wall” is a term marathon
runners use to describe their body’s re-
action once their liver and muscle cells
have run out of glycogen. What strate-
gies could a marathon runner utilize to
prevent this from happening?
breast milk. While it is possible to build
carbohydrates in a chemistry lab, the
process is very slow and expensive, re-
quiring several steps to make just one
molecule containing only tqo carbohy-
drates.
Biological systems like the ones
found in breast-milk producing cells use
specialized proteins called enzymes to
perform the numerous steps required to
make these carbohydrates. Using
biotechnology it is possible to obtain
these enzymes for use in the laboratory.
Efficiently producing the enzymes to
make the carbohydrates in the labora-
tory was the next hurdle to be overcome.
In answer to this challenge, Canadian
microbiologist, Dr. Warren Wakarchuk,
discovered not only how to manufacture
the enzymes necessary, but also how to
produce two enzymes in one, a step that
has made the process more efficient. The
use of this technology makes it possible
to produce biologically important
carbohydrates for products like infant
formula and other health care products.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. In preparation for competition an ath-
lete has to decide what to eat on the
day of competition. Design an experi-
ment to test the effects of different car-
bohydrate sources on athletic
performance. What is your hypothesis?
Outline your procedure.
Making Connections
6. Some people believe that “a vegetarian
diet is best for you and for the envi-
ronment too.”
Prepare a PMI chart on this statement.
Include a consideration of dietary fibre
(more technically known as the
polysaccharide cellulose).
1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 identify and describe the structure of lipids

 understand the varied functions of lipids in cells

 relate types of lipids to their role in a balanced diet

The organic compounds known as lipids molecule, it causes a kink or bend in the WORDORIGIN
include fats, phospholipids, waxes, and molecule. These kinks prevent unsatu-
steroids. In human cells, fats serve as rated and polyunsaturated fatty acids Lipid from the Greek word
lipos, meaning “fat.”
long-term energy storage molecules, from packing together tightly. As a re-
phospholipids form cell membranes, and sult, the linear saturated fatty acids are
steroids include cholesterol and certain able to pack more tightly together and
sex hormones. tend to be solids at room temperature
Because fats have many energy- (lard, for example). The kinked unsatu-
containing carbon-hydrogen bonds rated fatty acids cannot pack as tightly
(there may be more than 100 such and therefore tend to be liquid at room
bonds in a typical fat molecule), they are temperature. The degree of
useful long-term energy storage
molecules in both plants and animals. Palmitic acid
Fats make for good energy storage
molecules because they are a very con- O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
centrated source of energy—a gram of HO C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
fat contains more than twice as much H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
energy as a gram of carbohydrate. This
Saturated
translates into more energy requiring (no double bonds)
less weight. This is an important con-
sideration in animals that must carry Oleic acid
their stored energy with them as they H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
travel. Stored fat also helps cushion and C C C C C C C C C H
protect important organs such as the HO C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
kidneys. H H H H H H H H
Fats are made up mainly of two Monounsaturated
types of molecules: fatty acids and glyc- (one double bond)
erol. Fatty acids are long carbon-hydro-
gen chains with a carboxyl (COOH) group Linoleic acid H H H H H H
at one end. Fatty acids may be either H H
O H H H H H H H C C C C C C H
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated C C C
H H H H H
fatty acids have no double bonds be- HO C C C C C C C C C
H H
tween their carbon atoms and are lit- H H H H H H H H
erally saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Polyunsaturated
As seen in Figure 1.20, saturated fatty (more than one double bond)
acids are relatively straight (or linear)
molecules. In contrast, unsaturated FIGURE 1.20 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids have one or more double a) The hydrocarbon tail in palmitic acid is formed of carbon-carbon single bonds.
bonds between carbons and so are not b) In oleic acid there is one carbon-carbon double bond. An additional hydrogen atom
saturated with hydrogen. Figure 1.20 could link to each of the carbon atoms. Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid.
shows that wherever a double bond is c) The carbon chain in linoleic acid has two double bonds so linoleic acid is a polyun-
found in the fatty acid portion of the saturated fatty acid.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 17

WEBLINK saturation affects both the form these beef, lamb, and goat meat, and dairy
lipids take and their effects on human products.
health. Animals store energy in the form of
Lipids made from saturated fatty fats. Glycerol is an organic molecule
To view and manipulate three-
dimensional models of lipids acids are known as saturated fats. These with three carbons and three hydroxyl
goto lipids are found in red meat and dairy groups. Glycerol bonds with two or three
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. products. Saturated fats have proven fatty acids to form a fat. A glycerol
to be associated with health problems, molecule bonded to three fatty acids is
particularly related to the circulatory known as a triglyceride. Triglycerides
system. are the long-term energy storage
Lipids containing unsaturated fatty molecules in animals and are stored in
acids are called unsaturated fats. They fat cells in adipose tissue (Figure 1.22).
come from plants, such as canola, corn, Unlike other cells in the body, fat
and olives as well as some animal cells have an almost unlimited capacity
sources. Some unsaturated fats may ben- for growth. So when individuals put on
efit your health. Certain unsaturated weight, they are not making more fat
fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are cells; instead they are just adding more
essential in the human diet because they triglycerides to their existing cells.
cannot be made by the body. Recent
research on a substance called
Essential Fatty Acids
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) suggests
possible health benefits from eating Low-fat diets are popular, and this may
be a good thing because most Canadians
eat a diet too high in fat—especially sat-
urated fat. However, if low fat is better
H O
O for you, how about no fat? Wouldn’t that
H
C
R1 H C O C R1 be even better still? The answer is no.
H C OH  HO Lipids have an important role in your
O O
body, and your cells can make some but
H C OH  HO C R2 H C O C R2  3 H2O
not all of the lipids you require. Linoleic,
O
H C OH  H O linolenic, and arachidonic are the es-
O
C sential fatty acids—the label essential
H R H C O C R3
3
means they must be present in your
H food. Without them, your cells are un-
glycerol  3 fatty acids  triglyceride  water able to make all of the fatty acids nec-
essary to function properly. As with any
FIGURE 1.21 Formation of a triglyceride. R1, R2, and R3 stand for the hydrocarbon diet, it is best to consult with your doc-
chain of the particular fatty acid. For example, R1, R2, and R3 could be Palmitic acid, tor before drastically changing your eat-
Oleic acid, or Linoleic acid as shown in Figure 1.20. ing habits.

FIGURE 1.22 In a histological preparation of adipose tissue the fat cells appear
empty because the lipid contents dissolve during preparation of the tissue.

18 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 + –

nitrogen- phosphate
containing group
group

polar head nonpolar tails

FIGURE 1.23 A dual-natured molecule

b a)Phospholipids are made up of two
long fatty acid tails attached to a head
“like attracts like” that contains a negatively charged
phospholipids
phosphate group and a positively
charged nitrogen-containing group.
oil (nonpolar)
nonpolar, hydrophobic b)The polar head can bond with water
water (polar) tails (fatty acids) and remain submerged in it; the tails
have no bonding capacity for water but
polar, hydrophilic will mix with oils.
heads

WORDORIGIN
Discovering Biology
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
The Hidden Fats: What the Food Labels Don’t Tell You are from a combination of Latin
and Greek words. Hydro is
Although Health Canada rules require ingredient labels on food products, they Latin, meaning “water”; philic
may not always tell you all of the types of compounds present in a particular food. is from the Greek philios,
meaning “friendly”; and phobic
1. Obtain labels from fat-containing products such as potato chips, margarine, is from the Greek phobos,
cookies, mayonnaise, etc. meaning “fearing.”
2. List the amounts of the various types of fats shown on the food labels in a chart
similar to the one shown.
3. Calculate the amount of hidden fat in the food product in the following way:
Total fat – (Polyunsaturates + Monounsaturates + Saturates)
= Amount of hidden fat

The hidden fats are known as trans-fatty acids. These lipids

are produced when hydrogen atoms are added to un- Product Product Product Product
saturated fats, a process known as hydrogenation. #1 #2 #3 #4
Hydrogenation allows liquid vegetable oils to become Total Fat
solids at room temperature. Trans-fatty acids are con- Polyunsaturates
sidered by many experts to be quite harmful to your Monounsaturates
health. They are not required to be listed on food prod- Saturates
uct labels at the present time, although some manu- Hidden Fat
facturers have started to do so.

Questions:
 Which food product had the most hidden fats? Which had the least?
 Use print or electronic references to research the health-related effect of
trans-fatty acids and report your findings to the class.
 What is your opinion on the labelling of different foods? What changes in
labelling, if any, would you like to see?

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 19

 a What all steroids have in common is a four-ring carbon unit: Phospholipids
Phospholipids are also necessary to cells.
Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic
(water-loving) phosphate molecule and
two hydrophobic (water-hating) fatty
acid tails. Phospholipids are an impor-
tant part of cell membranes. The hy-
drophilic and hydrophobic ends of
phospholipids help the cell membrane
perform its function of regulating the
b What makes individual steroids unique are the side chains that
passage of molecules into and out of the
are attached to the rings:
cell. Only very small molecules or those
OH CH3 that are fat soluble can pass through the
CH3 phospholipid part of the membrane. See
HC CH3 Figure 1.23.
CH3 CH2

CH2
Steroids
testosterone Steroids are an important group of lipids
O CH2 that consist of four linked carbon rings.
HC CH3 They include cholesterol and certain sex
OH
CH3 CH3 hormones (Figure 1.24). Although choles-
terol is necessary for several functions,
CH3 including the proper formation of cell
membranes, too much cholesterol in the
diet can cause heart and/or arterial
estrogen cholesterol
disease. The steroid sex hormones es-
HO HO
trogen and testosterone are present in
both males and females, but in differ-
FIGURE 1.24 Structure of steroids ent relactive amounts. Testosterone is
a) The basic unit of steroids, four carbon rings.
more abundant in males and estrogen is
more abundant in females.
b) Testosterone is a principal “male” hormone and estrogen is a principal “female”
hormone. These steroid hormones are found in both men and women, but in differing
amounts. Cholesterol has several important functions; for example, the breakdown of
fats.

Anabolic Steroids
Anabolic steroids are artificial ver-
sions of the male sex hormone testos-
terone that some men and women
take to increase their strength and
muscle size. Anabolic steroids are
commonly called steroids or “roids.”
Their use has a number of unhealthy
and dangerous side effects. For ex-
ample, anabolic steroids can weaken
the immune system, leading to an in-
creased chance of illness, can cause
liver damage, and can also perma-
nently stop bone growth in teenagers.
As a result, the person fails to reach
his or her full height.
Other effects of anabolic steroid
use differ between the sexes. In
females, steroid use can stop men-
struation, cause scalp hair to fall out,
and cause body and facial hair
growth to increase. In males, an-
abolic steroid use can interfere with
the production of natural testos-
terone, causing the testes to shrink,
sperm count and reproductive abil-
ity to decrease, and scalp hair to be
permanently lost.

20 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Diet and Disease  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

For a number of years the news media have been Possible links between diet and disease remain
reporting possible health risks associated with eat- important areas for research. As a result of this
ing foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat. research there is potential for diseases like cancer
The risks include an increased chance of develop- and diabetes to be prevented or curved by the foods
ing heart and artery disease as well as an increased we eat.
risk of developing certain forms of cancer. As a re-
sult, many people have reduced their intake of foods
high in saturated fats, such as red meat and dairy
products.
However, recent research suggests that while
red meat and dairy products may contain some
harmful compounds, they also contain a substance
that is proving to be very beneficial. This benefi-
cial compound is known as conjugated linoleic acid—
a slight variation of linoleic acid, an essential
unsaturated fatty acid. Recall that essential fatty
acids are those that your cells cannot manufacture
and must, instead, be obtained in your diet.
Current testing of CLA is focused on animals like
cattle, as well as laboratory animals like rats and
mice. The farm animals have demonstrated that CLA
results in less body fat, leaner body mass, and bet-
ter immune function. CLA use in lab animals has
shown promise in fighting different forms of cancer.
It has also resulted in improved tolerance of glucose.
These indicators show that CLA could also have ben-
efits for humans. More testing is required, however, FIGURE 1.25 Red meat and dairy products contain
before this can be proven. conjugated linoleic acid.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Research diets that are recommended to people living
with cancer or diabetes. Select one of these diets and
summarize your findings under the headings of:
Description of diet; Natrients present. Advantages of the
nutritional components for combatting the disease;
Disadvantages of the diet for healthy living.
2. Identify the social and economic impacts (benefits and
costs) that could result in treatment of disease through
diet. Explain the effect that these impacts could have on
other areas of research.
3. You are members of a team assigned to look at the re-
search that currently exists on diet and its effect on
disease. Your team should include a nutritionist, a sci-
entist, a medical doctor, a member of the news media,
and a person who is living with diabetes or cancer. You
will be preparing a presentation to a Health Canada
Committee on your recommendations for revising or
maintaining the current Canada Food Guide. Your pro-
posal should include an analysis of statistics, evidence
from current research, as well as a summary of the
perspectives represented from within your team.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 21


A Three-dimensional
View of Molecules
The recently developed scanning tun-
nelling microscope (STM) is able to
reveal even smaller things than
either the transmission or scanning-
electron microscope can. The inven-
tion of the STM was a Nobel–prize
winning discovery at the IBM labo-
ratory in Zurich, Switzerland. An
STM works by measuring a tiny cur-
rent between an anatomically sharp
point and a surface. It measures the
electronic structure of the surface in
combination with the surface topog-
raphy. STMs belong to a family of
scanning probe microscopes which
WEBLINK
For more information on STMs,
begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
22 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
are based on mapping interactions—
current/voltage in STM and forces in
AFM—between a physical tip and a
surface of interest.
The microscope consists of a tiny
probe that maintains a 0.001 µm gap
while it scans across the surface of a
molecule. In order to keep the
distance of the gap at a constant
0.001 µm, the probe moves up and
down as it travels across the sur-
face of the molecule. A computer
compiles an image of the molecule’s
surface based on the up-and-down
movements of the probe.
The three-dimensional map that
is generated has a resolution close to
atomic scale. These unique instru-
ments perform this imaging in real-
time and often in situ, without the
need for extension preparation.
Dr. Christopher Yip of University
of Toronto has studied the insulin
Section 1.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. List four important biological functions
of lipids.
2. Explain why fats are well suited to be
the long-term energy storage molecules
in plants and animals. Making Connections
3. Name the molecules required to make 7.
a triglyceride.
4. Why is it necessary to include choles-
terol in your diet? Why is it harmful to
have too much cholesterol in your diet?
5. Research the importance of steroids to
human health. Make a chart to list the
normal functions of steroids and a
companion chart indicating the possi-
ble results of an excessive intake of
steroids.
Applying Inquiry/ 8. Some fats are better for you than oth-
Communication Skills
6. A 100-gl “health food” bar is adver-
tised as being low in saturated fat.
The total fat is listed as 32.2g, while
polyunsaturates are 1.2g and
model using AFM. He has produced
an image of a crystal of insulin in
fluid. The periodic structures seen in
Figure 1.26 are individual insulin
hexamers packed into the crystal lat-
tice. Each hexamers is about 5.5 nm.
(1 nm = 10-9 m.) How would your cal-
culate the magnification?
FIGURE 1.26 AFM image of a crystal of
insulin.
monounsaturates are 14.4g. Saturates
are 5.0g. Write a paragraph to explain
why you would or would not recom-
mend this bar as a healthy choice.
There is much discussion in the media
about the possible health effects of sat-
urated versus unsaturated fatty acids.
a) Compare the structures of satu-
rated and unsaturated fatty acids.
b) Relate the structures to their func-
tions/actions in the body.
c) Predict the long-term health effects
of a diet rich in either of these types
of compounds.
d) Extend your prediction from c) to
a consideration of possible of eco-
nomic impacts to society.
ers. Two of the better fats are canola
oil (a Canadian discovery and product)
and olive oil. Use a risk/benefit analy-
sis to investigate the effect of a diet in
which the only fat consumed is canola.
1.4 Proteins
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 identify and describe the structure of proteins

 understand the formation of peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis

 relate protein structure and function

Proteins direct and control the chemical
reactions in life processes: they make up
part of the cell membrane; they provide
support and shape to cells; some func-
tion as hormones to send chemical mes-
sages between cells or as enzymes to
a What all amino acids have in common is an
amino group and a carboxyl group attached
to a central carbon.
H
H O
amino
group N C C group
H OH
R
side-chain
b What makes the 20 amino acids unique are the
side-chains attached to the central carbon.
H ala
H O
N C C H2 O
H OH
CH2
OH
H
H O
N C C
H OH
CH2
speed up chemical reactions in your WORDORIGIN
body. In fact, about half of your body’s
dry weight is protein. protein from the Greek, pro-
Proteins are polymers of amino teios meaning “of the first
acids (Figure 1.27). Each amino acid rank.” The term was first used
by the Dutch chemist Gerard
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, Johannes Mulder in 1838.
similar to carbohydrates and lipids, Mulder recognized the primary
but amino acids are unique because they importance of proteins.
contain nitrogen. All amino acids have
the same basic structure: an amino
group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH),
carboxyl
The linkage of several amino acids...
H H H
H O H O H O
N C C N C C N C C
H OH H OH H OH
gln ile
H2 O
tyrosine
H O H H O H H
H O
N C C N C C N C C
H OH
ala gln ile
glutamine

C
...produces a polypeptide chain like this:
H2N O
le u s er glu glu his
ala ala gln il e glu
s er tyr a la ser glu
FIGURE 1.27 Structure of amino acids
a) Elements common to the structure of all amino
acids are an amino group and a carboxyl group,
linked by a central carbon with a hydrogen attached FIGURE 1.28 Beginnings of a protein.
to it. The side chain that occupies the R position Amino acids join together by dehydration synthesis to form polypeptide chains that
determines the character of individual amino acids. fold up to become proteins. The formation of each peptide bond yields water as a
b) Examples of actual amino acids: tyrosine and by-product. Here alanine (ala) joins with glutamine (gln), which is then linked to isoleucine
glutamine. (ile). A typical protein consists of hundreds of amino acids linked together.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 23

M AT H L I N K
How would you calculate the
number of different proteins
150 amino acids long that could
be assembled from the 20 dif-
ferent amino acids available in
cells? Hint: How many choices
are there for the first amino
acid? How many for the sec-
ond? How many different pro-
teins, then, could be assembled
from two amino acids? Does
the same logic apply to pro-
teins assembled from 150
amino acids?
and a side chain (or R group) attached
to the central carbon. The 20 amino
acids important to human metabolism
vary only in the structure of the R
groups. The different R groups give
the various amino acids different bio-
logical properties. For example, R groups
may vary in the amount of space they
occupy, carry a partial charge or be able
to form hydrogen bonds with other parts
of the protein molecule. See Figure 1.27b
for examples of different R groups.
Proteins can be very large
molecules. Some of them contain as
many as 1000 amino acid monomers.
Proteins are formed by dehydration syn-
thesis within cells. The bonds that form
between adjacent amino acids are
known as peptide bonds, and such a
molecule, with many amino acids, is
known as a polypeptide (Figure 1.28).
For a protein to function properly in
a muscle cell, as a hormone, or as an en-
zyme it must have a particular shape.
Structure determines function (how one
molecule fits together with another).
Some proteins have very complex
shapes, and due to these complex struc-
tures, scientists recognize four different
levels of protein structure: primary, sec-
ondary, tertiary, and quaternary. See
Figure 1.29. The primary structure is
simply the order of the amino acids in
the polypeptide. Once formed, the pri-
mary structure often folds upon itself
to form a secondary structure in the
form of an ∝-helix or a β-pleated sheet
pattern. Tertiary structures are formed

FOUR LEVELS OF STRUCTURE IN PROTEINS

Primary
a structure
amino acid sequence

Secondary
b structure
helix
random coil
pleated sheet

FIGURE 1.29 Four levels of

structure in proteins.
a) The primary structure of the
protein. The sequence of amino
acids determines the protein’s
final shape. c Tertiary
structure
b) The secondary structure
folded polypeptide
may be a β-pleated sheet, chain
corkscrew-like ∝-helix, or the
less organized “random coil.”
Secondary structures are due
to hydrogen bonding.
c) The tertiary structure in-
volves folding of the secondary
structures.
d) Two or more polypeptide Quaternary
chains may be linked together d structure
in a given protein, in this case
hemoglobin. This configuration
forms the quaternary structure.
two or more
polypeptide chains

24 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

when the secondary structures fold over
upon themselves, and are held by cova-
lent, ionic, hydrogen and non-polar
bonds. The covalent bonds are
disulfide bridges between sulfur-con-
taining amino acids in different parts of
the polypeptide chain or between dif-
ferent polypeptide chains in the protein.
Quaternary structures occur when two
or more polypeptide chains combine to
form the protein.
Proteins Complexed with
Metal Ions
A number of proteins essential to the
metabolism of different types of cells
contain metal ions. For example,
Section 1.4 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Name and describe the monomer
molecule that makes up proteins.
2. Provide reasons why proteins are im-
portant to cells and cellular functions.
3. Explain the relationship between the
terms peptide bond and polypeptide.
4. Describe the four levels of protein
structure and indicate the relation
between structure and function in pro-
teins.
5. Make three-dimensional models of pro-
tein structures. You may want to use
Styrofoam ® balls, toothpicks, paper
clips, glue, etc. in the construction of
your models.
6. Your digestive system produces en-
zymes to break down the proteins in
your diet into amino acids. Within your
cells, these individual amino acids
are reassembled into the proteins
needed by your body. Name the pro-
cess responsible for a) breaking down
polypeptides and b) joining amino acid
monomers into polypeptides.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. Proteins have a huge range of functions
within the body. Some proteins have
stirred controversy in their use
hemoglobin is complexed with iron. WEBLINK
Hemoglobin carries oxygen in red blood
cells. Its quaternary structure is formed
from four polypeptide chains. Each
To view and manipulate
polypeptide chain in the quaternary three-dimensional models of
structure consists of around 150 amino proteins, go to
acids. Linked to each of the four chains www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
is a complex called the heme group that
contains iron in the Fe(II) state. This
group is essential to the binding of oxy-
gen by the molecule and imparts the red
colour to human blood. The blood of
some other organisms contains different
complexes; for example, the iron com-
plex is slightly different in the blood of
some marine worms and this results in
their blood being green.
inmedical treatment. Research and re-
port on one of the following proteins:
human growth hormone, estrogen, her-
ceptin (a cancer-fighting protein), or
beta-amyloid (a protein involved in
Alzheimer’s disease).
8. You can manufacture only about half
of the amino acids required by your
body. The rest, called essential amino
acids, must be obtained in your diet.
Find out which amino acids are desig-
nated as essential, and what foods are
a good source of these important
molecules.
9. Design an experiment to investigate the
effects of three popular supplements.
Making Connections
10. Linus Pauling was one of the few sci-
entists to win the Nobel Prize twice.
Research his work on protein structure
at the library or on the Internet. List at
least two proteins present in common
substances whose structures are pre-
cisely known. Relate their function to
their structure.
11. Advertisements for protein supple-
ments are very popular in fitness and
body-building magazines. Identify
claims being made in these ads. Are
they justified? Why?
CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 25
 1.5 Nucleic Acids
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 identify and describe the structure and biological importance of nucleic acids

 relate energy release in the cell to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA Nucleic acids form the important hered-
nitrogenous sugar itary molecule DNA, which determines
a) NUCLEOTIDE base (deoxyribose) the formation of substances character-
istic of any particular species, and also
its closely related molecular cousin RNA,
P
which is involved in the synthesis of the
O proteins determined by the DNA code.
G C
O Nucleic acids are polymers formed from
P phosphate monomer molecules called nucleotides.
group
Nucleotides are made of three subunits:
P a nitrogen-containing base, a five-car-
O
T bon pentose sugar molecule, and a phos-
b) A O
phate group. The sugar is deoxyribose
P
in DNA or ribose in RNA, and the ni-
P trogen-containing base may be one of
O five compounds: adenine, guanine, cy-
G C
O tosine, thymine, or uracil. Thymine is
P
present only in DNA; uracil is present
P
O T only in RNA.
A O
As shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31,
P
in DNA the sugar and phosphate groups
P O C
G
O form the outer backbone of the molecule,
P while the bases point toward the inte-
sugar-phosphate T
P O A
backbone O hydrogen bond rior. Hydrogen bonds formed through
P
P O T A O
P

FIGURE 1.30 Nucleotides are the building

blocks of DNA.
a) The organization of the nucleotide: sugar,
DNA strand phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The
structural formulas for guanine and cytosine.
A given nucleotide might contain any of four
bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), or
Cytosine (C).
DNA
double helix b) The sugar and phosphate components form
the outer backbone of the molecule while the
bases point toward the molecule’s interior.
Hydrogen bonds between the bases link the
two chains to form the DNA double helix.
Nucleotides join together in dehydration synthe-
sis to form both single-stranded RNA and dou-
ble-stranded DNA. RNA nucleotides contain the
sugar ribose and DNA nucleotides contain the
sugar deoxyribose, which has one less oxygen
atom per sugar than ribose.

26 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 slight differences in charge between
pairs of bases link the two chains of
bases. Each of the linked chains of bases,
or strands, is in the form of a helix, so
the molecule is referred to as a double
helix. The three-dimensional structure
of DNA is such that adenine can pair
only with thymine and guanine can pair
only with cytosine. These are referred
to as complementary base pairs. RNA
has a similar sugar phosphate chain
backbone. RNA is usually single
stranded, although it is capable of form-
ing hydrogen bonds and a double helix
under the appropriate conditions.

Adenosine Triphosphate ATP

FIGURE 1.31 DNA is double stranded; RNA is
usually single stranded.
a) A computer-generated space-filling model of
DNA.
b) A computer-generated space-filling model of
RNA.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an-
other important nucleotide in the cell.
Unlike DNA or RNA, which are poly-
mers, ATP is a monomer. Three phos-
phate groups are attached to the ribose.
The bonds between these phosphate
groups are called high-energy bonds be-
cause of the large amount of energy that
is released when they are broken. ATP
is the energy-providing molecule of the
cell. When the bond between the second
and third phosphate groups is broken,
energy is released and ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) is formed. The conversion
of ATP to ADP can be simplified to:
ATP → ADP + P + ENERGY

Molecular Circuits
For the past four decades electrical
engineers have been constantly prov-
ing Moore’s Law, which states: the
ability to place electronic circuits on
a silicon computer chip doubles about
every 18 to 24 months. This allows
the speed of the computer’s proces-
sor to double as well. However, some
computer scientists think that their
ability to miniaturize circuits will
soon have reached its limit—and
computers will soon reach their
terminal velocity.
Many scientists think that the an-
swer to this, as well as to other elec-
tronic problems, is to use
custom-designed molecules to replace
parts such as transistors. For exam-
ple, at Cornell University in the U.S.,
researchers have devised a way to
use ATPase (the enzyme that gener-
ates ATP in mitochondria) to power
a tiny motor. The researchers hope
that one day, such a device may be
used to inject anti-cancer drugs into
the diseased cells in a cancer patient.
Other research is testing the use of
molecules as switches that can turn
off a flow of electric current, per-
forming a function similar to the
diodes that are currently used.
One of the advantages of using
molecules as opposed to conventional
electronic circuits is that a molecular
circuit can be made up to 60 000
times smaller than its electronic
counterpart. This fact opens up the
possibility that Moore’s Law may con-
tinue unchecked as molecular-based
machines become the standard.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 27

 FIGURE 1.32 The ATP cycle.
Energy released from the
breakdown of ATP is available
for endergonic (energy-requir-
es
ing) reactions in the cell.
ation synth
Exergonic reactions in the cell
provide energy to convert Energy from
ADP to ATP. exergonic reactions
ydr
eh
D
This conversion of ATP to ADP, a re-
action that releases energy, is termed an
exergonic reaction. For example, mus-
cle cells break down ATP to ADP, pro-
viding energy for movement. Reactions
that require energy are called
endergonic reactions.
Section 1.5 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Describe the biological importance of
nucleotides.
2. Using a table, compare and contrast
DNA and RNA. List their similarities
and differences.
3. Identify three types of molecules
formed by nucleotides. Describe each
with respect to components, structure,
and function.
4. Explain how the ATP molecule is in-
volved in the storage and release of en-
ergy in cells.
5. When researchers analyze the struc-
ture of DNA, certain patterns always
exist. For example, the number of ade-
nine nucleotides always equals the
number of thymine nucleotides, and
the number of guanine nucleotides al-
ways equals the number of cytosine nu-
cleotides. Based on this information,
what might you conclude about the
structure of the DNA molecule?
Investigate the DNA molecule and
check your conclusion.
6. Examine Figure 1.30. The structure of
DNA is described as a double helix.
What common object does the shape
of the DNA molecule remind you of?
Relate the parts of that object to the
molecules that make up DNA.
28 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
The ATP cycle
ATP
is
Hydrolysis
Energy for
endergonic reactions
ADP+ P
To replace the ATP that is used, cells
break down glucose to reverse the above
reaction. Thus, glucose supplies the
energy to form ATP, and ATP provides
energy directly to the cell. This sequence
of reactions is often shown as a cycle, as
in Figure 1.32.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. What might happen to a cell whose
DNA is demaged?
8. In DNA, A always binds with T and G
with C. If one strand of a DNA molecule
was made ATGTCGAA, what would the
other strand contain?
Making Connections
9. DNA could possibly be damaged by
overexposure to UV radiation.
Research the effects of UV radiation on
DNA. Make a list of precautions that
should be taken to minimize such ex-
posure.
10. It is now considered important for
the general public have a basic knowl-
edge of DNA. DNA affects our lives in
more and more ways all of the time;
ways that include decision-making
regarding reproduction, health, voting,
and jury duty. Choose one of these
issues, research and prepare a sup-
ported opinion piece indicating why a
basic knowledge of DNA is useful.
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 1.2, 1.3, 1.4)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Building Molecular Models  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating

Problem 2. Glucose has a structural formula of C6H12O6. Use

figure 1.33 to help you build a glucose molecule.
How do carbon atoms and other atoms join to form or-
ganic molecules? 3. Build another molecule of glucose and join the two
molecules together to form maltose as shown in
Figure 1.34.
Materials and Equipment
 Molecular model kit
H
Procedure
1. Use a molecular model kit and build the molecules H C OH
indicated in this Investigation. Be sure to sketch a
labelled drawing of each molecule you build in your H C OH
notebook.
H C OH
H
H
H C OH glycerol
C O
H H FIGURE 1.35 A glycerol molecule
H
C C
OH H Part B Lipids
OH OH 4. Build a glycerol molecule as shown in Figure 1.35.
C C
5. Build three molecules of a short fatty acid. The gen-
H OH eral formula of a fatty acid is:
glucose molecule CH3— (CH2)n—COOH
so a simple representation of a fatty acid would
FIGURE 1.33 The structure of glucose
be a 3- or 4-carbon chain as shown in Figure 1.36.
However, be aware that in animal tissues the most
commonly found fatty acids have n between 12 and
24. If you have time, build palmitic acid.
Part A Carbohydrates
CH3 – (CH2)14 – COOH

glucose  glucose  maltose  water

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

Dehydration
H O H H O H Synthesis H O H H O H
H H H H
 H2O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH Hydrolysis HO OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH

FIGURE 1.34 The formation of maltose.



CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 29

(continued)

9. Reverse the reaction from step 8, leaving you with

two amino acids through the process of hydrolysis.
6. Place the glycerol and three fatty acids on your table
and join them together by simulating the process
of dehydration synthesis. Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Name the process that would allow the completion
of step 3 within a cell.
O H H H 2. Why did you need to build three molecules of
fatty acid in step 5?
HO C C C C H 3. What molecules did you have left over after com-
pleting step 8?
H H H 4. Name the type of molecule you built in step 8.
5. What is the name of the bond that joins the two
FIGURE 1.36 A 4-carbon fatty acid amino acids together in step 8?

Concluding and Communicating

Part C Proteins
7. Proteins are made from different combinations of
the 20 different amino acids. Remember that all
amino acids contain an amino group and a car-
boxylic acid group. Two of the simplest amino acids
are glycine and alanine. Use Figure 1.37 to help
you build glycine and alanine.
6. As a class, alcohols have a functional group called
a hydroxyl group. How does this property explain
the fact that ethanol, CH3—CH2OH, dissolves in
water but ethane, CH3— CH3, does not?
7. Three fatty acids form a triglyceride with one glyc-
erol. What similarities would the fatty acids have
with polysaccharides? What differences?

Extending
H H O H H O 8. When you consume more food than you require the
mitochondria in the liver are involved in forming
N C C O H N C C OH triglycerides from the excess. Why is storage of
H H H H C H triglycerides important?
9. Some excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver
H and muscle. Why is it helpful that some glucose
supplies are stored as glycogen instead of all being
FIGURE 1.37 a) glycine b) alanine converted to triglycerides (fat)?
10. Prepare a flow chart or comic strip to communi-
cate to elementary-school students the importance
8. Arrange the amino acids so you can bond them to- of consuming a proper diet with regard to fat.
gether by simulating the process of dehydration
synthesis.

30 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 1.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Testing for Compounds in Foods 
Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating

Most of the compounds present in your cells either orig-
inate in or are made from the food that you eat.
Therefore you should be able to confirm the presence
of many of these compounds in typical foods.
3. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
3 mL of tap water to each of 4 test tubes and label
them “Starch Control,” “Sugar Control,” “Protein
Control,” and “Lipid Control.” Keep these test tubes
in a rack.

Problem 4. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add

3 mL of the starch solution to another test tube and
What types of compounds are present in typical foods? label it “Starch Suspension.”
5. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
Materials 3 mL of glucose solution into another test tube and
(per group of 2–4 students) label it “Glucose Solution.”
6. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
 safety goggles candy, butter,
3 mL of albumin (egg white) solution to another test
 disposable gloves sunflower seeds
 tube and label it “Albumin Solution.”
(not latex) 400-mL beaker
 Benedict’s solution  10-mL graduated 7. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
 Biuret reagent cylinder 3 mL of vegetable oil and 3 mL of water to another
 10% NaOH  grease pencil test tube and label it “Oil Suspension.”
 starch suspension  hot plate 8. Arrange each of the test tubes from steps 4–7 in
 glucose solution  eyedropper the rack beside its control tube from step 3.
 Lugol’s iodine  6 test tubes 9. Add 3 drops of Lugol’s iodine solution to the test
 albumin (egg white)  test-tube holder tubes labelled “Starch Control” and “Starch
solution  test-tube rack Suspension.” Record the result in the data table.
 assorted food items  mortar and pestle
such as 2% milk,  plain brown paper
whole milk, hard  dropper TABLE 1.1 Results of Food Analysis

Test Tube
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles and gloves. Biuret reagent Test Results
Contents
is toxic and NaOH is corrosive. Do not let these solutions
come into contact with your eyes, skin, or clothing. Use Starch Sugar Protein Lipid
tongs to remove the test tubes from the hot water bath. Test Test Test Test
Control

Procedure Starch
1. Copy Table 1.1 in your lab notebook. You will com- Suspension
plete the white sections only.
Glucose
2. Prepare a water bath by placing 300 mL of water
Solution
into a 400-mL beaker and placing the beaker on a
hot plate. Bring the temperature to a near boil (sim- Albumin
mer). Maintain the water level in the bath by adding Solution
more water when necessary. While the water is
heating, read through steps 3–13 of the procedure. Oil
Prepare a flow chart for the method used in this Suspension
Investigation.

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 31

(continued)
10. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
3 mL of Benedict’s solution to the test tubes labelled
“Sugar Control” and “Glucose Solution.” Place the
two test tubes in the water bath and heat for 2 min.
Record the result in the data table. Remove the test
tubes from the water bath to cool.
11. To each of “Protein Control” and “Albumin
Solution,” add 10 drops of 10% NaOH, followed
by 7 drops of the Biuret reagent.
12. Place one or two drops of “Lipid Control” and “Oil
Suspension” on a piece of plain brown paper.
13. Record the results in steps 9–12 in your data table.
14. Test a selection of foods for the presence of starch,
sugar, protein, and lipid following the procedure
outlined in steps 9–12. Use the pestle to crush solid
pieces of food in a mortar and dissolve the mate-
rial in about 3 mL of water before testing. Record
the name of the food and results in the data table.
32 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What result indicates a positive test for starch? For
sugar? For protein? For lipid?
2. Which food samples contained the nutrients indi-
cated?
Concluding and Communicating
3. Would eating only hard candy or nuts provide a bal-
anced diet? Explain.
4. What compounds did you discover to be present in
milk? Would milk provide a more balanced diet
than candy or nuts? Why or why not?
Extending
5. Why do you think it is important to know what
compounds are present in food?
6. What application do you think there is for these
tests? Hint: How carefully did you read your break-
fast cereal box this morning?
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

adenosine triphosphate glycerol monosaccharide R group

(ATP) glycogen nucleotide saturated fat
amino acid hydrogen bond organic compound secondary structure
atom hydrophilic phospholipid starch
cellulose hydrophobic polar molecule steroid
cholesterol inorganic compound polymer structural formula
compound ionic bond polypeptide tertiary structure
covalent bond lipid polysaccharide triglyceride
disaccharide molecular formula primary structure unsaturated fat
double helix monomer quaternary structure

Essential Understandings

1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cell Compounds
 Atoms are the basic units of matter and are held
together by covalent or ionic bonds to make
compounds.
 Molecules can be represented by molecular and
structural formulas.
 Many cell compounds are polymers built from
individual units called monomers.
 Water is a polar molecule.
 Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water
molecules.
 Because of the polarity of the molecule, water has
many chemical and physical properties important
to life on Earth.
 Many molecules dissolve easily in water.
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage
 Monosaccharides are single sugar units and are the
basic unit of carbohydrates.
 Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides
bonded together.
 Polysaccharides are made of many monosaccha-
rides bonded together. They are important short-
term energy storage molecules.
 Glucose is the monomer for biologically important
polysaccharides. It is a source of energy for cells.
1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage
 Lipids consist of an assortment of molecules, in-
cluding fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
 Fats store energy in their many bonds and are used
for long-term energy storage in plant and animal
cells.
 Fats may contain saturated or unsaturated fatty
acids.
 Triglycerides, stored in fat cells, consist of three fatty
acids bonded to glycerol.
 Phospholipids are important to cell membranes.
1.4 Proteins
 Amino acids are the monomers for polypeptides and
proteins
 There are 20 different amino acids. They differ only
in their R groups.
 Peptide bonds join amino acids together in a
polypeptide.
 Proteins are complex molecules that may be orga-
nized into four levels of structure.
1.5 Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.
 DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids. DNA
determines the heredity of the cell; RNA is active in
protein synthesis.
 ATP, the energy molecule of the cell, is a nucleotide.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 5 and review your web
showing why cells are important. Revise your web based
on what you learned in this chapter.
2. Draw a concept map to describe the components of the
cell using the following key terms as a starting point:
atom, molecule, compound.
3. Explain how chemistry and biology work together to sup-
port our understanding of the cell.
4. At the end of the Unit you will be completing an
Achievement Task to demonstrate what you have
learned. As you study the Unit content, what methods
can you use to prepare to complete this task?

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 33

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 8. Athletic training helps increase your stored

a) fat
1. Which of the following does not describe an organic b) glycerol
molecule c) glycogen
a) carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus d) glucose
b) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c) nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus 9. The secondary level of protein structure represents
d) phospholipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid a) the order of the amino acids in the finished polypep-
tide
2. Water molecules are polar because b) two or more polypeptide chains combine to form a
a) they have north and south poles protein
b) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time c) 1000 amino acid monomers
around the hydrogen atoms than the oxygen atom, d) a primary structure that is folded into a helix or
resulting in the hydrogen atom having a slight neg- pleated sheet
ative charge and the oxygen atom having a slight
positive charge 10. The differences between DNA and RNA include the fol-
c) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time lowing:
around the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom, a) DNA is double stranded
resulting in the oxygen atom having a slight nega- b) RNA is usually single stranded
tive charge and the hydrogen atom having a slight c) RNA contains the sugar ribose
negative charge d) all of these
d) none of the above
11. Explain the difference between the bonds that form be-
3. The monomer of all biologically important polysaccha- tween the atoms of a sugar molecule and the bonds that
rides is form between atoms of sodium and chlorine. What type
a) an amino acid of compound is sodium chloride?
b) water
c) a phospholipid 12. Draw a diagram of the structural formula of glucose.
d) glucose Label at least one example of the following parts: car-
bon atom, hydrogen atom, oxygen atom, covalent bond,
4. Sucrose is commonly known as shared electron pair.
a) table sugar
b) a monosaccharide 13. Using a diagram explain how the polarity of water re-
c) a polysaccharide sults in water having surface tension.
d) a nucleic acid
14. Diagram the process that allows the cycling of ATP
5. The short-term energy storage molecule in cells is molecules in cells.
a) glycerol
b) glucose 15. Explain why the name carbohydrate is a descriptive
c) glycogen name for any sugar.
d) maltose
16. Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and trans-
6. Saturated fatty acids fatty acids.
a) contain no double bonds between the carbon atoms
b) contain at least one double bond between carbon 17. Give two reasons why synthesis and hydrolysis are op-
atoms posite chemical reactions.
c) are composed of two fatty acids and glycerol
d) are the energy molecules of cells 18. Joining monomers into polymers is called polymeriza-
tion. Describe the role of polymerization in the forma-
7. The individual amino acids making up a polypeptide are tion of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
bonded together by
a) hydrogen bonds 19. Construct a chart to compare the structure and functions
b) peptide bonds of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. Some
c) ionic bonds points of comparison are: a) building blocks; b) functions
d) polar bonds in organisms.
Give examples of each type of molecule.

34 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

20. Acid precipitation is a somewhat preventable environ-
mental problem. Outline at least five steps you could take
to cut down your contributions towards the acid rain
problem.
21. Investigate the carbohydrate-loading method of training
for a running event. Report back to your classmates on
your findings.
22. Describe the four levels of protein structure and how
each level contributes to the three-dimensional shape of
a protein molecule.
30. “Moore’s Law” is the premise that the ability to double
the number of transistors on a circuit doubles every one
to one-and-a-half years. Write a testable hypothesis based
on Moore’s Law and design an experiment to test your
hypothesis.
31. Discuss your plans with your teacher in advance, and
then collect precipitation samples from local puddles,
ponds, lakes, or streams. Test the pH of your samples
and present your findings to the class.
Making Connections

Applying Inquiry/ 32. Write a brief essay explaining how life in Ontario may
Communication Skills be different if ice did not float.

33. Write a supported opinion in favour of one of the

23. A company manufacturing cookie dough claims that their
following statements: (1) organic compounds are the most
new product is fat-free. Upon scientific examination of
important compounds in cells, or (2) inorganic com-
the contents of the product at Health Canada, it is found
pounds, including water, are the most important com-
to contain glucose, sucrose, glycerol, a number of dif-
pounds in cells.
ferent amino acids, and several molecules containing
long carbon hydrogen chains and carboxyl groups.
34. Many organizations publish information related to the
According to these results, should the manufacturer be
amount and types of food you should be eating. These
marketing the product as fat-free? Why or why not?
nutritional guidelines do not always agree. What sort
of characteristics should you use to decide if the rec-
24. Explain why the formation of a polysaccharide is a de-
ommendations of a particular group are based on fact
hydration synthesis reaction. Use a diagram to help ex-
or opinion?
plain your answer.
35. There is some controversy as to the cause of global
25. Unsaturated fats are turned into saturated fats, in a pro-
warming. Many scientists believe that the increase in the
cess termed hydrogenation. Explain why this is an ap-
“greenhouse gas” carbon dioxide is to blame for global
propriate name for this process.
warming. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
by industrial processes, home heating, and automobile
26. Suggest simple experiments to decide if a solid food-like
exhaust. It is thought to act like a blanket over Earth
substance contains lipids, proteins, or carbohydrates.
keeping the heat in. Other scientists claim that the tem-
perature increase is just a cyclical variation in our planet’s
27. Suggest a method a scientist might use to distinguish be-
climate, such as the ice ages were. Still other experts are
tween a molecule that was a monomer and one that was
in doubt as to what the cause is. If you were the Minister
a polymer.
responsible for the Environment, what recommendations
would you make to the House of Commons regarding the
28. Using the Internet and other sources, research the con-
actions Canada should take to combat the effects of global
troversy surrounding Olestra. Write a paragraph that in-
warming?
forms others of the controversy about this substance.

29. What foods have you consumed this week that were high
in saturated fat, unsaturated fat, trans-fatty acids. Based
on what you have learned in this chapter prepare a table
similar to the one below and fill in the appropriate in-
formation.

Type of fat Food with highest Health effects of

content of fat the particular fat

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 35

 UN
UNIT CHAPTER 2

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cell Structure
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 describe how organelles and other
and Function
cell components carry out various
cell processes and explain how
these processes are related to the
function of organs (2.3
Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
 describe the fluid mosaic structure
of cell membranes (2.2)
 illustrate and explain important
cellular processes, including their
functions in the cell, the ways in
which they are interrelated, and
the fact that they occur in all living
cells (2.1, 2.2, 2.3)
 identify new questions and
problems stemming from the study
of metabolism in plant and animal
cells (2.3)
 explain how scientific knowledge
of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (2.2, 2.3)
 analyze ways in which societal
needs have led to technological
advances related to cellular
processes (2.2)

FIGURE 2.1 The diagram of a plant cell indicates the importance of the cell wall,
choroplasts and central vacuole. These are all structures that are not present in
animal cells

36
A ll living things are made of cells, but despite the amazing diversity of life
on earth — everything from microscopic bacteria to giants squids to hu-
mans — all cells contain similar basic parts. Each part or structure has a
specific job or function to perform. For instance, the cell membrane regu-
lates everything that enters and exits a cell, the nucleus controls all of the
cell’s activities, and vesicles transport materials from place to place within
a cell. If any structure fails, the operation of the entire cell is compromised.
For example, when a basic cell structure called a lysosome malfunctions in
a human cell, about thirty other diseases collectively known as lysosomal
transport diseases.
In this chapter, you will be introduced to cells and basic cell theory. You
will study the relationship between surface area and volume, which explains
why cells are so small. You will learn to differentiate between the two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. You will investigate the types of
structures mentioned above as well as other important cell structures such
as the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, and mitochondria. You will
–examine how each structure manages a different cell function. As you proceed
through the chapter, you will gain an understanding of some of the serious
health problems that result when any one of the cell’s structures malfunctions.

Discovering Biology
Cells
What do you remember about cells? You have probably looked at cells under
the microscope in previous science classes. Sketch a diagram of a cell from CHECKPOINT
memory. Include structures in your drawing and label them. Compare your
Make a chart to list what
drawing with those of other students. Were you reminded of some organelles
you know about cell struc-
you had forgotten by looking at others’ drawings?
tures and how they func-
tion.

Structure Function

37
 2.1 A Background to Cell Structure
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the cell theory

 describe the relationship between surface area and volume

 understand why cells are small

WEBLINK
Robert Hooke, Antonie van
Leuwenhoek, and Henri
Dutrochet contributed to the
cell theory. Research the role
of each of these scientists and
prepare a written report to
summarize your information.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
M AT H L I N K
Remember the formulas:
a) Volume of a cube = s3
b) Surface area of a cube = 6s2
Cells had been observed since the 1600s,
when Robert Hooke made his first ob-
servations of cells in cork, but their im-
portance as the basic unit of life was not
realized until the 1800s when the cell
theory was developed from the work
of many scientists. Schleiden, Schwann,
and Virchow each made a proposal that
contributed to the development of the
theory. Schleiden was the first to observe
that all plant tissue was composed of
cells; Schwann soon extended the ob-
servation to animal tissue and then to
all living tissue. Later, Virchow extended
the theory by adding that all cells could
arise only from other cells. Virchow’s
contribution laid to rest the theory of
spontaneous generation.
Even today, the cell theory is the
foundation used by biologists to try to
understand life on Earth. The modern
cell theory states:
• All living things are composed of
cells.
• Cells are the basic units of living or-
ganisms.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Cell Size and Shape
Most plant and animal cells are similar
in size—they are very small, ranging
somewhere between 10 and 100 µm. In
this chapter you will be seeing actual
photos taken through a microscope of
cells and cell structures. These photos
are called photomicrographs.
Why are most cells small? There are
good reasons. A cell needs a constant
supply of energy and a method to rid
itself of waste products. Cells obtain en-
ergy and get rid of waste products
through their cell or plasma membrane.
It is therefore better for a cell to have the

FIGURE 2.2 From left to right Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow. Each contributed
to the cell theory, in 1838, 1839, and 1858 respectively.

38 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

maximum membrane surface area pos- 100 m
sible, while at the same time minimiz-
ing the distance within the cell that blue whale
important molecules have to travel.
10 m
Minimizing distance also minimizes the
time taken for cell processes. With this
in mind, it is easy to show mathemati- human
cally why it is better for cells to be small. 1m

10 cm

chicken egg

1 cm

frog egg
1 mm

100 µm

plant and
animal cells
10 µm
cell nucleus
most bacteria

mitochondria
1 µm

smallest bacteria
100 nm large virus

10 nm
proteins

lipids
1 nm

0.1 nm atoms

1 meter (m) = 1.09 yards

1 centimeter (cm) = 10–2 (1/100) meter (1 cm = 0.4 inch)
1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 (1/1000) meter
1 micrometer (µm) = 10–6 (1/1,000,000) meter
1 nanometer (nm) = 10–9 (1/1,000,000,000) meter
FIGURE 2.3 Hidden life. Microscope enlarge-
ments of the point of a pin show living organ-
isms, bacteria, present on an object that we
might think unsuitable for supporting life.
a) 85; b) 425; c) 2100) FIGURE 2.4 Little and big. The size of various objects.

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 39

 As you can see in Table 2.1, smaller
cells, such as those on the right, bene-
fit from a much larger surface area to
volume ratio than do larger cells. In re-
ality, no cells are perfect cubes or
TABLE 2.1 The Effect of Size per Cube Side on Surface Area and Volume
One (2  2  2)-cm cube Eight 1-cm cubes
Surface Area (cm2) 24 48
3
Volume (cm ) 8 8
Surface Area to Volume Ratio 3:1 6:1
INFOBIT Section 2.1 Review
Although most cells are about Understanding Concepts
the same size, there are excep-
tions: Mycoplasma (at approxi- 1. Biologists accept that life begins at the
mately 0.2 µm in diameter) is cellular level of organization. Provide
the smallest cell yet discovered two pieces of evidence to support this
and the single-celled view.
Acetabularia sp. (at 5–7 cm) is
2. What is the normal size range for most
one of the largest cells.
cells? Explain why it is an advantage
for cells to be small.
3. Calculate the volume and surface area
of 512 cubes with sides of 0.25 cm.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
4. Two different types of cells have the fol-
lowing dimensions. Cell #1 is 2 mm
 2 mm  8 mm and cell #2 is 1 mm
 2 mm  16 mm.
a) Calculate the volumes of cell #1 and
#2. How do they compare?
b) Calculate the surface areas of the
two cells. How do they compare?
c) Calculate the surface area to vol-
ume ratio for the two cells. How do
these values compare?
d) What do the values in c) tell you
Investigation about the importance of cell shape?
Refer to page 59,
Investigation 2
40 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
spheres and a great variety of shapes
exist. For example, human nerve cells
can be very long, but to maintain a high
enough surface area to volume ratio to
survive, they are very slender.
Sixty-four 0.5-cm cubes
96
8
12:1
Use this information to explain how
nerve cells can be very large (up to
1 m in length).
5. Cells were observed as early as 1665.
Since that time, important new dis-
coveries about the cell have occured.
Research and construct a time-line of
observation and discovery.
6. Assume you are a 19th-century re-
porter assigned to explain the impor-
tance of the discovery of cells and the
cell theory. Write a supported para-
graph to tell your readers why such
discoveries are important to them.
Making Connections
7. An understanding of cells informs and
affects everyone.
a) Explain how the cell theory relates
to other living organisms besides
humans, e.g., to a dog or an
amoeba.
b) Describe four ways that cells have
affected your life.
 2.2 Cell Structures
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

 describe how cell structures manage various cell functions

 explain the fluid mosaic structure of membranes

There is no such thing as a typical cell,
but all cells can be classifed according
to certain characteristics. Every organ-
ism must be either a prokaryote or a
eukaryote.Prokaryotic cells lack internal
compartments and membrane-bound
organelles, and these organisms are all
unicellular. Bacteria and other similar
cells of the kingdoms Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria are the only prokaryotes. All
other cells are eukaryotic and have a
membrane-bound nucleus and or-
ganelles. Eukaryotes may be single-
celled or multicellular and include all

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

DNA

in “nucleoid” region
within membrane-bound nucleus

Size

usually smaller

usually larger

Organization

usually single-celled often multicellular

O2 O2 O2

Metabolism
O2 O2
O2 O2
may not need oxygen usually need oxygen to exist FIGURE 2.5 Comparison of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Prokaryotes, the
Archaebacteria, and
Organelles Eubacteria are single-celled
organisms. Eukaryotes may
be single- or multicelled and
include protists, fungi, plants,
no organelles membrane-bound organelles
and animals.

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 41

WORD ORIGIN
Prokaryote is from a mixture
of Latin and Greek; the Latin
Pro, meaning “before,” and
karyote from the Greek karyon,
meaning “kernal”—a reference
to the appearance of the nu-
cleus through early micro-
scopes. The combination of the
two terms indicates that
prokaryotes originated before
cell structures such as the
nucleus evolved.
protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
Protists are organisms like Amoeba and
Paramecium.
Eu is a Greek word meaning “good.”
Therefore eukaryotes have a “good” or
real nucleus as well as other cell struc-
tures. Eukaryotic cells are divided into
compartments by membranes. These dif-
ferent compartments have specific func-
tions and are called organelles. Each type
of organelle has its own unique function.
Throughout the rest of this chapter you
will learn about the structure and func-
tion of the various cell organelles.
Cell (Plasma) Membrane
The cell membrane is the only thing be-
tween a cell and its outside environment.
It has a crucial role to play in the life of
a cell: it must control what enters and
leaves the cell. The cell membrane must
allow a sufficient number of food
molecules, such as glucose, to pass in
and must also allow for the prompt re-
moval of waste products, such as car-
bon dioxide. Without this control the cell
will die.
The cell (or plasma) membrane is
made of a double layer of phospholipid
molecules called the phospholipid bi-
layer. Because it is too small a structure
to be seen clearly with a microscope, sci-
entists have developed a model to ex-
plain what they think it looks like. This
model is known as the fluid mosaic
model. The term “fluid” is used because
the phospholipid molecules and proteins
that make up the membrane are free
to drift around in fluid motion. The term
“mosaic” is used to describe the position
of the protein molecules. The molecules
are placed randomly and there is no set
pattern.

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

1 phospholipids 2 cholesterol 3 proteins

peripheral integral
cytoskeleton
protein protein

a. b.

1 A double or “bilayer” of
phospholipid molecules,
with their hydrophilic
“heads” facing outward,
toward the watery
environment that lies both
inside and outside the cell,
and their hydrophobic
“tails” pointing inward,
FIGURE 2.6 The toward each other.
plasma membrane
2 Cholesterol molecules 3 Proteins, which are integral, meaning bound to
that act as a patching the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, or
substance and that help peripheral, meaning not bound in this way.
the cell maintain an Membrane proteins serve four main functions:
optimal level of fluidity.
a. Structural support, b. Recognition. Binding
often when attached to sites on some proteins can
parts of the cell’s serve to identify the cell to
scaffolding, or other cells, such
“cytoskeleton.” as those of the immune
system.

42 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions


Waste Not,
Want Not
As it turns out, environmentally
harmful substances that would kill
most organisms—such as crude oil,
gasoline, diesel fuel, and other or-
ganic pollutants—serve as a source
of food for other organisms. It is the
discovery that certain bacteria and
fungi thrive upon pollutants that
forms the basis for what is known as
“bioremediation technology.” There
are about 1000 species of bacteria
known to have the ability to break
down toxins and/or pollutants for use
as their food source. They then re-
lease far less damaging waste prod-
ucts themselves.
Bacteria produce enzymes that
break down waste materials into sub-
stances that they can more readily di-
gest. As the bacteria digest these
wastes, they produce more enzymes
to break down more waste. The cycle
continues until all the waste material
is gone. Then the bacteria either
become inactive and/or die from star-
vation. Companies that specialize in
this form of biotechnology grow and
study many types of micro-organ-
isms, so that they know which type
of organism can be used to effectively
clean up a certain type of industrial
waste.

The phospholipid bilayer is com-
posed of two rows or layers of phos-
pholipid molecules. The hydrophilic
heads of the phospholipids are found on
the outside and inside of the mem-
branefacing the watery environment
located both inside and outside a cell.
The hydrophobic fatty acid tails from
each layer face one another in the mid-
dle of the membrane (Figure 2.7). If you
disorganize a membrane, the phospho-
lipid molecules will return to their orig-
inal arrangement because of their
reaction to water. The polarheads will

4 glycocalyx

sugar
chains

c. d.

4 The glycocalyx. Sugar

c. Communication. Receptor
proteins, protruding out from the
plasma membrane, can be the point
of contact for signals sent to the cell
via traveling molecules, such as
hormones.
chains that attach to
communication or
recognition proteins,
serving as their binding
d. Transport. Proteins can
sites. The glycocalyx can
serve as channels through also lubricate cells and act
which materials can pass as an adhesion layer for
in and out of the cell. them.

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 43


Membrane Glycoprotein
Chains Play a Key Role
in the Fight Against
Disease
Dr. Harry Jennings of the National
Research Council has contributed to
a medical breakthrough—the pro-
duction of the first fully synthetic
(human-made) vaccine. Dr. Jennings
has spent 24 years developing a vac-
cine to prevent a disease known as
group B meningitis. Meningitis is a
disease caused by bacteria that kills
about 40 people a year in Canada—
about half of whom are infants—and
often leaves the survivors with brain
damage that causes mental retarda-
tion and blindness.
Dr. Jennings’s research resulted
in the making of a combination car-
bohydrate-protein molecule that re-
sembles the cell membrane
glycoprotein chains of the meningitis
bacteria very closely. As a result, cells
from your immune system think that
the meningitis bacteria has invaded
your body and produce antibodies to
fight the bacteria. However, since the
carbohydrate-protein vaccine is
harmless, you gain protection against
meningitis without risk of becoming
ill. Human trials for this vaccine are
currently under way, and if success-
ful, it should become available for
public use soon.

orient toward the watery environment
while the non-polar lipid tails will mix
with other non-polar molecules.
The protein molecules embedded in
the membrane are called integral or in-
trinsic proteins. They have different
functions. Some serve as special carri-
ers or transport channels for molecules
that are either too large or too hy-
drophilic to pass through the phospho-
lipid bilayer. The transport proteins
allow these molecules to enter the cell.
Other membrane proteins have sugar
chains attached to them. These carbo-
hydrate and protein combinations,
known as glycoproteins, act as attach-
ment sites for molecules that need to
enter or carry a message to the cell. They
are highly specific to each individual and
help the cells of your immune system to
recognize your body cells while also
identifying foreign cells in your body so
that they can be destroyed.
Cholesterol is also found within cell
membranes. Its function is to help keep
the membrane fluid at the relatively high
body temperatures of most mammals.
At low temperatures cholesterol keeps
the phospholipids apart. This keeps
the membrane fluid. At higher
temperatures (around 37ºC) it attracts
the phospholipids and stabilizes the
membrane.

N watery
+ extracellular
polar
head fluid
P –
FIGURE 2.7 The
hydrophilic
phospholipid bilayer.
A double layer or bi-
layer of phospholipids nonpolar
form the plasma tails hydrophobic
membrane. The hy-
drophobic tails form
the interior of the hydrophilic
membrane, while the
hydrophilic heads hydrophobic molecules hydrophilic molecules watery
point toward the wa- pass through freely do not pass through cytosol
tery environment in- freely
side and outside the
cell. a Phospholipid molecule b Phospholipid bilayer

44 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Cell Wall
Cell walls are not found in animal cells,
but they are found in Archaebacteria,
bacteria, some protists, fungi, and plant
cells. Plant cell walls are mainly made
of the polysaccharide cellulose. Cell
walls are much stronger and thicker
than cell membranes, and in plants pro-
vide structural support to the cell. It is
because of cell walls that trees are able
to grow to such enormous heights and
that wood, composed of cell walls with
lignin attached, is as strong as it is.

FIGURE 2.8 Strength from

cell walls
a) Cell walls play a role in both
living and dead cells. Here they
make up part of the bark.
(240)
b) A tree can reach enormous
a) heights because of the strength
b) of the wood, which is mostly
make up of lignified cell walls.

Discovering Biology A Model of the Cell Wall

Caution: Do not do this activity if you have a latex allergy unless you are sure the balloons
are non-latex balloons.

1. Take a party balloon and blow it up until it bursts.

2. Cut a length from the leg of some pantyhose.
3. Take the same type of balloon as used in Step 1 and put it inside the length of
pantyhose.
4. Blow up the balloon as far as possible. Try to make it burst.
5. Observe the result.
The material of the pantyhose acts like the cell wall and prevents the balloon from
bursting. This is due to the cross-linking of fibres that makes the pantyhose very
strong. In a similar way the cell wall prevents the cell membrane in a plant cell
from bursting. Compare this to the animal cell shown in Figure 3.7, page 71

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 45

WEBLINK
Penicillin no longer functions
effectively as an antibiotic for
some people. Research why
this is so, as well as three
alternative antibiotics that can
be prescribed. Summarize your
information in a summary
paragraph and data table,
including the name and
description of the alternative.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
INFOBIT
Cell without a nucleus
Mature red blood cells are
unique; they no longer have a
nucleus! These oxygen-carry-
ing cells actually expel their
nuclei to make more room for
oxygen in the cell. This has
two important results. Lacking
the instructions contained in
the nucleus, red blood cells
cannot reproduce themselves
and so new red blood cells are
formed in bone marrow in-
stead. Also, DNA testing of
blood actually uses the DNA in
the disease-fighting white
blood cells. No nucleus means
no DNA, so the red blood cells
cannot be used.
46 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
Cell Walls and Antibiotics Antibiotics are
medicines that kill bacteria. Many scien-
tific discoveries are the result of hours of
research and countless setbacks. Other
discoveries appear to occur quite by ac-
cident. The discovery of penicillin, the first
antibiotic by Alexander Fleming in 1928
is one example of a seemingly acciden-
tal discovery. Fleming discovered that one
of his Petri plates growing bacteria had
been contaminated with mould, a type of
fungus. Fleming noticed that no bacteria
were able to grow around the area of the
mould. Rather than throw the plate away,
Fleming investigated the mould further.
His studies revealed that a chemical it
DNA
mRNA
produced was highly effective in killing
bacteria. The mould was later identified
to be a species of Penicillium.
The discovery of penicillin is an
example of how observation can lead to
further experimentation. Fleming was
working against the background of late
nineteenth-century studies in microbi-
ology by Pasteur and others that
had indicated an effect of mould on
bacterial growth. He had himself already
discovered other substances that caused
bacteria to burst. So he was able to
appreciate the importance of an appar-
ently chance observation and to carry
the scientific process forward in his
experiments.
Today it is known that penicillin
works by preventing the formation of
bacterial cell walls. This leads to the
death of the bacteria. Since eukaryotic
cells, including human cells, do not have
cell walls, penicillin targets only the
invading bacteria for destruction and not
nucleolus
nuclear
envelope
DNA
FIGURE 2.9 The nucleus. In eukaryotic
cells the DNA remains in the nucleus.
Compounds pass into the nucleus
through nuclear pores. The nucleolus
specializes in the production of ribosomal
RNA, a substance found in the ribosomes.
(Transmission electron micrograph
 4400)
inner membrane
outer membrane
nuclear pore
the cells of the infected person. Countless
lives have been saved by penicillin since
its discovery. The discovery of penicillin
opened the door for the successful
search for many more antibiotics.
Antibiotics must always be prescribed
and taken with care. For example, some
people are allergic to penicillin.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the genetic control cen-
tre of the cell. It is usually spherical
in shape and is often the most easily
seen structure when cells are viewed
through a light microscope. The nu-
cleus houses the cell’s DNA. In eu-
karyotes, the DNA is combined with
proteins into a fine, thread-like struc-
ture called chromatin. Occasionally,
just before cell division occurs, the
chromatin condenses to form chromo-
somes. Chromosomes are also visible
through a light microscope. Because
the nucleus is a large structure that is
easily stained and readily visible under
the light microscope, it was one of the
first cell structures to be studied. In
1882 the German scientist Walter
Flemming discovered chromatin as well
as the stages of cell division (mitosis).
Section 2.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. What three cell structures do most cells
have in common?
2. Describe the structure and function of
a) the cell membrane
b) the nucleus
c) the cytoplasm
3. Explain why the fluid mosaic model
is used to describe the appearance of
the cell membrane.
4. Describe the differences between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Relate
these differences to their distribution
on Earth.
The nucleus is separated from the
rest of the cell by the nuclear envelope,
a double membrane with many nucleo-
spores in it to allow materials to pass in
and out of the nucleus (Figure 2.9). Also
within the nucleus is the nucleolus.
Under the light microscopes the nucle-
olus appears dense. It is composed of
DNA, granules, and fibres, and is the lo-
cation where other cell structures called
ribosomes are made. The dense-ap-
pearing material contains many copies
of the region of the DNA that determines
the formation of the RNA in ribosomes.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells includes
the interior of the cell between the nu-
clear envelope and the cell membrane.
Once thought to be composed mainly of
fluid, the cytoplasm has been revealed
by electron microscopy to be a highly or-
ganized area. Approximately one half of
the space in the cytoplasm is taken up by
other organelles. The other half of the cy-
toplasm is the liquid portion known as
the cytosol. The cytosol contains a con-
centrated mix of ions and molecules such
as enzymes, amino acids, ATP, and car-
bohydrates.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Imagine that your cell membranes sud-
denly became cell walls made of cellu-
lose. List three possible effects of this
change.
Making Connections
6. In what ways did the discovery of peni-
cillin impact society?
7. Prepare a cost/benefit analysis on the
use of bioremediation in cleaning the
environment.
CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 47
 2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles

Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe how cell organelles manage various cell functions

 relate cell functions to the functions of organs

WORD ORIGIN
Vesicle from the Latin
vesicula, meaning “little blad-
der or container.”
Endoplasmic from the Greek
endon, meaning “within” and
plasm, derived from the term
“cytoplasm.”
FIGURE 2.10 Transmission electron micrograph of important nuclear structures.
The arrows indicate nuclear pores. A vesicle (V) approaches the nucleus.
The activities in eukaryotic cells are or-
ganized in ways that can be compared
to the body as a whole. Using the anal-
ogy of the body’s organ systems, struc-
tures that perform specialized functions
in cells are called organelles. Your di-
gestive system breaks down food mate-
rials into substances accessible to other
parts. There are organelles called lyso-
somes, that are powerful in digestive
functions within each cell. As your blood
system acts to transport the products of
digestion, so the cell’s vacuoles and vesi-
cles store and/or transport substances
within the cell. Just as your body has a
system of blood vessels, the cell has
membranous transportation channels
called the endoplasmic reticulum. The
mitochondria in the cell use oxygen to
V guish between two closely positioned ob-
produce ATP, the energy molecule of the
cell. In the process of cell respiration,
carbon dioxide is produced and is ex-
creted through the cell membrane. This
process is similar to the way that your
respiratory system supplies oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide
Advances in Microscopy
Our understanding of cells and their
functions has increased dramatically due
to improvements in microscopy. The de-
signing of the microscope began with the
work of Dutch lens makers in the 1500s.
Until about 50 years ago scientists were
restricted to using light microscopes.
Clear colour images of living tissue or
prepared and stained non-living tissue,
can be obtained using the light micro-
scope. However, there are limits to the
resolving power—the ability to distin-
jects. Also magnification is limited to
about 1000.
The transmission electron micro-
scope (TEM) was invented in 1938 by
Canadian scientists James Hillier and
Albert Prebus, and perfected by John
L. Watson to a point where it was use-
ful for biological research. As the name
suggests, electron microscopes use a
beam of electrons instead of rays of light
to produce an image. The two types of
electron microscopes, scanning electron
microscopes (SEMs) and transmission
electron microscopes (TEMs), work in
different ways and for different pur-
poses. TEMs send a beam of electrons
through a thinly sliced sample of an
object and produce a finely detailed view
of parts of its inner structure. The sci-

48 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

entist must re-create the three-dimen-
sional relationships of the various struc-
tures. SEMs scan the outer surface of an
object and produce pictures that look
three-dimensional. Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopes (STMs), see section 1.3, are
one of the latest advances in microscope
nuclear
technology and provide a three-dimen- envelope
sional view of molecules.

Vacuoles and Vesicles ribosomes

rough
Vacuoles and vesicles are both contain- endoplasmic cisternae
ers, bags made of membrane, filled with reticulum
water and dissolved molecules. Vacuoles cisternal
spaces
are found mainly in plant cells and are
used for storage of starch molecules or
water and to give support to the cell.
They are surrounded by a single-layered
membrane called a tonoplast. Vesicles FIGURE 2.11 The rough endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins take shape.
are used for transporting materials Polypeptide chains made at the ribosomes drop into the cisternal space of the rough
throughout the cell rather than for stor- endoplasmic reticulum. The chain then folds up into its protein shape and may undergo
age and keep the different parts of the processing; for example, the addition of a side chain of carbohydrate. The protein is then
surrounded by a vesicle and transported to the Golgi complex. (Micrograph  90 500)
cell in contact.
membranes
Ribosomes without
ribosomes
Ribosomes are dense-looking dark gran-
ules located on the surface of parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum and floating within ribosomes
the cytoplasm. They are made of a com-
bination of RNA and protein, and are the
cisternal
sites where amino acids are assembled spaces
into proteins (protein synthesis).

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a series
of interconnected small tubes (tubules)
made of membranes that branch out
from the nuclear envelope. Part of the en-
doplasmic reticulum has ribosomes at-
tached to it. The ribosomes give the
endoplasmic reticulum in this location a
rough-looking appearance; therefore, this
portion is known as the rough endoplas-
mic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is where protein synthesis
takes place at the ribosomes, particularly
the synthesis of those proteins for use
outside the cell (Figure 2.11, 2.12b).
Additional membranes are also manu-
factured on the rough endoplasmic retic-
FIGURE 2.12 The endoplasmic reticulum. a) The smooth endoplamsic reticulum
lacks ribosomes: it is involved in the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates. b) The
rough endoplasmic reticulum has attached ribosomes where proteins are synthe-
sized.
ulum, in response to the need for mem-
branes by other organelles.
The smooth endoplasmic reticu-
lum lacks ribosomes and takes its name
from its resulting smooth-looking ap-
pearance (Figure 2.12a). The function of
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is to
make lipids—including phospholipids
and steroids. It also serves as a storage
site for calcium ions.

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 49

INFOBIT
DNA segments coding for
fluorescent molecules from a
jellyfish were fused with DNA
coding for proteins of the Golgi
apparatus so that these proteins
would become fluorescent too.
Scientists were then able to
follow the movement of these
proteins in the cell. Scientists
believe that these proteins
were immobilized in the Golgi
complex. Other proteins move
out of the Golgi complex and
head to the part of the cell
where they will carry out their
specific function. It remains a
mystery why some proteins are
not transported.
Golgi
complex
to cytosol
50 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
Golgi Complex (Apparatus)
Named after the Italian scientist who dis-
covered them, Golgi complexes are nu-
merous and important to the operation
of the cell. They consist of flattened
stacks of membrane, whose function is
to receive, modify, and transport pro-
teins produced by the endoplasmic retic-
ulum. If the destination of the protein is
outside of the cell, the Golgi packages
it into a membrane-bound vesicle and
sends it to the cell membrane for export
out of the cell.
Lysosomes
Both the Golgi complex and the endo-
plasmic reticulum produce lysosomes.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs
from RER
P P
1. Side chains are edited 2. Vesicle formed
(sugars may be trimmed, for protein transport.
phosphate groups added).
that make compartments in the cell to
allow digestion. They contain hydrolytic
enzymes and have a variety of roles.
In unicellular organisms, lysosomes may
be used to digest food, while certain
types of human white blood cells (neu-
trophils and macrophages) use them to
destroy invading bacteria.
Lysosomes are also used to break
down damaged organelles within a cell.
For example, human brain cells that sur-
vive from birth until death but have
organelles such as mitochondria and
ribosomes, usually less than one month
old. The cells themselves are, with the
help of the lysosomes, breaking down
old organelles while continually forming
new ones.
cisternae
cisternal
space
vesicle
to plasma
membrane
for export
out of cell
FIGURE 2.13 The Golgi
complex. Vesicles from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum
fuse with the Golgi mem-
brane. Side chains may be
modified as the protein
passes through the cisternae
of the Golgi complex. The
protein is then encased in
vesicles for further transport
inside or outside the cell.
 Researchers now think that lyso-
somes may also play a role in the age-
ing process. Apparently lysosomes
cannot digest all of the outdated mate-
rial in a cell. As these compounds ac-
cumulate within the lysosomes over
time, they cause a decrease in cell func-
tions such as is associated with ageing.
Lysosomes in Human Disease A missing
or defective enzyme in lysosomes causes
a number of human diseases known as
lysosomal storage diseases. Among them
is Tay-Sachs disease, a hereditary con-
dition that results in deterioration of the
brain. When working correctly, the en-
zyme involved breaks down excess fat
in the brain. Without this enzyme, fat is
allowed to build up in the lysosomes
stored within the brain cells. This causes
increasing, irreversible damage, and even-
tually leads to death at around age five.
WEBLINK
Research lysosomal storage
diseases. Compile a list of the
types of disease, the specific
causes, and the treatments
available. Begin your research
at the Pearson Education Web
site at www.pearsoned.ca/
biology11

CELLULAR RECYCLING Investigation

Refer to page 58,
Investigation 1
worn-out lysosome
organelle
digestive
enzymes

fusion

digestion

small
molecules molecules
recycled to returned to FIGURE 2.14 Lysosomes:
make new cytosol
cellular recycling.
organelles
When a lysosome fuses with a
worn-out organelle, its enzymes
break the organelle down into
small molecules that can be re-
turned to the cytosol and used
elsewhere. Lysosomes expel
materials that they cannot di-
gest from the cell. In unicellu-
wastes expelled lar organisms lysosmes also
from cell digest food particles for use in
the cell.

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 51

 Other diseases such as gangliosido-
Discovering Biology sis, Sly syndrome, and Hurler syndrome
are caused by other defective lysosomal
Watching a Paramecium’s Organelles
enzymes. There are approximately 30
human diseases in total involving mal-
Interaction between living organisms can show their physiology functioning lysosomal enzymes. The
1. Prepare and observe a slide of a live Paramecium culture under number of diseases caused by improp-
the low power objective of a microscope. erly working lysosomes clearly indicates
2. Obtain a small sample from a yeast solution that has been the importance of this structure to the
treated with an indicator that changes colour as the acidity of cell.
the solution changes. Transfer a small drop of the yeast solu- Lysosomes are also responsible for
tion to the edge of the slide using a toothpick.
changes in whole organisms. Examples
3. Observe the Paramecium through the microscope for five min-
of tissues digested by lysosomes are the
utes and record your observations.
What changes did you observe in the Paramecium? What or- tail of a tadpole, any unwanted tissue
ganelles did you see at work within the Paramecium? during insect metamorphosis, and tissue
that exists between the fingers in the
human embryo, giving them a webbed
Caution: Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
appearance.

Vett Lloyd, Cell
Biologist
Dr. Vett Lloyd is a professor of cell bi-
ology at Dalhousie University in
Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her cell biology
research has focused on lysosome
storage and transport diseases.
Children with these diseases experi-
ence a lot of pain and eventually die
of cancer, usually in late childhood.
“What happens in these sick children
is that the lysosomes inside their cells
do not work properly,” says Lloyd.
One of the roles of lysosomes is
to help your immune system to de-
stroy cancer cells. If a cell in your
body turns cancerous, your immune
system sends out a killer cell that en-
gulfs the cancer cell. Powerful en-
zymes inside the immune cell’s
lysosomes then destroy the cancer answers that will eventually lead to
cell. The lysosomes in the sick chil- a cure to this group of dreaded child-
dren, however, lack these enzymes. hood diseases.
Normally, enzymes are delivered
to the lysosomes in tiny cargo pack-
ets called vesicles. Unfortunately, in
the children, the vesicles get lost. It
is as if the post office has lost the
package because the wrong address
was written on it. “The enzymes
don’t get into the lysosomes so the
lysosomes don’t work, and if the lyso-
somes don’t work the immune sys-
tem cells cannot kill the cancer cells,”
says Lloyd.
Her first big breakthrough came
a number of years ago when she dis-
covered fruit flies that were dying
from the same lysosome problem that
was killing human children. Lloyd is
now using the fruit flies to help her
in her studies. The big advantage of
using fruit flies is that you can test
the safety and effectiveness of new
drugs on them before you give the
drugs to children. She believes the FIGURE 2.15 Dr. Vett Lloyd studies lyso-
fruit fly’s cells will provide the somal storage and transport diseases.

52 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
are found in both plant and animal
cells. These organelles play a vital role in
energy-transforming activities. Mito-
chondria are composed of an outer mem-
brane, an inner membrane organized
mitochondrion
into folds called cristae, and an inner liq-
uid solution known as the matrix.
The mitochondrion is the site of cel-
lular respiration in eukaryotic cells. The
process of cellular respiration involves
extracting energy from food molecules
such as glucose and using that energy to
outer
make ATP. In the process CO 2 is pro- membrane
duced, to be later exereted by the cell.
inner
membrane
Chloroplasts
These green organelles, found only in
cells of plants and some protists (like food water
algae), are responsible for producing oxygen carbon dioxide
food for most of the life on Earth. The ATP
organelles produce food by the process
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
enables plants and some protists to con- FIGURE 2.16 Mitochondria. Mitochondria convert the energy contained in the
vert the energy of sunlight into chemi- chemical bonds in food into a form more easily used by the cell, the ATP molecule.

This unique form of inheritance is fairly constant rate, researchers are

A Unique Gift
from Your Mom,
and Her Mom...
Mitochondria contain their own DNA,
separate from the DNA in a cell’s nu-
cleus. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is
inherited from both parents, mito-
chondrial DNA (known as mtDNA),
is inherited along maternal lines—or
in other words, from your mother.
useful for scientists because it allows
them to study human evolution using
changes in the structure of molecules.
Because mtDNA is passed from
mother to offspring it is fairly easy to
trace its course through a population.
For example. although you had eight
great-grandparents, you inherited
your mtDNA from only one of them
(your mother’s grandmother on her
mother’s side). It is also possible to
analyze mtDNA from sources such as
teeth and bones—often still available
even from ancient human remains.
Because DNA is known to change
naturally over time (or mutate), at a
able to compare modern mtDNA with
that from early human remains and
determine how related certain pop-
ulations may be. For example, sci-
entists recently compared the mtDNA
of prehistoric human bones found in
a cave in Wales with mtDNA from
volunteers throughout Europe. To
their surprise, the closest match was
found belonging to a man living in a
nearby Welsh town. This proved that
the man was a direct descendant
from the cave person and that the
man’s ancestors had lived in that
area of Wales for at least 30 000
years!

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 53

 outer membrane

inner membrane

water sugar (food)

carbon dioxide oxygen
minerals

FIGURE 2.17 The chloroplast. Surrounded by a double membrane, chloroplasts are

the sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts enable plant and some protist cells to use
the energy of sunlight to transform water, carbon dioxide, and a few minerals into
food materials that sustain most of the life on Earth. Micrograph:  13 000

cal energy in the form of carbohydrates. mitochondria and chloroplasts were

Chloroplasts have a double mem-
brane surrounding them and also have
an internal membrane system contain-
ing light-capturing molecules of
chlorophyll. The internal membranes
are interconnected and frequently form
a stack of pancake-shaped structures
called grana (singular: granum). A thick
fluid, the stroma, that contains enzymes
and other molecules, occupies the re-
mainder of the space in a chloroplast
(Figure 2.17).
Chloroplasts are the best known of
a diverse group of organelles called
plastids that occur only in plants and
algae, and some other protists. As well
as photosynthesis in chloroplasts, plas-
tids store nutrients and give colour to
many cells by storing pigment.
The Endosymbiotic Theory Did you know
that you have ancient bacteria living in
your cells? According to Dr. Lynn
Margulis, a professor of botany at the
University of Massachusetts, you do.
Early in her career she developed the
endosymbiotic theory, proposing that
once free living cells; bacterial cells and
algal cells, respectively. She proposes
that about 1.4 billion years ago, these
bacterial and algal cells found a better
life living inside other cells. There is ev-
idence to support this theory. For ex-
ample, mitochondria and chloroplasts
reproduce on their own, separately from
the rest of the cell. They contain their
own DNA and ribosomes. Both mito-
chondria and chloroplasts are about the
same size as bacteria.
Margulis’s theory took a long time
to gain acceptance. Many scientists re-
jected the concept when it was proposed
in the early 1960s. However, Margulis
persevered in her investigations, slowly
accumulating more evidence for her hy-
pothesis and more supporters among
her colleagues.
An accidental discovery by Dr.
Kwang Jeon added strong support to
Margulis’s theory. Jeon found that among
amoebas infected with bacteria, some
survived the infection while still har-
bouring up to 40 000 bacteria living
inside of them. Even more remarkably,

54 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules

7 nm 10 nm 25 nm
Main function: changes Main function: maintenance
in cell shape Main functions: maintenance
of cell shape
of cell shape, movement of
organelles, cell mobility (cilia
and flagella)

FIGURE 2.18 The cytoskeleton. Three types of fibres

form the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, about 7 nm; in-
termediate filaments, about 10 nm ; and microtubules,
about 25 nm.

he also found, upon trying to remove the
bacteria from their hosts, that the
amoeba could no longer live without the
bacteria. Jeon, then, proved that it is
possible for an organism to become
dependent on an invading organism, and
that, rather than have the bacteria de-
stroy the amoeba, it was possible for
them to co-exist.
Cytoskeleton
The cell membrane gives very little sup-
port to an animal cell. Plant cells have a
cell wall to support their shape. However,
animal cells are able to maintain their
shape due to the cytoskeleton: a sup-
portive network of fine protein fibres.
These protein fibres, the microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules
are shown in Figure 2.18. Besides of-
fering support to the cell, the cytoskele-
ton helps anchor the organelles within
the cytoplasm and may also play a role
in relaying messages back and forth be-
tween the cell membrane and the inte-
rior of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and flagella are made of fine pro-
tein fibres that function to provide
movement to some cells. The most ob-
vious difference between them is their
length: flagella are long; cilia are short.
Also cilia may be very numerous and
cover the cell while flagella are few in
number. Many protist cells use these
structures for locomotion: Paramecium
is covered with tiny cilia that beat in a
coordinated fashion to propel it through
the water, Euglena moves by way of its
two whip-like flagella located at the
anterior. Human sperm cells are able to
move due to the presence of a single
flagellum (Figure 2.19).
INFOBIT
Many of our sensory structures
may have evolved from cilia.
The basic cilia-like form is
found in: the light-sensitive
portions of our eye; the fibres
located in our noses that allow
us to sense smells; and the tiny
hairs of our internal ear that
are used to help us maintain
our balance.
WORDORIGIN
Endosymbiosis from the
Greek symbiosis, meaning “liv-
ing together” and endo, mean-
ing “within.” When combined,
the two words nicely represent
endosymbiosis, meaning “one
organism living inside another.”

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 55

 FIGURE 2.19 Functions of microtubules
a) Electron micrograph of protist cell covered with hair-like cilia for locomotion.
b) Human sperm cell; notice the long flagellum on the sperm cell.

Section 2.3 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. What are organelles?
2. How do lysosomes function to digest
materials?
3. Describe the location of the endoplas-
mic reticulum. Make a table to show
the differences in appearance and func-
tion between the rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
4. Explain the function of the Golgi com-
plex (apparatus).
5. The table below shows the observa-
tions made of three different cells.
Determine as much as you can about
each type of cell. For example, are
the cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic;
plant or animal?
6. If scientists were able to remove mito-
chondria or chloroplasts from cells and
turn them into free functioning organ-
isms once more, would this help, hin-
der, or have no effect upon Dr. Lynn
Margulis’s endosymbiotic theory?
Explain.
Making Connections
7. A patient being treated for a form of
cancer known as leukemia, had his
spleen removed—a common treatment
for this type of cancer. Soon re-
searchers discovered that the man’s
spleen cells produced a protein that ac-
tually helped fight the cancer. The re-
searchers patented the cells and the
patient—upon discovering that his cells
were being used this way—sued for a
share of the profits but eventually lost
the lawsuit. Do you think the re-
searchers were correct in their use of
the cells without obtaining the patient’s
consent? Do you think the patient was
treated fairly? How would you have
voted if you were on a jury deciding
this issue? Provide the reasons behind
your decision.

Cell wall Cell membrane Chloroplasts Mitochondria Nucleus

Cell A Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cell B No Yes No Yes Yes
Cell C Yes Yes No No No

56 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Ethics and Stem Cell  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Research
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Stem cells and their potential uses in the treatment of

disease are the focus of heated social controversy. There
are two types of stem cells, those that are totipotent (that
is, make all cell types), and those that are tissue restricted
(that is, make one type of tissue only). Totipotent cells
(sometimes called embryonic stem cells) have been
thought to provide a way to treat diseases like
Parkinson’s, juvenile diabetes, and Alzheimers by re-
generating tissue.
Many people believe that using the stem cells from
human embryos for research and medical purposes is
morally wrong. Others believe that it is the responsibil-
ity of the medical community to use whatever knowledge
they possess in their research to decrease human suf-
fering. They feel society has an obligation to do the re-
search required for the people who are living with these
diseases.
Dr. Mickie Bhatia, Scientist at The John P. Robarts
Research Institute in London, Ontario, has discovered
that when adult blood stem cells are given a protein pre-
sent during human blood development earlier in life,these
blood stem cells will grow and reproduce in a similar
manner to embryonic blood stem cells. If these blood
stem cells could be induced to form other types of tissue,
such as neural or muscle cells, these adult cells could
provide a potential alternative to the use of totipotent
embryonic stem cells in the treatment of disease. Will the
controversy continue? Wherever ethics come into a ques- FIGURE 2.20

tion, there will most likely always be differing opinions.

Analyzing the Issue

1. What are the ethical perspectives relating to the con-
troversy about stem cell research?
2. What additional factors influence society’s response to
stem cell research? Explain.
3. Propose what impact Dr. Bhatia’s discovery may have
on attitudes toward stem cell research and treatment
with stem cells.
4. Research stem cells and their use in the treatment of
Parkinson’s disease.
5. Prepare a risk-benefit analysis to summarize your find-
ings. Write a position paper to address the following
question. If faced with a degenerative or potentially fatal
disease, should a person be able to refuse medical help
because of his or her own moral principles if that help
is available to them?

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 57

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 2.3)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Characteristics of Cells  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating

Cells are the basic units of structure and function

for all living things. All cells fall into one of two major 6. In your notebook, draw and label the appearance
divisions—prokaryotic or eukaryotic. How might you of the specimen under high power.
classify an unknown cell? You will determine the dif-
7. Repeat steps 3–6 for the other prepared slides pro-
ferences through an examination of prepared slides.
vided by your teacher.
You will then use these differences to help you clas-
sify a test specimen. 8. Repeat steps 3–6 for an unidentified prepared slide
provided by your teacher.
Problem 9. Once you have finished the lab, return all of the
equipment to its proper place.
What differences can be observed between prokary-
otic and eukaryotic cells? Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Based on your observations, do all cells have a
Materials common shape? Explain your answer.
(per group)
2. Under which magnification can you see the dif-
 microscope ferent structures?
 prepared slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 3. What cell structures were common to all cells?

CAUTION: Observe proper technique with the microscope

and slides to ensure safe handling of equipment.
Concluding and Communicating
4. What cell structures are found only in eukary-
otic cells?
Procedure 5. Explain how you decided on the cell type of the
1. Set up your data table in your notebook in a man- unknown specimen.
ner similar to Table 2.2. 6. Why do different types of cells have different
2. Obtain a microscope. shapes and sizes?
3. Obtain a prepared slide to examine.
4. In the data table, write the name of the specimen Extending
you are examining. Sketch its shape. Place a check 7. The procedure of DNA fingerprinting relies on ex-
mark under the cell structures you are able to tracting DNA from the nucleus of a cell in order
identify on this slide. Examine the slide under low, to identify a suspect. Explain why DNA finger-
medium, and high power to help you locate as printing will not work if DNA is extracted from a
many cell structures as possible. blood sample that contains only red blood cells.
5. Based on your observations, decide if each cell 8. Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane but con-
is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. tain DNA in the cell. How can these cells carry out
cell activities without a nuclear membrane?
TABLE 2.2 Characteristics of cells

Cell Specimen Shape Cell Structures Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic?

Nuclear Envelope
Cell Membrane

Cytoplasm
Cell Wall

Vacuoles
Nucleus

Plastids

58 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 2.1)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Estimating an Object’s Size  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
with the Microscope
While it may be interesting and informative to view
objects under a microscope, it often difficult to
know the actual size of the object being observed.
Magnification causes us to lose our perspective on
size. In this lab you will learn how to estimate the
size of an object by comparing it with something you
already know—the diameter of the field of view.

Problem
How is the compound microscope used to estimate
the size of microscopic specimens?

Materials
(per group):
 microscope FIGURE 2.22 Adjust the position of the ruler so that you
 transparent metric ruler can measure the diameter of the field of view.
 prepared slides
4. Measure the diameter of the low power field to
the nearest tenth of a millimetre. Record this mea-
Procedure surement in your notebook.
1. Obtain a microscope and place a transparent met- 5. Use a ratio to calculate the diameter of the high
ric ruler on the stage so that it covers about half power field (the magnification of objectives is in-
of the stage, as shown in Figure 2.21. versely proportional to the field size).

High-power low-power
field diameter field diameter

high power low power
magnification magnification
FIGURE 2.21 Set-up
for measuring the di-
ameter of the field of 6. Record the high-power field diameter in mi-
view. crometres. Show your work.
7. Estimate the size of objects you view under
the microscope by comparing them with the
diameter of the field of view. For example, if an
organism takes up one-half of a field of view
that is 500 µm in diameter, then its size is about
one-half of 500 µm, or 250 µm.
8. Obtain prepared slides of various organisms and
2. Observe the ruler under low power. Adjust the po- practise estimating their lengths and/or widths.
sition of the ruler so that its view is similar to Record the name of the organism or structure you
Figure 2.22. are viewing and its estimated size in µm in the
data table.
3. Move the millimetre ruler so that you are mea-
suring the diameter (width) of the low power field 9. Return you microscope and slides to their proper
of view from left to right. storage locations once you have finished this ac-
tivity.


CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 59

(continued)

Analyzing and Interpreting Concluding and Communicating

1. Set up a data table similar to Table 2.3 in your 3. How many micrometres are in one millimetre?
notebook. 4. How many micrometres are in one metre?
5. Describe what happens to the field of view when
you switch from the low power magnification to
TABLE 2.3 Size of Field Diameters
the high-power magnification.
Field Field diameter 6. How many times is the magnification increased
Magnification in mm when you change from the low power lens to
the high power lens?
Low power
7. How many times is the field diameter decreased
From measurement: when you change from the low power lens to
the high power lens?
High power
8. Approximately 400 bacteria fit across the field
From measurement: of view of the low-power lens. What is the esti-
mated size of one bacterium?
9. Approximately six of certain species of protist can
For calculation, see the equation given in proce- fit across the high-power field of vision. What is
dure step 5. the size of one protist?
2. Gather the necessary information to complete 10. If a microscope has a low-power magnification of
Table 2.3 and copy it into your notebook. Copy 100X, a high power magnification of 450X, and
and complete Table 2.4 in your notebook. a low-power field diameter of 1800 micrometres,
what is the high power field diameter in mi-
TABLE 2.4 Size of Objects crometres?
11. If 16 protists fit across a low-power field of view
whose field diameter is 4800 micrometres, what
Name of object Estimate of object’s size is the approximate size of each protist?
12. You have determined the field size of the low and
high-power objective lenses. How do you think
you would calculate the field diameter of the
medium-power lens?

Extending
13. Make a wet-mount slide of a protist culture.
Choose one protist and observe it under low and
high power. Estimate its length in micrometres.

60 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

cell membrane chromosomes flagella nuclear envelope rough endoplasmic

cell theory cilia fluid mosaic model nucleolus reticulum
cellulose cytoplasm Golgi complex organelle smooth endoplasmic
cell wall cytoskeleton (apparatus) photosynthesis reticulum
chloroplasts cytosol lysosome phospholipid bilayer surface area
cholesterol endoplasmic reticulum mitochondria prokaryote vacuole
chromatin eukaryote nucleus ribosome vesicle

Cell Organelles in Plant and Animal Cells

Name Location Function

Cell (Plasma) membrane
Nucleus
Cytosol
Vacuoles and vesicles
Ribosomes
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Lysosomes (in animal cells only)
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Cilia and flagella
Cell wall (in plant cells only)
Chloroplasts (in plant and some
protist cells only)
Surrounds cytoplasm Regulates what enters and leaves the cell
Within nuclear envelope Contains the DNA
Cytoplasm Fluid containing organelles and important molecules such as proteins
Cytoplasm Vacuoles store food or water; vesicles transport molecules
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Site of protein synthesis
Free-floating in cytoplasm
Cytoplasm Processing of proteins
Cytoplasm Lipid synthesis
Cytoplasm Processing and packaging of protein
Cytoplasm Digestion of molecules, bacteria, or damaged organelles
Cytoplasm Produce ATP from energy released from glucose
Cytoplasm Maintains cell shape and helps hold organelles in place
Outside cell membrane Permits cell movement
Outside cell membrane Provides shape and support for the cell
Cytoplasm Use energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates (photosynthesis)

Essential Understandings

2.1 An Introduction to Cells  Eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called

 Cells are the basic units of life and are present in
all living things.
 Cells come only from pre-existing cells.
 Cells are small so that they can maximize their sur-
face area.
 An increased surface area helps cells obtain energy
and rid themselves of waste products through their
cell membranes.
2.2 Cell Structures
 Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other mem-
brane-bound organelles.
Consolidate Your Understanding
organelles.
 The phospholipid-containing cell membrane sepa-
rates the cell from the environment.
 In eukaryotes the volume inside the cell membrane
is divided into nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles.
2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles
 Organelles are structures located within the cyto-
plasm that perform specialized functions for the cell.
 Cell organelles include vacuoles and vesicles, ribo-
somes, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, chloro-
plasts, cytoskeleton, cilia, and flagella.

1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 37 and review your chart 3.
listing the structures and functions of cells. Revise your
chart based on what you learned in this chapter.
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be- 4.
tween the following key terms: Cell Theory, prokaryote,
eukaryote, organelle, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nu-
cleus.
Prepare an analogy to describe the structures and func-
tions of the cell to an elementary school class. Suggest
illustrations or models to support your presentation.
Reflect on your learning. Explain why theories like the
Cell theory are important to the process of scientific
discovery.
CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 61
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 9. Under a microscope a cell was found to contain many mi-
tochondria, chloroplasts, a nucleus, a cell wall, cytoplasm,
1. The genetic control centre of the cell is the as well as other organelles. This cell is most likely a
a) nucleus a) bacterial cell
b) cytoplasm b) human cell
c) mitochondrion c) plant cell
d) lysosome d) none of these

2. The structure of the cell between the nucleus and cell 10. Which of the following structures is not involved in cell
membrane is called the support or movement?
a) mitochondrion a) cytoskeleton
b) cytoskeleton b) cell wall
c) chloroplast c) cilia
d) cytoplasm d) lysosome

3. Which of the following organisms have prokaryotic cells? 11. Sketch a typical animal cell to show all of the struc-
a) humans tures and organelles it is likely to contain. Do the same
b) bacteria for a typical plant cell.
c) fungi
d) plants 12. Which structures are found in plant cells but not in an-
imal cells?
4. As the surface area of a cell increases, the volume of the
cell 13. Explain the difference between the nucleolus and
a) increases as much as the surface area nucleus.
b) does not change
c) decreases 14. Living cells are sometimes compared to factories. Explain
d) none of these what part of a cell may match the function of each of
these: security guard, shipping centre, power plant, fac-
5. Cells that need a large amount of energy would usually tory manager, and storage tank.
contain many
a) mitochondria 15. Sketch a diagram of the cell membrane and identify
b) chloroplasts the structures present. Using your diagram as a refer-
c) vesicles ence, explain why the term “fluid mosaic model” is ap-
d) Golgi complexes propriate to describe the cell membrane as we know it.

6. Organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus are called 16. Prepare a speech for a meeting of cell biologists. The title
a) prokaryotes of your speech is to be: It is better for organisms to be
b) eukaryotes made of many small cells than a few large ones. Prepare
c) plants your speech for this meeting.
d) fungi
17. Compare the information obtained from transmission
7. Which structure is the site of protein synthesis? electron microscope and scanning electron microscope
a) nucleus images.
b) lysosome
c) smooth endoplasmic reticulum 18. How did the evidence accumulated by Dr. Kwan Jeon
d) ribosome support the endosymbiotic theory?

8. Where in a cell would you expect to find the cytoskeleton? 19. Make a flow chart to show the way that bacteria may be
a) within the nucleus used to break down waste materials.
b) within a mitochondrion
c) within the cytoplasm 20. Explain why secretory cells like the thyroid gland cells
d) between the cell membrane and the cell wall might be expected to have an active Golgi complex?

62 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Applying Inquiry/ 24. Prepare a concept map illustrating how the ribosomes,
Communication Skills rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and cell
membrane may function together.
21. Draw a diagram of three cells with the same volume but
different surface areas. 25. Robert Hooke coined the term cells while looking at dead
cork cells through his homemade microscope. Some years
22. a) Complete the following chart in your notes to perform earlier, Dutch tailor Antonie Van Leuwenhoek observed
a mathematical comparison of surface area (S.A.) and a number of different living specimens using microscopes
volume (V) for a hypothetical cube-shaped cell. of his own design, but did not describe cells. Why do you
think this is so?
Dimensions Surface Volume S.A.: Index =
26. Liver cells have hundreds of mitochondria, while fat cells
of “cube” Area (cm3) Volume S.A./V
have only a few. Why do you think there is such a dif-
cell (cm) (cm2) (ratio) ference between the two cells in the number of mito-
05 × 0.5 × 0.5 chondria? Provide reasons for your answer.
1.0 × 1.0 × 1.0
27. When a specialized white blood cell defends your body
1.5 × 1.5 × 1.5 against bacteria many cell systems are involved in the
2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 process. Set up a T-chart to show the organelles involved
and their functions in defense of the body.
2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5
3.0 × 3.0 × 3.0
Making Connections
b) Plot a graph of your calculated values for the index
versus the dimensions of the cube-shaped cell. Plot 28. Scientists believe that originally all life on Earth con-
the index on the vertical axis. sisted of prokaryotic cells and that eukaryotic cells
c) Describe the shape of your graph. evolved later. Based on what you know about the dif-
d) Now relate this mathematical relationship to the op- ferences between the two cell types, explain why this
eration of a cell as it increases in size. Why must view does or does not make sense.
the majority of cells ultimately divide using mitosis?
29. a) Explain why an understanding of cell processes is
23. Copy the graph below onto a separate piece of paper. essential to the development of vaccines.
Add data points to the graph for cubes with sides of b) How might this understanding have impact on
2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm. (In order to do this, you Canada’s health system and allocation of resources?
will need to first calculate the surface area for each of
the cubes, and then calculate the surface area to volume
ratio.) Complete the graph and indicate what informa-
tion can be obtained from the graph.

6
Surface area/volume

1 2 3 4 5
Length of cube side (cm)

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 63

 CHAPTER 3

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cell Transport
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe how organelles and other
cell components carry out various
cell processes and explain how
M any cellular functions involve the transport of materials in, out, and
through cells. Cells, particularly those in multicellular organisms, are
surrounded by a complex and constantly changing liquid environment con-
these processes are related to the sisting of many dissolved molecules: gases such as oxygen, compounds such
function of organs (3.1, 3.2, 3.4)
as glucose, ions such as sodium, and chemical messengers such as pro-
 describe the fluid mosaic structure
of cell membranes and explain the
dynamics of passive transport and
the processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis of large particles (3.1,
3.2, 3.3, 3.4, Investigation 1)
 design and carry out an investiga-
tion on cellular function, controlling
the major variables (Investigation 2)
 present informed opinions on ad-
vances in cellular biology and pos-
sible applications through related
technology (3.1, 3.3)
 analyze ways in which societal
needs have led to technological ad-
vances related to cellular pro-
cesses (3.3)

FIGURE 3.1 Colour enhanced scanning electron microscope image of a lymphocyte,

natural killer cell attacking a cancer cell (orange).

64
teins. Literally billions of events involving these various molecules must occur
daily to ensure your survival. The cell membrane plays a vital role in these
events: it regulates what enters and leaves the cell; it ensures the cell receives
a non-stop supply of nutrients from its surroundings; and, at the same time,
it steadily allows waste products to pass through it in order to exit the cell.
In the transport of large molecules and even other cells into the cells interior,
the cell membrane rearranges its structure to form a vesicle.
The membranes of organelles within the cell, such as the mitochondrion
and endoplasmic reticulum, must also regulate what substances enter and
leave them. And the membrane of some organelles, such as the Golgi com-
plex, must not only be able to regulate the passage of molecules, but it must
also be able to package, send, and receive “shipments” from other organelles.
This chapter will outline the transport methods used to move materials
such as nutrients, water, and oxygen into cells, and waste products such as
carbon dioxide, out of cells. It will also highlight new information about some
disease states that have their origins in faulty cell processes.

Discovering Biology
Observing Osmosis
The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis.
1. Draw the apparatus your teacher has set up as a demonstration and
record the original fluid level on your drawing.
2. Observe the apparatus every 60 s for at least five minutes and record the
change in height of the fluid in the tube.
 How would you explain the change in height of the fluid in the tube?
 What is happening to the material on the inside of the tube?

thistle
funnel

beaker CHECKPOINT
containing
water Draw a diagram of the cell
membrane to illustrate
what you know about how
this structure functions.
FIGURE 3.2 Experimental set-up for observing osmosis.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 65

 3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 relate the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure to the function of membranes

 explain the importance of permeability to transportation within and between cells

The cell membrane plays an essential
role in regulating what enters and leaves
the cell. This role depends largely on its
structure. Because most membranes, in-
cluding the cell membrane, allow some
substances to pass through them, they
WORD ORIGIN are said to be permeable. In addition,
because most living membranes are able
Permeable from the Latin to control what passes through them,
permeare, meaning “to pass they are described as being selectively
through.”
permeable.
Both the phospholipid bilayer and
the protein molecules help to control the
passage of materials through the cell
membrane. The construction of the
bilayer is unique. The hydrophilic
phosphate heads point toward the liquid
environments inside and outside the cell.
The hydrophobic fatty acid tails making
up the middle of the membrane,
prevent some molecules from entering the
cell. Because the phospholipids are tightly
packed together, molecules that are too
large cannot pass through this portion
of the membrane. Hydrophilic molecules
that are not fat-soluble cannot dissolve
and pass through the middle fatty acid
portion of the membrane. The protein
molecules embedded in the bilayer pro-
vide an entryway for certain small
molecules that cannot enter through the
bilayer portion of the membrane.

FIGURE 3.3 The

cell membrane. The
cell membrane is phospholipids proteins glycocalyx
selectively perme-
able. It freely al- cholesterol
lows the passage
of fat-soluble sub- sugar
stances through chains
the lipid bilayer
and small non-fat-
soluble molecules
through the protein
channels.

Communication. Receptor proteins, Transport. Proteins can The glycocalyx. Sugar

protruding out from the plasma
membrane, can be the point of
contact for signals sent to the cell via
traveling molecules, such as
hormones.
serve as channels through
which materials can pass
in and out of the cell.
chains that attach to
communication or
recognition proteins,
serving as their binding
sites. The glycocalyx can
also lubricate cells and act
as an adhesion layer for
them.

66 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions


Protein Kinases
For many years the nucleus was con-
sidered the exclusive control centre
of the cell. However, within the last
15 years, scientists such as Dr. Tony
Pawson at the University of Toronto,
have learned that the cell membrane
and molecules within the cell, called
protein kinases, have an equally
important role in controlling cell
function and allowing the communi-
cation between cells that is necessary
for the proper functioning of the
whole organism.
This cell-to-cell communication
functions as follows: messenger
molecules from other cells (often hor-
mones) travel through the blood-
stream and then attach to specialized
protein molecules on the outside of
the membrane of the target cell. The
protein receptor molecule, which
spans the cell membrane, changes the
shape of its “tail” (which sticks into
the cytoplasm). The shape change
then triggers a chain reaction that in-
volves protein kinases in the cell.
Protein kinases transmit the
commands of many hormones that
regulate cellular processes such as
cell division and specialization. Once
activated by the receptor proteins, the
kinases join together like Lego blocks
to carry the message to the proper
location within the cell and allow the
cell to respond to the command.
The understanding of this
method of cell-to-cell (called
intercellular) and within-cell (called
intracellular) communication has
provided new insights into a number
of human diseases. For example, sci-
entists have learned that many types
of cancers and some types of diabetes
are caused by problems with the pro-
tein kinase intracellular communica-
tion system. New treatments aimed
at correcting these problems are cur-
rently being tested in clinical trials.

Membrane proteins have functions hydrate chains attached to them are

in addition to transporting molecules.
Some of the proteins provide structural
support to the cell by binding to the
protein fibres of the cytoskeleton. Other
proteins have a communication function.
They receive chemical messengers sent
by other cells. Proteins that have carbo-
involved in communication and cell
recognition. These carbohydrote “sugar”
chains are called the glycocalyx. Other
cells, such as those in your immune sys-
tem, use these carbohydrate chains to
recognize a cell or a molecule as being
self or being foreign.

Section 3.1 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. What is the function of the cell mem-
brane?
6.
2. Name and describe the molecules that
make up the cell membrane.
3. Describe the different types and func-
tions of the proteins found in the cell
membrane.
4. Contrast the terms “permeable” and
“selectively permeable.”
Making Connections
5. Work with a partner to research the
role of protein kinases in cell biology.
Investigate their involvement in a par-
ticular disease. Present an informed
opinion on the effectiveness of new
treatments based on knowledge about
protein kinases.
Cholesterol molecules are a normal
part of the cell membranes of mam-
mals; however, some people have high
levels of cholesterol in their blood that
can lead to heart and/or artery disease.
Some doctors have suggested that all
adults should have their blood choles-
terol level tested, and those who have
abnormally high cholesterol levels
should be given medication or put on
a special diet. Research the cost to
society if the Canadian government im-
plemented a plan of this nature. Use
a PMI chart to organize the results of
your research.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 67

 3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe how organelles and cell components carry out various cell processes such
as transportation
 explain the dynamics of diffusion and osmosis
Investigation Solutes are substances that are dissolved
Refer to page 82, in fluid to form a solution. The liquid that
Investigation 2 the solutes are dissolved in is referred
to as a solvent. Many of the molecules
that must enter or leave cells, such as
glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, are
dissolved in water and can therefore
be referred to as solutes. Many solutes
must constantly make their way into and
out of cells to ensure cell survival.
sa
lt
solute
solvent water salt solution
water
FIGURE 3.4 A solute dissolved by a solvent re-
sults in a solution. A small amount of table salt
poured into water results in a solution of sodium
chloride.
Discovering Biology Diffusion
Particles diffuse along the concentration gradient. Add a drop of
dark food colouring to a beaker or glass of cold water and another
drop to a beaker of hot water. Observe the changes to the ap-
pearance of the water over time.
 What have you just observed in action?
 What comments can you make about the speed of the pro-
cess you have just observed?
 How might you test your suggestion?
 When did the process appear to stop?
 Did the molecules become stationary at this time? Why or why
not?
68 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
Diffusion
Particles, even those in solids, are con-
stantly and randomly moving. As a result,
over time, particles tend to spread them-
selves out evenly. Diffusion is the ten-
dency of particles to move from an area
where they are more concentrated, and
there are more random collisions, to an
area where they are less concentrated and
have fewer collisions (Figure 3.5). Where
there is an equal concentration of parti-
cles in all areas equilibrium is achieved.
Movement from an area of higher con-
centration to one of lower concentration
is known as moving along the concen-
tration gradient. Movement along the
concentration gradient is referred to as
passive transport. A common example of
diffusion occurs when someone is wear-
ing a strong cologne or perfume. Although
the concentrated source is located on their
body, the perfume molecules spread by
diffusion to fill the room.
Diffusion is the driving force behind
the movement of many molecules
through the cell membrane, including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and
small lipids. A number of factors deter-
mine whether a molecule can enter a cell
by diffusion. One of these factors is size.
Large molecules cannot squeeze through
the tightly packed phospholipids easily.
Another factor is lipid solubility. If a
molecule cannot dissolve in the oily mix-
ture created by the membrane fatty
acids, it cannot diffuse through the mem-
brane. Physical factors such as the size
of the concentration difference and the
distance the molecule has to travel also
affect the diffusion process.
Your lungs rely exclusively on diffu-
sion to add oxygen to and remove carbon

a b
FIGURE 3.5 Diffusion. A few drops of red dye added to a beaker of water are initially very
concentrated in one area. Diffusion, the movement of particles along their concentration
gradient from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, occurs until an
equilibrium concentration is produced throughout the solution.
dioxide from your blood. The air sacs of
the lungs, called alveoli, and the spe-
cialized blood vessels known as
capillaries that surround the alveoli, have
adaptations to speed up the relatively slow
process of diffusion. For example, both
alveoli and capillaries are only one cell
layer thick, providing the shortest distance
possible for the dissolved gases to travel
through the respiratory membrane. Each
alveolus is surrounded by many capil-
laries, thus increasing the surface area
for diffusion to occur. Since the oxygen
content is higher in the freshly breathed-
in air of the alveoli than in the deoxy-
genated blood of the capillaries, the
oxygen travels down this concentration
gradient, leaves the alveoli, and enters the
bloodstream. The carbon dioxide moves
along its concentration gradient from the
blood and into the alveolar air.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion.
It is the diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane, such
WEBLINK
For simulations of diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion, go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
c
water dye
molecules molecules
as the cell membrane. Despite the fact
that water moelcules are not lipid solu-
ble, they can easily pass through the
phospholipid bilayer. This is apparently
because they are small enough to fit
through gaps created by the moving
phospholipids. During osmosis, water
molecules always pass from the side of
the membrane that has a higher
concentration of water and less solute
concentration to the side that has the
lower concentration of water and higher
solute concentration until equilibrium, if
possible, is established.
The osmotic conditions of the solu-
tions surrounding a cell are given spe-
cial names. In a hypertonic solution, the
fluid surrounding the cells has a higher
solute concentration than the cytoplasm
of the cell. As a result, water diffuses out
of the cell by osmosis.
In an isotonic solution, the con-
centration of solutes in the fluid sur-
rounding the cell is the same as it is in
the cell’s cytoplasm; therefore, the so-
lute concentrations are at equilibrium
and no net movement of water occurs.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 69
 lt In a hypotonic solution, the solute
sa
concentration of the fluid surrounding
a solute the cell is less than that of the cell’s
cytoplasm. As a result, water diffuses
into the cell by osmosis.
Osmosis is a very important process
in cells. Freshwater organisms generally
solvent have a higher solute concentration in-
side their cells than outside. As a result,
they are constantly taking on more water
by osmosis and have developed mech-
semipermeable membrane anisms to rid themselves of the extra
b

FIGURE 3.6 Osmosis

a) A semi-permeable membrane separates the
chamber on the left, containing water, from the
chamber on the right to which salt is added.
b)Water flows through the membrane in both
directions but there is a net movement of water
along its concentration gradient into the right
OSMOSIS chamber.

Discovering Biology Cell Size and Diffusion

The size of a cell affects the rate of diffusion.

Materials

• 3 different-sized blocks of agar • 300-mL beaker

made with water containing • test tube holders or tongs
phenolphthalein • scalpel
• 0.4% sodium hydroxide solution • metric ruler

CAUTION: Wear disposable non-latex gloves and safety goggles when using sodium
hydroxide. Do not allow sodium hydroxide to come in contact with your skin. If it does,
wash it off immediately. Be careful when using sharp instruments.

1. Obtain and measure the dimensions of three different-sized agar blocks.

2. Calculate and record the surface area to volume ratio for each block.
3. Place the three blocks of agar in a 300-mL beaker. Add 0.4% sodium hydroxide
solution until it completely covers the blocks.
4. After 8 min, use test-tube holders or tongs to gently remove the agar blocks
from the solution and then blot them dry. Cut each block in half with a
scalpel.
5. Use a metric ruler to measure the distance the pink material has diffused into
each block and record your measurement.
 What was the diffusion distance in each block?
 Which block had the greatest amount of pink material in it? Can you identify a
pattern between this answer and the surface area to volume ratios you
calculated?
 Calculate the rate of diffusion in mm/min.

70 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

water. Some unicellular organisms such
as Paramecium have contractile vacuoles
that fill up with water and, when full,
contract. This squeezes the water out of
the organism. normal cell
You place your body cells in an os-
Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic Very Hypotonic
motic situation when you eat or drink.
The concentration The concentration The concentration This cell has burst
For example, when you drink a lot of of solutes outside of solutes outside of solutes outside due to the large
water, your blood develops a higher is higher than it is the cell is equal to is lower than it is amount of water
concentration of water. If the water en- inside the cell. that inside the cell. inside the cell. entering.
tered your cells by osmosis, every cell in
your body could be affected. However, FIGURE 3.7 The effects of solute concentration on cells
your kidneys regulate the water balance
of your blood, so if there is too much
water in your blood, the kidneys excrete
more water in your urine and in this way tration. This enables the kidneys to
Investigation
maintain equilibrium between your reabsorb water back into the blood by Refer to page 80,
blood and your cells. osmosis rather than having that water Investigation 1
Osmosis also helps the kidneys if you leave as part of the urine. The ability
don’t have enough water in your blood. to reabsorb water is an important adap-
Portions of the kidney tubules pass tation of all land animals.
through areas of high solute concen-

Section 3.2 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Differentiate between a solute and a
solvent.
2. Define the term “diffusion” and give an
example of diffusion in action.
3. What is meant by the term “concen-
tration gradient”?
4. Define “osmosis” and provide an ex-
ample of osmosis in action.
5. House plants will wilt if you forget to
water them. The stems will become
limp. However, a few hours after you
remember to water them they will
appear normal again. Using your
knowledge about the movement of
solutes and water, explain these
observations.
Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills
6. If a cell whose cytoplasm was about 1%
solute concentration were placed in a
3% salt solution, what would you
expect to happen? Use a diagram to
explain what would happen.
7. Before refrigeration was invented,
many foods were preserved by storing
them in salt. Explain why micro-
organisms may have a difficult time
growing on food preserved this way.
Compare the advantages of salt preser-
vation and refrigeration. Provide two
examples of foods that are preserved
using salt.
Making Connections
8. Many people suffering from kidney
failure survive through dialysis treat-
ment which artifically cleans their
blood. Most dialysis patients have to
travel to a hospital for treatment, al-
though new technology is enabling
some patients to have dialysis units
in their homes.
a) Explain how this technique de-
pends on diffusion and osmosis.
b) Analyze the social and economic
impact of a treatment like dialysis.
c) Evaluate home dialysis from the as-
pects of patient care, affordability,
and the health care system.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 71

 3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport

Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe how the cell membrane uses proteins to carry out transportation

 explain the dynamics of facilitated diffusion

 compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport

 relate certain disease states to a lack of function of cellular processes

 describe how advances in cell biology can be applied through technology

Facilitated Diffusion ergy from ATP is required for facilitated

Some molecules cannot travel through
the lipid portion of the cell membrane.
They may be too large or may be hy-
drophilic. Many of these molecules enter
cells by facilitated diffusion. Facilitated
diffusion occurs when molecules enter
cells through channels that exist in spe-
cial transport proteins that span the
membrane (Figure 3.8). Transport pro-
teins are specialized to carry only cer-
tain molecules into or out of cells.
Because they only transport materials
along the concentration gradient, no en-
diffusion. For this reason facilitated
diffusion is a form of passive transport.
Glucose is an example of a molecule
that is too large to travel through the cell
membrane without one of these special
protein carriers. Since glucose is con-
stantly being used inside cells for energy
to produce ATP, the concentration of
glucose inside cells is usually lower than
the concentration of glucose in the fluid
surrounding the cells. Therefore, glucose
moves down the concentration gradient
and into the cell by facilitated diffusion.

TRANSPORT THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Passive transport Active transport

simple facilitated
diffusion diffusion

phospholipid
bilayer

transport
proteins ATP

a b c

FIGURE 3.8 Transport through the plasma membrane

a) In simple diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient.
b) In facilitated diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient but pass
through the membrane with the assistance of a transport protein.
c) In active transport, molecules move against their concentration gradient with the
assistance of a transport protein and the use of energy from ATP.

72 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Active Transport
Sometimes cells need to move molecules
or ions against a concentration gradient.
Cells cannot rely on any type of diffusion
to do this since diffusion only moves par-
ticles from a high concentration to a low
concentration. Therefore, cells have de-
veloped another transport method
known as active transport to move
molecules or ions against a concentra-
tion gradient.
Like facilitated diffusion, active trans-
port relies on transport proteins to allow
substances to pass through the mem-
brane. This time, however, the molecules
or ions bind to the proteins and are then
pumped across the membrane. Moving
molecules or ions this way is not without
WEBLINK
its cost: active transport requires energy
released from the breakdown of ATP to Investigate the contribution
move substances against the concen- of Canadian scientists to
tration gradient. diabetes research. Compile a
The sodium/potassium (Na + /K + ) timeline of discovery.
pump in nerve cells (neurons) is an im- Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
portant example of active transport. In
order to function properly neurons must
maintain a higher concentration of
sodium ions outside the cell compared
to inside the cell. They must also main-
tain a higher concentration of potassium
ions inside the cell compared to outside.
In order to maintain this imbalance, spe-
cialized transport proteins in neurons
pump sodium out of the cell and potas-
sium in. See Figure 3.9 for further
explanation.

Diabetes: A Problem
with
Facilitated Diffusion
Diabetes is a disease that has a long
history of death and destruction as
well as a long history of research and
discovery by Canadian scientists.
Diabetes, a disease caused by the in-
ability to transport glucose into cells,
currently affects about two million
Canadians.
Diabetics are unable to produce
a protein-based hormone called
insulin that binds to transport pro-
teins on the cell membrane and
allows glucose to enter cells by
facilitated diffusion. Without insulin,
the cells are unable to take up
glucose. This causes the glucose level
of the blood to increase to danger-
ously high levels when the person
eats a meal. The symptoms of
untreated diabetes include thirst,
moodiness, blindness, circulatory
problems, and unconsciousness lead-
ing to death.
The first step in the successful
treatment of diabetes came with Dr.
Frederick Banting’s discovery of in-
sulin in 1922 while working at the
University of Toronto with his col-
leagues Best, Collip, and Macleod.
Banting and Macleod (who provided
lab space and advice to Banting)
shared the Nobel Prize in 1923.
Identifying and purifying insulin al-
lowed diabetics to inject themselves
with insulin after eating. This discov-
ery has been called “one of the most
revolutionary moments in medicine”
and has saved the lives of an estimated
15 million diabetics worldwide.
Biotechnology has assured a plentiful
supply of insulin through techniques
that enable this human protein to be
made by micro-organisms.
Dr. Michael Smith, another Nobel
Prize winner and Canadian re-
searcher at the University of British
Columbia, contributed to the im-
proved treatment of diabetes. In
1988, Zymogenetics, a biotechnology
research firm he co-founded, used his
Nobel Prize–winning technique to im-
prove the purity of insulin available
for treating diabetics. This was
another important step toward im-
proving the lives of diabetics.
Even more recently, researchers
at Kinetek Pharmaceuticals, a
Vancouver-based biotechnology com-
pany, have developed a new treat-
ment that may eventually free
diabetics from their daily ritual of in-
sulin injections. The new treatment
affects signalling pathways within the
cell, between the cell membrane and
the nucleus, and is currently under-
going clinical trials.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 73

extracellular Na+
fluid K+ potassium ion
Na+

Na+
Na+ Na+
phospholipid
bilayer Na+ Na+ K+

Na+
K+
Na+
P P K+
cytosol sodium ion P
ATP ADP

1 Three sodium ions
(Na+) from inside the
cell bind to a transport
protein.
FIGURE 3.9 Active transport: the sodium-potassium pump
2 ATP gives up a 3 The binding of phos- 4 Two K+ ions bind to the 5 The loss of the
high-energy phate causes a shape transport protein, phosphate group
phosphate group change in the protein. resulting in the release returns the protein to
to bind to the The channel opens to of the phosphate its original shape. The
transport protein. the extracellular fluid; group from the protein. K+ ions are released
the Na+ binding sites inside the cell and the
are lost and the ions transport protein is
are released outside ready to bind more
the cell; binding sites Na+ ions.
for potassium ions (K+)
are created.

Cystic fibrosis is due to a faulty active trans-

Discovering Biology A Concentration Situation port protein Cystic fibrosis is a devas-
tating inherited disease that affects about
The cell membrane controls the movement of ions and molecules. one in 2500 Canadian children. The dis-
The graph below shows the concentration of different ions in- ease, characterized by the buildup of
side an animal cell (in green) and outside the cell (in blue). mucus in the lungs and other organs,
Use the graph and what you have read in the previous sections to
slowly destroys lung tissue.
answer the following questions:
The problem is caused by a faulty
 Explain which ions are transported into the cell by active
membrane-based protein that should
transport.
function to actively transport chloride
 Explain which ions are transported out of the cell by
ion out of the cell. Due to the defect, less
active transport.
chloride ion is released than normal.
This results in decreased reabsorption
of sodium ion, dehydration of the mem-
160 branes lining the respiratory and diges-
outside
140 tive passages, and the formation of a
inside
thick mucus. The abnormal secretions
Concentration (mmol.L-1)

120
also have a reduced ability to kill in-
100 vading bacteria. A cycle of infection and
80 inflammation takes place.
Research on cystic fibrosis over the
60
past twenty years included the 1989 dis-
40 covery of the gene that causes the de-
20 fect. Improved antibiotics, physiotherapy
and concentration on improving nutri-
0
Sodium Magnesium Chloride Potassium tional health have led to better lung
health and an increased life span. Heart
and lung trasnsplants are also a possi-
FIGURE 3.10 Concentration of ions inside and outside the cell.
ble treatment. The estimated median
survival age for people born with cystic
fibrosis in the 1990s is 40 years.
74 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
 Section 3.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Provide an example of a molecule that
must use facilitated diffusion to cross
membranes. Explain why it cannot
enter cells by some other means.
2. Describe the process of active trans-
port.
3. Explain why active transport requires
energy in order to function.
4. Construct a table to show the similar-
ities and differences between diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, and active trans-
port.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Nerve cells rely on the Na+/K+ pump
in order to function properly.
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis of large particles
 explain how these processes are related to the function of organs
Simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion efficiently transport substances
of a small size through the cell mem-
brane. However, some situations, for ex-
ample, defence against infection, require
the movement of large particles into the
cytoplasm. Others, for example, the se-
cretion of hormones, require the removal
of large particles from the cell. These sit-
uations require the formation of vesicles
and involve some rearrangement of the
cell membrane. Proteins and polysac-
charides are examples of very large
molecules that need to pass into and
out of cells. Because these molecules
Investigate why the movement of these
ions is required to facilitate nerve cell
communication to and from your brain.
Illustrate, using a diagram of the move-
ment of the ions during a nerve im-
pulse.
6. Each transport protein is specific to the
substance it channels across the cell
membrane. Suggest ways that the speci-
ficity of the transport protein for the
molecule being transported is ensured.
Making Connections
7. Research one of the following: Type I
or Type II diabetes, or juvenile-onset or
mature-onset diabetes. Prepare a brief
report, explaining the importance of diet,
medication, and lifestyle in the manage-
ment of the form of diabetes you have
chosen to investigate.
are too large to fit through a protein car-
rier they must use another method to
enter or exit the cell.
Endocytosis
Moving material into the cell by
endocytosis involves the pinching in of a
portion of the cell membrane around the
material to be transported into the cell.
The pinched-in portion eventually breaks
free from the cell membrane and forms
a vesicle in the cytoplasm. This allows the
material within the vesicle to travel to its
final destination within the cell.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 75

WORD ORIGIN
Endocytosis from the Greek,
endon, meaning “within,” and
kutos, meaning “vessel or
cell.”
WEBLINK
For animations of phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, and exocytosis,
go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
76 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
There are three types of endocyto-
sis. The first type, called phagocytosis
involves the movement of large
molecules and sometimes even whole
cells into the cell’s interior. Phagocytosis
leterally means “cell eating.” Specialized
white blood cells, known as
macrophages, may phagocytose whole
bacteria as part of your body’s defence
against disease.
A second type of endocytosis, called
pinocytosis or “cell drinking,” involves
the transport of liquids into vesicles.
From the descriptions and Figures 3.11
and 3.12, you can see why phagocytosis
and pinocytosis are well named.
The third type of endocytosis is
known as receptor-mediated endocy-
tosis (RME), and it is how a number of
nutrients and proteins, such as the hor-
mone insulin, enter the cell. During
RME, the molecule that is to enter the
cell binds to special receptor proteins lo-
cated on the outside of the cell mem-
brane. These receptor proteins move
within the cell membrane towards other
identical receptor-molecule complexes.
Once enough molecules have gathered
in an area, the cell membrane pinches
in, forming the vesicle that will trans-
port these molecules into the cell.
RME is currently the subject of ex-
tensive research. One reason for inter-
est in RME is that cholesterol molecules
Phagocytosis
bacterium pseudopodium
(or food particles)
FIGURE 3.11 Phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, particles including whole bacteria are
taken in by pseudopodia that surround them. The cell membrane of the pseudopodia
fuses and forms a vesicle that moves into the cell’s interior.
enter cells in this way. Cholesterol, is
necessary for the production of certain
sex hormones, and is itself a component
of cell membranes. However, cholesterol
can lead to heart and artery disease if
too much of it is present in the blood.
Normally, due to RME, excess cholesterol
in the blood enters liver cells and is
safely removed from the blood.
However, some individuals inherit
varying degrees of a disease known as
hypercholesterolemia. In this disease,
the cholesterol receptors on the liver cells
are either absent or greatly reduced in
number. People who completely lack
cholesterol receptors are unable to re-
move excess cholesterol from their blood
and may die from heart disease while
still in childhood. Others who have fewer
than normal receptors are also at risk,
but may be treated with a low-fat diet
and cholesterol-lowering drugs.
Researchers are trying to determine the
possibility of stimulating the action of
liver cell cholesterol receptors as a way
to treat patients with high blood choles-
terol levels.
The rearrangement of the cell mem-
brane needed for vesicle-formation is an
energy requiring process. All three types
of endocytosis involve vesicle formation.
For this reason all three types of
endocytosis require energy from the
breakdown of ATP.
vesicle
 Pinocytosis

extracellular fluid

plasma membrane

vesicle
cytosol

FIGURE 3.12 Pinocytosis. In pinocytosis, the cell membrane sinks in to surround

molecules in the extracellular fluid. The membrane then fuses to pinch off a vesicle
that can then move within the cell.

Exocytosis bodies. Hormones are made within cells

Exocytosis is the opposite of endocyto-
sis and is used to export large molecules
out of the cell (Figure 3.14 on the next
page). Large molecules such as proteins
are surrounded by a membrane at the
Golgi complex and a vesicle is formed.
In this vesicle the substances make their
way to the cell membrane where the
vesicle membrane joins with the cell
membrane and the large molecules are
expelled from the cell. Exocytosis, like
endocytosis, also requires energy from
the breakdown of ATP molecules.
Exocytosis, like endocytosis, is a
common process in many cells in our
but act outside of these cells, sometimes
at a great distance. For example, spe-
cialized cells in the pancreas make the
blood-sugar-controlling hormone insulin.
Like other hormones, insulin travels
throughout the body by way of the
bloodstream. The process of exocytosis
carries the insulin molecules out of the
pancreatic cells and allows them to enter
the blood. In another example, digestive
enzymes, made by specialized cells lin-
ing the intestine, are released by the pro-
cess of exocytosis into the interior of the
intestine where they are used to digest
food materials.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

receptors captured coated

molecules pit

vesicle

FIGURE 3.13 Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Many receptors bind to molecules.

The receptors move laterally within the cell membrane, forming a coated pit that
pinches off to form a vesicle.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 77

 extracellular fluid
protein

plasma membrane

transport vesicle cytosol

a b

FIGURE 3.14 Movement out of the cell

a) In exocytosis, a transport vesicle moves to fuse with the cell membrane. The cell
membrane rearranges, opens, and releases the contents of the vesicle outside the cell.
b) Material being expelled by exocytosis.

Section 3.4 Review

Understanding Concepts needed to keep the cell membrane at

1. Describe the process of endocytosis
in its three forms.
2. Outline the similarities and differences
between phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
3. Explain the process of exocytosis and
describe two examples in human cells.
4. Use a T-chart to compare phagocyto-
sis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
this constant size. Suggest ways to test
your hypothesis.
6. Predict the consequences if your body
cells could not perform a) endocytosis
or b) exocytosis.
7. “An amoeba is like a free-living
macrophage.” Write a supported para-
graph to agree or disagree with this
statement.

Applying Inquiry/ Making Connections

Communication Skills
8.
5. Cells involved in large amounts of
exocytosis, such as pancreatic cells,
may seem to run out of cell membrane
quite quickly if they are constantly
sending pieces of it away with exported
materials, yet the cell membrane re-
mains a fairly constant size. Make a
hypothesis about what processes are
Recently it has been discovered that
most cold-causing viruses bind to a
protein on the cell membrane and
enter the cell they are about to infect
by an endocytosis-like process. How
might researchers working for a
pharmaceutical company utilize this
information? Suggest an experiment
that could be performed.

78 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Drug Addiction and the Cell  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Whatever the causes of drug addiction, once addic-

tive drugs are introduced into the body, the chem-
istry of brain cells is altered. Scientists believe that
mesolimbic dopamine cells, neurotransmitters in
the central nervous system (CNS), control a person’s
mood. These specialized molecules control commu-
nication from one neuron to another.
Some addictive drugs enhance mesolimbic
dopamine’s role in the brain, which elevates a per-
son’s mood, giving them a “high.” Heroin, for ex-
ample, increases the rate at which nerve cells in the
CNS release dopamine. As a result, those who use
heroin experience a brief feeling of extreme eupho-
ria, followed by an extreme “low.” In order to main-
tain the same level of response, they must take
higher doses of the drug to achieve the same high.
This is due to how the brain cells adapt to the on- FIGURE 3.14 Drug addiction is often complicated by
going use of the drug. loneliness.
Scientists believe that, over time, the actual num-
ber of dopamine receptors is reduced. As a result,
not only does the user require more of the drug more argue that addiction is an illness, and while
frequently, but other activities such as being with willpower is important in overcoming addiction, ad-
friends no longer bring pleasure. This also con- diction requires medical treatment. Recent research
tributes to the frequency and amount of drug used indicates that addiction occurs at the cellular level
by the addict. in the brain.
The turning point for the addict is the decision Understanding the causes of addiction is vital
to end the addiction. There are a variety of thera- in developing treatments to help addicts recover.
pies available to help combat addiction. Some peo- Scientific studies that look at the genetic and social
ple believe that addiction can be overcome with factors influencing addiction may hold the key to
willpower and strength of personal character. Others prevention.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Describe the social and economic factors that influence
the search for a cure to drug addiction.
2. Research two different drug therapies, one that focuses
on working with the psychology of the addict, and a sec-
ond that focuses on using drug treatment. Compare the
two therapies by preparing a P-M chart. Identify the cir-
cumstances under which both would be appropriate.
3. Plan a class debate that focuses on one of these drug
therapies. As a class, identify the question for the focus
of the debate. Set the criteria you will follow (e.g., time
allotted to speakers, how many participants will speak).
Participants must support their point of view with
research data and real examples.
4. When the debate has concluded, evaluate the arguments
that were presented.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 79

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 3.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
A Study of Osmosis: Determining the Solute  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Concentration of Potatoes
Even though potatoes may no longer be growing on TABLE 3.1 Solute Concentration
their plants, they are still alive, and their cells, like all
others, have selectively permeable cell membranes. In Test Tube Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
this lab you will study osmosis; the diffusion of water Volume of Water (mL) 10 8 6 4 2 0
from an area of high water concentration to an area Volume of Sucrose (mL) 0 2 4 6 8 10
of lower water concentration. You will determine
how osmosis affects potato sections. Solute Concentration (mol.L–1) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Problems Part 2: Preparation of the potatoes

What is the solute concentration of potatoes? Prepare 7 equal-sized potato sections.

cork borer
Materials
 test tubes
 10-mL graduated cylinder
 potato
2 100-mL beakers
 10-mL, 5-mL, 2-mL pipette board
 test-tube rack
 #5 cork borer
 single-edged razor blade or scalpel and handle
 ruler
 centigram balance/electronic balance
 potato
 potato section
1 mol •L–1 sucrose solution
 distilled water
 marker for test tubes FIGURE 3.16 Set up for preparation of potato sections
 grid paper
 paper towels 1. Set up the data table as shown in Table 3.2.
2. Use a #5 cork borer to bore a section of potato. Cut
CAUTION: Work carefully with sharp instruments. the skin off both ends and then use a razor blade
to trim the section to a length of 4 cm.
3. Rinse the sections with distilled water and blot them
Procedure: dry with paper towel.
Part 1: Preparation of the solutions 4. Use a balance to determine the mass of each potato
section. Record this mass, I, in Table 2, and place
Prepare seven test tubes, each with a different solute each section in its corresponding test tube; that
concentration, as follows: is, the first potato section you weigh goes into test
tube 1, the second section you weigh goes into test
1. Label the tubes #1–7 and place them in a test-tube
tube 2, and so on.
rack.
5. After 24 hours, remove each potato section and
2. Using a pipette, add the correct amount of water
gently blot it dry. Record the final mass, F, of each
to each tube and then the correct amount of
potato section in Table 2.
1 mol •L–1 sucrose solution to prepare the intended
solute concentration for each tube. 6. Calculate the change in mass for each potato sec-
tion as follows:

80 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

(continued)

TABLE 3.2

Test Tube # Solute Initial Mass Final Mass Change in Mass Percent Change
Concentration I (g) F (g) (F – I) (g) in Mass
(mol.L–1)
(F – I)
I  100

1 0
2 0.2
3 0.4
4 0.6
5 0.8
6 1.0

(Final Mass – Initial Mass) = (F – I ) = change in mass.) Concluding and Communicating

(If the potato lost mass, this number should be
negative.) 4. Do you think your experimental results are accu-
rate? Explain why or why not.
7. Calculate the percent change in mass for each
potato as follows: 5. Describe possible changes to the procedure of this
lab that would produce more accurate results.

 F –I I   100
= % change in mass
(Any negative signs from step 6 will cause a nega-
tive result here, too.)
8. On grid paper, plot the Percent change in mass vs.
Solute concentration. Include both negative and
positive numbers (if necessary) on your y axis. Use
a line of best fit to represent your data points.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Determine the solute concentration of the potatoes
by interpolation (Hint: what percent change in mass
would you expect if the sucrose solution had the
same solute concentration as the potato section?).
2. Indicate on your graph those solutions that were
hypotonic or hypertonic to the potato cytoplasm.
3. Explain your results. For example, explain why
some potato sections gained mass and others lost
mass over the 24-hour period.
6. You can restore wilted flowers or vegetables by
soaking them in water. From your knowledge of
osmosis, would it be better to soak them in distilled
or tap water? Explain.
Extending
7. Explain why it is important for intravenous fluids
to be of the same solute concentration as human
blood.
8. If you prepared a solution with the same solute con-
centration as you determined in question one, what
change in mass would you expect to find from a
potato section that had soaked in that solution for
24 hours? Explain your answer.
9. Road salt that has been accidentally spilled on grass
often kills the grass. Use the knowledge you have
gained in this investigation to help explain why this
happens.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 81

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (section 3.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Effects on Permeability

Your teacher will demonstrate a model of a selec- Analyzing and Interpreting

tively permeable membrane made from simple house-
hold materials. The demonstration will consist of a
solution of cornstarch added to a plastic bag that is
placed in a beaker of distilled water with 20 drops of
iodine added to it.
Problem
What factors or variables might influence diffusion or
osmosis in this experimental system?
1. What can you conclude about the plastic bag used
in this experiment?
2. Explain, using your knowledge of diffusion, how
the factors you investigated influenced diffusion or
osmosis in this system.
3. How would the rate of diffusion change if some of
these factors were applied together?
4. Suggest two ways of changing the rate of diffusion.

Experimental Design Concluding and Communicating

1. Describe what you observe from the demonstra- 5. What criteria did you apply to developing your pro-
tion. cedure?

2. Write a list of the variables that you think might in- 6. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
fluence the diffusion or osmosis across the mem- idence as to how much diffusion or osmosis had
brane. taken place.

3. Write a hypothesis for how each variable would af- 7. Account for any experimental errors that may have
fect the movement of particles. affected your conclusion.

4. Design a procedure to test the hypothesis about each 8. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to
variable. your procedure if you repeated your experiment.

5. Have your teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your investigation. Extending
6. Present the results of your investigation in a clear 9. Using what you have learned from this activity, de-
and well-organized manner. Use a data table and vise a method to get rid of unwanted weeds in the
graphs. cracks of a driveway.

82 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

active transport exocytosis phagocytosis sodium potassium pump

doncentration gradient facilitated diffusion pinocytosis
diffusion passive transport osmosis
endocytosis permeable selectively permeable

Summary table

Name of Transport Method Description

Diffusion Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (along a
concentration gradient) until equilibrium is established
Osmosis Movement of water along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is established
Facilitated Transport Movement of large or polar molecules through a membrane along a concentration gradient by
means of a carrier protein. This method does not require energy from ATP.
Active Transport Movement of molecules through a membrane against a concentration gradient by means of a carrier
protein. This method requires energy from ATP.
Endocytosis The cell membrane forms a vesicle around large objects that must enter the cell. This method
requires energy from ATP.
Exocytosis A vesicle fuses with the cell membrane to rid the cell of large objects. This method requires energy from ATP.

Essential Understandings

3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell
 The cell membrane controls movement of substances
into and out of the cell.
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water
 Some substances pass through the cell membrane
by diffusion, the movement of a substance from high
to low concentration.
 Water enters or leaves cells by the process of os-
mosis, the diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane in response to its concentra-
tion gradient.
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport
 In facilitated diffusion, substances move from re-
gions of high concentration to low concentration by
means of carrier proteins in the membrane. No en-
ergy use is needed.
 In active transport, cells use energy to move sub-
stances against their concentration gradients.
 Active transport requires the use of carrier proteins
in the membrane similar to those used in facilitated
diffusion. It requires energy from ATP.
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles
 Endocytosis without a transport protein occurs in
one of two forms: phagocytosis, the intake of large
molecules or whole cells, and pinocytosis, the
intake of liquids.
 Some molecules enter the cell by receptor-mediated
endocytosis involving a membrane transport
protein.
 Exocytosis involves the export out of the cell of large
molecules such as proteins.
 Both endo- and exocytosis require energy from ATP.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 65 and review your di-
agram of the cell membrane. Revise your drawing based
on what you learned in this chapter.
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be-
tween the following key terms: cell membrane, perme-
ability, diffusion, molecules, concentration gradient,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocy-
tosis, exocytosis, glucose, and proteins.
3. Cellular biologists require a variety of employability skills.
Research careers in cellular biology and list what you
think are the five most important skills cellular biolo-
gists require. Explain your choices.
4. Reflect on your learning. Evaluate the skills you used
to complete the Investigations in the first three chapters
of the Unit. Begin a database inventory of lab skills
that you can add to throughout the year.

CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 83

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 8. Endocytosis is used to bring _______________ molecules

into cells.
1. The process in which molecules of a substance other a) small, lipid soluble
than water move from an area of higher concentration b) water
to an area of lower concentration is called c) large
a) osmosis d) oxygen
b) diffusion
c) selective permeability 9. Facilitated diffusion differs from diffusion because in fa-
d) active transport cilitated diffusion
a) energy from ATP is required
2. Energy from ATP is needed in b) protein carriers are used
a) active transport c) molecules move against the concentration gradient
b) diffusion d) smaller molecules are transported
c) facilitated diffusion
d) osmosis 10. Active transport differs from facilitated transport, be-
cause in active transport
3. Materials that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane a) protein carriers are used
can be brought into the cell by b) energy from ATP is required
a) endosymbiosis c) molecules are moved against the concentration
b) osmosis gradient
c) endocytosis d) both b and c
d) exocytosis
11. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following
4. In the fluid mosaic bilayer, the term fluid refers to the statement: Membranes are the most important struc-
a) shifting phospholipids in the cell membrane tures in cells.
b) the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell
c) the fluid portion of the cytoplasm known as the 12. What would happen if a solution with a higher concen-
cytosol tration of water than is in your body cells was added to
d) the liquids that enter the cell by the process of your bloodstream? Explain your answer.
pinocytosis
13. Write a story entitled: “A Day Without Diffusion.”
5. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane
may 14. Explain why the phospholipid “heads” of the cell mem-
a) function as transport proteins to help molecules brane phospholipids are always pointing toward the cy-
enter and exit cells tosol or the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell, while
b) bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural the “tails” are always pointing toward the middle of
support the membrane.
c) have carbohydrate chains that are involved in cell
communication attached to them 15. Soft drinks and other beverages contain different con-
d) all of these centrations of solutes. Some of these drinks have low so-
lute concentrations and, as a result, are a source of water
6. Solutes are for your body cells. Other drinks have a high solute con-
a) fatty acid molecules present in the cell membrane centration and can dehydrate your body cells. Which of
b) substances dissolved in a fluid these drinks should be marketed as “thirst quenchers”?
c) the liquid portion of a solution Explain your answer.
d) molecules that can only move against the concen-
tration gradient 16. If cell membranes were completely permeable, what
effect would this have on cells?
7. Molecules that can diffuse through the cell membrane
are 17. Living yeast cells placed in a particular type of red dye
a) small (called Congo red) remain colourless. However, dead
b) lipid soluble yeast cells placed in the same dye turn red. Explain
c) water soluble this observation.
d) both a and b
18. In this chapter the structure of the cell membrane was
considered in detail. All membranes within cells are
essentially the same. What differences would you expect
to find among membranes in the interior of the cell?

84 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

19. A beaker containing two salt solutions is divided by a
membrane. The level of solution is higher on the right
of the beaker than on the left side. The membrane is per-
meable only to water. Which side of the beaker originally
contained a hypertonic solution? Explain your answer
20. The graph below shows the relative sizes of some
molecules that can diffuse across a cell membrane.
Predict which substances will diffuse across the mem-
brane the most quickly, the most slowly, and which will
diffuse across at about the same speed. Explain your an-
swers in each case.
carbon dioxide
alcohol
Substances tested
glucose
glycerol
oxygen
water
0 50 100 150
Relative size of molecules
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
21. Design an experiment to test the effect of temperature
on the rate (speed) of diffusion. Use the following mate-
rials in your experimental design: food colouring and
three beakers of water. One of the beakers is at room
temperature, the other is filled with ice-cold water and
the third is filled with hot water. Predict what will hap-
pen to the water and include an experimental control.
22. The container in the following diagram has a selectively
permeable membrane separating two solutions. Assume
that the starch molecules are too large to pass through
the membrane. What will happen to the water level on
either side of the membrane? Explain your answer.
semi-permeable membrane
23. Draw one diagram to illustrate active transport and
another diagram to illustrate facilitated transport. Label
the diagrams and indicate clearly how the two types of
transport differ.
24. The red blood cell in humans behaves like an osmome-
ter. Justify this statement. Use a series of diagrams to
support your position.
25. Using the information gathered in question 24, discuss
the statement: “Human life depends on the integrity of
the red blood cell membrane.”
26. Design an experiment to determine the water concen-
tration of an uncooked French fry. As a hint, remem-
ber that potatoes are made of cells with cell membranes,
and will either gain or lose water due to osmosis.
.
27. Prepare a working model of the cell membrane. Use ma-
terials such as Styrofoam®, marbles, string, thread spools,
or other equipment. Label the structures that you are using
to represent the phospholipid bilayer, transport proteins,
etc. Add the functions of each structure as well.
28. The inside of your stomach is very acidic. This acid
200 condition is created by some of the cells lining your stom-
ach; they pump hydrogen ions into your stomach against
the concentration gradient.
a) What process is involved in creating the acidic en-
vironment of your stomach?
b) Research how surrounding cells are protected from
the effects of low pH.
c) Predict the result of problems with this protection
mechanism.
Write a supported paragraph on the environment of the
inside of the stomach.
Making Connections
29. One way of growing crops in particularly dry areas of
the country, such as the prairie provinces, is to irrigate
the crops. However, the water tends to contain salts that
are left behind in the soil as the water evaporates. Based
on what you know about the movement of salts and
water, explain what might occur as a result. Predict the
long-term economic effects on the area. Propose solu-
tions to this problem.
30. Protein kinases, the important molecules of communi-
cation within cells, are being heavily researched because
of the possibility that they can be used to stop the spread
of cancer and treat diseases like diabetes. Propose a way
to prioritize the focus of research on specific diseases.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 85
 CHAPTER 4

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cells at Work
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:

 describe how organelles and other

cell components carry out various
cell processes and explain how
these processes are related to the
function of organs (4.3, 4.4)
F undamental molecular principles and mechanisms control energy-
transforming activities in all living things. Most life on Earth depends on
the sun, the energy source for photosynthesis. The amazing amount of en-
ergy provided daily by the sun is about 15 billion times more than the total
yearly amount of electricity generated in Canada. Photosynthesis is the

 explain the flow of energy between

photosynthesis and respiration (4.5)
 compare anaerobic respiration and
aerobic respiration and state the
advantages and disadvantages for
an organism or tissue of using ei-
ther process (4.5)
 illustrate and explain important cel-
lular processes including their func-
tion in the cell, the ways in which
they are interrelated, and the fact
that they occur in all living cells
(4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
Catch: Cells 60
 identify new questions and prob-
lems stemming from the study of
metabolism in plant and animal
cells (4.2, Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
 explain how scientific knowledge
of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (4.2, 4.3,
4.5)

FIGURE 4.1 Almost all life on Earth depends on the energy of the Sun. This elk is
a herbivore and depends on vegetation for food.

86
process that plants, some bacteria, and some protists use to capture the sun’s
energy and produce carbohydrates. Only about 1% of the sun’s energy is
actually captured through photosynthesis.
Plants are not the only organisms to benefit from this arrangement.
Although photosynthetic organisms can make their own food, other organ-
isms must obtain their food in some other way. This is usually by eating plants
or eating other organisms that eat plants, or both. This chain of consump-
tion means that practically all living things on Earth rely on the Sun as their
ultimate energy source.
Life also depends on the interconnection between the energy-converting
systems of photosynthesis and cell respiration. The products of photosyn-
thesis, oxygen and sugars, are the reactants for cell respiration and the prod-
ucts of cell respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are reactants in
photosynthesis. This chapter will focus on ways in which cells work to
convert energy and to use the energy in protein synthesis.You will also be
introduced to the alternative methods some cells have developed to metabo-
lize nutrients.

Discovering Biology
Identifying a Substance Produced During
Energy Reactions in Cells
Every reaction in your body uses reactants and produces products that
must be reused or removed. Perform these tests to identify end products of
metabolism.
1. What happens when you exhale on the surface of a mirror? What sub-
stance forms on the surface of the mirror?
CHECKPOINT
2. Place a plastic bag over some leaves on a plant and seal the bag with a
tie or elastic band. Place the plant in sunlight. What substance eventu- Draw a cycle diagram to
ally forms on the inside of the bag? show what you know about
the stages of photosynthe-
 What substance have you identified as a product of cell metabolism? sis. (Your diagram may
include more stages than
are shown in this example.)

Photosynthesis

87

FIGURE 4.2 Energy storage
and release. Energy is
needed to build up complex
molecules like glycogen from
simpler molecules like
glucose. Such an anabolic
reaction is endergonic, or
energy-requiring in nature.
Energy is released in the
breakdown of complex
molecules into simpler ones.
Such catabolic reactions are
exergonic or energy-releasing
in nature.
ENDERGONIC
REACTION
ENERGY
IN
Product
contains more
energy than
the reactants.
glucose
molecules
88 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 list the fundamental molecular principles and mechanisms involved in energy-
transforming reactions in cells
 describe how ATP functions as the energy molecule of cells
Thousands of different chemical reac-
tions occur constantly within cells. The
term metabolism refers to the sum of
all of the chemical reactions. These re-
actions are crucial to providing cells with
energy. Recall that endergonic reactions
require energy in order to proceed. In
fact, the term endergonic means “energy
in.” Most biological endergonic reactions
produce molecules containing covalent
bonds that store energy. For example,
photosynthesis is a series of endergonic
reactions that produces energy-rich glu-
cose molecules.
Exergonic reactions release energy;
the term exergonic means “energy out.”
Cells use an exergonic reaction, known
as cellular respiration, to release use-
able energy from carbohydrates.
Cellular respiration is the name for a
series of reactions in cells that release
energy from glucose molecules to form
molecules of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP serves as a manageable form
of chemical energy for the cell to use.
glycogen
molecule
ENERGY
OUT
EXERGONIC
REACTION
Product contains
less energy than
the reactants.
ATP: The Energy
Molecule of the Cell
ATP is a molecule made from a nu-
cleotide. It consists of adenine, the five-
carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate
groups. It is the energy molecule of cells
and is necessary for cell membrane func-
tions like active transport and also for
muscle contraction.
ATP is well suited to its role as the
energy molecule. It contains specialized
bonds, known as high energy bonds, be-
tween its phosphate groups. It is also a
small molecule and releases energy in
small enough quantities to be useful to
the cell. Cells are very efficient in their
energy use. Consider a carbohydrate such
as glucose to be equivalent to a dollar coin
and the smaller ATP molecule to be equiv-
alent to a penny. When the cell needs en-
ergy, it can spend an appropriate number
of small ATP molecules and not waste
extra energy by spending the larger car-
bohydrate or lipid molecules.
When energy is needed for a reac-
tion in a cell, the bond is broken between
the second and the third phosphate
group in the ATP, releasing about 30 kJ
of energy per mole of ATP. Once this
phosphate has been removed, the
molecule has two phosphates and is
referred to as adenosine diphosphate or
ADP. This reaction is commonly repre-
sented as
ATP → ADP  P  Energy
ADP molecules can be converted
back into ATP. Cellular respiration is the
process involved in turning ADP back
into ATP. The relationship is often shown
as a cycle.
 NH2
N
Adenine N
– – –
O O O
N
ON O P O P O P O–
Adenosine O O O

Ribose Phosphate groups

OH OH
ATP

Energy is stored. Energy is released.

NH2 ADP  P  Energy

N
N
FIGURE 4.3 Energy release from breakdown of
–
O O– O ATP. ATP stores energy in chemical bonds. When
N
ON O P O P O– P O–  Energy the bond between the second and third phos-
phate groups of ATP is broken, the phosphate
O O O group separates with the release of energy. ATP
becomes ADP. If ADP picks up another phos-
phate group, the reaction is reversed.
OH OH

Section 4.1 Review

Understanding Concepts Activity kJ consumed per hour
by an average person
1. Define metabolism.
running 3620
2. Describe and give an example of an en-
dergonic reaction. walking 660
3. Describe and give an example of an ex- cycling 340
ergonic reaction. swimming 2240
4. List the components of an ATP molecule.
5. Why is ATP well suited for its role as
the energy molecule in cells? per day, how long would you have to
exercise each day to burn off the extra
6. Write the equation for the breakdown energy by a) running; b) walking;
of ATP, and list some of the cell func- c) cycling; d) swimming? Use the table
tions that can occur due to the energy at the side to help determine your
released. answer.
7. Most exergonic reactions are also
catabolic and most endergonic
reactions are anabolic. Justify this Making Connections
statement. 9. For an organism to survive, what
would you predict about the number
Applying Inquiry/ of endergonic reactions versus the
number of exergonic reactions occur-
Communication Skills
ring in its cells? How might you extend
8. The average adult person requires this reasoning to the worldwide
9 000 kJ of energy per day. If your diet depletion of fossil fuels? Present a sup-
provides you with 10 500 kJ of energy ported opinion.

CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 89

 4.2 Enzymes
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the importance of enzymes to the metabolic reactions of all living cells

 understand why enzymes act on specific reactions

INFOBIT Enzymes are specialized protein site of an enzyme is designed to precisely

Some enzymes require helper
molecules called coenzymes in
order to function properly.
Vitamins often function as
coenzymes. This is why an ap-
propriate amount of vitamins is
important in the diet. A lack of
vitamins in the diet can cause
diseases such as scurvy, rick-
ets, or certain forms of anemia.
WEBLINK
Enzymes can be used in clean-
ing up oil spills on the ocean
by metabolizing or breaking
down organic chemicals.
Research how this process oc-
curs and describe the process
using a flow chart diagram.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
molecules that function as biological cat-
alysts. Catalysts facilitate chemical reac-
tions. Enzymes allow reactions to be
completed up to 10 billion times faster
than they would be without the presence
of the enzyme. Life on Earth depends on
enzymes, because although essential re-
actions could still occur without them, the
reactions would not occur fast enough to
maintain life.
Enzymes speed up reactions by
binding to the reactants known as
substrates. The enzyme-catalyzed
reaction occurs at a location on the
enzyme known as the active site. The
joining of the enzyme to the substrates
produces an enzyme-substrate com-
plex. It is during the formation of the
enzyme-substrate complex that the re-
action occurs. Following the reaction,
the enzyme releases the products. See
Figure 4.4. Enzymes are reusable, so
once the products are released, the en-
zyme is ready to bind to more substrate.
Each enzyme generally catalyzes
only one chemical reaction. As a result,
enzymes are said to be specific to their
particular substrate(s). Recall how struc-
ture is critical to any protein’s function.
Enzyme specificity occurs because the
three-dimensional shape of the active
fit and accept the substrate molecule(s).
This observation has led to what is
known as the “lock and key” model of
enzyme action. Once the “key” or sub-
strate is in place in the “lock,” or enzyme
the chemical reaction can begin.
Occasionally, a molecule similar in
shape to the substrate may bind to the
enzyme’s active site, preventing the
actual substrate molecule from binding.
Such molecules are known as competi-
tive inhibitors; they compete with the
substrate for the active site of the en-
zyme and if they bind to the enzyme,
they inhibit its function. The poisons
cyanide and arsenic work in this way. If
present in the body, they compete with
the intended substrate, bind to key en-
zymes involved in important metabolic
pathways and prohibit them from func-
tioning. This inhibition leads to death
if not treated immediately.
By binding to their substrates,
enzymes are able to lower the amount
of energy that must be supplied for the
reaction to occur. This energy, known as
activation energy, can be compared to
a barrier that must be overcome in order
for a chemical reaction to occur. Figure
4.5 compares the activation energy with
and without an enzyme present. The

enzyme enzyme-substrate
Complex

Substrate

FIGURE 4.4 An enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The intermediate form, products

the enzyme-substrate complex, is short-lived.

90 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions


Canadian
Biotechnological
Breakthrough
Many species of micro-organisms
produce enzymes that are important
in cleaning up waste materials—
including oil spills and other toxic
wastes. An enzyme known as
xylanase is produced naturally
by fungi such as Trichoderma
harzianum and bacteria such as
Bacillus circulans. Xylanase was
being used in pulp and paper mills to
presence of the enzyme makes the ob-
stacle, or hill, smaller, and as a result,
the reaction can occur faster; more en-
ergy is available to be used in more re-
actions, rather than being wasted on
overcoming the obstacle.
Thousands of different chemical
reactions must occur in cells to make life
possible. Each reaction requires its own
specialized enzyme in order to proceed
efficiently. For example, cellular respi-
ration and photosynthesis are both com-
plex metabolic processes that involve
many reactions and therefore many en-
zymes. The digestion of food also re-
quires the production of enzymes,
known as digestive enzymes, by spe-
cialized cells located in the stomach,
small intestine, and pancreas.
FIGURE 4.5 Enzymes lower activation energy.
Without an enzyme, the amount of energy
needed to activate the split of sucrose into
glucose and fructose is high. In the presence of
the enzyme sucrase, the activation energy is
low, so the reaction proceeds more easily. The
energy release per molecule is the same under
both conditions.
reduce the amount of toxic waste, in-
cluding PCBs, produced by the
bleaching process used to produce
white paper. However, xylanase
breaks down and does not function
at temperatures greater than 55˚C,
and the temperature during the ma-
ufacturing process for pulp is usually
higher than xylanase can withstand
(55–70°).
Dr. Wing Lam Sung, working at
the National Research Council, took
up the challenge of redesigning the
xylanase enzyme—a challenge many
other scientists had predicted to be
impossible. However, Dr. Sung proved
them wrong by successfully changing
the order of the amino acids making
up the protein of the xylanase en-
a Without enzyme
sucrose
b With enzyme
sucrase
sucrose
zyme. The outcome was the produc-
tion of a modified xylanase
enzyme that could withstand the high
temperatures necessary in the pulp
mills. The presence of this enzyme re-
duces the toxic output of the mills by
10 % and reduces the operating costs
of each mill by $500 000 per year.
An Ottawa-based biotechnology
firm, Iogen, collaborated with Dr.
Sung to test and market the product,
which became known as BioBrite.
Tests showed that although other
xylanase enzymes were available
from competing companies, none of
their products worked as well as
the xylanase designed by Dr. Sung.
Iogen is now the world’s leading
supplier of this enzyme.
glucose
+
fructose
activation energy
without enzyme
net energy released
from splitting of
sucrose
glucose fructose
activation energy
with enzyme
net energy released
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 91
 Section 4.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Define an enzyme. Explain the aspects
of enzyme function shared by all living
cells.
2. Draw a diagram to show the progress
of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
3. If more substrate is added to a reac-
tion vessel, what happens to the num-
ber of enzyme molecules?
4. Explain why “lock and key” is or is not
a good analogy to use with enzymes.
5. When Dr. Wing Lam Sung synthesized
the heat-resistant xylanase enzyme, he
changed the order of some of the
amino acids in the protein. Some char-
acteristics of the protein must not have
changed. Explain why.
6. “Life on Earth depends on enzymes.”
Write a supported paragraph to defend
or deny the statement.
7. The text compares the amount of ac-
tivation energy to be overcome in a re-
action with an obstacle or hill. Propose
a second analogy that helps to clarify
the meaning of activation energy.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Construct a flowchart to explain the
role of competitive inhibitors.
Making Connections
9. Scientific knowledge of cellular pro-
cesses is sometimes used in anti-social
ways. The nerve gas Sarin was used in
a recent terrorist attack on a Japanese
subway station. Research and report
on the international regulations in
place that address the production and
use of nerve gas.
10. The symptoms of influenza and other
viral diseases are often caused by the
enzymes produced by the virus. Based
on your knowledge of enzyme function,
suggest some possible ways to treat the
flu. Propose how these methods might
be incorporated into the health care
system.
11. What relationships do scientists and
business share as new technologies are
developed?

The Link Between
Biotechnology and
Protein Synthesis
The nucleotides that make up DNA
are the same in all organisms. It is
only the order and arrangement of
the bases that is different from
species to species. This means that
DNA from one organism can be added
to a different organism. The result-
ing DNA is called recombinant DNA,
because it contains DNA from more
than one organism. Since the reac-
tions that implement the genetic code
of DNA—protein synthesis—are
essentially the same in all living
things, scientists have used this
knowledge to create the field of
biotechnology.
For example, certain human pro-
teins such as insulin are necessary for
treating human diseases such as di-
abetes. However, scientists are unable
to make insulin and many other or-
ganic molecules from scratch; they
must rely on other organisms. This is
where the universality of the genetic
code and protein synthesis come in:
quite simply, the human DNA segment
that codes for synthesis of the in-
sulin protein is inserted into the DNA
of an organism that reproduces
quickly and can be grown cheaply,
such as yeast or bacteria. Since DNA
is DNA, no matter what organism it
comes from, the yeast or bacteria now
have the instructions to make the new
protein, in this case insulin, and they
begin to manufacture it. The insulin
is then extracted from the organism,
purified, and packaged for delivery to
pharmacies and clinics.
Many other proteins have also
been prepared in a similar manner
to fight diseases such as cystic fi-
brosis, and different forms of cancer.

92 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

4.3 Protein Synthesis
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 illustrate the process of protein synthesis

 explain how cell organelles work together

 describe how organelles carry out transportation

Protein Synthesis
Proteins are essential to the life of the cell.
They have many functions. The cy-
toskeleton provides support. Enzymes cat-
alyze reactions. Intrinsic proteins in the
cell membrane act a chemical receptors
and transport substances. Hormones pro-
vide chemical communication between
cells. A continuing supply of new pro-
tein is therefore needed for the health of nucleus
the cell. All the organelles of the cell work 1 Instructions from
DNA are copied onto
together to produce protein through the mRNA.
process of protein synthesis.
The manufacture and export of a
2 mRNA moves to
protein is a complex process (Figure 4.6). ribosomes ribosomes, where
However, protein synthesis can be con- instructions are “read”.
sidered as two main steps. In the first rough
step, known as transcription, the pro- 3 Amino acid chain
endoplasmic
reticulum growing from ribosomes
tein-making instructions on DNA are is dropped inside
copied into a molecule of RNA called endoplasmic reticulum
messenger RNA (mRNA). This form of membrane. Chain folds
into protein.
RNA is transcribed from one of the
strands of the DNA molecule. The mRNA
is then carried to the ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum 4 Protein moves to
Golgi
Golgi complex for
(RER). Here, the second step, known as complex
additional processing
translation, occurs. Another form of and for sorting.
RNA, known as transfer RNA (tRNA),
brings the required amino acids one at a
time to build the primary structure of the
protein according to the instructions on
plasma 5 Protein moves to
the mRNA molecule. Each amino acid membrane plasma membrane
links to the next by a peptide bond. For for export.
this reason, the protein at this stage may
be called a polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide has been as-
sembled at the ribosome it enters the
RER. In the RER the molecule assumes
the final shape of the protein. This may
involve several protein subunits coming
together in a quaternary level of structure. FIGURE 4.6 The path of production of a protein

CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 93

WEBLINK
Nuclear medicine has an
important role in diagnosing
disease. Write a report on how
nuclear medicine is used in the
treatment of cancer. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
The RER sends the protein out by way
of a vesicle to the Golgi complex, where
the protein may undergo further
changes. If the protein is to be used out-
side the cell, it is placed in yet another
new vesicle and travels to the cell mem-
brane. At the cell membrane the protein
will be exported from the cell by the pro-
cess of exocytosis.
Nuclear medicine: using the knowledge of
cell functions and technology Nuclear
medicine is a number of techniques that
use the knowledge of cellular functions
such as protein synthesis to diagnose
diseases. For example, to diagnose
problems with the hormone-producing
thyroid gland, patients are asked to
drink a glass of water containing ra-
dioactive iodine (131I). The hormone pro-
duced by the thyroid gland is a protein
that consists of many iodine-containing
amino acids. Radioactive iodine will be
taken up and incorporated into this pro-
tein. In a normal thyroid gland the ra-
dioactivity is soon detectable and is
captured on film by a special nuclear
medicine camera. Images of the thyroid
gland are taken over a period of time.
The length of time it takes for the ra-
dioactivity to appear and the amount
of radiation detected in the thyroid gland
both provide important information to
physicians about the health of the thy-
roid gland and its ability to produce hor-
mone molecules.

X-ray Crystallography
of Proteins

Dr. Gil Privé loves his career as an X-

ray crystallographer at the University
of Toronto. Dr. Privé studies the struc-
ture and function of the protein
molecules found in cells, and his spe-
cial interest is proteins found in cell
membranes.
As opposed to electron micro-
scopes, which use a beam of elec-
trons to form an image, the process
of X-ray crystallography uses X rays,
special sensors, and computer tech-
nology to allow scientists to view the
smallest level of detail in molecules.
Dr. Privé describes X-ray crystallog-
raphy as the “perfect intersection of
physics (the X rays), chemistry (the
structure of the molecule), and biol-
ogy (the problem you are trying to
solve with regard to the molecule’s
function).”
Recently, Dr. Privé and his col-
leagues discovered the structure of a
FIGURE 4.7 Computer-generated diagram
of the PLZF protein
protein known as PLZF that is among
other things involved with causing
leukemia. Dr Privé claims that learn-
ing the structure of this molecule is
the first step in understanding how
it works and ultimately learning how FIGURE 4.8 Dr. Gil Privé
to control it. Dr. Privé states that “in
biological systems, out of fairly sim-
ple interactions you get very complex
behaviours that allow cells to make else knows about.” He claims that you
decisions such as whether to divide may be cut out for a career in science
or not to divide.” “It makes for fas- if you are naturally curious and like
cinating research,” says Dr. Privé. to solve puzzles; he also states that
“You get to discover things that have the ability to be a scientist is an atti-
existed since life began but that no tude more than an aptitude.

94 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Section 4.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Name and describe the two steps of
protein synthesis.
2. Describe the roles of mRNA and tRNA
in building a protein.
3. Explain how other organelles become
involved in protein formation after the
polypeptide is assembled at the
ribosome.
4. List at least five types of proteins that
are important to cells.
5. Acromegaly is a condition caused by
the overproduction of growth hormone
in adults. Investigate the symptoms of
this disease. Write a paragraph to sum-
marize your findings.
4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 illustrate and explain the process of photosynthesis
 describe organisms that do not depend on photosynthesis as their source of energy
Photosynthesis produces the oxygen that
nearly all living things must have in
order to survive and it allows plants to
feed themselves as well as to become
food sources for other organisms. Most
of the molecules that now make up your
body originated in a plant as a result of
photosynthesis.
Plants, some bacteria, and some
protists like algae have the unique
ability to convert the energy of sunlight
into the energy of chemical bonds
within carbohydrates. This ability
defines photosynthesis. The photosyn-
thetic reactions occur in specialized or-
ganelles called chloroplasts. Within the
chloroplasts, specialized pigmented com-
pounds known as chlorophyll molecules
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Outline the steps necessary for a pan-
creatic cell to manufacture and ex-
port the protein-based hormone insulin
into the blood. Include a diagram in
your answer.
Making Connections
7. Nuclear medicine contributes to the di-
agnosis of many abnormal metabolic
conditions. Research and report on
how radioactivity is used to diagnose
disease.
are able to capture the energy of light.
The captured light energy is used to con-
vert carbon dioxide from the air and
water from the soil into glucose
(C6H12O6).
Photosynthesis is a complicated
endergonic process that can be
simplified into two main stages: the
light-dependent reactions and the light-
independent reactions. In the light-
dependent reactions, water molecules Investigation
are broken down into oxygen. The Refer to page 104,
oxygen is released as a product. In the Investigation 2
light-independent reactions, carbon
dioxide from the air is added to the
hydrogen atoms acquired from water in
the first stage to form the carbohydrate
glucose.
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 95
 The reaction below shows the net
equation or “ingredient list” a plant
must have in order to produce one
molecule of glucose.
In this equation, the reactants are
shown on the left side of the arrow and
the products are shown on the right side
of the arrow. Although a number of
enzymes are involved in the process, they
are not included in the equation.
Both of the products of photosynthe-
sis are extremely important to other
living things. The glucose produced
provides energy for organisms that eat

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

carbon water glucose oxygen
dioxide

light energy
glucose + oxygen

6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2

FIGURE 4.9 The process of

photosynthesis. The interac-
tion of light energy, pig-
mented chlorophyll in
chloroplasts, carbon dioxide,
and water results in the for-
mation of sugars and oxygen.

Discovering Biology Plants and Oxygen

Joseph Priestly, an 18th-century English clergyman and scientist, proved the ex-
istence of oxygen by the decomposition of mercury II oxide. Priestly also per-
formed a famous experiment with plants.
1. Light a candle, place it on a plate, and place a large beaker upside down
over the candle. After a short time the candle will go out.
2. Put a small potted plant, such as mint, under the beaker as well. Place the ap-
paratus near a sunny window for two to three days.
3. Remove the beaker just enough to re-light the candle. The candle should light
and burn temporarily.
 What substance was consumed by the candle?
 What must have been added to the beaker to allow the candle to burn the sec-
ond time?
 Where did the oxygen come from?
 What would happen if the apparatus were put back in the window for a fur-
ther few days?
 What would happen if the plant and beaker were put in a dark closet for a few
days? Would the candle burn again?
 What was the contribution of the plant?

96 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

plants, and also for the organisms that
eat those organisms. The oxygen pro-
duced is needed by almost all living
things—including the plants themselves—
for the process of cellular respiration.
Alternative Forms of
Food Production: The
Chemotrophs
Photosynthetic organisms are called
autotrophs, meaning they can make
their own food. Most other organisms
are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs must
eat other organisms to obtain energy.
However, another highly specialized
method of energy acquisition does exist.
Because of that we must say that tech-
nically, not quite all life on Earth relies
on photosynthesis. Certain species of
bacteria, known as chemoautotrophs,
do not rely on either photosynthesis or
the products of photosynthesis to sur-
vive. Instead, they produce their own
Section 4.4 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Explain the importance of photosyn-
thesis to all living things.
2. In what cellular organelle does photo-
synthesis occur?
3. Where do the substrates (reactants)
of photosynthesis come from?
4. Write the net equation for photosyn-
thesis.
5. Compare the lifestyle of chemoau-
totrophs and single-celled photosyn-
thetic organisms.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. In the process of photosynthesis, can
you tell if the oxygen atoms for the
product oxygen originate from the
reactant carbon dioxide or from the re-
actant water? Design an experiment to
determine which reactant supplies the
oxygen atoms.
food chemically. These unique organisms
release the energy stored in inorganic
molecules such as hydrogen sulphide,
carbon dioxide, or iron-containing com-
pounds to provide energy for themselves
and to make the organic compounds
such as carbohydrates and amino acids
necessary to support life.
Many scientists believe that the
chemoautotrophic bacteria are related
to the first life forms on Earth. They
would have been well suited to the con-
ditions that probably existed on this
young developing planet. Inorganic
compounds from Earth’s crust were
common, and little or no oxygen existed
to support autotrophs.
Today, the chemoautotrophs live in
environments where conditions similar
to those of a primitive Earth still exist,
in deep-sea hot vents, deep in the soil of
wetlands, or in the near-boiling water of
hot springs.
Making Connections
7. The greenhouse effect is caused by the
buildup of carbon dioxide in the at-
mosphere from the burning of fossil
fuels. Investigate:
a) how the greenhouse effect may af-
fect photosynthesis in plants.
b) the possible economic results of
effects on photosynthesis in plants.
c) the consequences of choosing not
to acknowledge the greenhouse
effect.
8. Rain forests, such as those in the
Amazon river basin, actually create
much of their own rainfall. Cutting
down the rain forest decreases the
rainfall in the area. Crops are grown
on the cleared rain forest land. Prepare
a chart that lists the pros and cons of
such action.
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 97
 4.5 Cellular Respiration
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the results of cellular respiration

 explain the flow of energy between photosynthesis and respiration

 state the advantages and disadvantages to an organism or tissue of using aerobic res-
piration or anaerobic respiration

INFOBIT
36 or 38? Cellular respiration
can produce different amounts
of ATP; some cells are better at
making ATP than others. In the
human body, the cardiac
(heart) muscle cells produce 38
ATP molecules per glucose. All
of the other cells in our bodies
are less efficient and produce
only 36 ATP per glucose. It is
not surprising that heart mus-
cle cells are so efficient con-
sidering how important your
heartbeat is to maintaining
your life.
The metabolic process of cellular respi-
ration supplies cells with energy in the
form of ATP. ATP is used to provide en-
ergy for important cellular processes such
as active transport, muscle contraction,
and all other endergonic reactions oc-
curring in the cells of all living things.
Cellular respiration also provides the heat
to keep warm-blooded animals, such as
humans and other mammals, warmer
than their environment.
Glucose is the fuel for cellular respi-
ration. During cellular respiration, the co-
valent bonds in glucose are slowly broken
down in a series of reactions that are
overall exergonic. The energy released is
used to make ATP. The process of
cellular respiration can be summarized
by the equation in the diagram below.
The first steps of cellular respiration,
known as glycolysis, occur in the cyto-
plasm in the cytosol. Glycolysis splits the
glucose into two molecules of pyruvic
acid. Two molecules of ATP are also
formed. These first steps do not require
oxygen. If oxygen is present, the re-
maining steps of cellular respiration and
the remaining ATP production occur in
the mitochondria. Because prokaryotic
cells do not have organelles such as mi-
tochondria, they can only perform gly-
colysis, and are, therefore, much less
efficient at producing ATP than eukary-
otic cells.
Figure 4.10 shows the major stages
in cellular respiration and the locations
in the cell where these stages take place.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (in the form of 36 or 38 ATP)

glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide
Reactants Products

glucose GLYCOLYSIS 2 ATP

2 pyruvic acid
cytosol further processing mitochondrial
membrane

6 carbon dioxide
6 oxygen

34 ATP

FIGURE 4.10 The harvest of 6 water

energy from cellular mitochondrion
respiration

98 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

The Energy Flow on Earth
Compare the equations for photosyn-
thesis and cellular respiration. What
do you notice? Did you recognize that
the reactions are opposites? This is an
important feature of life on Earth. The
energy that fuels life on earth cycles
between photosynthesis and cellular res-
piration. Photosynthesis uses light
energy to produce glucose and other
organic molecules and cellular respira-
tion releases the energy stored in the
bonds of glucose to make ATP to fuel
cellular functions.
The products of each of these
metabolic processes become the sub-
strates for the other metabolic process.
Life on Earth depends on photosynthe-
sis to continuously supply the glucose and
oxygen needed by cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration supplies the carbon
dioxide and ATP energy that allow plants
to continue to photosynthesize.
proteins
amino acids
NH3 (ammonia)
FIGURE 4.11 Molecules other than glucose can enter the cellular respiration pathway. These
reactants enter the respiratory pathway at different stages.
Sources of Energy
Although glucose is the cell’s most effi-
cient source of fuel to make ATP, cells
may also use other molecules for energy.
For example, polysaccharides are poly-
mers of glucose; therefore they can be
easily broken down to glucose and used
for energy. Such polysaccharides are
often called complex carbohydrates.
Other molecules, such as lipids and
proteins, may also be used for energy.
These substances can enter the cellular
respiration pathway but at different
stages from where carbohydrates enter
the pathway. Generally, cells will use car-
bohydrates for energy first, fats second,
and then finally break down proteins in
order to continue the cellular respiration
process. Without a steady supply of ATP
molecules, cells die within seconds.
Figure 4.11 shows the entry of different
types of molecules into the cellular res-
piration pathway.
food
carbohydrates fats
sugars glycerol fatty acids
glycolysis
glucose
pyruvic acid
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 99
WORD ORIGIN
Aerobic from the Greek, aer,
meaning “air,” bios, meaning
“life” and suffix ikos meaning
“of the nature of”. The an in
anaerobic is from the Greek for
“not.”
INFOBIT
If you like murder mysteries,
you may have heard of the
poisons arsenic and cyanide.
Both are deadly, and although
arsenic works slowly and
cyanide works very quickly,
they both affect cellular
respiration in the mitochondria:
they prevent certain reactions
of cellular respiration from
occurring and, therefore, pre-
vent ATP formation.
Investigation
Refer to page 103
Investigation 1
100 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions
Forms of Respiration as a way to get a little extra energy in
an emergency situation.
The summary equation for cellular res-
Lactic acid fermentation is also used
piration, shows that oxygen is required.
in the dairy industry to make cheese and
Cellular respiration using oxygen is
yogurt. The process involves providing
known as aerobic cellular respiration.
a suitable carbohydrate source to the
However, most cells are able to
proper species of bacteria under anaer-
continue to produce some ATP without
obic conditions. The products are har-
oxygen. Producing ATP in the absence of
vested once the fermentation has been
oxygen is often called anaerobic
completed.
respiration or fermentation. Prokaryotic
cells such as bacteria use a number of
different strategies to accomplish anaer- Alcoholic Fermentation
obic respiration. Eukaryotic cells usually Yeast, a type of fungus, and a few other
rely on one of two pathways: lactic acid kinds of micro-organisms utilize another
fermentation or alcoholic fermentation.
method of fermentation called alcoholic
fermentation. In this process, pyruvic
Lactic Acid Fermentation acid is broken down into ethanol and
carbon dioxide. This process does not
Many eukaryotic cells can continue to
produce any ATP. The equation for al-
produce some ATP in anaerobic condi-
coholic fermentation is:
tions. The cells convert the pyruvic acid
obtained from glycolysis into another
Pyruvic acid → alcohol + CO2
product, called lactic acid. This con-
version, called lactic acid fermentation,
Humans have utilized this process
occurs in the cytoplasm. The overall
for thousands of years. This was one of
result is the production of two ATP
the earliest examples of biotechnology.
molecules for every glucose molecule.
The rising of yeast-bread dough is the
result of carbon-dioxide production by
2 pyruvic acid → 2 lactic acid + 2 ATP
the yeast cells. Brewing wine and other
alcoholic beverages relies on the ability
Did you ever wonder why your mus-
of yeast to ferment sugar to alcohol and
cles hurt after exercise? Fermentation is
carbon dioxide. In order to make wine,
the reason. When you exercise vigor-
grape juice and yeast cells are mixed and
ously, your circulatory system cannot
left in anaerobic conditions. The yeast
provide enough oxygen to your muscle
ferments the sugar into alcohol, but dies
cells. As a result, your muscles rely on
once the alcohol concentration reaches
the anaerobic process of lactic acid
about 12 percent. Therefore, in order
fermentation to provide at least a little
to produce alcohol of a higher concen-
bit more energy. However, the product—
tration, further processing, called
lactic acid—is toxic to the cells and
distillation, is required.
causes pain as it continues to accumu-
Fermentation by bacteria, a
late in the muscles. Because of its poi-
Lactobacillus, results in the production
sonous effect, the lactic acid must be
of yogurt and sour cream.
changed back to pyruvic acid in the
presence of oxygen. This explains why
you need to breathe deeply after intense To Ferment or Not to Ferment Clearly, it
exercise—you are supplying the oxy- is a major advantage for organisms to
gen needed to break down the lactic be able to aerobically metabolize glu-
acid. Lactic acid fermentation is ineffi- cose. The organism obtains 36 or 38 ATP
cient when compared to aerobic cellu- per glucose, compared to only 2 ATP per
lar respiration, but it remains in humans glucose obtained by fermentation.
In fact, a full 90 % of the energy in
glucose is unavailable to those
organisms that rely on anaerobic
metabolism. Why is fermentation
important? The answer is probably
linked to the conditions that existed on
a very young planet Earth. Scientists be-
lieve that fermentation developed before
aerobic respiration because oxygen was
not present in the atmosphere when the
earliest forms of life appeared on Earth
some 3.5 billion years ago. As a result,
the first creatures to appear on Earth re-
lied on fermentation to supply their en-
Section 4.5 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Why do cells perform cellular respira-
tion?
2. Write the overall equation for cellular
respiration.
3. Explain the flow of energy between cel-
lular respiration and photosynthesis.
4. Describe the difference between aero-
bic and anaerobic cellular respiration.
Write a paragraph to discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of each
process to a tissue or an organism.
5. Make a T-chart to show the differences
between the two types of fermentation.
6. Write the chemical reaction for aero-
bic cellular respiration. From what re-
actant is the oxygen in the product,
water, obtained?
7. Make a diagram to show how lipids
can be used as alternative sources of
energy for cellular respiration.
ergy needs. They were probably similar
to anaerobic bacteria that exist today.
Later the composition of the atmosphere
changed as photosynthetic bacteria
evolved to produce oxygen as a prod-
uct of photosynthesis. As the oxygen con-
centration on Earth increased, the
organisms that relied on fermentation
were replaced by other organisms that
could carry out aerobic respiration. Now
they are found only in environments
where there is no oxygen, such as deep
in the soil or in the bodies of other or-
ganisms.
Making Connections
8. Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are pro-
teins that are found in hibernating
bears and interfere with a mitochon-
drion’s ability to make ATP. Instead of
making ATP the energy is lost as heat—
used to keep the bears warm. UCPs are
currently being studied as a possible
weight-loss solution in humans.
Research UCPs and prepare a PMI
chart on the prospects of their use as
a weight-loss solution.
9. Mark McGuire was using a perfor-
mance supplement known as creatine
phosphate the year he broke baseball’s
all-time home-run record. Find out
more about the number of athletes
using creatine phosphate and its ad-
vantages and dangers. Conduct a
risk/benefit analysis and report your
findings to your class in the form of a
presentation or a poster.
10. Although not a banned substance—cre-
atine phosphate is naturally found in
your cells and enhances their ability to
make ATP in anaerobic condition. In
your opinion, is it ethical for atheletes
to use this substance to enhance per-
formance? Explain.
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 101
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action

Ethanol or Fossil Fuels? 


Justifying the Course of Action
Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F R O M AT I O N

Ethanol, a clean-burning fuel, is a renewable re-

source made from the fermentation of sugar or
starch. Cheap agricultural waste, like corn stalks
and straw are used in this process. Until now,
ethanol has been more expensive to produce than
gasoline or diesel fuels. However, with increased un-
derstanding of the effects of fuel emissions on the
environment, ethanol is becoming a more cost-com-
petitive alternative. Over 500 service stations in
Canada sell ethanol blends. Benefits to the envi-
ronment of a 10 % ethanol blend include reduction
in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 30 % and
reduction of carbon monoxide emissions up to 10 %. FIGURE 4.12 Vehicles burning fossil fuels produce pollution.
Ethanol is also high octane. In fossil fuels, octane
enhancers like methyl manganese trycarbonyl (MMT)
are used. Manganese is a neuro-toxin and has
recently been banned.
In 1997, Canada and over 160 other countries emissions by six % below 1990 levels between 2008
met in Kyoto, Japan and established the Kyoto and 2012. An evaluation of the cost and benefits of
Protocol. These countries agreed to target continued use of ethanol and fossil-fuels will be an
reduced green-house gas (GHG) emissions to fight important step in Canada’s assessment of how it can
climate change. Canada’s target is to reduce GHG best meet this target goal.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Research the use of alternative fuels, focusing on the
potential of ethanol as the fuel of the future. Your
research focus should include information on the
process of creating ethanol, current testing and results,
as well as the cost of production.
2. In a group, identify the advantages and disadvantages
of replacing fossil fuels with ethanol. Organize these
under the headings science, technology, society and
environment.
3. In groups, have a round-table discussion about sus-
tainability and the long term impact on the planet of use
of current and alternative fuel-types. Every member of
the group should have an opportunity to express their
opinions. When you have heard the opinion of every per-
son in the group, come to a consensus about whether or
not Canada should have a plan for implementation of
alternative fuels for the future.
4. Prepare a brief report, based on the round-table
discussion that supports your opinion.

102 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 4.5)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Factors Affecting Fermentation  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating

In this lab exercise, you will study the effect of tem-
perature on the process of alcoholic fermentation by
yeast. You will conduct experiments at three different
temperatures and compare the rates of production of
a product of fermentation. To test for a product of
fermentation you will use bromothymol blue, an indi-
cator solution that turns yellow-green in the presence
of carbon dioxide.
Problem
What is the effect of temperature on alcoholic fermen-
tation by yeast?
Materials and Equipment
 yeast suspension
 3 test tubes
 test tube rack
 6 beakers
 bromothymol blue
 stopwatch or clock with second hand
 rubber stoppers with rubber tubing attached
 graduated cylinder
 thermometer or temperature probe
CAUTION: Bromothymol blue stains skin and clothing.
Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
3. Obtain six beakers. Add an equal volume of bro-
mothymol blue solution to each of three of the
beakers. Each beaker should be approximately half
full.
4. Label the three remaining beakers: Cold, Room
Temperature, and Warm. Add ice and water to the
beaker labelled Cold, add tap water to the beaker
marked Room Temperature, and add hot water to
the beaker marked Warm. Use a thermometer or a
temperature probe to measure the actual temper-
ature of the water in the beakers. Record the mea-
surements in Table 4.1 in your notebook.
5. Place one of the yeast-containing test tubes into
each of the beakers from step 4. Place the free end
of the rubber hose from each test tube into a sep-
arate beaker of bromothymol blue.
6. In Table 4.1, record the time taken for each beaker
of bromothymol blue to change colour.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What product of fermentation were you testing
for in this investigation?
2. Which beaker of bromothymol blue changed colour
fastest?
3. What must be included in the yeast suspension in
order for the yeast to carry out fermentation?

Concluding and Communicating

Procedure 4. If a fourth beaker with a temperature of 0˚ were to
1. Set up your data table in your lab notebook: be included in this lab, predict whether the rate
of fermentation would be faster or slower than the
TABLE 4.1
results that you obtained. Explain.
Beaker Temperature Time Taken for Colour Change 5. If another beaker containing yeast were heated to
(˚C) (minutes:seconds) 100°C, predict whether the rate of fermentation
would be faster or slower than the results that you
cold
obtained. Explain.
room temperature
6. Yeast are also used to produce alcoholic beverages
warm such as wine. Usually the fermentation process to
make wine takes at least 30 days. What would you
2. Add yeast suspension to three test tubes to within suggest to speed up the process?
3 cm of the top of each tube. Place a stopper with 7. If you have access to a colourimeter, you could mea-
a rubber tube attached to it on each test tube. Set sure the decrease of colour in the beaker over time.
the tubes in a test-tube rack. Suggest a method by which you could calculate the
rate of product production.

CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 103

(continued)
Extending
8. Design an experiment to test the effectiveness of
different carbohydrate sources on fermentation.
9. Why do muscle cells sometimes participate in
fermentation?
10. Explain what could be added to this experiment
to act as an experimental control?
Investigation 2
Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis
Introduction
To a test tube containing bromothymol blue solution
that has been previously exposed to carbon-dioxide
gas, your teacher will add a piece of Elodea canadi-
ensis and then seal the test tube with a stopper. Wait
at least one day and examine the test tube for any
changes. Elodea canadiensis is available in Canada. It
is a slightly narrower form of the Elodea sp. often used
in plant physiology experiments.
Problem
How could the Elodea test system be used to investigate
a factor or variable that affects photosynthesis?
CAUTION: Wash your hands after handling living organisms.
Experimental Design
1. Describe what you observe in the demonstration test
system.
2. Write a list of the variables that you think might in-
fluence the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Write a hypothesis about the way each variable
would affect the reaction rate.
4. Design a procedure to test your hypothesis about
each variable. include your materials and safety
considerations.
104 CU H
N AI TP T1E R Cellular
4 Cell Functions
at Work
11. Enzymes, such as those involved in fermentation,
are sensitive to a number of different factors in-
cluding temperature and pH. In this lab you have
investigated the effect of temperature. Design and
test a procedure to determine the effect of pH on
fermentation.
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(section 4.4)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
5. Have your teacher check your procedure before you
proceed with your investigation.
6. Present the results of your investigation in a clear
and well-organized manner, using a data table and
graph.
Analyzing and Communicating
1. Explain, using your knowledge of photosynthesis,
how the factors you investigated influenced the rate
of carbon dioxide uptake.
Concluding and Communicating
2. What criteria did you apply to develop your
procedure?
3. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
idence about how quickly photosynthesis occurred.
4. Account for any experimental errors that may have
affected your conclusion.
5. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to
your procedure if you repeated your experiment.
Extending
6. What application of this investigation could be used
by farmers and agriculturalists?
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

active site cellular respiration glycolysis pyruvic acid

activation energy coenzymes lactic acid fermentation tRNA
adenine phosphate (ATP) endergonic reactions metabolism transcription
aerobic respiration enzyme mRNA translation
alcoholic fermentation enzyme-substrate complex net equation
anaerobic respiration exergonic reactions photosynthesis
catalyst fermentation protein synthesis

Essential Understandings

4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy 4.4 Photosynthesis

 Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in
the cell.
 Reactions may be either endergonic or exergonic.
 Energy for cell activities comes from ATP.
 The high energy bonds in ATP are used for storing
and releasing energy.
4.2 Enzymes
 Enzymes are proteins that function as chemical cat-
alysts to speed up chemical reactions.
 Enzymes increase reaction speed by binding to sub-
strates at their active site.
4.3 Protein Synthesis
 Protein synthesis consists of two main steps: tran-
scription (occurring in the nucleus) and transla-
tion (occurring in the cytoplasm).
 The ribosome is the site of protein synthesis.
 Messenger RNA and transfer RNA are essential for
protein synthesis.
 Photosynthesis is the process that plants and some
other organisms use to capture the energy of sun-
light and convert it to chemical energy.
 The net photosynthesis equation is:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
 Some organisms can use sources of energy other
than sunlight to produce organic compounds.
4.5 Cellular Respiration
 Cellular respiration is the release of energy from
food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
 The net cellular respiration equation is:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 H2O → 6 CO2 + energy (ATP)
 Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration; glu-
cose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic
acid.
 The remaining steps of cellular respiration occur in
the mitochondria and produce most of the ATP.
 Some organisms can break down pyruvic acid under
anaerobic conditions.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 87 and review your cycle
diagram of photosynthesis. Revise your diagram based
on what you learned in this Chapter.
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be-
tween cellular respiration and photosynthesis
3. Issues relating to the cell and biotechnology appear in
the media on an ongoing basis. In a chart, list some
issues using the following categories: social, ethical, eco-
nomic, environmental, technological.
4. Reflect on your learning. When you researched the Case
Studies in this Unit, you compiled data from a number
of sources. Describe the research process that you use.
In what ways could your process be more effective?

CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 105

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 10. What is the role of enzymes in providing energy for liv-
ing systems?
1. Which of these is the cell’s main energy-carrying 11. Compare aerobic respiration and fermentation with
compound respect to energy input and energy output. Which
a) Enzymes process is more efficient and why?
b) proteins
c) vitamins 12. Explain how energy flows between cellular respiration
d) ATP and photosynthesis.

2. Pyruvic acid is a final product of 13. How are proteins important to the overall survival of a
a) cellular respiration cell? Of an organism?
b) photosynthesis
c) fermentation 14. Identify a biologically important endergonic reaction,
d) glycolysis and explain why it is so important to supporting life.

3. During strenuous exercise, the body’s muscles produce 15. Describe how a competitive inhibitor affects an enzyme.
a) alcohol
b) lactic acid 16. Define activation energy for a reaction. Use diagrams to
c) glucose show how the presence of a competitive inhibitor will
d) starch affect activation energy in an enzyme-catalysed
reaction.
4. Photosynthesis occurs in
a) chloroplasts 17. Compare and contrast autotrophs, heterotrophs, and
b) mitochondria chemoautotrophs. Write a supported paragraph on the
c) prokaryotes only contribution of each form to the environment.
d) muscle cells
18. Why do you suppose chemoautotrophs still exist on earth
5. An end product formed during fermentation in yeast is today?
a) hydrogen
b) water 19. What accounts for any differences in ATP production
c) alcohol among different kinds of cells?
d) glycogen
20. What advantage is there to having anaerobic respiration
6. The substrates of photosynthesis are available for certain human cells?
a) oxygen and glucose
b) carbon dioxide and oxygen 21. Do you think yeast cells would grow more quickly
c) carbon dioxide and water when respiring aerobically or anaerobically? Explain
d) glucose and water your answer.

7. Anaerobic respiration 22. Heart attack victims often have trace amounts of lactic
a) only occurs in bacteria acid in the blood vessels leaving their heart. If you were
b) begins with glycolysis a medical researcher, what would this lead you to be-
c) requires oxygen lieve about the cause of heart attacks?
d) yields no ATP

23. Set up a Venn diagram to relate the terms: anabolism,

8. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → catabolism, endergonic reaction, exergonic reaction,
a) C6H12O6 + H2O. metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration.
b) 6 O2 + 6 H2O.
24. Explain why the minimum number of carbon dioxide
c) 6 CO2 + 6 H2O. molecules needed to make a glucose molecule in pho-
d) 6CO2 + 6 H2. tosynthesis is six.

9. Which is more efficient—aerobic respiration or fermen- 25. Some desert dwellers, such as kangaroo rats, never have
tation? Explain your answer. to drink water. Use your knowledge of cellular
metabolism to identify how kangaroo rats obtain the
water they need from their diet of dry seeds.

106 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Applying Inquiry/ 30. The greenhouse effect refers to the buildup of carbon
Communication Skills dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. How do you think the
greenhouse effect will affect the process of photosyn-
26. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare aero- thesis? Explain.
bic cellular respiration and anaerobic respiration.
31. Glucose is the chief starting material for cellular respi-
ration but it is not the only starting material. Other
Characteristic Aerobic Anaerobic
carbohydrates as well as fats and proteins can be used.
Cellular Respiration Choose one of these alternative sources of energy and
Respiration research the way in which it enters the cellular respi-
Starting Material (substrates) ration pathway. Present your answer as a diagram.
Pathways Involved
End Products 32. If you eat an extra donut every day and do not increase
your activity, what happens to the extra energy that you
Energy Produced consume? If you want to work off the extra energy how
long would you have to exercise by a) running,
b) walking, c) cycling, d) swimming? Use the table to help
27. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare photo- determine your answers. Assume your excess intake
synthesis and cellular respiration. was 1200 kJ.

Characteristic Photosynthesis Cellular Activity kJ Consumed per Hour by an Average Person

Respiration
running 3620
Starting Reactants
(substrates) walking 660
Location of Process
cycling 340
within the Cell
Endergonic or swimming 2240
Exergonic
Sample Organism
that Carries Out Making Connections
this Process
33. The world’s oil supplies cannot last forever, and since oil
is a non-renewable resource with in human lifespans,
28. What do you think would happen to a plant that was scientists are searching for other sources of fuel for
placed in an airtight jar by a window? Explain. automobiles and other motorized vehicles. One possible
solution is to use yeast to ferment plant waste such as
29. The table below shows the amount of energy released wheat straw into alcohol. What questions should be
from compounds during three different energy- considered in deciding whether this is a worthwhile
releasing reactions. How does the percentage of energy solution? How could some of these questions be
converted compare in each case? What happens to any answered?
energy that is lost?
34. The process of biotechnology using recombinant DNA
Compound Conditions Energy % of energy techniques allows scientists to make a number of human
converted converted proteins to treat diseases. What other human protein
into products would you like to have available to humans?
Explain your answer.
Glucose Burned in Heat, light 100
a fire
Glucose Used in ATP 40
cellular
respiration
Gasoline Burned in Motion 25
car engine

CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 107

 EXPLORING CAREERS

Taking the World by Storm

Biology is about to take the world by overshadowed by amazing developments

storm, making changes in our lives even in other fields, such as information
more rapidly than the arrival of the per- technology.
sonal computer and the Internet. Why? What has changed? Think about the
Biology has always had a profound im- various fields of science as blocks used
pact on both individuals and society to build the same structure—our
because it asks fundamental questions overall understanding of how things
such as: What are we? How do our work. Each change in a block changes
bodies work? Where do we fit within a the entire structure. In other words,
world of other living things? Finding these what is learned in any one field of sci-
answers is more than scientific curios- ence, including new technology, stimu-
ity—it’s essential to our survival. Yet, until lates and changes ideas in all the others.
recently, biology has been a rather quiet For example, increased computing
science, its important discoveries power gave biologists the tool they had
needed to make the next huge leap
forward, deciphering the genetic code
for living things, including ourselves,
in far less time than ever predicted.
Remote sensing devices in space
allowed biologists to view patterns
biochemistry
of change over the entire planet,
food science
while GPS satellite tracking
environmental chemistry
allowed them to follow animals
ecology
B I O L O G Y C H E M I S T R Y as diverse as sea turtles and
pathology
butterflies wherever they
travelled.
medical physics
How does this affect your
bioinformatics
investigation of possible
aquatic science
careers in biology? First, this
optical physics
physiology
is a field undergoing both rapid
biomechanics physical chemistry growth and rapid change.
acoustical physics molecular physics This means there are exciting
microbiology nuclear chemistry opportunities now as well as in the
paleontology polymer chemistry

FIGURE 1 In terms of what people do and

P H Y S I C S
their careers, the sciences are far from isolated
into biology, chemistry, or physics. Instead,
these fields overlap, have common information
and techniques, and new, specialized subfields
of science form between them all the time.
Most careers are found in such crossover areas.

108 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

foreseeable future, but it also means you nature of scientific endeavour involves
need to be flexible in your thinking and constantly adding new concepts and
planning. Second, the definition of testing existing ones. Regardless of the
working in biology is growing fuzzy at career you may choose—from a medical
the edges, as this field draws into itself physicist in a hospital to patent lawyer
more and more tools from other to a mycologist working in a redwood
sciences. This means there are a lot of forest—you’ll find keeping up with
careers that combine biology with other change won’t be a problem. In fact,
areas of science, as you can see in Figure 1. you’re likely to be the one telling
others what’s new in the world.
Be Prepared for Change
If advances in biology mean that new
careers are appearing almost daily, and
existing careers are changing, how does
anyone manage to keep up? When you
think about it, your career as a student
is changing with each new school term
and course. You manage. How? It’s a
matter of being prepared and willing
to learn.

1. Make a list of tasks and reminders

for a new student arriving at your
school. In that list, describe in
detail what the student will need to
do to be ready for the first day of FIGURE 2 A medical physicist viewing CAT scans
term. Once you have finished your
list, consider these questions.
 Where did you acquire your
own knowledge of how to
prepare for school? Looking Outward
 The student has moved from
2. Research a list of biology-related
another school. Most of the
careers. Use all the resources you
courses he’ll be taking at your
can, including those from your
school sound familiar, how
classroom, your guidance depart-
could the new student find out
ment, and the Internet. Compare
what may be as expected and
lists with other classmates until you
what may be different?

have as many different careers as
The student is a little worried.
you can find.
One of his courses will be in a  Where do these careers fit
subject completely new to him.
within the diagram of crossover
If this were you, what could you
careers? Is there a pattern or
do to prepare for such a course?
trend you can find?
 What does this suggest about
Learning is the best way to keep ready
how you can best prepare
for change. Fortunately, lifelong learning
yourself for a career in biology,
is more than an expression to someone
or any career likely to change
working in biology or other science
over time?
field—it’s one of the rewards. The

Exploring Careers 109

 ACHIEVEMENT TASK

Health Care Research:

Making Informed Decisions
Background Information
As medical technology advances, there are increased expectations that cures
to previously untreatable diseases may be found. However, money to fund
this research is limited. Thus fundraising campaigns are frequently launched
to raise money more quickly. Diseases like cancer, Parkinson’s, diabetes
and many others, are often in the news, as scientists make new breakthroughs
and develop new theories about causes and cures of the diseases being in-
vestigated. The government decides how to allot its funding dollars for fur-
ther research. In Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research
alotted $340M for research grants and awards in its 2000–2001 budget.
Ordinary citizens also face decisions about which kinds of research will
receive their financial support. Their reasons may be personal. Perhaps a
family member is living with a disease, or they know someone affected by a
particular illness. The media also play a role in influencing the expenditure
of research dollars. Celebrities often associate themselves with an illness and
their appeal to the public can also influence donation decisions. Actors like
Michael J. Fox and Christopher Reeve have made a tremendous impact on
funding for Parkinson’s and spinal cord research. There are many other ill-
nesses that do not receive high profile publicity yet deserve funding. In a
society that has limited funds for medical research, which diseases should be
the priority? This question faces society every day.

SCENARIO
(Choose one of the two suggested below)
1. You are members of a team hired by Health Canada to review potential public
health campaigns that publicize awareness of diseases that commonly affect
Canadians. Decisions to fund these campaigns will be based on your recom-
mendations.
2. You are members of a group submitting a proposal requesting funding from
Health Canada. The funds will be used for a public health campaign on one of
the diseases that commonly affect Canadians. Decisions to allocate funding will
be based on your submission.

110 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Part A: Research the Disease
1. Brainstorm a list of the top five diseases
that you believe the public should be edu-
cated about. Explain the prioritization of
the list.
2. In groups, choose one of the diseases from
your list to research. The following infor-
mation must be included:
 the cause of the disease
 the cells of the body affected by the
disease
 the symptoms
 the prognosis
 detection and prevention
 the number of people in Canada and
the world with the disease.
3. Some examples of major diseases affecting
Canadians include:
 Breast cancer
 Parkinson’s
 AIDS
 Muscular dystrophy
 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Part B: Analyzing the Data
4. Prepare a public awareness campaign for
the disease that you researched. Your plan
should include consideration of your audi-
ence and your objective. Propose a cam-
paign that includes consideration of (a)
likelihood of cure; (b) social impact of re-
search. Include in your campaign, statistics
and diagrams as a support for your mes-
sage.
5. Develop class criteria to evaluate group pre-
sentations.
Part C: Reflection
6. In what ways do you believe that public
awareness campaigns influence (1) likeli-
hood of a cure; (2) prevention.
7. Explain the social and economic impact of
directing funds to medical research.
8. For diseases that are not regularly in the
public eye, what alternative methods are
there to create public awareness? Is it ap-
propriate that the media highlight only high-
profile diseases? Why? Why not?
CHAPTER 4 Cell at Work 111
UNIT 1 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts c) allows some substances to enter and all substances
to exit
1. Which is an ionic compound? d) allows only some substances to exit and all sub-
a) water stance to enter
b) sugar
c) carbon 10. The process that involves substances moving through
d) sodium chloride the cell membrane without requiring energy is called
a) endocytosis
2. A disaccharide is an example of a(an) b) exocytosis
a) lipid c) active transport
b) protein d) facilitated transport
c) carbohydrate
d) nucleic acid 11. Which compound is the energy providing molecule for
the cell?
3. The monomer of a protein is a(an) a) DNA
a) sugar b) RNA
b) fatty acid c) cholesterol
c) nucleotide d) ATP
d) amino acid
12. How many molecules of ATP are produced by aerobic
4. Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called cellular respiration?
a) amino acids a) 29
b) saccharides b) 2
c) steroids c) 4
d) nucleotides d) 36 or 38

5. Who was the first person to view and name cells? 13. Which process is used by plants to make food?
a) Hooke a) fermentation
b) Dutrochet b) respiration
c) Van Leuwenhoek c) photosynthesis
d) Schwann d) glycolysis

6. The molecule that forms the bilayer of a cell 14. 6CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy →
membrane is called a a) C6H12O6 + 6O2
a) protein b) 6O2 + 6CO2
b) lipid membrane c) C6H12O6 + 6H2O
c) phospholipid d) C6H12O6 + 6CO2
d) cholesterol

7. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain 15. Fermentation occurs in the

a) vacuoles a) presence of ATP
b) DNA b) presence of oxygen
c) endoplasmic reticulum c) absence of ATP
d) cytoskeleton d) absence of oxygen

16. Distinguish between an acid and a base.

8. The site where ribosomes are assembled is called the
a) mitochondrion 17. Set up a T-chart to compare glycogen and cellulose.
b) DNA
c) chromosome 18. Outline at least five effects that would occur if hydro-
d) nucleolus gen bonds did not form between adjacent water
molecules.
9. The cell membrane is known as selectively permeable
because it 19. Explain the difference between a molecular formula and
a) allows all substances to enter and exit the cell a structural formula. Give an example of each type of
b) allows some substances to enter and some formula. what additional information is available if a
substances to exit the cell structural formula is used.

112 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

20. The hydrogen bond is particularly important in bio-
chemistry. Illustrate this statement with regard to:
a) fish in the Canadian winter
b) the secondary structure of a protein
c) DNA structure
21. Define dehydration synthesis. Use diagrams to show the
importance of dehydration synthesis in:
a) formation of a complex carbohydrate
b) formation of a protein
22. Phospholipids contain glycerol bonded to one or two fatty
acids and to an organic base that is attracted to water.
Explain how this chemical structure is essential to the
structure and function of the cell membrane.
23. Demonstrate the formation of a peptide bond by draw-
ing a diagram. Use the structural formulas for glycine
and alanine in your diagram.
24. The polypeptide chain formed at the ribosome may not
be ready to function in the cell. Discuss the role of the
Golgi apparatus in producing the final, active protein.
25. Set up a T-chart to compare the types of information ob-
tained from transmission electron microscopy and scan-
ning electron microscopy.
26. Explain why you should not place an unopened bottle of
pop in a freezer.
27. Which molecule is larger, ATP or ADP? Explain how you
know this and why there is a size difference.
28. Compare covalent, ionic and polar covalent bonds.
29. List the components of the cell membrane. Indicate how
hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties are important
for entry of substances through the cell membrane.
30. Draw a diagram to show how the structure of water con-
tributes to its properties as a solvent.
31. Define specific heat. Indicate the importance of the
specific heat of water for biological systems.
32. List three similarities and three differences between eu-
karyotic and prokaryotic cells.
33. Name and describe the cellular structure that contains
digestive enzymes. Explain the importance of this struc-
ture to the cell.
34. Draw a flow chart of protein synthesis.
35. Draw a timeline of observation and discovery during the
19 th century that led to the development of the Cell
Theory. List the essential characteristics of the cell
theory.
36. What would happen if you added 3 mL of cola to
10 mL of water? Predict the movement and distribution
of the molecules in the solution.
37. Associate faulty transport mechanisms in the cell with
diseases in humans.
38. Draw a diagram to show the relationship in the cell
between ATP and ADP.
39. After glycolysis occurs, what happens to pyruvic acid if
no oxygen is present?
40. What does the term essential represent with respect to
nutrients.
41. Set up a concept map to show the relationships between
aerobic and anaerobic respiration and ATP production,
alcoholic fermentation, and lactic acid fermentation.
42. Draw a flow chart to indicate the relationship between
photosynthesis and respiration.
43. List three uses humans have made of the process of
fermentation.
44. Justify the following statement. “Chemoautotrophs are
the only living organism that do not depend on photo-
synthesis to surivive.”
45. Explain how DNA controls the production of proteins
in cells.
46. Explain why photosynthesis and respiration are consid-
ered opposite processes.
47. Outline the importance of the cell membrane to the sur-
vival of the cell. Explain why it is important for the cell
membrane to be selectively permeable.
48. Describe in detail what would happen to a freshwater
organism if it were placed in salt water.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
49. Some antibiotics act by binding to enzymes of the
disease-causing bacteria.
a) Draw a diagram to show one way that the antibi-
otic might affect the activity of the enzyme.
b) What effect of this binding on the bacteria would
you expect?
113
UNIT 1 REVIEW

50. Consult the Canada Food Guide or another nutritional 56. The table below shows the different amounts of energy
information source to determine the recommended con- released from glucose by two different processes.
sumption of saturated and unsaturated fat for a person Compare the amount of energy released for each pro-
of your age. Then maintain a dietary journal—a record cess. Explain what has happened to energy that appears
of what you eat for five days. Consult reference sources to have been lost.
to determine your approximated intake of saturated vs.
unsaturated fats. What changes, if any, should you make Fuel Fuel use Efficiency of
to your diet in light of your findings. What are the energy conversion
likely benefits to your health of making a change to the
amount of fat you consume? Glucose burned in laboratory 100%
experiment
51. Use a T-chart to show the possible positive and negative
effects of constructing computer processors and other Glucose metabolized during 40%
circuits out of molecules as opposed to constructing them cellular respiration
out of elements as they are currently made?

52. Design an experiment to compare the speed with which 57. Design an experiment to demonstrate the effects of
polar and nonpolar compounds dissolve in water. Non- different amounts of light on plant growth. Write a
polar compounds include vegatable oil and sugar. Polar hypothesis and submit your experimental design to your
compounds include acetone and hydrogen chloride. teacher before you begin your experiment.
Predict the results of your experiment.
58. Copy and complete the following chart on aerobic and
53. Imagine that a Canadian scientist has discovered a anaerobic respiration.
new and greatly improved microscope that can greatly
increase the magnification and resolution of microscopes. Aerobic Anaerobic
What effects might this have on our understanding of Respiration Respiration
cells?
Substrate
54. People who have nearly drowned in sea water have to
be kept under medical supervision for several hours after Products
they have been revived. Using your understanding of os-
mosis, explain why this occurs. Energy (# of
ATP produced)
55. Briefly describe a plan that would allow you to observe
the effects of water moving into a plant cell by osmosis.

Nutritional Composition of Selected Foods

Food Proteins (g) Lipids (g) Carbohydrates (g)

breakfast cereal (30 g serving) 1.9 3.0 24
salad dressing (15 mL serving) 0.4 8.5 0.4
chocolate chip cookies (2) 1.9 7.8 17
light cream cheese (30 g serving) 2.2 5.2 1.2
whole wheat bread (1 slice) 2.6 1.0 13.0
fried bacon (1 slice) 2.3 4.0 0.25
margarine (10 g serving) 0 8.0 0.1
boiled egg (1) 6.5 5.8 0.5
orange juice (125 mL) 1.8 0.5 26
carrot (1) 0.5 0.1 4.9
macaroni (250 mL) 2.4 0.3 16.3

114 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

59.Copy and complete the table below. Obtain a sheet of
grid paper and graph the data.
Size of Surface area Volume Surface area
(cm) (cm2) (cm3) Cube/volume ratio
1 c) effects on the environment
2 d) effects on the Canadian economy
3 65. Imagine that you are the director of medical imaging for
4
5 posure to strong magnetic fields. Outline at least five rec-
60. The average human requires 2200 kcal per/day to meet
their energy demands. If a person were to regularly con-
sume 2500 kcal what effect would this have on their
body? Express these values in kilojoules.
61. All human cells metabolize glucose and human bones
actively metabolize calcium. Cancerous cells often me-
tabolize at much faster rates than normal cells. Read the
section: Nuclear Medicine: using the knowledge of cell
functions and technology on page 94 and then describe
how you would design further nuclear medicine tests
to determine cancer in any body tissue as well as can-
cer in bones.
62. Use the table below to answer the following:
a) What food in the table has the highest ratio of pro-
teins to lipids? The lowest ratio of proteins to lipids?
b) If you were advised by your doctor to eat a low fat
diet, which of the foods listed above should you
eat less of?
c) Calculate the number of grams of proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates in the following breakfast: 1 cup
of orange juice, 1 boiled egg, 2 slices of fried bacon,
2 slices of whole wheat toast, and 10 g of margarine.
Making Connections
63. Stem cell research is based on the principle that some
cells are capable of dividing and giving rise to different
types of differentiated cells. The object of this research
is to have transplanted stem cells assume the role of es-
sential functions missing or lost due to diseases like
Alzheimer’s. Other research studies factors that may pre-
vent such diseases. Research dollars are limited.
Set up a PMI chart to investigate support for these two
types of research. Consider:
a) data available currently from the two types of re-
search
b) short-term effects on society
c) ong-term effects on society
64. Research possible chemical-based and biological-based
alternatives to fossil fuels. Set up a PMI chart for each
method you research. Include a consideration of:
a) the cost of the research
b) the likely time-frame before the alternative fuel is
commercially available
Health Canada. Recent research results point strongly to
the possibility of harmful effects on humans through ex-
ommendations you would make in this circumstance to
hospitals and clinics that are currently using MRI scan-
ners. What other medical diagnostic tool may serve to
provide some guidelines for writing your proposal?
66. The function of molecules is often dependent on their three-
dimensional shape, which leads to yet another story about
performance enhancing drug use by Mark McGwire.
Besides using creatine phosphate, during his home-run
hitting record breaking season, he was also using an-
drostenedione—a legal steroid hormone that is identical
to testosterone except for the placement of a single hy-
drogen atom. While other anabolic steroids are banned
from use, androstenedione is not. What is your opinion of
McGwire’s use of this performance enhancing substance?
Do you think he should be entitled to keep his record? If
you were a personal trainer to a world class athlete, what
would your advice be regarding the use of androstene-
dione? Write a supported paragraph on this topic.
67. Compose a letter to the bottlers of Coca-Cola outlining
your opinion of their use of HFCS sweeteners in their
products.
68. You have recently been assigned to the federal govern-
ment cabinet position of Minister of Health. Draft a state-
ment outlining your official policy on performance
enhancing drugs such as anabolic steroids.
69. Dr. Harry Jennings invented the first synthetic vaccine.
Other vaccines may cause the inoculated person to con-
tract the disease they are supposed to be protected against.
This is a rare occurrence. Synthetic vaccines do not cause
diseases. Imagine you are a medical researcher. What
other diseases would you suggest for the development of
synthetic vaccines? List the reasons for your choices.
70. A number of other mammals have been cloned or ge-
netically engineered (had their DNA changed by human-
made methods) since Dolly’s production in
1997—including ANDi, a monkey that contains an arti-
ficially introduced jelly fish gene. Find out about some
of the other cloned or engineered mammals and report
back to your class on your findings.
The Origins of the periodic law 115
 UNIT

2
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 demonstrate an understanding of
the necessity of meiosis and
describe the importance of genes
in transmitting hereditary
characteristics, according to
Mendel’s model of inheritance
 perform laboratory studies of
meiosis and analyze the results of
genetic crosses related to the laws
of heredity
 outline the scientific findings
and some of the technological
advances that led to the modern
concept of the gene and genetic
technology, and demonstrate an
awareness of some of the social
and political issues raised by
genetic research and reproductive
technology
Genetic Continuity
H
ow does a single cell manage to divide and eventually become a com-
plex multicellular organism, such as an elephant or a giraffe? How
does a species pass all of its special traits—a leopard’s spots, a zebra’s
stripes,—from one generation to the next? These abilities, found only in
living things, are known as genetic continuity. They are one of life’s great
mysteries. Or at least they were until recently. Scientists are now busy
mapping the chromosomes, genes, and DNA—the hereditary information
inside the nucleus of all
b)
cells—of many organ-
isms including humans.
This new found genetic
knowledge is already
revolutionizing many
aspects of our lives.
Genetic engineering
has been used to create
clones and to develop
designer organisms.
c)

a) Binary fission in E. coli d)

produces two cells genetically
identical to the parent cell.
b) The members of three
generations in a family show
shared hereditary characteris-
tics but each person is geneti-
cally unique.
Genetic continuity over the
centuries can be observed.
c) A fossil sabre-toothed tiger
d) A modern-day tiger. a)

116
Genetic screening techniques have been used to detect birth defects in the
developing fetus. Research is being done with gene therapy to cure inherited
disorders such as certain cancers, hemophilia, heart disease, and cystic
fibrosis.
However, the ability to understand and manipulate DNA does have its
downside. How would you feel if you were denied a job because a DNA test
showed that you have a certain genetic defect? What if that blood sample
your doctor ordered fell into the wrong hands and was used to find out ev-
erything about you, without you even knowing it? What if a genetically
modified organism multiplied out of control in the wild and drastically altered
the natural ecosystem? These are just a few of the fears some people have
about unlocking the secrets contained in the genes.
Properly assessing the many pros and cons associated with genetic tech-
nology requires a good understanding of genetic continuity. In this unit, you
will examine mitosis, the process that ensures genetic continuity within an
individual from cell to cell. You will study meiosis, the process that ensures
genetic continuity from one individual to the next, from generation to gen-
eration, within a particular species. You will investigate the science of ge-
netics, the study of how genes operate, and the complex interaction between
genes and their environment. You will look at the various techniques and
technologies that have evolved to study and manipulate DNA. Finally, you will
examine some of the moral and ethical issues that surround these new
technologies. By the time you finish the unit, you will be better equipped to
form your own opinion about the proper use of genetic information.

BIOLOGY HEADLINES

 Alzheimer’s allele unmasked  There’s gold in them thar genes!

Scientists at the University of Wales expect to an-
nounce the location of a gene thought to be linked
to late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. In 429 pairs of
siblings over the age of 65 with Alzheimer’s, all
shared a particular allele of a gene located on chro-
mosome number 10.
Knowledge of the human genome may hold the
promise of healthier lives in the future, but right
now it’s all about big egos, competing technologies
and wild stock prices. The race to commercialize
the human genetic code has produced a stock mar-
ket frenzy.

 Genetically altered athletes?

Swedish professor Bengt Saltin, an expert in ex-
ercise physiology, suggests that a form of gene ther-
apy used in flies, where genes are removed,
modified, and reinserted, could be applied to ath-
PREVIEW
letes as early as the next summer Olympic games. ACHIEVEMENT TASK
This could mean bizarre choices for athletes. A
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learn-
sprinter could benefit from more fast-twitch mus-
ing by providing recommendations to an ethics panel
cles. A long-distance runner could choose the gene about the potential applications of genetics technolo-
form that produces more of the hormone ery- gies. You will analyze the social, ethical, and economic
thropoetin to stimulate formation of red blood cells. impact of their use and propose a course of action for
A high jumper could even have localized muscle future application. See page 226.
growth in the take-off leg.

117
 CHAPTER 5

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Mitosis and Meiosis
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 demonstrate an understanding of
the process and importance of
mitosis (5.1)
A single bacterium elongates, constricts near the middle, and miraculously
divides in two. A half hour later, the two daughter cells also divide in two.
A half hour after that, the four resulting cells divide to become eight. With
 explain how the concepts of DNA, cell division continuing at this rate, fifteen hours later there are one billion
genes, chromosomes, and meiosis bacteria. In this scenario, offspring were produced by what is known as
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from
generation to generation (5.2, 5.3)
 explain the process of meiosis in
terms of the replication and
movement of chromosomes (5.2
Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
 explain the process of meiosis
with reference to your own
investigations with a microscope
(Investigation 1)
 organize data that illustrate the
number of chromosomes in haploid
cells and diploid cells, and the
number of pairs of chromosomes in
diploid cells, that occur in various
organisms before, during, and as a
result of meiosis (5.2)
 describe and analyze examples of
technologies that were developed
on the basis of scientific
understanding (5.1)

b)

FIGURE 5.1 When an egg cell and a sperm

cell fuse they produce a zygote, the first cell of
a new organism. Mitosis is the process that
transforms the single cell into an adult like the
mature elephant. a) Fusion of egg and sperm
b) A mature elephant. a)
118
asexual reproduction. With asexual reproduction, only one parent is required
and each offspring is genetically identical to the parent and to all the other
offspring.
After mating in mid-winter and following a 49- to 56-day gestation period,
a female red fox gives birth to four pups deep inside her den. She and her
mate then take care of the pups until they are old enough to fend for them-
selves. In this scenario, offspring were produced by sexual reproduction. With
sexual reproduction, two parents are required and each offspring carries ge-
netic traits from both parents. All offspring are genetically different from one
another.
Compared to sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction seems so much
more efficient: you don’t have to bother trying to find a mate and you can
produce many, many more offspring. If this is the case, why does Mother
Nature bother with sexual reproduction at all? Would the fact that a species
that reproduces asexually contains members that are all genetically uniform
affect the ability of the species to survive? What if the climate suddenly got
colder? Would a genetically uniform species be able to adapt to new condi-
tions as well as a genetically diverse species can? This chapter deals with the
scientific answers to these questions. You will gain a good understanding of
mitosis, the process of cell division used to reproduce asexually, and meio-
sis, the process used to reproduce sexually. By the end of the chapter, you
will be able to make an intelligent comparison of the pros and cons of each
of the methods of reproduction.

Discovering Biology
The Chromosome Numbers Game
Imagine an organism that has a characteristic chromosome number, the
diploitdnumber, of six.
1. On a sheet of paper, sketch one of the cells of this organism and draw six
lines inside the cell to represent the six chromosomes. CHECKPOINT

2. Sketch two of these cells to represent the sex cells of this organism, Draw a comparison chart to
with each cell containing six chromosomes. list what you know about
mitosis and meiosis.
3. Sketch the results of fertilization involving these two cells. How many
chromosomes does the fertilized egg now contain?
Meiosis Mitosis
4. Sketch what would happen if this pattern were repeated for three more
generations.
 Predict the effect this sequence of events would have on the character-
istics of this imaginary organism.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 119

 5.1 Mitosis
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 briefly outline the cell cycle and the stages of mitosis

 distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis

 understand how one technique for cancer treatment depends on the scientific under-
standing of mitosis

M AT H L I N K
The first cell of a new organ-
ism, the zygote, divides by mi-
tosis to produce a ball of cells
known as a blastula. In ani-
mals where the egg has little
yolk, the total number of cells
doubles every round of divi-
sion. How many rounds of divi-
sion are necessary to produce
a blastula with 1024 cells?
Hint: the mathematical formula
is 2n = x where n is the number
of divisions and x is the total
number of cells.
Research on cell division results in new
discoveries about cell function on an al-
most daily basis. Cell division is neces-
sary for the growth and development
of any multicellular organism. It also
allows for tissue repair and the re-
placement of ageing cells.
Cell division does not occur at a fixed
rate. Biologists have shown that cell di-
vision occurs rapidly in developing em-
bryos and young organisms. The rate of
cell division is also critical when you con-
sider surfaces of the body that are ex-
posed to daily wear and tear. The cells
on the surface of the skin or the lining
of the gut must replace themselves on
a regular basis as they are worn away
by constant exposure to the environment
or to food materials and enzymes.
On the other hand, muscle and nerve
cells lose the capacity for cell division at
an early age. This means there is no pos-
sibility of replacing a cell that breaks
down. A current theory suggests that this
loss of function may also account for
the ageing process.
Mitosis and Genetic Continuity
The main function of mitosis has been
clearly identified by biologists. Mitosis
occurs when a parent cell divides to
produce two daughter cells. The daugh-
ter cells are genetically identical to each
other. The hereditary information in the
nucleus, the DNA, must be duplicated
and an exact copy must be passed to
each daughter cell. With every round of
mitotic division, the total number of cells
is doubled, but the hereditary infor-
mation stays exactly the same. The
transmission of the hereditary material
through cell division is called genetic
continuity. Because the hereditary in-
formation is stored on the chromosomes
within the nucleus, any consideration of

DNA wraps around protein Chromatin folds up

to make chromatin to make chromosomes

DNA chromatin duplicated chromosome cell

FIGURE 5.2 The chromosomes. The hereditary material in the nucleus is made up of long
strands of DNA that are condensed, folded and, in association with proteins, formed into
chromosomes.

120 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

mitosis must focus on the division and
distribution of these chromosomes
(Figure 5.2).
Chromosomes are made of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and associated
proteins. The long strands of DNA are
packaged in condensed, folded structures
to make the chromosomes found in the
nucleus of every eukaryotic cell.
The Need for Cell Division
In 1855 Rudolph Virchow stated that “all
cells are derived from pre-existing cells.”
This statement is accepted as part of the
Cell Theory but there are many ques-
tions still to be answered about the
production of new cells. Why is it nec-
essary for a cell to divide? Why do cells
not simply continue to grow to four or
five times their initial size?
Scientists have identified two key
factors that restrict cell growth and ini-
tiate cell division. First, as a cell grows,
its surface area and volume do not
change at the same rate. The volume
of cytoplasm and cellular organelles in-
creases at a faster rate than the sur-
face area of the cell membrane. At some
point in cell growth, the transport of ma-
terials through the cell membrane is not
enough to satisfy the nutrient require-
ments of the larger cell volume. When
this happens, the cell becomes inefficient
at performing its tasks. One impetus to
cell division is to keep the surface area
to volume ratio of the cells sufficient for
effective exchange across the cell mem-
brane. Unlike other cells, nerve cells are
large and elongated but they do not
divide. Their long extensions and
infoldings maintain an efficient surface
area to volume ratio.
The second factor that restricts cell
growth involves the nucleus. As a cell
grows larger, the nucleus has difficulty
controlling the activities of the increased
volume of cytoplasm and organelles. Once
again, the efficiency of the cell is
hindered. Cell division maintains the cell
contents at a manageable volume. An
exception to this rule is found in skele-
tal muscle tissue. The cells are long and
a) b)
FIGURE 5.3 These large cells have avoided the need to
divide. a) nerve cell b) striated muscle
thin but they maintain nuclear INFOBIT
control by having many nuclei within a
common cytoplasm. Why some cells During interphase the cells of
need to divide while others do not and an organism are actively
producing proteins. These
what factors trigger cell division in proteins may be used to
different cell types are questions that produce structures within the
continue to challenge researchers. cell or they may act to regulate
processes in the organism.
For example, the cells of the
The Cell Cycle pancreas produce the protein
insulin that leaves the
Cells do not divide continuously. In cells
pancreas via the bloodstream.
that are capable of dividing, the period This chemical then influences
between cell divisions is termed the metabolism of glucose in
interphase. During interphase the cell cells throughout the body.
undergoes growth, duplicates the hered-
itary information, and prepares for
mitosis. The length of this period varies,
depending on the organism and cell type.
Once a cell does begin to divide, two
separate processes must occur. The
nucleus must first undergo mitosis, a
process that ensures the distribution of
a complete set of chromosomes to each
daughter cell. Then cytokinesis, the
division of cytoplasm and organelles,
follows. The result is a pair of daughter
cells, each with a genetic makeup iden-
tical to the original parent cell.
Most of the life of the cell is spent in
interphase, when hundreds of specific
functions are performed. Obtaining
energy, synthesizing products like
hormones, repairing damage, and fighting
disease, are just a few of these functions.
Interphase has often been misnamed as
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 121
 the “resting phase” of the cell cycle.
Cell growth Although the interphase cell is between
mitotic divisions, it is not at rest. It is ac-
tively growing and performing its func-
G1 phase tions. Before mitosis can occur, the
genetic information in the chromosomes
must be duplicated. This duplication
Cyt
oki
nes
(called replication) occurs during the pe-
is riod of interphase termed the synthesis
Telop
hase phase or S phase. Prior to this S phase,

erphase
Anaphase Cell the cell has been growing and prepar-
Chromosome
division
division and hase ing for replication. This is termed the G1
is

Metap
M it o s

nt
distribution I (or first gap) phase. Following the S
se

n
pha

catio
Pro phase, the cell enters the G2 (or second
S phase

e p li
gap) phase as the cell begins its final

Ar
preparation for cell division. The cell

DN
G2 phase cycle is illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Pr
ep
ara
tion
for The Phases of Mitosis
m ito s i s
While a cell is in the interphase stage,
the chromosomes are not readily visible
FIGURE 5.4 The cell cycle can be divided into mitosis, cytokinesis, and the three through a microscope. However, the nu-
phases of interphase cleus is easily seen at this time. It has an
outer membrane, the nuclear envelope,
which controls the exchange of
materials between the nucleus and
cytoplasm. Within the nucleus, one or
more nucleoli are visible. These compact

centromere

chromatids
a) b)

FIGURE 5.5 A human chromosome.

a) A human chromosome as it appears through an electron microscope
b) A chromosome, made up of two chromatids held together by a centromere, as it
appears during late prophase

122 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

spherical bodies are rich in RNA, which
is involved in the production of ribo-
somes. During interphase, the chromo-
somes are spread throughout the
nucleus and appear as an irregular net-
work of strands and granules. In this
form, they are called chromatin.
Although mitosis is a continuous
process, it is divided into four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. The results of mitosis and the
movement of the chromosomes are sim-
ilar in all eukaryotic cells but there are
differences between different groups of
organisms. Plant cells and yeast cells do
not have centrioles and their division
spindles do not have the asters and
astral rays clearly seen in animal cells.
Yeast cells have structures analogous to
centrioles called spindle pole bodies.
Figures 5.6 through 5.10 show the sim-
ilarities and differences in cell division
in animals and plants.
Prophase Mitosis in animal cells begins
with the movement of the two pairs of
centrioles to the opposite sides, or poles,
of the cell. The original pair of centrioles
replicated during interphase, along with
the chromosomes. Tiny fibres of protein
called astral rays form around each pair
of centrioles. These astral rays and a
given pair of centrioles take on a star-
like appearance and are termed asters.
As the chromatin condenses into shorter,
thicker strands, the chromosomes
become clearly visible. The replication
process that occurred during interphase
is now apparent. These replicated chro-
mosomes appear as strands joined at a
single point called a centromere. Each
identical strand is called a chromatid.
(See Figure 5.5.)
While the chromosomes are con-
densing, the nuclear envelope breaks
down and the nucleolus decreases in size
and then disappears. More fibres made
of microtubules form between the
centrioles at opposite poles, producing
a network called the mitotic spindle.
Toward the end of prophase, the
spindle fibres attach themselves to the
chromatids at their centromeres and the WEBLINK
chromosomes begin to migrate to the
centre of the cell. See Figure 8.6 and 5.7.
For an animation of mitosis,
Metaphase Metaphase is characterized go to
by the lining up of the chromosomes www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
across the equator (middle) of the cell.
This is sometimes called the metaphase
plate. The chromosomes are held by
their centromeres midway between the
poles and perpendicular to the spindle
fibres. The chromosomes are now very
condensed and thick. Because metaphase
chromosomes can be seen more clearly
than chromosomes at any other stage,
they are often photographed for study.
The use of metaphase chromosomes to
produce a karyotype is discussed in sec-
tion 7.1. See Figure 7.1.
Anaphase Anaphase begins with the sep-
aration of the chromatids at the cen-
tromere to produce two identical
single-stranded chromosomes. Each sep-
arate chromosome is now slowly pulled
toward opposite poles as the protein fi-
bres attached to the centromeres shorten
by a decrease in microtubule sub-units.
Anaphase ends as a complete set of chro-
mosomes arrives at each of the poles.
Telophase Telophase is characterized by
a return to interphase conditions. The nu-
clear envelope reforms and the nucleoli
reappear. The chromosomes elongate by
uncoiling to become chromatin once again.
The spindle and aster disappear. Two nu-
clei are visible within the single cell.
Cytokinesis Cytokinesis, the division of
the cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells, usually begins during
telophase in animal cells. The cell mem-
brane pinches inward at the equator of
the cell, producing a furrow (Figure 5.8).
This furrow continues to deepen until
two separate daughter cells are formed,
each with its own nucleus. During cy-
tokinesis, the parent cell’s organelles,
such as ribosomes and mitochondria,
are distributed to the two daughter cells.
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 123
 MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS
chromosomes
replicated, uncondensed DNA (each a pair of sister chromatids
joined together)

pair of nucleus nucleolus spindle fibres mitotic metaphase

centrioles (microtubules) spindle plate

END OF PROPHASE METAPHASE

INTERPHASE
DNA has already duplicated Mitosis begins. The chromosomes take
back in the S phase. Centrioles have shape as the DNA condenses. The
doubled. nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The two pairs of centrioles begin to
move toward the cellular poles,
sprouting microtubules as they go.
Linkage and alignment. The
mitotic spindle consists of
several varieties of
microtubules; some of these
form a football-shaped cage
around the cell’s former
nucleus, while others attach
to the sister chromatids and
align them at the equatorial
metaphase plate. Each
chromatid now faces the pole
opposite that of its sister
chromatid.

FIGURE 5.6 Mitosis and cytokinesis in animal cells

chromosomes
at equator

mitotic
spindle

FIGURE 5.7 Mitosis in animal cells of the

whitefish embryo.
a) Prophase. Early in prophase the chromatin be- b) Metaphase. The metaphase chromosomes line
gins to condense. up on the metaphase plate at the equator of the
mitotic spindle. Asters and astral rays can be seen.

124 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 spindle fibres shortening

cleavage
furrow

nuclear
separating envelope
chromatids forming

ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND COMPLETION OF

Separation. Sister chromatids are
moved to opposite poles in the
cell by the disassembly of the
microtubules they are attached
to. Each chromatid is now a full-
fledged chromosome.
CYTOKINESIS
Exit from mitosis. Chromosomes
decondense, the mitotic spindle
breaks down, and nuclear envelopes
form around the two separate
complements of chromosomes.
Meanwhile, a cleavage furrow begins
to form near the middle of the cell.
CYTOKINESIS
One cell becomes two.
The cell membrane pinches
together completely, the
membranes on either side fuse
together, and the one cell
becomes two. These two cells
now enter the G1 phase of
interphase.

asters with cleavage

astral rays furrow

c) Anaphase. The chromosomes separate to op- d) Telophase. Chromosomes are in two separate
posite poles of the mitotic spindle. complements. The mitotic spindle is breaking
down. The cleavage furrow is forming.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 125

 cell plate to form a new cell wall, two
daughter cells are produced.

cleavage
furrow
FIGURE 5.8 A dividing frog egg. In animal cells cytokinesis begins with the
formation of a cleavage furrow.
In plant cells, cytokinesis is accom-
plished by the formation of a cell plate
across the equator of the cell (Figure
5.9). Cell plate formation begins in late
anaphase. As cellulose is added to the
After Mitosis
As a result of mitosis, one of each kind
of chromosome from the mother cell is
present in the nucleus of each daughter
cell. The cells of a multicellular organism
are formed through mitosis, so each cell
will have exactly the same number and
kinds of chromosomes as those in every
other cell. If by some chance a cell should
receive an incorrect number of chro-
mosomes due to some malfunction in cell
division, the resulting cell would be
abnormal and might not survive.
How then can cells in the same or-
ganism have different forms and functions?
The process of differentiation is
responsible for differences among cells.
This process is studied in the fields of de-
velopmental biology and developmental
genetics. Scientists in these fields inves-
tigate how some genes are turned on in
cells in one location in an organism,
while remaining inactive in cells in other
parts of the same organism. For exam-
ple, enzymes specific to liver cells are dif-
ferent from those specific to muscle cells.
Mitosis takes place in the cells we call

CYTOKINESIS IN PLANTS

cell wall

two
vesicles daughter
cell plate cells

plasma
membrane

Membrane-lined vesicles Vesicles fuse together, The newly formed plasma

accumulate near the
metaphase plate. The
vesicles contain precursors
to the cell wall.
forming a cell plate that
grows toward the parent
cell wall.
membrane and cell wall
fuse with the parent plasma
membrane and cell wall,
forming two distinct
daughter cells.

FIGURE 5.9 Plant cells complete cytokinesis by building a cell wall between the daughter cells.

126 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 cell wall

FIGURE 5.10 Mitosis in plant cells of the hyacinth

a) Prophase. By middle to late b) Metaphase. Chromosomes c) Anaphase. Chromosomes sep- d) Telophase. Chromosomes are
prophase the chromosomes are are lined up at the equatoe of the arate to the opposite poles of the in two separate complements.
condensing. The nuclear envelope cell. Asters are not present. cell.
has broken down.

when he received the Gairdner operation of the immune system.

Award (Canadian) and then again in Their findings have been published
1998 when he received the Lasker in the British journal Nature. The
Award (American). His contributions immune response to an infection
Molecular Switches to the field of biomedicine are seen must be controlled or cells may con-
Control Cell Activity as a major step forward in our at- tinue to grow, producing a tumour.
tempt to battle cancer. As a profes- Alternatively this overreaction may
sor emeritus at the University of cause autoimmune diseases like dia-
Yoshio Masui spent over 30 years iso- Toronto, Dr Masui remains actively betes or multiple sclerosis. The pro-
lating and studying factors in the cell engaged in research. tein named CD45 found on the
that control the cell cycle and trigger Toronto researchers Josef surface of white blood cells is one of
cell division. Dr. Masui, along with Penninger, an immunologist at the the important “off” switches for the
the many students that he worked Ontario Cancer Institute, and Peter immune system. Studies with CD45
with at the University of Toronto, de- Liu, a cardiologist at Toronto General will increase understanding of the
signed equipment and techniques to Hospital, have discovered a protein mechanism of controlling the im-
pursue their studies and stretch a that plays a critical role in the mune response.
limited budget. They were able to
identify two key proteins in the cyto-
plasm of the cell that control the pro-
cess of cell division in all organisms.
One of these, the maturation pro-
moting factor (MPF), initiates cell di-
vision. The second key protein, the
cytostatic factor (CSF), stopped cell
division. The role of each of these
chemicals was identified using
Masui’s own microinjection technique
to transfer controlled amounts of
each factor into cells under study. The
contributions of his research to the a) b)
understanding of the regulation of cell FIGURE 5.11 a) Dr. Yoshio Masui b) Dr Josef Penninger and his colleague
division were recognized in 1992 Dr. Takehiko Sasaki prepare an extract.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 127

WORD ORIGIN somatic cells, that is, all cells of the body Mitosis and the
apart from the reproductive cells. Each Treatment of Cancer
Karyotype from the Greek, type of organism has a characteristic
karyon, meaning “ a nut, Cancer is a group of diseases that are
number of chromosomes present in each
kernel, or nucleus” and tupos, characterized by abnormal cell division.
meaning “a stamp, a model or of its somatie cells. Fruit flies have 8
Researchers have gained a great deal of
a pattern”. chromosomes, pea plants 14, goldfish
information about cancer cells through
94, and humans 46. Simpler organ-
extensive experimentation and data col-
isms do not necessarily have a lower
lection. Cancer cells are different from
number of chromosomes. This num-
normal cells in two fundamental ways.
ber, indicating a complete set of chro-
WEBLINK First, they are dividing out of control.
mosomes, is termed the diploid number.
This uncontrolled division produces
As mitosis occurs in human cells, a
Find out how the mitotic many “wild” cells with unusual charac-
division of cancer cells is mother cell with 46 chromosomes will
teristics. These wild cells may be very
abnormal. Research the produce 2 identical daughter cells, each
large, very small, have huge nuclei, or
various forms of cancer treat- having 46 chromosomes. The total
ment to determine how they contain an abnormal number of
chromosome complement, that is, the
are directed at this abnormal chromosomes. Thus, cells from a cancer
number and form of the chromosomes
cell division in cancer cells. patient have a unique appearance. Often
Identify the success rate of for any cell, makes up its karyotype.
this appearance can be useful in distin-
different methods of treating
guishing between the various forms of
various forms of cancer.
Begin your research at: cancer. The second unusual feature of
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11 these cells is that they continue to divide
and pile up on one another. This lack
of inhibition combined with rapid divi-
sion often produces an abnormal lump
of cells called a tumour. Fortunately, not
all tumours are cancerous. If a tumour
FIGURE 5.12 These cells
are cancer cells from a skin shows no tendency to spread, it is
tumour. They are being grown termed benign. However, if a tumour
for study in the laboratory. is capable of spreading, it is termed
The highlighted cell is under- malignant. A malignant tumour is
going cell division.
dangerous and capable of metastasis,
moving through the body to invade new
tissues. It is these metastatic growths
Discovering Biology Mitosis in Onions that are ultimately life-threatening.
Several forms of treatment, other
The growing tip of an onion root is active in mitosis. than surgery, take advantage of the
1. Obtain a microscope slide of an onion root tip from your knowledge of abnormal cell division in
teacher. cancerous tissue. Rapidly dividing
2. Use a microscope to focus (on high power) on a cell that cancerous cells are very susceptible to
was caught in metaphase when the slide was prepared. any factor that may upset DNA synthe-
Manipulate your slide so that this metaphase cell is in the cen- sis during replication in the S phase, or
tre of your field of vision (or at the tip of the eyepiece pointer upset the actual mitotic process.
if your microscope has one). Radiation therapy can be directed at
3. Have your teacher check that you have located a cell in specific sites in the body to kill cancer
metaphase. cells by upsetting the mitotic process.
Chromosomes in irradiated cells do not
4. Examine a microscope slide of an onion root that has been
line up on the metaphase plate properly,
treated with colchicine. Colchicine prevents the formation of
or, in anaphase, migration of chromo-
the mitotic spindle so the chromosomes lie free in the cell.
somes does not take place. The daugh-
 Compare the appearance of the chromosomes in the
ter cells that are produced often have too
treated and untreated cells.
much or too little genetic information,
 What is the diploid number of the onion?
and die as a result. Radiation theraphy
thus disrupts cell division.
128 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
The Demand for Human  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Tissue
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Advances in biotechnology have created a global

demand for practically every component of the
human body including blood, brain tissue, bone sam-
ples, saliva, sperm, eggs, skin, and DNA. These items
are in high demand by academic institutions,
government research labs, and biotechnology
companies.
Some people feel that the human body is sacred
and should not be put up for sale. Doing so reduces
us to mere objects, commodities, or products. Other
people argue that body parts are a natural asset that
individuals should be free to do with as they please.
Advances in the biomedical industry are also
raising questions about ownership. A few years ago
a man sued his doctor and several pharmaceutical
companies for using his blood and tissue samples
without his consent. The samples were used to
create a commercial cell product now estimated to
be worth billions of dollars. The man lost the case
because the court felt that people should not own
the rights to their own tissues because this might
hinder medical progress.
Source: Discover, February 2001 Volume 22, Number 2 FIGURE 5.13 Human blood products today have a price tag.

Analyze the Issue

1. Prepare a consequence map, using the following cate-
gories: scientific, social, economic, political, ethical, and
any additional categories that you feel should be
considered.
2. Research the ethical and cultural perspectives that in-
fluence points of view on this issue. Explain how they
affect public opinion and government policy.
3. What could some of the future social and economic im-
pacts of marketing human tissue be?
4. Write a position paper to defend your own point of view
on this issue. Use research, as well as your own be-
liefs, to support your opinion.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 129

INFOBIT
It is estimated that there were
approximately 132 100 new
cases of cancer and 65 000
deaths from cancer in Canada
in the year 2000. Men
outnumbered women for both
new cases (67 900 versus 64
200) and deaths (34 600 versus
30 400). Three types of cancer
accounted for at least 50% of
these new cases in each sex:
prostate, lung, and colorectal
cancers in males, and breast,
lung, and colorectal cancers in
females. Almost one-third of
the cancer deaths in men and
almost one-quarter of the
cancer deaths in women were
due to lung cancer.
130 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Chemotherapy involves the use of
a wide range of drugs. Once injected,
these drugs affect the whole body and
all actively dividing cells, not just the
cancerous cells. The majority of these
drugs are effective because they disrupt
DNA replication and eliminate the
cancer cells’ mitotic ability. Many
chemotherapy patients lose their hair
because normal, actively-dividing hair
follicles are affected by the drugs. Cell
division stops in the hair follicles. The
dead cells produced in chemotherapy
degenerate and their compounds are
eventually reutilized by the body.
Section 5.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Why is mitosis necessary? How does
it contribute to genetic continuity?
2. Describe the stages in the cell cycle.
3. In a flow chart summarize the events
that occur in each of the four stages of
mitosis. Include drawings and text.
4. Use a T-chart to contrast mitosis and
cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
5. If chromosomes do not divide prop-
erly during mitosis, the daughter cells
can end up with an abnormal number
of chromosomes (some number other
than the diploid number). Hypothesize
the effect of the abnormal number of
chromosomes on the functioning of the
daughter cell. Put forward evidence to
support your hypothesis.
6. Colchicine prevents the formation of
the mitotic spindle in dividing cells.
What effect would this drug have on
mitosis? Support your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. Mitosis ensures that all cells in a mul-
ticellular organism contain a complete
set of genetic instructions. Many types
of differentiated cells that are part of a
tissue exist in these organisms.
Research the ways that parts of a cell
More recently, techniques of
immunotherapy use the body’s own
immune defences to treat cancer. The
use of chemicals produced naturally in
the immune response may someday
replace the chemicals traditionally used
in chemotherapy.
Doctors and researchers are
becoming more optimistic about the
chances of a cure for cancer as they
come to better understand the disease.
In addition, with early diagnosis and
improved treatment, cancer diseases are
being dealt with at earlier stages. As a
result, a higher cure rate has been
attained with many types of cancer.
become exaggerated in order to carry
out a specific function in nerve cells or
muscle cells, for instance. There is a
negative aspect (in terms of the abili-
ties of the cell) when this type of spe-
cialization takes place. What drawback
is there when a cell undergoes differ-
entiation to become part of a tissue?
8. The rate of cell division varies in the
human body, depending on the loca-
tion of the tissue type considered.
Suggest locations in the human body
where the rate of cell division would
be high and others where it would be
low. Support your suggestions with
evidence.
Making Connections
9. Research immunotherapy using a va-
riety of print and electronic resources.
Explain the proposed advantages of
this form of cancer therapy. Based on
your research, do you believe that
immunotherapy will be a beneficial
treatment. Why? Why not?
10. A knowledge of cell division and the
controls determining the rate of cell di-
vision may be important in our under-
standing of the ageing process. Should
society pursue this type of research in
an effort to lengthen the human life
span? Write a supported opinion.
5.2 Meiosis
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the need for meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually
 explain the importance of chromosome number and structure
 describe the key events of meiosis
 distinguish between the formation of egg/cells, and sperm cells
 compare mitosis to meiosis
Mitosis ensures genetic continuity of cells
within any multicellular organism. The
specific chromosome number character-
istic of the species is maintained by
mitotic division which ensures every cell
within the organism has the same chro-
mosome number. The general body cells
are called somatic cells. When special sex
cells or gametes unite in sexual repro-
duction the number of chromosomes is
crucial. If two body cells with a full com-
plement of chromosomes were allowed to
unite, each new organism in each new
generation would have twice the number
of chromosomes its parents had. Because
each species has a specific number of
chromosomes, a new kind of life form
would result, if it were to develop at all.
To prevent this type of doubling from
occurring in sexual reproduction, a divi-
sion process other than mitosis is needed.
This division process is meiosis. A com-
parison of the processes of mitosis and
meiosis is given on page 142, Table 5.2.
Chromosome Number and
Structure
Human somatic cells contain 46 chro-
mosomes. This is termed the diploid
number and is designated 2n. The 46
chromosomes are not actually 46 dis-
tinctively different units. They are ar-
ranged in 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes. One chromosome of each
pair came from the individual’s mother
and the other came from the individual’s
father. The 23 chromosomes that came
from the mother are called the maternal
set of chromosomes and the 23 chro-
mosomes that came from the father are
called the paternal set of chromosomes.
Each of the homologous chromo-
somes (homologs) carries information for
the same hereditary traits as its partner.
The information for any specific trait is
in the form of a gene, a hereditary unit
which is, a length of DNA. Each gene has
a particular position or locus (plural loci)
on a chromosome and the two chromo-
somes of a homologous pair carry genes
for the same trait at the same locus.
The genes for a specific trait are not
necessarily identical. For example, if a
gene on one homolog codes for attached
earlobes, the gene on the other homolog
at the same locus may code for free ear-
lobes. The different forms of the same
gene are called alleles. The earlobes of
the individual involved will result from
the interaction of the alleles present on
the homologs.
Each homologous pair of chromo-
somes carries genetic information for
thousands of hereditary traits. Mitotic
cells, specially treated so that the
metaphase chromosomes do not sepa-
rate, allow us to identify the pairs of
homologous chromosomes. Pairs are
FIGURE 5.14
a) A person with
attached ear lobes
b) A person with free
earlobes
a) b)
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 131
 FIGURE 5.14 Homologous
chromosomes. Homologous
chromosomes are the same
size and shape. They carry
information for many traits.
These chromosomes are
double- stranded, as in a
colchicine metaphase prepa-
ration. The chromatids of each
double-stranded chromosome
carry identical information.
The other homolog has infor-
mation for the same traits at
the same gene loci. The ho-
mologous chromosomes may
carry different alleles of the
gene at a particular locus: for
example, at the earlobe locus
shown here.
132 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
attached attached free free
earlobes earlobes earlobes earlobes
centromere
chromatid
blond blond blond blond
hair hair hair hair
sister chromatids
matched by their length, centromere po- a single diploid cell called the zygote, the
sition, and the patterns of banding that first cell of the new organism. This
result from staining the chromosomes. zygote is now capable of mitosis and
Figure 5.15 shows the characteristics of differentiation. In this new organism, one
homologous chromosomes in a colchicine homolog of each pair of homologous
metaphase preparation. chromosomes came from the father and
The process of meiosis produces the other from the mother. Each human
gametes that contain one of each of the cell contains 23 paternal chromosomes
homologous pairs of chromosomes. The and 23 maternal chromosomes.
number of chromosomes in each gamete
is one-half of the diploid number. This is
Stages of Meiosis
called the haploid number, designated
n. In humans n is 23. When fertilization Meiosis ensures that sex cells have the
occurs in sexual reproduction in humans, right type (one of each homologous pair)
two haploid gametes, the egg or ovum and number (haploid) of chromosomes.
(female) and sperm (male), join to make As a result, when the gametes come
together in fertilization, the zygote will
receive the right type and number of
chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in the
reproductive tissues of sexually repro-
1n
meiosis ducing organisms. In humans, sperm are
produced by special cells called sper-
matogonia in the male testes, while eggs
multicellular
diploid
egg are produced in the oogonia in the
adults sperm female ovaries. In plants pollen and
fertilization
ovules are produced.
2n Mitosis consists of a single division
of the nucleus. Meiosis is characterized
mitosis and by two major divisions, called meiosis I
zygote
development and meiosis II. Each division is further
subdivided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Meiosis I and
meiosis II show some similarities to mi-
tosis but also have some unique features.
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n) Study Figure 5.18 as you read the de-
scription of meiosis. The diploid number
for the hypothetical organism shown in
FIGURE 5.16 The human life cycle. The dia-
gram relates the roles of meiosis and mitosis in Figure 5.18 is 4. Compare this number
our life cycle. The diploid phase is shaded blue. with the diploid number of 46 in humans.
First Meiotic Division (Meiosis I) The
genetic material has been synthesized
in the S phase before meiosis
(pre-meiotic S). This is a similarity to
mitosis where, the chromosomes repli-
cate prior to prophase. In prophase I of
meiosis, the chromosomes begin to con-
dense and shorten and become visible.
Homologous chromosomes come
together in a process termed synapsis,
so that they lie side by side along their
entire length. When the homologs come
together, they often break and rejoin at
several places. As the chromosomes
shorten and thicken, it can be seen
that the replicated chromosomes are
composed of two identical chromatids
joined by a centromere. The unit formed
by each homologous pair of chromo-
somes now consists of four chromatids
and is called a tetrad. The points where
chromatids break and reunite are called
chiasmata. Breakage and reunion al-
lows chromosomes to exchange genetic
material. This process is known as ge-
netic recombination or crossing over
because at the point of recombination,
the genetic material on the chromosome
crosses from one parent to the other.
This process allows for greater genetic
variation in a population of a species
because it recombines genes in new
combinations. (See Figure 5.17.)
The activities in the rest of the cell
at this time are similar to those during
mitosis. The nuclear membrane and nu-
cleoli have disappeared, and in amimal
cells the centrioles have migrated to the
poles to produce the asters and spindle.
2 chromatids
tetrad
achiasma
FIGURE 5.17 Chiasmata visible in the first divi-
sion of meiosis in the grasshopper. The tetrad is
composed of four chromatids.
Plant cells and yeast do not have cen- Investigation
trioles as part of their division spindles.
Refer to page 145,
In late prophase, the tetrads move to- Investigation 1
ward the equator of the cell.
As metaphase I begins, the tetrads
(homologous pairs) move onto the spin-
dle and line up with their centromeres
at an equal distance from the equator of
the spindle. Anaphase I now begins. In
mitosis, the chromatids of a single chro-
mosome move apart at this point. In
meiosis, the chromatids do not separate
in meiosis I. Instead, the homologous
pairs move apart as their centromeres
separate, with one chromosome going
to each pole. During telophase I, the
chromosomes condense slightly and a
nuclear membrane may form. At the end
of the first division of meiosis, there are
two daughter cells, each with exactly half
the number of chromosomes of the par-
ent cell. As a result, meiosis I is often
called the reduction division because
the number of chromosomes has been
reduced by half: from 2n to n or, in the
example shown in Figure 5.18, from four
chromosomes to two.
Second Meiotic Division (Meiosis II) In
most organisms, the interphase after
meiosis I is very brief, while in some it
is totally lacking. There is no duplication
of chromosomes in the interphase
between meiotic divisions. The second
meiotic division may be similar to mito-
sis, but it begins with half the genetic
material of mitotic cells. Each cell has
the n number of double-chromatid chro-
mosomes. When the spindle forms at the
end of prophase II, each chromosome,
made up of two chromatids, lines up on
the equator. The centromeres split and
one chromatid of each chromosome is
pulled to each of the opposite poles of
the cell. The number of chromosomes
per cell remains the same. In telophase,
the nuclear membrane begins to reform
as the meiotic process nears completion.
Each of the cells produced will contain
the haploid number of chromosomes. As
a result of meiosis, one diploid cell can
produce four haploid cells.
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 133
 MEIOSIS I
Diploid

END OF PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

INTERPHASE
Homologous Microtubules
DNA has already chromosomes move homologous Microtubules
duplicated link as they chromosomes separate homologous
condense, forming to metaphase plate. chromosomes
tetrads. (sister chromatids
Crossing over Independent remain together).
occurs. assortment
occurs.

Two very important

sources of genetic
CROSSING OVER variation

Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.

duplicated
duplicated paternal
maternal chromosome
chromosome

tetrad

sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids

FIGURE 5.18 Stages of meiosis

134 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 MEIOSIS II
Haploid

cytokinesis

cytokinesis

TELOPHASE I PROPHASE II METAPHASE II

Two haploid (Brief) Sister chromatids

daughter cells line up at new
result from metaphase plate. ANAPHASE II
cytokinesis. TELOPHASE II
Sister chromatids
separate. Four haploid
cells result.

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Random alignment of METAPHASE I METAPHASE II TELOPHASE II
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.

Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...

... but they could have

lined up this way, yielding
a different outcome.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 135

WEBLINK Random Assortment of
Chromosomes
During the separation of the double-
To view a simulation of meiosis, stranded chromosomes at anaphase I of
go to
meiosis, there is no necessity for chro-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
mosomes that came from the father (the
paternal set) to stay together or for chro-
mosomes that came from the mother
(the maternal set) to stay together.
In other words, there is random
assortment of the chromosomes (Figure
5.18). Some gametes may receive all
paternal chromosomes. Some may
receive all maternal chromosomes.
These results are unlikely according to
meiosis
FIGURE 5.18 Random assortment of chromosomes in organism with 2n=6
Discovering Biology
Random Assortment of Chromosomes
During meiosis chromosomes assort randomly. Model random
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis in an organism with
2n = 8. Use modelling clay, pipe cleaners, strips of different-
coloured paper, or materials of your choice. Make the four
chromosome pairs different lengths and use a different colour for
maternal and paternal sets. Demonstrate the different possible
combinations of chromosomes in gametes.
136 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
probability. Others may receive a mixture
of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
The number of different possible kinds of
gametes produced by random assortment
of chromosomes is 2n where n is the hap-
loid number of chromosomes in the or-
ganism. How many possible different
gametes can you get from meiosis when
2n=46?
Meiosis is therefore an important
source of genetic variability. There are
two ways that meiosis produces vari-
ability. The first way is through random
assortment of chromosomes. Because
maternal and paternal sets of chromo-
somes do not need to stay together, an
organism with a diploid number of 10,
that is, 5 pairs of chromosomes, can pro-
duce 25 or 32 different combinations of
chromosomes. Any one of these 32
different combinations in an egg could
come together with any one of the 32
possible combinations in a sperm. What
are the total possible combinations for
that species, depending on random
assortment alone?
The second way that meiosis pro-
duces variability is from crossing over
or genetic recombination as a result of
breakage and reunion of chromatids
during prophase of meiosis I. Genetic re-
combination from breakage and reunion
may occur at different points along the
chromosomes, and so each chiasma will
affect different genes. The number of
possible gene combinations that result
from genetic recombination is extremely
large, and that is in addition to the va-
riety of combinations resulting from ran-
dom assortment of chromosomes. This
enormous potential variability explains
why some siblings may look very much
alike while others in the same family
look very different.
Sperm and Egg Cells
At the end of meiosis in male animals,
four functional cells called spermatids
are produced. These spermatids then
undergo differentiation to become sperm
cells. Sperm cells are characterized by
having a head (containing the nucleus),
a tail (flagellum) for movement, and a FIGURE 5.20 Thousands of
middle piece containing mitochondria sperm cells are attempting to
fertilize this single egg cell. The
that provide energy for the beating of
relative size of the two sex cell
the tail. The sperm of various species types is clearly illustrated.
are quite different. However, they are
always quite small relative to the female
gamete as seen in Figure 5.19.
The nuclear events in the produc-
tion of the female gamete, tetrad for-
mation, crossing over, anaphase I and
anaphase II separations, are exactly the
same as those occurring in the male, but
the events in the cytoplasm are differ-
ent. In meiosis I in the female, the divi-
sion of the cytoplasm is unequal,
producing one large cell (a secondary
oocyte) containing nearly all the nutri-
ents and cytoplasm, and one small cell
(the first polar body) containing only the
nucleus. In meiosis II, the secondary
oocyte divides unequally once again. One
large ovum or egg, and a second, small,
polar body result. The first polar body
a) b)
may divide, but usually it simply deteri-
orates. At the end of meiosis in the FIGURE 5.21 The second division of meiosis in the egg of a marine worm. The
female animal, only one functional egg first polar body can be seen.
is produced in contrast to the four sperm a) Metaphase II
cells produced in the male. The unequal b) Anaphase II
cytoplasmic divisions ensure that the
mature egg will have enough cytoplasm
and nutrients to support development of Figure 5.22 on the next page for the dif-
the zygote following fertilization. See ferences in gamete formation in animals.

Sperm Banks
Couples who are having fertility prob-
lems can seek the help of reproduc-
tive technology. When a male is
infertile the sperm of a donor can be
obtained from a sperm bank. In these
cases the female is artificially
inseminated with the donor’s sperm.
Any children resulting from such a
practice will receive 50% of their
genetic make-up from their mother
and 50% from the donor. Genetic
information about sperm donors and
their family histories are carefully
recorded. Usually the sperm of a male
who is similar in characteristics to the
sterile male is used in the insemina-
tion technique. In this way the child
may possess characteristics similar to
the male partner in the couple.
The use of sperm banks has
produced controversy. Some geneti-
cists have expressed concern that if
many children are conceived this
way, it is possible that two of the off-
spring could marry and produce
children without knowing that they
are actually related. In the late 1970s
Robert K. Graham opened the
Repository for Germinal Choice, a
sperm bank that was intended to sell
the sperm of Nobel Prize Winners.
Eventually the majority of the sperm
selected came from what Graham
termed the elite (professionals and
young scientists). The repository was
clouded in secrecy and rumour until
it closed in 1999. It claimed to be
responsible for the birth of 229
children spread across 7 countries.
Graham was criticized extensively by
the genetic community for his
attempts to produce so-called “genius
babies” or “designer babies.”
Geneticists viewed this as unaccept-
able interference in the characteris-
tics of the next generation. Ethicists
and religious leaders are key partic-
ipants in the ongoing dialogue about
reproducible technologies and their
impact.

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 137

 SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS

spermatogonium oogonium

primary primary
spermatocyte oocyte

meiosis I

polar secondary
secondary body oocyte
spermatocytes

meiosis II

spermatids

polar bodies
(will be degraded) egg

a b

FIGURE 5.22 Gamete formation in animals. In sperm formation diploid

spermatogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes that pass
through meiosis to produce four spermatids. In egg formation oogonia divide by
mitosis to produce primary oocytes that pass through meiosis to form one egg
and two or three polar bodies. Sperm and egg cells both have the haploid number
of chromosomes. Four functional sperm result from meiosis in the male while only
one functional ovum results from meiosis in the female.

138 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

Discovering Biology Chromosome Numbers

Complete the table to show the number of chromosomes present in different

stages of cell division in a variety of species.

TABLE 5.1 Number of Chromosomes Present at Different Stages of Cell Division

Number of Diploid Haploid Number of Number of Chromosomes Present in Meiosis

Chromosomes Number Number Pairs of at Beginning of Each Phase
in Daughter Homologous
Cells of Mitosis Chromosomes Prophase I Prophase II Telophase II
Cabbage 18 18 9 9 18 9 9
Trillium 5
Black Bear 38
Human 23
Fruit fly 8
Peanut 40

Mistakes in Meiosis
Meiosis is an elegant process but in any
organism errors in meiosis sometimes
occur. These errors may be the result of
mistakes in separation of the chromo-
somes during division or of an incorrect
exchange of genetic information during
chiasma formation. Many genetic dis-
orders in humans can be traced back to
errors in the formation of the gametes in
meiosis. Mistakes in meiosis can result FIGURE 5.23 DeVries in a
garden
in an abnormal number of chromosomes
in an egg or sperm cell. If this egg or
sperm is then involved in fertilization, the
zygote will exhibit an abnormal number
of chromosomes. The child produced
from this zygote (following mitosis and
differentiation) will have cells with too
WORDORIGIN
few or too many chromosomes, a
condition known as aneuploidy. Down Sympatry from the Greek Sun
syndrome is an example of aneuploidy. meaning “together” and
In another abnormality, chromo- patria meaning “father land”:
somes exchange information incorrectly refers to species that co-exist
but cannot produce fertile
during the crossing-over process of
offspring.
meiosis. The resulting sex cells, and
ultimately the fetus produced from
fertilization involving these cells, will

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 139


Investigation
Refer to page 146,
Investigation 2
FIGURE 5.24
Nondisjunction results
in an abnormal
chromosome number.
Nondis-junction, the
abnormal separation of
chromosomes, can
occur in either meiosis I
or meiosis II. If
nondisjunction happens
in meiosis I all the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
If it happens in meiosis
II, only half of the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
140 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
have the correct number of chromo-
somes, but the genetic information may
be altered or the chromosomes may
contain duplications or deletions of
genetic material.
Abnormal Chromosome Number
Aneuploidy is caused by a mistake in the
meiotic process known as nondisjunc-
tion. If the homologous chromosomes
fail to move apart properly during
meiosis I, or the sister chromatids do not
separate during meiosis II, the resulting
gametes will have either extra or miss-
ing chromosomes. If fertilization involves
a sex cell that is missing a chromosome,
the resulting child will have only one
copy of a particular chromosome, a
condition known as monosomy. If
fertilization involves a sex cell that has
nondisjunction
in meiosis I
normal
meiosis II
gametes
24 24 22 22
abnormal number of
chromosomes
100%
an extra chromosome, the resulting child
will have three copies of a particular
chromosome, a condition known as
polysomy. In either case, if the child
survives, he or she will show effects
associated with the genetic information
carried on the chromosome involved in
the aneuploidy. Down syndrome is a type
of polysomy that results from an extra
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). This
condition and several other numerical
abnormalities are described in Chapter
7. The effects of nondisjunction in the
meiotic process are illustrated in Figure
5.24.
In a more severe disruption of the
meiotic process, an abnormal male or
female gamete produced from the nondis-
junction of all of its chromosomes may
unite with a haploid gamete to produce a
normal
meiosis I
nondisjunction
in meiosis II
23 23 22 24
normal abnormal number
50% of chromosomes
50%
zygote with three sets of chromosomes
(69 in humans). This zygote has a chro-
mosomal alteration known as polyploidy.
In this case the zygote produced would
be described as triploid or 3n. Accidents
of this sort are extremely rare in the
animal world because the zygote usually
doesn’t complete its development.
However, polyploidy does occur more
frequently in plants.
In the early years of the twentieth
century the geneticist Hugo de Vries was
studying the evening primrose Oenothera
lamarkiana. De Vries discovered the
possibility of polyploidy in plants. In
autopolyploidy, non-disjunction during
meiosis results in gametes that are diploid.
Self-fertilization produces a tetraploid (4n) INFOBIT
offspring. Such offspring can self-fertilize
or mate with other tetraploids to produce Canadian wheat. Our common
viable offspring (offspring that survive to bread wheat, Triticum aestivum
is an example of polyploidy
maturity). resulting from a cross of
If the tetraploid mates with the orig- T. monococcum (goat grass –
inal (2n) species the combination of an n with a diploid number of 14)
gamete with a 2n gamete results in a and T. dincoccun (Emmer
triploid organism. This organism may be wheat – with a diploid number
of 28). This cross produces
viable but is not fertile. It cannot produce bread wheat with a
normal gametes. chromosome number of 42.
The original diploid form and the This variety of wheat exhibits
new tetraploid form can co-exist but they large kernels and produces
cannot produce fertile offspring. excellent pasta and stock feed.
Therefore they are different species. As
a result of the original nondisjunction, a
new species has been formed. This sit-

normal chromosomes FIGURE 5.25 Alterations

caused by improper crossing
A B C D V W X Y Z over. The arrows and colours
indicate the regions involved
in the improper rearrange-
A B C D V W X Y Z ment of chromosomes. The
letters represent the location
and sequence of genes along
duplication deletion
the chromosome.
A B C D V W X X Y Z A B C D V W Y Z a) a duplication causes the
repetition of a segment.
b) a deletion causes the
A B C D V W X Y Z A B C D V W X Y removal of a segment.
Z
c) an inversion reverses the
proper sequence of the
inversion translocation
genetic information.
A B C D V W Z Y X A B X Y Z V W C D d) a translocation moves a
segment from one chromo-
some to a nonhomologous
one.
A B C D V W X Y Z A B C D V W X Y Z

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 141

 Mitosis
Function of Process · ensures genetic continuity within the individual
from cell to cell
· for growth, repair, and maintenance
Location of Process · in all body (somatic) cells, with the exception of
reproductive organs
Number of Divisions · 1 division
Number of Cells · 2 identical daughter cells
Produced in Animals
Number of · diploid number – 2n
Chromosomes per Cell · 46 in humans
TABLE 5.2 Comparison of
the processes of Mitosis and Section 5.2 Review
Meiosis
Understanding Concepts
1. In your own words, outline the process
of meiosis.
2. Why are the number and shape of
chromosomes important to a species?
3. How are homologous chromosomes the
same? different?
4. Explain the origin of each homolog
within any given homologous pair of
chromosomes.
5. Meiosis has an essential role in or-
ganisms that reproduce sexually.
Explain.
6. Make a diagram of the human life cycle
to demonstrate the relationships
between the terms “diploid” and “hap-
loid” and the processes of meiosis,
mitosis, and fertilization.
7. Briefly outline the events of the first
and second meiotic divisions. Why is
the first meiotic division described as
reduction division? How is the second
meiotic division similar to the mitotic
process?
8. Compare and contrast the production
of gametes in female and male animals.
9. Describe the disruption in the meiotic
process that would cause:
a) aneuploidy b) polyploidy c) a dele-
tion d) a translocation.
10. Write a paragraph to highlight the sim-
ilarities and differences between
mitosis and meiosis.
142 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Meiosis
· ensures genetic continuity from one generation to
the next for a given species
· to prevent the doubling of chromosome number
from one generation to the next
· only in the reproductive organs in designated cell
· 2 successive divisions
Meiosis I – reduction division
Meiosis II – similar to mitosis
· male – 4 functional sperm cells
· female – 1 functional egg cell or ovum (in humans,
for example)
· haploid number – n
· 23 in humans
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
11. A diploid cell contains 4 pairs of chro-
mosomes designated #1, #2, and #3
#4. Each pair contains a paternal and
maternal chromosome (1p and 1m, 2p
and 2m, 3p and 3m, 4p and 4m).
Illustrate the possible combinations
of chromosomes that could be observed
in the haploid gametes resulting from
meiosis in this cell. Use a diagram and
a table.
12. An organism has a diploid number of
10. Calculate the probability that
a gamete will contain five paternal
chromosomes.
Making Connections
13. Geneticists can intentionally disrupt the
meiotic process in plants and animals
to produce new mutations or abnormal
chromosome numbers in the sex cells
of these organisms. The intent is to
produce a new organism that possesses
a new desirable combination of traits.
Should scientists be tampering with life
in this manner? Should consideration
be given to the type of organism that
undergoes this manipulation? In para-
graph form outline two advantages and
two disadvantages that could result
from this type of research. Support
your statements with research.
5.3 Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain how genetic continuity is maintained in asexual reproduction

 describe several different methods of asexual reproduction

 explain the importance of genetic recombination and the necessity of meiosis

 describe the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction and fertilization occurs in sexual reproduc-

Genetic Continuity tion, a diploid zygote results. This zygote
contains all of the genetic information
In some organisms, one parent alone is
required to produce an individual of the
capable of producing a new individual.
species involved.
The hereditary information is transmit-
Regardless of which organism we
ted from one generation to the next
consider, if sexual reproduction is uti-
through a process termed asexual
lized, two parents and two different
reproduction. The single parent may
sex cells are required. Two gametes from
split, bud, or fragment to produce a new
among the thousands possible come
individual. The genetic information in any
together to form a unique offspring. As
new individuals will be identical to the
a result, the offspring produced will con-
original parent (unless a chemical change
tain a mixture of hereditary information
in the DNA, called a mutation, occurs).
from both parents and will not look
As a result, asexual offspring will dis-
exactly like either parent. The charac-
play traits very similar if not identical to
teristic chromosome number and form
one another and to the original parent.
for the species are maintained, but
Asexual reproduction may produce
individuals produced in each successive
many offspring very rapidly; as an ex-
generation will show variation. They will
treme example: if bacteria divide every
not be exactly the same. Meiosis and
20 min, one bacterial cell could give rise
sexual reproduction mean variation.
to more than 2 million bacteria in 7 h.
Genetic continuity is maintained in asex-
ual reproduction, but the chance of vari- Sexual Versus Asexual
ability is very low. Forms of asexual Reproduction
reproduction are reviewed in Table 5.3. Some organisms are capable of both sex-
ual and asexual reproduction. This is quite
Characteristics of Sexual common in the plant kingdom. Why do
Reproduction different organisms display two types of
reproduction? Asexual reproduction in-
Meiosis produces haploid gametes con-
volving one parent produces identical
taining one of each of the homologous
copies (clones) in a relatively short time.
pairs of chromosomes. The products of
This appears to be the easiest means of
meiosis are different from each other
reproducing. Why don’t all living organ-
because of the random assortment of
isms use this approach to reproduction?
chromosomes and also because of the
Sexual reproduction requires a much
genetic recombination that occurs dur-
greater amount of time and energy. Is the
ing prophase I. There are thousands of
ability to produce offspring with genetic
possibilities for each gamete. When
variation a significant advantage?

CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 143

TABLE 5.3 Methods of Assexual Reproduction

Method of Organisms Description Illustration

Asexual Utilizing This
Reproduction Method

Binary Fission · Bacteria . Bacteria lack organelles for mitosis and the
bacterial chromosome remains attached to
the cell membrane. Under ideal conditions
occurs once every 20 min.
· Amoeba, · Parent cell undergoes cell division to pro-
· Paramecium duce two new individuals.
· Parent organism is lost in process.
a) A micrograph of an Amoeba completing
binary fission.

Budding · Yeast · Nuclear material undergoes mitotic division

· Cytoplasm divides but smaller cell
(bud) remains attached to the larger cell
(parent).
· Bud will eventually separate from parent.
· Hydra · Budding begins as a bulge growing from the
parent.
· The multicellular bud eventually separates b) Budding in Hydra. The genetically identi-
from the parent. cal bud will eventually separate from the par-
ent Hydra to form a new individual.

Fragmentation · Flatworms · Body of parent breaks into several pieces.

· Sea stars · Each piece regenerates missing parts to pro-
duce a whole organism.

c) A sea star can regenerate a complete

organism from a piece of one arm.

Vegetative · Wide range of · New plant is formed from a piece of root,

propagation plants stem, or leaves of the parent plant.

d) In addition to sexual reproduction, a

Kalanchoe plant can produce complete small
plants along the edges of its leaves.

Spores · Ferns · Specialized spores contain genetic informa-

· Bread moulds tion inside of tough outer casings. They may
· Mushrooms be stored in spore cases, called sporangia,
until released.
· If a spore lands where conditions are
favourable the spore will grow into a new or-
ganism.
e) Sporangia containing spores on the back
of a fern leaf.

144 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity


The answers to these questions lie
in a consideration of evolution and the
environment. When the environment is
not changing, asexual reproduction will
allow a well-adapted organism to rapidly
produce a new generation of similarly
well-adapted organisms. But what if the
environment changes? Then the asex-
ual organism will have difficulty in
adapting to the changing environment.
When the environment changes, any
species that shows variation from one
generation to the next will have a better
chance of survival. Sexually produced
offspring are all slightly different. Some
individuals may be better adapted to the
new conditions. They will live to per-
petuate the species. Biologists say that
the species has undergone adaptation.
A Theory of Sexual
Reproduction
Many theories have been put forward at-
tempting to account for the importance
of meiosis and the advantages of sexual
reproduction. Success of a species is a
different thing from the life of an indi-
vidual of the species. Sexual organisms
may not produce many offspring but
FIGURE 5.25 What advan-
tage might this human
population gain by having
such a wide variety among
its members?
those they do produce are unique and
may respond differently to different en-
vironmental conditions. If the environ-
ment changes, there is the possibility that
at least some of the offspring may sur-
vive to thrive under the new conditions.
Asexual organisms produce many
identical offspring but they are all the
same. Therefore an environmental
change that negatively affects one of the
offspring affects all the members of the
population in the same way. The whole
population may be wiped out by one en-
vironmental change.
Sexual reproduction can still be
risky. There is the problem of finding a
mate. The risk that a mate may not be
found in a species that are at a low den-
sity means the risk that no offspring will
be produced. Also, parental genes
sometimes combine in ways that are not
beneficial. However, in sexual repro-
duction, offspring can sometimes be bet-
ter adapted to their environment than
their parents are. If this is the case, the
offspring will most likely survive. In
terms of evolution and the survival of the
species over time, it is the probability of
passing on genes to the next generation
and the future that counts.
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 145
a) Penguins b) Gannets
FIGURE 5.26 Populations and variability. These populations do not appear to have
a great deal of variety in external appearance. However, each individual is unique in
its combination of internal physiology and chemical makeup. What advantage might
these populations gain by maintaining diversity among their members.
Section 5.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Describe how genetic continuity is
maintained in asexual reproduction.
2. Explain why individuals resulting from
any form of asexual reproduction are
identical to the parent.
3. What general differences exist between
sexual and asexual reproduction?
Communicate your ideas in a graphic
organizer.
4. Outline the process of genetic recom-
bination and describe the outcome of
this process.
5. Make a list of environmental conditions
that would benefit:
a) organisms that reproduce
sexually.
b) organisms that reproduce
asexually
6. Define the term “adaptation.” Describe
how sexual organisms adapt.
146 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. Horses have a diploid number of 64
and donkeys have a diploid number of
62. Mules result from crossing a male
donkey with a female horse. Mules are
usually sterile. How many chromo-
somes will a mule cell contain? If mules
could be crossed with each other, what
chromosome problem would exist?
Prepare a diagram of the diploid state
of the two animals, the make-up of any
gametes formed, and the chromosome
problems found in the mule.
Making Connections
8. Reproductive technologies are becom-
ing more common in today’s society.
List the ethical issues raised by the use
of these technologies. Propose an ar-
gument for and against the use of re-
productive technologies. Write an
argued, supported paragraph that ex-
presses your point of view.
9. “Couples who have the potential to pro-
duce a child with a serious genetic de-
fect should be discouraged from having
children.” Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Present your an-
swer as a supported opinion.
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 5.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Observing Cells in the Process of Meiosis 
Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating

Cells undergoing meiosis can be preserved on micro-
scope slides. Photography through the microscope al-
lows study of the stages of meiosis and the comparison
of plant and animal material. Figure 5.17 illustrates
the events in hand-drawn pictures.
Problem
To identify stages in meiosis in plant and animal cells
using photomicrographs and prepared microscope
slides.
Materials
 animal LAL1
meiosis and plant meiosis microslide and
microslide viewer
 microscope slides of spermatogenesis in grasshop-
per testes
 drawing materials
Procedure
Part A Microslides of Animal and Plant Meiosis
1. Obtain one of the animal meiosis microslides and
a microslide viewer from your teacher.
2. Read the introduction in the microslide booklet.
Observe each of the eight views provided on the
microslide strip. The photomicrographs in the mi-
croslide will help you to recognize the stages of
meiosis described in Figure 5.18.
3. Produce a full-page chart in your notebook. Use the
headings indicated below.
4. Fill in the chart that you have produced with the
appropriate information. Use the information in the
booklet provided to describe the key events in
the microslide view. Take care to sketch the
chromosomes and their arrangement as accurately
as possible.
5 Compare what you have drawn to the illustrations
provided in Figure 5.18.
6. Obtain one of the plant microslides from your
teacher. Observe each of the stages illustrated on
this microslide. Note any differences you see in the
process of meiosis or cytokinesis from comparable
stages you saw in the animal microslide. Add this
information to your chart.
Part B Spermatogenesis in Grasshopper Testes
7. Obtain a microscope and a microscope slide of
grasshopper testes that has cells undergoing meiosis.
8. Prepare a full-page chart similar to the one you pre-
pared for Part A.
9. Examine your slide to find cells undergoing meio-
sis. Using high-power magnification, make draw-
ings of cells in the eight stages of meiosis that you
identified in the microslide material used in Part A.
10. Observe chiasmata in cells in late prophase of meio-
sis I. Carefully draw one tetrad in which one
chiasma is visible and one tetrad in which several
chiasmata are visible.
11. Make a diagram of a tetrad with one chiasma. How
many recombinant gametes will result?

TABLE 5.9
Analyzing and Interpreting
Name of Stage Description of Key Sketch of the Stage 1. Which of the stages in meiosis are easiest to iden-
Shown Events Shown tify in the microslide material and the grasshopper
1 material? Why?
2 2. What was the diploid number for the animal and
3 plant shown on the microslides, and for the
grasshopper? What was the haploid number for
4
each?
5
3. Meiosis differs in plant and animal cells. Highlight
6
the differences in the process of meiosis in the plant
7 cells and the animal cells that you observed.
8

CHAPTER 5 Cell Reproduction 147

(continued)
Concluding and Communicating
4. What is the relationship between the frequency of
crossing over (chiasma formation) and the number
of recombinant cells formed? (Hint: remember that
Investigation 2
Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis
In section 5.2, you read about several mistakes in the
meiotic process. The mistakes may result in abnormal
numbers of chromosomes in the gametes or in gametes
with chromosomes that have abnormal structures.
Abnormal structures may include duplication, deletion,
and rearrangement of genetic material. Fertilization of
these gametes may result in genetic defects. In this ex-
ercise, you will investigate abnormalities of number
and structure. You will produce illustrations of these
mistakes in meiosis using materials of your choice.
Problem
How can you illustrate mistakes in meiosis? How can
you determine whether an abnormality will result after
fertilization involving these gametes?
Experimental Design
1. Identify the mistake in crossing-over and the mis-
take in segregation of the chromosomes that you
wish to illustrate.
2 Design a method of illustrating these errors in
meiosis. Choose any materials that you feel will
allow you to show the process effectively. Your final
product will be posted on a bulletin board for dis-
play. Write a list of materials required.
148 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
crossing over occurs at the tetrad or four-strand
stage of meiosis.)
5. Are the cells at the end of the meiotic process ready
for fertilization? Explain.
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 5.2)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
3. For the purposes of your model assume that the or-
ganism’s sex is to be determined the way it is in
humans, with X and Y chromosomes. Choose a low
diploid number for the species and chromosome
sizes and centromere positions to simplify the mod-
elling process.
4. Consider any other aspects of meiosis important to
your model. Have the teacher approve your design
with your level before you begin your model.
5. Clearly describe the abnormality in the sex cells
that are formed when each of the mistakes occurs.
Analzying and Interpreting
1. What abnormalities in number and/or structure re-
sulted in your investigation?
2. Is it possible that either of the mistakes that you il-
lustrated may not lead to a genetic defect? Explain.
Concluding and Communicating
3. Briefly explain how you distinguished between
a) the different homologous pairs b) maternal and
paternal chromosomes.
4. Explain why you chose the materials that you used
in your model.
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

adaptation clone haploid n polysomy

anaphase crossing-over homologs prophase
aneuploidy cytokinesis interphase recombination
asexual daughter cells inversion reduction division
asters deletion locus replication
cancer diploid, 2n meiosis sexual
cell cycle DNA metaphase spermatogonia
cell plate duplication mitosis S phase
centromere fertilization monosomy synapsis
chiasmata fragmentation nondisjunction telophase
chromatid gametes oogonia tetrad
chromatin gene polar bodies translocation
chromosome number genetic continuity polyploidy zygote

Essential Understandings

5.1 Mitosis  In humans, the net outcome of the meiotic process

 Mitosis ensures genetic continuity from cell to cell
within an organism, for growth, repair, and devel-
opment.
 Mitosis is subdivided into four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
is four haploid sperm cells in the male and one hap-
loid ovum in the female.
 If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, sex cells
with an abnormal number of chromosomes may be
produced.

 Mitosis produces two diploid cells that are geneti-

caly identical.
5.2 Meiosis
 Meiosis is necessary to produce haploid gametes for
sexual reproduction and to ensure that the chro-
mosome number of a species is maintained.
 Meiosis is characterized by two nuclear divisions,
called the first and second meiotic divisions.
 The first meiotic division is called reduction division
because this part of meiosis reduces the number
of chromosomes in the sex cells by half.
5.3 Asexual Reproduction Versus Sexual Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction ensures genetic continuity
from one generation to the next.
 Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically
identical to the parent.
 Binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and
vegetative propagation are means of asexual
reproduction.
 Sexual reproduction produces offspring that show
variation relative to the parents and to each other.
This variation may help the species adapt in an
environment that is changing.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Revisit your T-chart or diagrams. Revise your work based 3. Evaluate how society is affected by the evolution of sci-
on what you learned in this chapter. entific knowledge.
2. Create a concept map to summarize the main concepts
in the chapter. Use the Key Terms for this map.

CHAPTER 5 Cell Reproduction 149

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 5. A tetrad is made up of:

a) two chromatids from one chromosome
1. The second meiotic division: b) one chromatid from two homologous chromosomes
a) is identical to the first meiotic division c) two chromatids from two homologous chromosomes
b) is similar to mitosis d) one chromatid from one chromosome
c) is called reduction division
d) produces 2 diploid cells 6. At which point in the cell cycle does replication of the
genetic information occur? Why is this process so
2. An organism with a diploid number of 32 would pro- important?
duce gametes with ____ chromosomes.
a) 16 7. Describe the number and type of cells that result from
b) 32 meiosis.
c) 64
d) a variable number of 8. Explain why the first meiotic division is referred to as
“reduction division.” Support your answer with an
3. In a changing environment, a sexually reproducing or- example.
ganism may gain an advantage because:
a) it can produce many identical offspring 9. What effect do crossing over and linkage have on the
b) it reproduces very rapidly genetic variation of the offspring?
c) its offspring show variation and may be adaptable
d) its offspring contain the same genetic information 10. Outline the sequence of events in the cell cycle.
as the parents
11. Describe the different types of genetic defects that can
4. Uncontrolled cell division is a characteristic of: result from nondisjunction during meiosis.
a) cancer
b) mitosis 12. Copy the following table and then complete it to show
c) cytokinesis the number of chromosomes present at different stages
d) meiosis of cell division in a variety of organisms.

Organism Diploid Haploid Number of Number of Pairs Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Chromosomes of Homologous Chromosomes Chromosomes Chromosomes
in Daughter Cells Chromosomes in Meiosis at in Meiosis at in Meiosis at
of Mitosis Prophase I Telophase I Telophase II

cotton 52

fruit fly 4

horse 64

toad 18

chicken 78

goldfish 47

150 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

13. Draw a cell in the following phases of mitosis or meio-
sis. Clearly indicate the number of chromosomes and
chromatids present.
a) metaphase of mitosis for a cell with 2n = 6
b) anaphase of meiosis II for a cell with 2n = 8
c) telophase of meiosis I for a cell with 2n = 6
14. Explain why an organism would gain an advantage if it
could reproduce both sexually and asexually.
15. Produce a concept map entitled “The Human Life Cycle”
relating the roles of mitosis, meiosis, cell differentiation,
diploid number, haploid number, fertilization, sexual re-
production, gametes, and genetic continuity.
16. Look at the dividing cells in Figure 5.26
a) Is the organism an animal or a plant? Explain your
answer.
b) Identify the stage of division in cell A.
c) Identify the stage of division in cell B.
d) Identify the stage of division in cell C.
FIGURE XX
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
17. The oxygen-carrying red blood cells in our bodies are
replaced approximately every 120 days. New cells are
produced in the red bone marrow by mitosis. Calculate
how many red blood cells are produced each day. Blood
contains about 5 million red blood cells per
cubic millimetre and an average person has about 5 L
(5000 cm3) of blood in their body. To calculate this value,
determine the number of red blood cells in the body and
assume that this number would be totally replaced over
a 120-day span.
18. Suppose that during meiosis I, the paternal chromosomes
always went to one pole and the maternal chromosomes
always went to the other. How would this affect the
genetic variability of the offspring? Would children tend
to look more like the parents? Explain.
19. Following fertilization in multicellular organisms, a
zygote divides rapidly by mitosis in a process called
cleavage. If this were the only process to occur in
development, the distinctive characteristics of each
species would never develop. The developing embryo
must also undergo differentiation. Research an expla-
nation of how cells are directed to follow the various
routes of differentiation. Present your research in a writ-
ten report that includes flowcharts and diagrams.
20. What would happen if the human zygote received any
23 chromosomes from each parent rather than one of
each homologous pair?
Making Connections
21. An increased risk of contracting cancer has been linked
to both hereditary and environmental factors. List the
environmental factors that are thought to increase a per-
son’s risk. Which of these factors can be reduced by a
change in lifestyle? Which can’t? Where could you ob-
tain information about each environmental factor that
you have listed? How does society deal differently with
the hereditary aspect of cancer risk?
22. Statistics show that approximately one in six couples in
North America have difficulty in conceiving and/or car-
rying a child to term. State several reasons for this high
incidence of infertility in society today. What methods are
available today to help these couples have children?
23. The incidence of lung cancer in North America has risen
significantly since the 1930s. In the 1930s and 1940s
there were many causes suspected for this increase. At
the time, there was a notion that smoking may be re-
sponsible for the increase. Science, however, is not based
on notions. How did science ultimately clarify the link
between smoking and an increased incidence of cancer?
(Note: Today the area of science investigating possible
links like this is called epidemiology.)
24. Why is knowledge of asexual and sexual reproduction
so important to scientists working in the fields of agri-
culture and horticulture today?
25. Asexual reproduction methods produce clones of the par-
ent organism. A knowledge of these methods has existed
for many years. Why is the topic of cloning much more
controversial today than it was 20 years ago?
CHAPTER 5 Cell Reproduction 151
 CHAPTER 6

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Genetics and Heredity
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe and explain the process of
discovery that led Mendel to
formulate his laws of heredity (6.1)
L ikeness between human parents and offspring has intrigued scientists and
physicians through the ages. Descriptions of many physical characteris-
tics, which we now know to be inherited, have been documented for thou-
 explain, using Mendelian genetics, sands of years. However, these descriptions were almost always given without
the concepts of dominance, any insight into how the characteristics were inherited. For example, ancient
co-dominance, incomplete
dominance, recessiveness, and
linkage (6.1, 6.2, 6.3)
 solve basic genetic problems
involving monohybrid crosses,
incomplete dominance,
co-dominance, dihybrid crosses,
using the Punnett square method
(6.2, 6.3)
 explain how the concepts of
chromosomes and meiosis account
for the transmission of hereditary
characteristics (6.2)
 predict the outcome of various
genetic crosses (6.2)
 compile qualitative and
quantitative data from a laboratory
investigation on monohybrid and
dihybrid crosses, and present the
results. (Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
 summarize the main scientific
discoveries of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries that led to the
modern concept of the gene. (6.1,
6.2, 6.3)

FIGURE 6.1 A Inheritance of physical characteristics is obvious in parents and their offspring.

152
Egyptians made statues of very short individuals with short extremities and
unusually shaped skulls, which we now recognize as the characteristics of an
inherited disorder called achondroplasia. These statues preceded descrip-
tions of this disorder in scientific literature by some 3000 years.
The tendency for a defect to recur within families went apparently un-
noticed for generations. One wide-spread explanation of malformations in a
newborn was the idea of “maternal impressions.” If the mother saw some
ugly or frightening sight during her pregnancy, it might influence the devel-
opment of her unborn baby. For this reason, many mothers in ancient Greece
spent their time gazing at beautiful statues around the city, hoping that the
features of their unborn infants would be as attractive.
Probably the earliest inkling that diseases could be inherited through fam-
ilies is recorded in ancient Hebrew writings, where it was stated that broth-
ers and male cousins of boys with bleeding disorders were not to be
circumcised. Obviously, some implications about the inheritance of hemophilia
were recognized.
It is only in the last 50 years or so that we have truly understood how
these family traits are passed from generation to generation. The explana-
tion of this transmission of traits is the basis of the branch of science called
genetics, the study of heredity. When Gregor Mendel outlined his now-
famous laws of heredity in the 1800s, he had no knowledge of chromosomes
and the process of meiosis. Today, knowledge of the process of meiosis is key
to our understanding of the inheritance of traits. Mendel’s laws and the pat-
terns he described can be used to explain inheritance through dominance,
co-dominance, incomplete dominance, recessiveness, and X-linkage. They
also explain the patterns of inheritance of many human genetic disorders.

Discovering Biology
A Human Characteristic
Hold your thumb and hand in a position that you would use if you were hitch-
hiking. Note the shape of your thumb. If the last joint of your thumb bends
backwards you have inherited a “hitchhiker’s thumb.” If it does not bend
backwards then your thumb is described as being “straight.” Pool the data
for your whole class.
 How many of your classmates are “hitchhikers” and how many are CHECKPOINT
“straight”? The inheritance pattern of this trait is explained by a simple
scheme of inheritance first outlined by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. Scientific discovery is a
Although the inheritance of many traits in humans is complex, numer- process that follows a
ous traits can be explained using Mendel’s patterns of inheritance. particular method—the
scientific method. In a
 If you were to study seven of these types of traits in your classmates, sequence diagram, show
where each student is described in one of two ways for each trait, how the steps involved in
many different combinations of traits would exist for the seven traits that researching a hypothesis.
you study? Research-
ing a
 Would you expect any two of your classmates to possess the same com- Hypothesis
bination of traits for the seven studied? Explain your answer.

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 153

 6.1 The Origins of Genetics
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain why Mendel’s attempts to explain inheritance patterns were successful
 describe the steps in Mendel’s work
 use correct terminology to explain dominance, recessiveness and Mendel’s laws of
inheritance
Many early attempts to explain patterns
of inheritance suggested that traits were
determined by the blending of infor-
mation received from both parents.
Today geneticists know that this is not
the case. Hereditary information is
passed from generation to generation in
distinct packets called genes. It is pos-
sible that some genes may not be ex-
pressed for several generations but
remain intact as distinct units that can
then appear as their information is ex-
pressed in future generations.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, controlled experiments delving
into inheritance patterns were restricted
or frowned upon by the general popula-
tion and in particular by religious groups.
The use of quick breeding and prolific an-
FIGURE 6.2 Every organism inherits certain traits from its parents. What traits do
you think the baby moose inherited from its mother?
154 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
imals such as rats and mice was not ac-
ceptable: that would be breeding vermin!
What about plants? Their pollination
could be controlled easily, but no one used
plants for scientific purposes before 1750.
One of the major stumbling blocks was
that scientists of the time had to become
accustomed to the notion that plants had
sex! Religious naturalists who expected
to learn good morals from nature wrote
of their surprise in finding such an abun-
dance of pollen grains (males) and so
few seed chambers (females). In spite of
a “doubting society” and religious re-
strictions, written accounts of inheritance
patterns started to appear more fre-
quently in the 18th century.
In the 1800s there were numerous
attempts made to account for the trans-
mission of specific traits from one gen-
eration to the next. One of the most
strongly supported explanations was that
there was some information in the blood
of both parents that was mixed at con-
ception. Therefore offspring would be
expected to show some combination of
parental features. Although this belief
was eventually discounted, we still use
the term “bloodline” to indicate rela-
tionship between two individuals. This
concept was not based on careful scien-
tific observation and experiment.
Although our knowledge of inheri-
tance patterns has expanded rapidly in
the last 200 years, a great deal of debate
still exists when people consider expla-
nations of heredity. Differing opinions
also exist when society considers the
ethics of the many possible applications
of genetic knowledge.
Mendel’s Success and several plants, he centred his at- INFOBIT
tention on the common pea plant, Pisum
It is believed that the first scientific at-
sativum. Because the common pea plant Most of society in the 1860s
tempt to explain the scheme of inheri- supported two notions about
is normally self-pollinating, Mendel
tance was made in the middle of the inheritance. The blending
found it easy to control the parental
nineteenth century by a Moravian monk theory of inheritance
crosses. (See Figure 6.4.) In addition, suggested that the “seeds”
named Gregor Mendel. Mendel spent
this annual plant was easily grown and that controlled hereditary traits
several years at the University of Vienna
matured quickly, producing many seeds. were blended together from
studying science in order to become a generation to generation.
In this way, many generations could be
high school teacher. He eventually re- Pangenesis suggested that
studied over a relatively short period of
turned to a monastery in what is now hereditary traits could be
time. Most important was the fact that modified throughout a person’s
the Czech Republic, where he performed
pea plants show several pairs of obvi- lifetime. If a person practised
his famous experiments in genetics.
ous, contrasting traits. For example, a particular skill throughout his
Mendel’s success in demonstrating or her lifetime then his or her
some plants grow tall while others are
the basis of heredity is not surprising. offspring would inherit the
dwarf plants and some have round,
He was armed with some of the most ad- improvement in this skill. The
smooth seeds while others have wrin- work of Gregor Mendel would
vanced scientific and mathematical
kled seeds. These contrasting traits are eventually refute both of
knowledge of the day. He knew that du-
shown in Figure 6.5. these notions.
plicating his experimental crosses thou-
sands of times would lend validity to his
results and his explanations as well.
Mendel’s applications of mathematics,
and in particular of probability, were
rare in the field of science in the mid-
1800s. However, a consideration of prob-
ability strengthened his work. Although
Mendel observed crosses in mice, bees,
a) Stamens
removed from
purple flower

b) Pollen from
stamens of white
flower transferred with paint
bush to carpel of purple flower

c) Seeds set and mature

as peas in the pod

d) Plant these peas

e) Examine F1
generation: all purple

FIGURE 6.3 Moravian monk and naturalist FIGURE 6.4 Mendel was able to control the crosses of different varieties of pea
Gregor Mendel is often referred to as “the plants by using an artist’s brush to transfer pollen (the male sex cell) from one plant
Father of Genetics.” to the egg-bearing carpal of another plant. The seeds produced in this cross could
then be planted to observe the next generation.

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 155

 Plants that produced seeds that grew
Character
Dominant Trait Recessive Trait into plants identical to the parent were
Studied
termed pure-breeding. Mendel also
chose among his pure breeding lines to
set up his crosses. He used lines that
had the same viability. This meant that
the different lines could be expected
Stem Length Tall Dwarf
to produce approximately the same
number of plants for every 100 seeds
planted. This was important for his
mathematical analysis of results.
Mendel understood the value of hav-
Seed Shape Smooth Wrinkled ing controls in his experiments. For this
reason he began by studying crosses
Seed Color Yellow Green
between pure-breeding plants that were
different for only one contrasting pair
of traits. These parent plants were
Inflated Wrinkled called the parent generation or the
Pod Shape P generation. When crossing a pure tall
plant with a pure dwarf one, all the re-
sulting plants were called hybrids. All
Green Yellow of the hybrids in this first filial
Pod Color (offspring) generation, called the
F1 generation, were tall. There was not
one dwarf plant in the F1 generation.
Flower
(See Figure 6.6.)
Purple White The same pattern was observed in
Color
the crosses involving the other con-
trasting characteristics. For example,
when purebred plants with round seeds
were crossed with purebred plants with
Flower wrinkled seeds, only round-seeded
On stem At tip
Position plants resulted in the F 1 . Although
Mendel wasn’t surprised by these re-
sults, other researchers in the 1800s
would have predicted that the F1 gen-
FIGURE 6.5 This chart illustrates the seven pea plant characteristics studied by
Mendel. Note that the two forms of each trait are easily distinguished from one
eration would display an intermediate
another. phenotype such as medium height. Since
the traits of tallness and round seeds
Mendel’s Experiments seemed to dominate the traits of dwarf-
Mendel eventually identified and used the ness and wrinkled seeds, Mendel called
seven pairs of contrasting traits shown them the dominant traits. The trait that
in Figure 6.5. Observable characteristics was not expressed in the F, he called the
or traits are called phenotypes. Mendel recessive trait. (See Figure 6.6.)
spent several years self-pollinating the Next, Mendel crossed his F1 gener-
pea plants in order to establish pure ation plants. He wished to determine if
lines or purebred plants. Tall plants the F1 tall plants were identical to the
were repeatedly self-fertilized until P generation tall plants. If they were
Mendel was sure that he had tall plants identical, then an F1 cross would produce
that would yield only seeds that would only tall plants. Mendel found that the
produce tall plants. The same process resulting F2 generation (second filial
was carried out with the dwarf plants. generation) yielded about three tall

156 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

plants for each dwarf plant, a mathe- TABLE 6.1 Results of Mendel’s Crosses.
matical ratio of 3:1. This meant that the
hybrid tall plants were somehow differ- Character- Dominant Recessive F2 generation Mathematical
istic Trait Trait Dominant: Ratio
ent from the purebred tall plants. (See
Recessive
Figure 6.6.) Mendel carefully repeated this
experiment for each of the other six pairs Flower colour purple white 705:224 3.15:1
of contrasting traits. In every case the re- Flower position on stem-axial at tip-terminal 651:207 3.14:1
sults were similar. The F2 generation dis-
played a phenotypic ratio very close to Seed colour yellow green 6022:2001 3.01:1
3:1. For each of the seven traits studied, Seed shape smooth/round wrinkled 5747:1850 2.96:1
3/4 of the F2 generation exhibited the
Pod shape inflated wrinkled 882:299 2.95:1
dominant trait and 1/4 exhibited the re-
cessive trait. His findings are summarized Pod colour green yellow 428:152 2.82:1
in Table 6.1. The average ratio for all of
Stem length tall dwarf 787:287 2.84:1
the traits in the F2 generation was 3:1.

Mendel’s Law of Segregation separate into different reproductive cells. INFOBIT

Mendel observed a very obvious pattern
in his experimental results. He now at-
tempted to account for this pattern by
describing a mechanism of inheritance.
He suggested that units of inheritance,
which he called factors, were involved.
We now call these factors genes. For any
given characteristic, there were several
different forms of these genes. These dif-
ferent forms are now called alleles. For
example, the gene for plant height has
two different alleles, a dominant tall
allele and a recessive dwarf allele.
Mendel could not account for his results
if each plant had only one factor that de-
termined its phenotype. He suggested
that each plant’s phenotype was deter-
mined by a pair of alleles that could be
identical or different. Once Mendel es-
tablished this key idea, he was able to
make generalizations about heredity.
From his numerical results, he saw
that one allele of a pair has the ability
to express itself while the second one
is not expressed. The allele expressed in
the F 1 is dominant, the allele not ex-
pressed in the F1 is recessive. If a pea
plant possesses one of each of the alle-
les for height, it will be tall. The only way
for a plant to develop as a dwarf plant is
if both of its alleles are the recessive type.
Mendel suggested that when sex
cells or gametes are produced, the mem-
bers of each pair of alleles segregate or
A gamete could contain an allele for tall-
ness or an allele for dwarfness, but not Inheritance in animals as well
as plants can be explained
both. When fertilization occurs, these al-
by the principles discovered
leles unite to give the zygote the neces- by Mendel. The first
sary pair of alleles. demonstration of this came in
1902 from William Bateson’s
Mendel’s Law of Segregation: mem- experiments with chickens.
Bateson was the first person
bers of a pair of alleles for a given trait
to use the term genetics.
are segregated (separated) when ga-
metes are formed.
So far we have only referred to the
observable traits in pea plants, the phe-
notypes. Once Mendel had formulated the WORDORIGIN
law of segregation he was able to describe
the gene makeup, or genotype, of a plant Genotype from the Greek,
or a gamete. Mendel used letters of the genos meaning “race or kind”
and tupos meaning “model” or
alphabet to represent genes. Capital let-
“pattern”
ters represent the dominant allele and Phenotype from the Greek
lower case letters represent the recessive phainein meaning “to show”
allele. For example, the allele for tallness or “to appear” and tupos
would typically be represented by T and meaning “model” or “pattern”
the dwarf allele by t.
We can now describe Mendel’s
experiments genotypically. Purebred tall
plants would be represented by TT and
purebred dwarf plants by tt. Genotypes
with identical alleles are called
homozygous. When segregation oc-
curs in these P generation plants, the sex
cells of the TT plants would contain only
one dominant allele while those of
the tt plants would contain only one
recessive allele, . After fertilization

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 157

Generation Genotypes Phenotypes
In the next generation, when two
heterozygous F1 plants are crossed in
what is termed a hybrid or monohybrid
Parental cross, each F1 plant produces two types
P Cross of gametes, and . This produces
different results from the original P gen-
t all  dwarf TT  tt eration cross. Figure 6.6 illustrates
both purebred homozygous  homozygous theoretically why we would expect 3/4
of the F2 generation to appear tall and
1/4 dwarf, as Mendel observed. Thus the
expected phenotypic ratio resulting from
tall  dwarf the F 1 cross is 3:1 (3 tall for every 1
Gametes
all T all t dwarf) while the expected genotypic ratio
formed
is 1:2:1 (1 homozygous tall: 2 heterozy-
gous tall: 1 homozygous dwarf).
Tt
F1 heterozygous F1 – all tall hybrids
Mendel’s Law of Independent
Assortment
Once Mendel established that the pat-
Dominance is
operating.
tern of dominance and segregation was
followed by all seven pairs of contrast-
F1 Cross Tt  Tt F1 Cross – a monohybrid cross ing traits, he turned his attention to what
would happen if more than one pair of
Gametes characteristics were used in a cross. He
T t T t began with a P generation cross in-
formed Law of Segregation in effect
volving a dwarf plant with purebred
round seeds (ttRR) and a purebred tall
plant with wrinkled seeds (TTrr). As a
result of this series of experiments
Mendel outlined his second major law.
TT Tt Tt tt
F2 homo- heteto- heteto- homo- Law of Independent Assortment: When
zygous zygous zygous zygous two or more pairs of characteristics
are considered at one time, each pair
shows dominance and segregation
independently of the other.
3/4 tall 1/4 dwarf

In the P generation cross, each

Ratio in F2 Genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 Phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1
1TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt 3 tall : 1 dwarf
FIGURE 6.6 A summary of Mendel’s cross involving tall and dwarf pea plants. T
represents the tall allele and t the dwarf allele.
occurs, we can see that there is only one
Investigation F1 combination possible, Tt. This nicely
Refer to page 182, accounts for the F1 generation all look-
Investigation 2 ing the same (tall). These hybrid plants
in the F1 generation that possess a geno-
type with different alleles are said to
be heterozygous. (See Figure 6.6.)
parent plant can produce only one type
of gamete. The first plant produces
gametes with a genotype of and
the second plant produces ga-
metes with genotype of . The only
genotype possible in the F1 generation
is TtRr (a dihybrid). All F1 generation
plants are tall with round seeds. Mendel
then crossbred two of these F1 plants in
what is termed a dihybrid cross,
TtRr  TtRr. His Law of Independent
Assortment would allow each parent
plant to produce four different gamete

158 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

combinations, , , and . P generation Investigation
When two F1 plants were crossed, 16 or Refer to page 180,
(4  4) combinations had to be consid- Investigation 1
ered. Mendel observed an F2 generation smooth wrinkled
yellow green
with 9/16 of the plants tall with round
seeds (2 dominant traits), 3/16 tall with
cross- WEBLINK
pollination
wrinkled seeds (1 dominant and 1 re- x
Do research on the Internet to
cessive trait), 3/16 dwarf with round find out more about Mendel
seeds (1 recessive and 1 dominant trait), and the history of genetics.
and 1/16 dwarf with wrinkled seeds (2 F1 generation Complete a summary page of
recessive traits). the information that you locate.
Begin your research at:
This ratio of F 2 phenotypes of
100% smooth yellow www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
9:3:3:1 is found in all dihybrid crosses
that involve fully dominant and self-fertilization
recessive alleles. Figure 6.7 shows the
result for the dihybrid cross of smooth F2 generation
FIGURE 6.7 In one dihybrid
yellow seeds with wrinkled green seeds.
cross, Mendel crossed plants
Mendel’s laws are summarized in that had smooth yellow seeds
Table 6.2. with plants that had green
Mendel first presented his findings wrinkled seeds. All the F1
in 1865 to the Natural Science Society plants had smooth yellow
seeds. When he crossed two
and published his formal paper shortly
315 101 108 32 of these F1 plants in a dihy-
thereafter. It was ignored for the most 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 brid cross, the F2 generation
part because at that time few scientists smooth wrinkled smooth wrinkled had phenotypes in the ratio
could grasp the mathematical reasoning yellow yellow green green 9:3:3:1.
and implications of his research. It is in-
teresting to note that at that time the
work of Charles Darwin in his On the
Origin of Species (published 1859) had
scientists looking at the importance of out by three prominent scientists, Carl
gradual change and small differences in- Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich von
stead of sharp discontinuities such as Tschermak led to the same conclusions
those seen in Mendel’s tall and dwarf that Mendel had come to. Gregor Mendel
peas. The significance of Mendel’s re- died without knowing that one day his
sults was not realized until after 1900, explanations would become the basis of
when independent experiments carried our understanding of genetics.

TABLE 6.2 Mendel’s Laws

Mendel’s Laws

Mendel’s First Law – The Law of Segregation

During gamete formation two alleles of a gene pair segregate or separate from each other. A het-
erozygous plant that is Tt forms gametes that are and in equal numbers. The gametes are not
a blend of the two traits.

Mendel’s Second Law – The Law of Independent Assortment

Segregation for different pairs of alleles occurs independently. A plant that is heterozygous for two
pairs of alleles, for example Tt Rr, can form four types of gametes: , , and .

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 159


INFOBIT
The Punnett Square approach
to genetic problems is named
for the geneticist Punnett who,
with his colleague Bateson,
investigated the genetics of
chickens in the early years of
the 20th century.
WORD ORIGIN
Allele, a shortened form of the
term allelomorph, from the
Greek allele meaning “one an-
other” and “morphe” meaning
“form”
160 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Section 6.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Describe an explanation of heredity
common in the 1800s that was not
based on proper scientific observation
and experiment.
2. Explain why Gregor Mendel was suc-
cessful when others had failed in their
attempts to explain inheritance. List
five reasons for Mendel’s success.
3. What are purebred pea plants? How did
Mendel ensure that he had a purebred
pea plant?
4. Distinguish between the following pairs
of terms:
a) dominant and recessive
b) phenotype and genotype
c) heterozygous and homozygous
5. What is a monohybrid cross? What
phenotypic and genotypic ratios result
from such a cross?
6. State the two laws formulated by
Gregor Mendel.
6.2 Genetic Analysis
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 understand how Punnett squares can be used to illustrate Mendel’s findings
 construct Punnett squares to solve problems involving monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
 explain the importance of meiosis to the inheritance patterns outlined by Mendel.
Punnett squares illustrate the possible
outcomes (offspring) of a particular
cross. They aid in understanding and
clarifying difficult concepts. Consider the
Punnett squares given below as you read
the text material.
Constructing
Punnett Squares
Mendel’s experiments began with a cross
between a purebred tall plant (TT) and
a purebred dwarf plant (tt). These
7. What is a dihybrid cross? What
phenotypic and genotypic ratios result
from such a cross?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Explain how Mendel’s Law of
Segregation is actually based on meio-
sis. Use diagrams to illustrate your
answer.
9. In a flow chart, outline the process of
experimentation used by Mendel.
Making Connections
10. Why do you think it was so difficult for
society of Mendel’s time to grasp and
accept his explanations of heredity?
11. If Mendel’s findings had been accepted
immediately, do you think that our
knowledge of genetics and genetic tech-
nologies would be more advanced
today? Outline several points to sup-
port your argument.
parental genotypes are indicated on two
sides of the square. The possible geno-
types of the gametes of each parent are
then placed on the exterior of the
squares as indicated. This number of dif-
ferent types of gametes possible from
each parent determines the dimensions
of the Punnett square. The 1  1 Punnett
square in Figure 6.8 is the simplest
Punnett possible. The possible combi-
nations of gametes following fertilization
are shown within the grid of the Punnett.
In this cross because each parent
produces only one type of gamete, all
members of the F1 generation have the
genotype Tt.
A 1 × 1 Punnett Square: The P generation
cross Consider the cross TT × tt. The
steps to set up the Punnett square are:
1. Determine the parental genotypes—
TT and tt.
2. Determine the genotypes of the ga-
metes that are possible, and
. Therefore a 1 × 1 Punnett is
required.
3. Fill in the interior and interpret the
genotype and phenotype of the next
generation.
tt
Gametes
t
TT Gametes T Tt
Tall
FIGURE 6.8 A 1  1 Punnett square. All the
F1 plants will be Tt genotype and show the tall
phenotype.
A 2 × 2 Punnett Square: The F1 generation
cross If two F1 plants are considered in
a cross, a 2 × 2 Punnett square is
required.
Consider the cross Tt × Tt. The steps
to set up the Punnett square are:
1. Determine the genotypes: both are
heterozygous tall parent plants, so
the genotype is Tt.
2. Determine possible genotypes of ga-
metes. Two types are possible from
each parent, or . This de-
termines that the Punnett is 2 × 2.
3. Fill in the genotypes and phenotypes
of the F2 generation and interpret.
Tt
Gametes
T t
T TT Tt
Tall Tall
Tt
Gametes
t Tt tt
Tall Dwarf
FIGURE 6.9 A 2  2 Punnett square
Phenotypic ratio (tall:dwarf) = 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio (TT:Tt:tt) = 1 : 2 : 1
The Sutton-Boveri
Hypothesis
The rediscovery of Mendel’s work
around the turn of the twentieth century,
together with cytological studies of meio-
sis, led scientists to the understanding
that the segregation of Mendel’s factors
mirrored the movement of chromosomes
in meiosis. Contributions by a number
of investigators resulted in the Sutton-
Boveri hypothesis of 1902. This
hypothesis suggested that genes were
carried on the chromosomes and that
segregation and independent assortment
of factors were the results of the physi-
cal process of meiosis. The members of
pairs of alleles segregate or separate in-
dependently of other pairs of alleles dur-
ing gamete formation. The different
chromosome pairs also separate inde-
pendently of each other during meiosis
due to the random orientation of the
tetrads on the spindle at metaphase of
meiosis I. Sutton and Boveri’s chromo-
some theory of heredity was a major
breakthrough because it pointed out the
physical basis for Mendel’s rules.
Experimental data in support of this
hypothesis came a few years later when
in 1910, T. H. Morgan demonstrated that
the inheritance of a particular trait of
eye colour in male fruit flies was asso-
ciated with a particular chromosome.
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 161
 Discovering Biology Colour in Corn Kernels

Each kernel in an ear of genetic corn represents an offspring that resulted from a
separate fertilization. Working with a partner, count the number of purple and yel-
low kernel on an ear of genetic corn. Mark row 1 with a coloured pin or thumb-
tack and count along the rows in an orderly sequence.
 What ratio of purple to yellow kernels does your ear of corn have? Compare
your ratio with the ratios found by several other groups. Is there any agree-
ment between the ratios?

 Try to explain why your ear has more kernels of one colour and fewer of the
other. Compare your explanation with that of several other groups.

EXAMPLE 1
Single Trait Analysis
In humans, the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), T, is dominant to non-
tasting, t. Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios resulting from
a cross between a heterozygous taster and a non-taster.

Given: T is dominant to t. Therefore, a heterozygote is Tt and a non-taster is tt.

The parental genotypes are Tt and tt.

Required: The genotypic and phenotypic ratios expected in the offspring

Analysis:
• The cross is Tt  tt
• Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.

Solution:
T – tasting t – non-tasting parental genotypes – Tt and tt
Tt – produces 2 types of gametes – and with a probability of 1/2 for each
tt – produces only 1 type of gamete –

Punnett Square
Tt
Gametes

T 1/2 t 1/2
PRACTICE PROBLEM
tt t 1 Tt 1/2 tt 1/2
In humans, the allele A, for
Gametes
pigment formation is domi- Taster Non-taster
nant to the allele a, for in-
ability to form pigment. aa
individuals are albino.
Determine the expected geno- Two types of genotypes and phenotypes result in the F1 generation.
typic and phenotypic ratios
expected from a cross be- Statement:
tween two individuals het- Genotypic ratio – 1:1 (Tt : tt)
erozygous for this trait. Phenotypic ratio – 1:1 (tasters : non-tasters)

162 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

The Chromosomal Basis
of Heredity
Gregor Mendel had no knowledge of the
process of meiosis upon which to base
his explanations. Instead, his explana-
tions were based on extensive experi-
mentation and observation and a
knowledge of probability. Mendel did not
realize that his Law of Segregation was
actually a reflection of the division of ge-
netic information in the meiotic process
as homologous chromosomes separate
in the first meiotic division.
We now know that one of each of the
pairs of factors (genes) determining a
trait in the pea plant is located on each
chromosome of a homologous pair. Each
gene is found at a specific place or locus
on the chromosome. In this way, each
gamete can only contain one of the al-
leles of a gene for any given trait, because
each gamete contains only one of each
homologous pair of chromosomes.
If a pea plant with a Tt genotype
produced 400 gametes, meiosis would
T T
T
T
t
t
t t
prophase I anaphase I
FIGURE 6.10 The segregation of chromosomes and alleles. The gametes formed during
meiosis in a Tt plant will either contain T (probability of 1/ 2) or t (probability of 1/2 ). Notice
that each homologous chromosome has replicated and that pairing (synapsis) has occurred to
form the tetrad. The tetrad is made of two chromosomes each made up of two chromatids as
the chromosomes enter prophase 1.
produce 200 with the T allele and 200
with the t allele. We can describe this in
terms of probability. Because half of the
gametes produced contain the T allele,
there is a probability of 1/2 that this gene
will be passed on by a Tt parent plant.
The results of gamete formation in a Tt
plant are illustrated in Figure 6.10. Pea
plants contain seven homologous pairs
of chromosomes, but only the pair car-
rying the gene for height is shown in
Figure 6.10.
Of the gametes produced, 1/2 carry
the allele T, 1/2 carry the allele t.
Many genetics problems can be
solved using a paper-and-pencil method
that follows a sound scientific approach.
Once you have clearly identified the
letter codes that you are going to use to
represent the different forms of genes,
you can develop a hypothesis, an edu- WEBLINK
cated guess, to explain the results ob-
served. Then the data can be interpreted For links to sites that show
in a Punnett square and inferences can examples of genetic analysis
using Punnett squares, go to
be drawn. Note the steps in reasoning
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
used in Example 2.
T 1/2 with T
T
T
t
t 1/2 with t
t
t
metaphase II gametes
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 163
 EXAMPLE 2
Recognizing Hybrids
A geneticist crosses two parent plants that have the dominant trait of purple
flowers. When the resulting seeds are planted the geneticist observes that 145 of
the F1 plants have the recessive trait of yellow flowers and 430 of the F1 plants
have purple flowers. How can you explain these results? What are the genotypes
of the parent plants and the F1 plants?

Given: F (purple flowers) is dominant to f (yellow flowers). Both of the P1 plants

possess at least one F gene: F__ × F__

Required: The genotypes of the parents and F1 plants

Analysis:
• The key to this question is the appearance of the ff (yellow plants) in the F1.
• Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.

Solution:
The appearance of the recessive trait in the phenotype of the F1 plants can only
occur if they are homozygous recessive (ff). This can only happen if both of the pur-
ple parent plants are heterozygous and each parent contributed the recessive
allele to these yellow plants. In addition, recognize that the ratio of purple plants
to yellow plants is approximately 3:1. This ratio indicates a monohybrid cross.

Ff
Gametes

F 1/2 f 1/2

F 1/2 FF 1/4 Ff 1/4

Ff
Gametes
f 1/2 Ff 1/4 ff 1/4
PRACTICE PROBLEM (145 given)

In mice, G for grey coat colour

is dominant to g. The gg indi-
viduals are black. Two grey
mice are mated to produce
nine grey mice and two black
mice. Explain these results.
Statement:
These observations are the result of a monohybrid cross. Both parents are
Ff. The 145 F1 plants with yellow flowers are homozygous recessive (ff) while
the 430 F1 plants with purple flowers are either heterozygous (Ff) or ho-
mozygous dominant (FF). You would expect 1/3 of the purple-flowered plants
to be homozygous dominant and 2/3 to be heterozygous. This prediction is
based on the Mendelian genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.

A 4 × 4 Punnett square for a dihybrid cross , , , and . This result is sim-

When Mendel made a dihybrid cross
involving two pea plants with the geno-
types TtRr, he used his Law of
Independent Assortment to account for
the production of four different gametes,
ply a reflection of how genetic material
that is carried on chromosomes sepa-
rates in meiosis. As long as the genes for
plant height (T,t) and seed type (R,r) are
on different homologous pairs of

164 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

chromosomes, gamete formation occurs TtRr
as illustrated in Figure 6.12. Gametes
The gametes formed by a TtRr plant
could contain (probability of 1/4 ),
( probability of 1/4), (probability TR Tr tR tr
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
of 1/4) or (probability of 1/4). The
combinations produced are determined
by the way the tetrads line up during TR 1/4 TTRR TTRr TtRR TtRr
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
metaphase in meiosis I. Note that we
must consider two different outcomes
where each outcome has an equal chance Tr 1/4 TTRr TTrr TtRr Ttrr
TtRr 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
of occurring as shown in Figure 6.12.
The results of this dihybrid cross can Gametes
also be summarized in a Punnett square. tR 1/4
TtRR TtRr ttRR ttRr
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
This Punnett square is illustrated in
Figure 6.11. The fractions included rep-
resent the probability or chance of the TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
tr 1/4
formation of a particular gamete by a 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
parent plant or a particular genotype in
a plant in the next generation.
FIGURE 6.11 A 4  4 Punnett square The expected phenotypes in the
The 16 inside squares in the Punnett F2 generation of a dihybrid cross are: 9/16 tall round plants
square in Figure 6.11 represent the geno- 3/16 tall wrinkled plants
types of the F2 generation for Mendel’s 3/16 dwarf round plants
dihybrid cross. If you consider each F2 1/16 dwarf wrinkled plants
individual phenotypically, then the ex-
pected phenotypes can be determined.

line of first gametes

meiotic division produced

T T
T T t t

R R 1/4

meiosis
t t

r r 1/4

R R r r

T T t t T T

r r 1/4

meiosis
t t FIGURE 6.12 Segregation
of genes and random assort-
R R 1/4 ment of chromosomes in
r r R R meiosis in a dihybrid
organism.

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and

Heredity 165
 The Test Cross dividual, whose genotype is being tested,
to a recessive individual. The recessive
The validity of any scientific theory is seen
individual must be homozygous and so
through experiments based on that the-
can only produce one type of gamete.
ory. Mendel was able to verify his pre-
To test one of his dihybrid tall, round
diction of independent assortment by the
plants Mendel crossed it to a dwarf,
use of test crosses, sometimes called back
wrinkled plant. The dwarf, wrinkled
FIGURE 6.13 The Punnett crosses. A test cross is the cross of an in-
square for the test cross of plant showed both recessive traits and
the recessive homozygous ttrr so its genotype was known to be ttrr. The
to the dihybrid, TtRr TtRr (tall, round) cross is TtRr  ttrr. The dihybrid can
Gametes produce four types of gamete while the
TR Tr tR tr homozygous recessive produces only one
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 type, as shown in Figure 6.13.
TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
ttrr (dwarf, wrinkled) tr 1/4 The genotypic and phenotypic ratios
Gametes 1/4 Tall, 1/4 Tall, 1/4 Dwarf, 1/4 Dwarf,
Round Wrinkled Round Wrinkled in the offspring of a test cross are
1:1:1:1.

EXAMPLE 3
Questions Involving More Than One Trait
In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. What fraction of F1 mice would you predict to have grey coats
and short tails when a male ggTt parent is crossed with a female GGtt parent?

Given: G is dominant to g. T is dominant to t. Therefore:

GG or Gg – grey coat g g– white coat TT or Tt – long tail tt – short tail

Required: The fraction of F1 mice expected to have grey coats and short tails;
that is, to be of genotypes GGtt or Ggtt

Analysis:
PRACTICE PROBLEM • The cross is ggTt  GGtt.
• Produce a Punnett square.
In pea plants tall (T) is domi-
nant to dwarf (t) and round
seeds (R) is dominant to wrin- Solution:
kled seeds (r). Use a Punnett The ggTt parent produces two types of gametes – and
square to determine what The GGtt parent produces only one type of gamete –
fraction of the offspring pro- The dimensions of the Punnett square are 2  1.
duced in each of the following ggTt
crosses you would expect to Male gametes
be tall with wrinkled seeds.
gT 1/2 gt 1/2
a) TtRr  TtRr (This is a di-
hybrid cross! Use your GGtt Female Gt 1 GgTt 1/2 Ggtt 1/2
ratios.) gametes
b) TtRr  ttrr Grey long Grey short
c) TtRr  TTRr
d) TtRr  Ttrr Statement:
e) TtRr  ttRr In the F1 mice that are produced, half of the mice will be expected to have
f) TTrr  ttRR the genotype Ggtt and as a result, half of the F1 mice will exhibit the grey
coat and short tail phenotype combination.

166 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

A knowledge of probability is important
in any analysis of genetic crosses.
Probability means the ratio of the num-
ber of times a desired event is expected
to occur to the total number of events.
Section 6.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. How can Punnett squares be used to
illustrate Mendel’s findings?
2. How many different types of gametes
would each of the following parent
plants be capable of producing? List
the possible combinations.
a) TT b) Tt c) TtRr d) TTrr
e) ttRr f) TtRrSs (a trihybrid)
3. What determines the dimensions of a
Punnett square? State the dimensions
of a Punnett for:
a) a monohybrid cross
b) a dihybrid cross
c) a trihybrid cross
d) a cross: AaBbcc x aabbCc
4. Use diagrams to explain the relation-
ship between independent assortment
of genes in a dihybrid cross and ran-
dom assortment of chromosomes dur-
ing meiosis, if the genes are carried on
different chromosomes.
5. How might family practitioners use
Punnett squares as a tool to explain
inheritance patterns to patients and pa-
tients’ families?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. The product rule of probability states
that the probability of a series of events
occurring simultaneously is the prod-
uct of each of the individual probabil-
ities. Use this rule to calculate the
probability of each of the following:
a) The probability of an AaBbCcDd
parent producing a gamete with the
genotype ABCD
b) The probability of an AabbccDd par-
ent producing a gamete with the
genotype Abcd
7. In humans, the ability to taste PTC, T,
is dominant to non-tasting, t.
Determine the expected genotypic and
phenotypic ratio resulting from a cross
between:
For example the probability of picking a
king from a deck of cards is 4/52 = 1/13.
This means that we expect to pick a king
from a deck of cards 1 in 13 times.
a) a homozygous taster and a non-
taster
b) two heterozygous tasters
c) a heterozygous taster and a ho-
mozygous taster
8. In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant
to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. The genes for the
two traits are located on different chro-
mosomes. What fraction of F1 mice re-
sulting from each of the following
crosses would you expect to have grey
coats and short tails?
a) Ggtt × Ggtt
b) ggtt × GGtt
c) GgTt × GgTt
d) GgTt × ggTt
9. For the “A” trait, A is dominant to a
and for the “B” trait, B is dominant to
b. The genes for the two traits are lo-
cated on different chromosomes.
Construct a Punnett square to show the
results of a cross between parents with
genotypes Aabb (parent #1) and AaBb
(parent #2). Determine each of the fol-
lowing:
a) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
pected to have the same genotype
as parent #1?
b) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
pected to have the same phenotype
as parent #2?
c) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
pect to be dihybrid?
10. In a certain animal black fur (B) is
dominant to white fur (b). Two black-
furred animals produced 51 white -
furred and 147 black-furred offspring.
What were the probable genotypes of
the parents? What fraction of the black-
furred offspring would you expect to
be heterozygous? Why?
Making Connections
11. In your opinion, should all family prac-
titioners have a general background in
genetics? Explain.
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 167
 6.3 Genetics After Mendel
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe incomplete dominance and co-dominance

 explain the inheritance of blood types in the ABO blood group system in humans

 explain what is meant by multifactorial inheritance

 outline the effects of linkage and crossing over on inheritance patterns

 solve problems involving incomplete dominance and co-dominance

Mendel’s laws of segregation and inde-

pendent assortment established that the
two members of a gene pair separate in
the formation of the gametes and that
different gene pairs assort independently
RR rr
of each other. These principles are still Red White
the basis of our understanding of hered-
P
ity. The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that generation
genes are carried on chromosomes was
a physical explanation of Mendel’s rules.
It suggested a way to look for the ma-
terial basis of heredity. The combination
of these approaches has led to the
modern concept of the gene. Rr
100% pink
F1
generation
Incomplete Dominance
Mendel had used the concept of domi-
nance to explain his results in pea plants
but he saw instances in nature where
strict dominance did not apply. In other
species of plants that he experimented egg R R sperm
with, the patterns observed were dis-
tinctly different from those seen in the
pea, Pisum sativum. In one species of
r r
snapdragon, when he crossed white- RR
flowered plants with red-flowered plants,
the F1 plants that resulted were neither
red- nor white-flowered plants, as he Rr Rr
would have predicted. All of the F1 plants
were pink.
Under dominance the dominant F2
rr generation
allele can hide the expression of a re-
cessive allele in the heterozygous con-
dition. However, in the determination of 1 : 2 : 1
some traits, the different alleles of a gene red pink white
may be expressed in the heterozygous
FIGURE 6.14 Incomplete dominance. Notice
condition to produce an intermediate how the red and white phenotypes disappear in
phenotype. When neither gene is com- the F2 generation but reappear in the next
pletely dominant over the other, we say generation.

168 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

that there is incomplete dominance. One FIGURE 6.15 This close-up
of the clearest examples of incomplete of the roan coat found in
horses clearly shows that the
dominance is found in the colours of the
allele for red and the allele
same snapdragon flowers that puzzled for white have both been
Mendel. expressed. Some hairs are
Snapdragons are either red or white white while others are red.
in the homozygous conditions, RR and
rr. Neither colour dominates the other
when a pure red (RR) is crossed with a
pure white (rr). The F1 plants (Rr) show
an intermediate flower colour of pink.
In an RR plant, enough red pigment
protein is produced to give the flower a
red appearance but in the Rr plant there
is only sufficient red pigment produced
to make the flower appear pink.
is either completely white or completely
On the surface it would appear that
red. The two alleles have been expressed
the genetic information has been blended.
at the same time, a type of inheritance
However, if we cross two of these F 1 ,
termed co-dominance. In this condition,
plants (Rr) this idea is disproved. In the
neither allele dominates the expression
F 2 generation, white and red flowers
of the other. Capital letters with super-
reappear. See Figure 6.14. The alleles for
scripts or simply capitals are often used
red or white must remain as distinct
to represent genotypes when co-domi-
units. They came together in the F1 gen-
nance is in effect. A roan calf (RW or
eration, but then were able to separate
CRCW) results from crossing a white par-
in the F2 generation. The law of segre-
ent (WW or CWCW) with a red parent (RR
gation operates. The ratio of flower
or CRCR). If we cross two roan cows, then
colours observed in the F2 is a familiar
the phenotypic and genotypic ratios in
Mendelian ratio that can be explained in
the next generation will both be 1:2:1.
a Punnett square. If we breed two of the
Geneticists have identified that
pink plants from the F1 generation, we
human blood types in the ABO blood
observe a 1:2:1 phenotype ratio in the F2
group system show co-dominance. The
generation: 1 red flower to 2 pink flow-
possible blood types in this system are
ers to 1 white flower. The genotypic and
A, B, AB, and O. Your blood type in
phenotypic ratios that result from this
this system is determined by a pair of
cross are the same. We don’t observe this
alleles. In this case, however, there are
in cases where dominance is in effect.
three different alleles that may be found
Many traits in humans show incomplete
at the locus on either of the homologous
dominance. These include the inheritance
chromosomes. When there are more
of most hair, skin, and eye colours.
than two alleles possible for a given gene
(remember Mendel suggested that there
Co-dominance were two), the condition is termed
A slightly different form of inheritance is multiple allelism. Multiple alleleism re-
observed in horses and shorthorn cat- sults in a larger number of possible
tle where two alleles are expressed at the genotypic combinations and a greater
same time. If one parent is homozy- variety of phenotypes. However the prin-
gous red and the other homozygous ciple of segregation still operates.
white, the offspring will be a pinkish In human blood types the alleles for
colour termed “roan,” a blend of red and A (represented by IA) and B (represented
white. However, in this instance, each in- by I B ) are both co-dominant over the
dividual hair in the coat of the animal allele for O (represented by i). Neither IA

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 169

INFOBIT
Knowledge of another blood
group system, the Rh system, is
critical in preventing a poten-
tially life-threatening condition
in newborns called haemolytic
disease of the newborn (HDN).
This disease is more commonly
known as Rh disease. The late
Dr. Bruce Chown of the
University of Manitoba devel-
oped techniques for the diag-
nosis, treatment, and prevent-
ion of HDN. His work has
resulted in the prevention of
most Rh disease in Canada and
elsewhere in the world.
WEBLINK
Research to find examples of
nature/nurture studies that
have been carried out in the
last five years. Briefly outline
the purpose of each study,
the results, and the potential
applications of this information.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
FIGURE 6.16 Graphs to
demonstrate phenotype ex-
pression in simple Mendelian
inheritance versus multifacto-
rial inheritance.
a) Discontinuous distribution
of phenotypes occurs when
one pair of alleles showing
dominance is involved.
b) Continuous distribution of
phenotypes occurs in multi-
factorial inheritance.
170 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
nor IB can dominate the other. If a per-
son has the genotype IAIB, then his or
her phenotype is blood type AB. The pos-
sible genotypes and corresponding phe-
notypes in the ABO blood group system
are listed in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3 Co-dominance and Multiple Allelism
in the ABO Blood Group System
Genotype
IAIA or IAi
IBIB or lBi
IAIB
ii
Multifactorial Traits
In humans and other higher organisms,
most traits show a very wide range of
phenotypic expression. In large families,
characteristics such as height or hair
colour show a large number of different
phenotypes. Multiple allelism cannot ex-
plain this wide range of variation. The
term multifactorial is used for traits
whose phenotypic expression is con-
trolled by genes found at many loci. The
expression of a multifactorial trait is
often influenced by other contributing
factors (including the person’s internal
and external environments). Many mul-
tifactorial traits show a continuous dis-
tribution of phenotypes (for example,
heights from 140 cm to 200 cm for the
students in your school), while traits
100
Percent phenotype in F2
75
50
recessive
phenotype
25
0
aa
Distribution of phenotype
where only one pair of alleles is involved
show discontinuous distribution (for
example, tall or dwarf peas, red, pink,
or white flowers in snapdragons, or
blood types in the ABO system).
A satisfactory genetic interpretation
of traits with a wide range of expres-
sion was in fact first suggested by
Mendel. In addition to his famous
Phenotype experiments with peas, he performed
crosses between white and purple-red
Type A flowering beans. The hybrids had flow-
Type B ers with less intense coloration than the
purple-red parent. In the second gener-
Type AB
ation resulting from a hybrid cross,
Type 0 Mendel did not find two phenotypes in
a simple 3:1 ratio. Instead he obtained
a whole series of different colours, rang-
ing from white through pale violet to
purple-red. His tentative explanation was
that more than one pair of genes deter-
mined flower colour. Mendel realized
that other possible systems apart from
the complete dominance seen in pea
plants might exist. The hypothesis of
multifactorial inheritance was tested in
the early 1900s in an analysis of seed
pigmentation in wheat crosses. A multi-
genic model was perfected.
Gene Interactions and the
Effects of Environment
A more complete understanding of the
functions of our genes must include the
role of the environment. You have now
seen that in multifactorial traits several
genes can interact to produce what we
dominant average
phenotype phenotype
Number of individuals
AA or Aa Distribution of phenotype
perceive as a single characteristic. Some
genetics studies have identified alleles
that determine the same phenotype
under all external conditions. Other stud-
ies have shown that some alleles
produce different phenotypes under dif-
ferent external conditions. These exter-
nal conditions are termed “the
environment.” The extent to which a
characteristic is determined by heredity
(nature) or by the environment (nurture)
is a fascinating question which has cre-
ated a great deal of controversy in re-
cent times. There is no question that the
environment is a key factor in many
multifactorial traits.
The role of the environment in de-
termining some traits is quite obvious.
The genes for tallness will not be fully
expressed in a person who is deprived
of a properly balanced diet during the
growth years. Chemicals such as alco-
hol or medicines to prevent epileptic
seizures, if taken by a pregnant woman,
may damage the developing brain of a
fetus and prevent the child from devel-
oping its intellectual potential.
Researchers have demonstrated that the
administration of a dietary supplement
of folic acid to women who have a fam-
ily history of neural tube defects reduces
the incidence of these types of defects in
their offspring. In the absence of the re-
quired nutrients and energy, a plant will
not reach its potential size, regardless
of its genotype.
One of the most studied and debated
areas in nature/nurture involves a con-
sideration of intelligence. Is intelligence
genetically determined or is it shaped by
the environment? Most experts have ar-
rived at the conclusion that it is based
on contributions from both our genetic
make-up and environmental influences.
Geneticists realized that such a complex
trait must have a basis in the genetic
make-up of an individual. They define
heritability as the proportion of the total
INFOBIT
The fact that genes work
together in some complex
interaction is illustrated clearly
by the condition known as
tuberous sclerosis. Although
this is a single-gene defect,
people who suffer from this
disease develop benign
tumours in many areas of the
body including the brain, eyes,
heart, kidney and skin. They
are also characterized by their
epileptic seizures and
delayed development. This
non-functioning gene has
influenced the expression of
many other interrelated genes.
When one gene causes many
effects like this, the result is
termed pleiotropy.

the environment. Studies first carried

The Use of
Identical Twins
Identical twins are often studied to test
the competing effects of nature (ge-
netics) and nurture (environment) on
phenotypic expression. Identical twins
usually result when a single fertil-
ized egg separates into two distinct
embryos. The two children resulting
will have identical sets of chromo-
somes in their cells. These twins with
identical genotypes resemble each
other very closely. Any differences ob-
served between identical twins are
due to the effects of their environment.
Such twins have become a valuable
source of information in assessing the
relative importance of heredity and
out in the 1930s have shown that
identical twins display a very close
correlation in height (differing by less
than 2 cm) even if they are reared
apart and in different environments.
This implies a heavy emphasis on the
genetic component in the expression
of this phenotype. On the other hand,
most comparisons involving intelli-
gence tests in identical twins seem to
indicate that educational background
can make a significant difference.
Identical twins reared apart are much
more dissimilar (on I.Q. tests) than
identical twins reared together. These
types of studies were intensified in the
early 1980s when a large number of
identical twins who were separated at
birth (by adoption) were reunited and
subjected to extensive comparisons.
This study continues to provide valu-
able information on the roles of the FIGURE 6.17 What could produce differ-
environment and heredity in deter- ent phenotype expression in these identi-
mining phenotype expression. cal twins?

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 171

 variation in the phenotype that is due to
total variation in the genotype. It is not
surprising then that geneticists today are
looking for “smart genes,” genes that
somehow contribute to the intelligence
of an individual.
Robert Plomin, an intelligence re-
searcher working out of the Institute of
Psychiatry in London, England, was the
first to publish evidence of smart genes
in 1998. His initial studies have raised
many ethical questions about how this
genetic information should be used.
Plomin compared I.Q. scores in twins
that had been raised in the same envi-
ronment and twins that had been raised
apart. In addition, he compared I.Q.
scores in adopted children with those of
their biological parents and their adop-
tive parents.
He suspects that intelligence is a com-
plex trait governed by hundreds of
genes. It is probably one of the most
inheritable mental attributes known.
Plomin suggests that 50% of the differ-
ences among people’s I.Q. scores is a re-
sult of a difference in genetic makeup.
He has already identified three genetic
sites on the #4 chromosome linked to
high I.Q. scores.
A Gene Today
Since the time of Mendel geneticists have
been working toward a definition of the
gene. Science progresses by defining
units, but these are helpful tools that
may be modified as more information
becomes available. In the 1940s Beadle
and Tatum suggested that one gene de-
termines one enzyme. Today geneticists
know that a sequence of nucleotides on
the DNA may code for a protein chain
that may act as a structural component
of tissues, a regulatory chemical, or an
influence on other structural or regula-
tory proteins. The role of a protein may
be influenced by many factors in the en-
vironment. Many interactions within the
genome remain to be clarified.
172 U N I T 12 Genetic ContinuitySpontaneity, Entropy and Free Energy
Thermodynamics:
Thomas Hunt Morgan and
the Concept of Linkage
There are far more genes in a cell than
the total number of chromosomes. It is
estimated that humans possess some-
where between 27 000 and 40 000
genes on our 46 chromosomes in each
body cell. Thus each chromosome must
contain hundreds of different genes. The
genes that are located on the same chro-
mosome tend to be inherited together.
When genes occur on the same chro-
mosome we say that gene linkage is in
effect. When two different traits are
determined by genes that are linked, the
linked genes do not assort independently
in the way Mendel suggested in his Law
of Independent Assortment.
The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that
genes (Mendel’s factors) were carried at
physical locations on the chromosomes
raised the possibility that some genes
would be located on the same chromo-
some. These genes would be linked to-
gether and tend to stay together during
meiosis. Thomas Hunt Morgan was one
of the more important geneticists of
the 1900s. His meticulous studies with
the common fruit fly, Drosophila
melanogaster began in 1904, and even-
tually won him the Nobel prize in 1934.
Morgan in 1911 considered a cross
between grey-bodied, normal-winged
flies heterozygous GgWw, for the two
dominant alleles, and black-bodied,
small-winged flies homozygous for the
recessive alleles, ggww. This is a test
cross so that the expected ratio of
phenotypes is 1:1:1:1. If the genes as-
sorted independently, we would expect
the results shown in Figure 6.18.
Four different phenotypic combina-
tions are possible in the flies resulting
from this cross. The expectation that the
four types will appear in equal numbers
assumes that the genes for body colour
and wing shape are on separate chro-
mosomes and that during meiosis, ran-
dom assortment takes place.
 Morgan’s results were significantly
different, as shown in Figure 6.18. The
majority of the F1 flies showed either
normal wings with grey bodies (41.5%)
or small wings with black bodies
(41.5%). The combinations of normal
wings with black bodies and small wings
with grey bodies each appeared in only
8.5% of the F1.
Morgan concluded that the genes for
body colour and wing type were some-
how linked so that they could not assort
independently. He coined the term link-
age groups to describe these “packages”
of genes that tended to be inherited to-
gether. Today we know that these link-
age groups are simply chromosomes. In
any given species the number of linkage
groups is the same as the number of
pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Humans have 23 linkage groups. Gene
linkage reduces the number of sex cell
genotypes possible in a parent organism
and so reduces the variety of phenotypes
observed in the offspring of the next
generation.

GgWw
Gametes

Gametes GW 1/4 Gw 1/4 gW 1/4 gw 1/4

ggww gw GgWw Ggww ggWw ggww

1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4

Phenotype grey, normal grey, small wing black, normal black, small wing

Expected percent 25 25 25 25
if independent FIGURE 6.18 Morgan’s
experiment showed linkage
Observed 41.5 8.5 8.5 41.5 and recombination between
percent genes for body colour and
wing length.

chromosomes of parents gametes possible

If A is linked with B only two types

and a with b of gametes
A A 1/2 AB
B B
A A a a meiosis
B B b b

a a 1/2 ab
b b

If A is linked with b
and a with B only two types
A A of gametes
b b 1/2 Ab
A A a a meiosis
b b B B
a a 1/2 aB FIGURE 6.19 Linked genes
B B do not assort independently.

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 173


FIGURE 6.20 If crossing
over occurs during meiosis,
linked genes can be sepa-
rated. This increases the vari-
ety of gene combinations
possible in the gametes.
WEBLINK
Research sites that show gene
maps for the human genome
or for some other organism.
Begin your research at:
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
174 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
chromosomes of parents
A Aa a
meiosis
B Bb b a
Linkage with recombination
If A is linked with B and a with b and the genes are
far enough apart that crossing-over is possible
Crossing Over Notice that linkage does
not explain all of the results of Morgan’s
experiment. While 83% of the F1 flies
had gene combinations like one of the
parents, 17% of the F1 had new combi-
nations that could not be accounted for
through linkage. Morgan and his asso-
ciate Alfred Sturtevant proposed that
these new combinations, termed re-
combinants, were the result of a pro-
cess called crossing over. In this process
they suggested that homologous chro-
mosomes somehow exchanged genetic
information, producing recombinants
different from the original linkage
groups. We now know that during the
first meiotic division, when homologous
chromosomes line up in tetrads, the
homologs may exchange genetic infor-
mation (see sections 5.2, 5.3). This
exchange will result in a greater variety
in the gene combinations of the gametes.
In the absence of crossing over, genes
on the same chromosome will always be
passed on as a unit, no matter how the
chromosomes assort in meiosis. Crossing
over between chromosomes allows the
breaking up of these linkage groups so
that new combinations can occur in
the gametes. Morgan’s results can now
be completely explained. The 17% of the
flies that were recombinant forms, grey,
four possible gamete types
A A
B b
a
b B
2 parental 2 recombinant
gametes gametes
A B and a b A b and a B
small wing and black, normal wing were
the result of crossover events.
Gene Mapping
Sturtevant extended his studies of fruit
flies to create gene maps that identified
the location of genes on specific chro-
mosomes. He reasoned that genes at op-
posite ends of a chromosome are more
likely to be separated by crossing over
than genes that are located close to-
gether. The farther apart two linked
genes are, the greater the chance of a
crossover. The frequency with which cer-
tain genes turned up together in the fruit
flies enabled Sturtevant to determine the
extent to which these genes were linked.
If two traits always appeared together,
he assumed that these genes were on
the same chromosome and very close to-
gether. If these two traits appeared to-
gether in 90% of the fruit flies, it would
suggest that although the two genes
were linked, some crossing over had
taken place between them, allowing re-
combinants to appear 10% of the time.
In 1915, Sturtevant who was a
university student at the time produced
the first gene map outlining the location
of 85 genes on the chromosomes of the
fruit fly. By studying linkage and
crossover frequencies, geneticists today
Drosophila chromosomes I-IV
have been able to produce maps of chro-
mosomes showing the approximate lo-
cation and order of genes. These genetic
maps have been produced in detail for III
II
numerous organisms including the com-
mon fruit fly and humans (Figure 6.21).
IV
Gene Mapping in Humans I
Mapping of genetic characteristics in hu-
mans requires a technique different from
the recombination maps of the early ge-
WILD TYPE MAP UNITS MUTANT
neticists. It is not possible to make ex-
perimental crosses in humans. Until the
time that biochemical methods of rec- 0
long short
ognizing particular genes became pos- aristae aristae
sible, information was obtained from the
study of pedigrees in families who
showed some recognizable trait. 13
long short
Sometimes a biochemical characteristic wings wings
appeared to be linked to a gene for a
particular genetic disorder. The bio-
chemical characteristic was then used long short
as a marker in the diagnosis of families legs legs
31
at risk for the disorder.
With the improvements in molecu-
lar biological techniques of gene isola-
tion and sequencing, mapping of the grey black
human genome became possible. The body body
48.5
Human Genome project (See Chapter 7)
began in 1990. The goal of the project red purple
54.5
is a complete cataloguing of our entire eyes eyes
genetic makeup. This huge endeavour,
involving hundreds of scientists in labs full miniature
around the world, will involve the se- wings 67 wings
quencing of perhaps as many as 40 000
genes. In February 2001, scientists an- 75.5
nounced that the total number of genes straight curved
in the human genome was many fewer wings wings
than had previously been believed:
27 000 to 40 000 rather than close to
100 000. FIGURE 6.21 A genetic map of a chromosome. The map units reflect the fre-
quency of recombination between genes not the physical distance between them.
Researchers suggest that a
better understanding of the human
genetic code will allow scientists to
pinpoint defective genes easily. The
knowledge gained could be useful in
developing effective cures. In fact, some
researchers say that the Genome Project
may ultimately make it possible to per-
form genetic surgery to replace defec-

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 175

 tive genes in an adult or even in a de-
veloping fetus in the womb.
Since Mendel first studied his pea
plants in 1856, many scientists have to
our understanding and explanations of
patterns of inheritance. Their work led
to the modern concept of the gene. Some
of the key contributions are outlined in
Table 6.4.
Geneticists will soon know the loci of
all human genes on the chromosomes
but they will still use crossover frequen-
cies to determine the sequence of linked
genes in other plant and animal species.
The problem stated here shows how this
information is used.

TABLE 6.4 The History of Genetics

Year Scientist(s) Contribution to the Field of Genetics

1856-63 Gregor Mendel carried out his famous experiments with pea plants

1866 Gregor Mendel published his work on the principles of genetics

1871 Fredrich Miescher isolated a substance from the nucleus that he called “nuclein” (now known as DNA)

1900 Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, independently found the same patterns of inheritance described by Mendel
Erich von Tschermak

1902 Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri proposed the chromosome theory of heredity

1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan identified the first X-linked gene in fruit flies, where a trait was linked to the sex of the fly;
experimental support for the chromosomal theory of heredity

1911 Thomas Hunt Morgan described gene linkage where the genes for different traits were on the same
chromosome

1913 Alfred Sturtevant outlined a technique for determining gene maps

1928 Frederick Griffith described a substance responsible for giving bateria new hereditary information; called
this agent ”the transforming principle“

1931 Harriet Creighton, demonstrated that genetic recombination reflects exchange of chromosome segments;
Barbara McClintock the first cytological demonstration of the chromosome theory of heredity

1944 Oswald Avery showed Griffith’s ”transforming principle“ was DNA

1951 Barbara McClintock described transposition, the first demonstration that a gene could move through the
genome; the forerunner of the concept of transposons

1953 Rosalind Franklin obtained X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA modules

1953 James Watson, Francis Crick described a double-helix model for the structure of DNA

1989 Lap Chee Tsui and associates discovered the genetic site for gene for cystic fibrosis , a fatal autosomal recessive condition

1990 James Watson, many other started the Human Genome Project in an effort to map and sequence the entire human
scientists genome

1996 International research group published the first complete description of DNA sequence in an organism — a species
of yeast

2001 The International Human Genome published the initial sequencing of the human genome
Mapping Consortium

176 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

EXAMPLE 4

A Mapping Problem
Genes A, B, C, D, E, and F are known to be linked. The following information has
been determined experimentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the chro-
mosome?

B crosses over with A 20% of the time

A crosses over with F 10% of the time
F crosses over with C 15% of the time
B crosses over with D 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 35% of the time
E crosses over with F 20% of the time
C crosses over with B 25% of the time
D is at one extreme end of the chromosome

Given: A combination of crossover frequencies for the six linked genes.

Required: To identify the correct sequence of the six linked genes. Because D is
at one extreme end of the chromosome the final answer will be in the form
D __ __ __ __ __ with the letters A, B, C, E and F being placed in the blanks in the
appropriate sequence.

Analysis: The solution is based on the relationship between crossover frequencies

and linkage. The larger the crossover frequency, the more crossovers occur and
the further apart the linked genes must be.

Solution:
Construct a horizontal line that will represent the length of the chromosome where
these six linked genes are found. Measure off equal units starting with 0 at one end
(0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 …) and up to 55 or 60 at the other end. Place D at 0; its
location has been identified at one extreme end.

D
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Let the crossover frequencies represent a distance on your number line. Start with
genes that can be placed easily on the number line. For example B crosses over
with D 15% of the time. This information places B at 15 on the number line. As
you satisfy each piece of information about crossover frequencies, put a tick mark
beside it. B crosses over with A 20% of the time. This means that A must be placed
at 35 on the line because there is no room to the left on the line. In the same
manner, C must be at 40 on the number line. At this point your line looks like this.

D B A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60


CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 177

 The placement of genes F and E is a little more difficult. A crosses over with F 10%
of the time. This means that F could be at 25 or at 45. Write F at both of these lo-
cations below the line.

D B A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
F F

F crosses over with C 15% of the time. In order to satisfy this piece of information
F must be located at 25 on the number line. Your line now looks like this.

D B F A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

In a similar fashion, E crosses over with F 20% of the time. This means that E could
be at 5 or at 45. Write E at both of these locations below the line.

D B F A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
E E
However, note that C crosses over with E 35% of the time. In order to satisfy
PRACTICE PROBLEM this piece of information, E must be located at 5 on the number line. Your
line now looks like this. Your answer is complete.
Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are
known to be linked. The fol-
lowing information has been D E B F A C
determined experimentally. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
What is the sequence of the
genes on the chromosome?
Keep in mind that your line does not pinpoint the loci for each of the six linked
A crosses over with B 10% of
genes on the chromosome. All you have identified is the correct sequence of
the time
these genes and the relative location of the six. The correct arrangement of
B crosses over with C 20% of these six linked genes on the chromosome is D, E, B, F, A, C.
the time
D crosses over with C 10% of
the time
F crosses over with D 15% of
the time
F crosses over with E 10% of
the time
E crosses over with B 15% of
the time
A crosses over with E 25% of
the time
A is at one extreme end of the
chromosome

178 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

Section 6.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Identify 5 types of inheritance where
simple dominance does not operate.
Briefly outline how each affects
patterns of inheritance.
2. List the genotypic and phenotypic ra-
tios observed in offspring produced by
parents who are homozygous for dif-
ferent alleles, if incomplete dominance
is in effect.
3. When do geneticists observe a “con-
tinuous distribution” of phenotypes for
a particular trait?
4. What effect do linkage and crossing
over have on gamete variety and
phenotypic expression in the next
generation?
5. Explain why a knowledge of proba-
bility is important in the study of
genetics.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Two genes are linked on the same
chromosome. In spite of this, they
assort independently. What can you
conclude about their relative locations
on the chromosome?
7. What percent of crossing over will pro-
duce results identical to independent
assortment? Explain.
8. The colour of feathers in birds is often
determined by genes that exhibit in-
complete dominance. For example the
gene for black feathers, B, may be in-
completely dominant to the gene for
white feathers, b. The heterozygous
condition produces a bird with blue
feathers. Determine the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios that will result from
each of the following crosses:
a) blue x white
b) black x blue
c) blue x blue
9. Use your knowledge of the inheritance
patterns of the ABO blood types to
match the following parent sets to the
correct child.
Parent Set Children
1. O x O AB
2. AB x O B
3. A x O A
4. AB x A O
10. A farmer crosses two plants with the
genotypes AaBb and aabb and plants
1000 seeds that result from the cross.
How would you explain each of the fol-
lowing phenotypic ratios?
a) 240 show both recessive traits, 255
show the dominant trait A with the
recessive trait b, 245 show the re-
cessive trait a with the dominant
trait B, and 260 show both domi-
nant traits.
b) 490 show both recessive traits, 510
show both dominant traits.
c) 495 show the recessive trait a with
the dominant trait B, 505 show the
dominant trait A with the recessive
trait b.
d) 450 show both recessive traits,
45 show the dominant trait A with
the recessive trait b, 55 show the
recessive trait a with the dominant
trait B, and 450 show both domi-
nant traits.
Making Connections
11. Predict the social, political, and
economic impact of the Human
Genome project.
12. Most nature/nurture studies involve re-
uniting identical twins that have been
brought up in different environments.
The identification of suitable twins for
this type of study by geneticists requires
a search of personal medical and adop-
tion records. The twins often don’t even
know about the existence of their iden-
tical sibling until they are contacted by
the researchers. What problems or eth-
ical issues could arise when this type
of “research” is allowed?
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 179

Investigation 1
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
The patterns of inheritance outlined by Mendel apply
to many traits observed in a wide range of organ-
isms. Corn is an excellent study subject, as it exhibits
several obvious traits. In addition, each kernel on a cob
of corn represents a single fertilization, where a pollen
grain (male gamete) has fertilized an ovule (female
gamete). As a result, each cob represents a whole
generation of offspring that can be analyzed for their
combinations and ratios of phenotypes.
Problem
To study the inheritance of several traits in corn.
Materials LAL1
 3 different cobs of corn: 1) purple and white kernels
(a monohybrid cross) 2) purple with smooth (starchy)
kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a
dihybrid cross) 3) purple with smooth (starchy) ker-
nels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a di-
hybrid back cross to the homozygeous recessive)
 T pins
 Calculator or Graphic Calculator with Lists function
Procedure
Copy the chart below into your notes. Record your ob-
servations as you study the three different cobs of corn.
Type of Parental Expected Expected Observed
Cross Genotypes Phenotypic Phenotypic Phenotypic
Ratio Ratio for Ratio
Number of
Kernels
Counted
#1
#2
#3
Cross #1 – This cob illustrates the result of a mono-
hybrid cross involving the trait of kernel colour. Purple
kernels are the result of the production of the pigment
anthocyanin. Purple in kernels is dominant to yellow
kernels. Use the symbols R for the purple allele and r
for the yellow. A homozygous purple plant was crossed
with a yellow plant in the parental cross. Two of the
resulting F1 plants were then crossed to produce the
F2 cob that you will study. Fill in the first three columns
of your chart for this cross.
180 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 6.1)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Cross #2 – This cob illustrates the result of a dihybrid
cross involving two characteristics, purple versus yel-
low and starchy versus sweet kernels. The gene for
starchy kernels is dominant to the gene for sweet
kernels. Use the symbols S for starchy and s for sweet.
Starchy kernels are full and rounded and are often de-
scribed as smooth, while sweet kernels look wrinkled.
A homozygous purple, starchy kernel plant was crossed
with a yellow, sweet kernel plant in the parental cross.
Two of the resulting F1 plants were then crossed to pro-
duce the F2 cob. Fill in the first three columns of your
chart for this cross.
Cross #3 – This cob illustrates the result of a test cross.
One of the F1 plants from cross #2 has been crossed
with a plant that had yellow sweet kernels. Fill in the
first three columns of your chart for this cross.
1. Count at least 400 kernels on each of the three cobs
that you have been given. Work with a partner, one
student counting the kernels and one student
recording the results. Keep a tally of each of the
phenotypes that you expect to observe for each
cross. In cross #1 you will record the number of
purple kernels and the number of yellow kernels.
Use the T pins to keep track of the rows counted.
2. Add your results for each of the three cobs to a table
of class results on the blackboard.
3. Use the class results to fill in the last two columns
of your chart.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Examine your own data and the class data. State
whether the result of each cross fits the expected
result
2. How would you explain any a) small differences be-
tween your expected ratios and the observed ratios
b) significant differences between your expected ra-
tios and the observed ratios?
3. Write a clear statement of the Mendelian principles
illustrated by each of the three crosses.
Concluding and Communicating
4. The Mendelian ratios that you have studied in
this lab are predictions based on segregation, in-
dependent assortment, and random fertilization.

(continued)

Because these are all influenced by chance, your Interpreting the chi-square value The chi-square value
observed results may differ from the expected re- calculated for the dihybrid cross is higher than the
sults. value for the monohybrid cross. For these two
hypothetical cases, this is as you might expect. The
greater the number of phenotype categories (two for
The chi-square test Scientists have a method of eval-
the monohybrid and four for the dihybrid), the more
uating to what degree observed ratios deviate from the
deviation is expected due to chance. This factor is taken
expected ratios (often called “the norm”). They must
into account by determining the degrees of freedom
determine if this deviation is by chance or due to
(d/f). The degrees of freedom are equal to (n–1) where
uncertainty in their assumptions. This method is called
n is the number of different phenotypes that may re-
a chi-square test and is represented mathematically by
sult from a given cross. The d/f for the monohybrid
the equation:
cross is 1 and the d/f for the dihybrid cross is 3. The
2 =  (o-e)2/e where o = observed value following critical values obtained from chi-square
e = expected value tables for p (probability) equal to 0.05. This means that
(o-e) = deviation we would expect a calculated value of deviation for one
 = the sum of … degree of freedom to be greater than 3.84 only 1 in 20
times. This is the critical level of deviation often used
If the observed frequencies are close to the ex- when considering a scientific hypothesis. A chi-square
pected frequencies, then the chi-square value will be value greater than 3.84 for one degree of freedom
small, less than a predetermined value obtained from would indicate relatively low probability that the devi-
a chi-square table. In this case, there is no reason to ation is due to chance and therefore a low probability
reject the explanation of the pattern of inheritance sug- that the data support your hypothesis.
gested. When the chi-square value is higher than the
Chi-square values degrees of freedom 1 2 3 4
value obtained from the tables, then there may be rea-
Chi-square value 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49
son to reject your hypothesis.
A sample chi-square calculation is illustrated below In both of the examples above, the chi-square value
for hypothetical monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. is less than the table value: 0.53 is less than 3.84
(1 degree of freedom for the monohybrid cross) and
a) Monohybrid Cross – with 1000 individuals tested 3.48 is less than 7.82 (3 degrees of freedom for the
Expected Observed Expected Deviation dihybrid cross) As a result, you can accept the hy-
phenotypic (o) (e) (o-e) (o-e)2 (o-e)2/e pothesis that the outcome of each of these two crosses
ratio numbers numbers is the result of segregation, independent assortment,
of each of each and random fertilization.
phenotype phenotype
3/4 740 3/4 × 1000 750 – 740 (–10)2 100/750 4. What was the hypothesis used to explain the out-
= 750 = –10 = 100 = 0.13
comes of each corn cross in your investigation?
1/4 260 1/4 × 1000 260 – 250 (+10)2 100/250
5. Calculate the chi-square value for results of the F1
= 250 = +10 = 100 = 0.40
crosses represented by each of your three corn cobs.
Total = 1000 X2 = 0.53
Are these values greater or less than the table
values given in the example calculations? What
b) Dihybrid Cross – with 1000 individuals tested do these chi-square values tell you about your
hypothesis? You might use the Lists function on a
Expected Observed Expected Deviation
graphing calculator.
phenotypic (o) (e) (o-e) (o-e)2 (o-e)2/e
ratio numbers numbers 6. What explanations would a geneticist use if the
of each of each chi-square values exceeded the critical values?
phenotypic phenotypic
9/16 578 563 +15 225 0.40
Extending
3/16 197 187 +10 100 0.54
7. Why did you use the results tabulated for the
3/16 167 187 –20 400 2.14
class rather than those from your single cob of
1/16 58 63 –5 25 0.40
corn?
Total = 1000 X2 = 3.48 8. Scientists often use statistical methods like the chi-
square test to analyze their data. What advantages
are gained by using these types of calculations?

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 181


Investigation 2
Human Traits Following Mendel’s
Patterns of Inheritance
Section 6.1 focused primarily on the transmission of
traits in the common pea plant. Many human traits fol-
low the same patterns as Mendel described. In this in-
vestigation you will have the opportunity to study some
human traits.
Problem
What human traits follow the patterns of inheritance
outlined by Mendel?
Materials
 notebookLAL1
 calculator or graphing calculator
 grid papers
 PTC test paper
Experimental Design
1. Produce a chart to record results for yourself and
25 students. You will have to record the traits you
have selected, the dominant and recessive allele for
these traits, the possible phenotypes for each trait
studied, your phenotype, your genotype, and the
number of students in your study.
2. Two sample traits to get you started.
a) Obtain a piece of PTC test paper from your
teacher. People who can taste PTC (phenylthiocar-
bamide) in small amounts are called “tasters” while
those who require a high concentration or totally
lack tasting ability are called “non-tasters.” Place
the strip on your tongue towards the back of your
mouth where bitterness is sensed. A description of
your phenotype should be clear once the strip is
moist (10–15 s). Discard the strip. Record your per-
sonal information and data for 25 classmates on
your chart. (The allele for tasting, T, is dominant
over the allele for non-tasting, t.)
b) Clasp your hands together as you normally do
in a comfortable fashion. Record which thumb is
on top. Record your personal information and data
for 25 classmates on your chart. (The allele for
left on top, L, is dominant to the allele for right on
top, l.)
182 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 6.2)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
3. Research in order to identify five additional human
traits that follow the relatively simple patterns out-
lined by Mendel. Record information in your chart
for your own phenotype and genotype and for the
phenotypes of 25 classmates.
4. Develop some graphical method of representing
your data to summarize the results for the 25 study
subjects.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. For how many of the traits do you show the dom-
inant phenotype? the recessive phenotype?
2. When is it possible to identify your genotype as a
single specific combination? When is it possible that
you have one of two genotypic combinations but you
cannot specify which one? In the latter situation,
how could you determine your specific genotype?
Concluding and Communicating
3. Is it likely that you would show the same seven phe-
notypes as one of your classmates? Explain. (Hint:
How many different combinations of phenotypes
exist when you describe all seven phenotypes?)
4. Is it likely that you would show the same seven
genotypes as one of your classmates? Explain. How
does your answer here compare to the answer to
question 3 above?
5. Study the class results. Is the dominant trait the
one most frequently observed? Is this what you
would expect? Explain.
6. How effective is your graphical representation of
the results of your student survey for the five traits?
What patterns are conveyed by this representation?
Extending
7. Select any one of the traits that you have studied
and produce a pedigree for this trait covering as
many generations as possible. If your family is small
or this information is difficult to obtain, use the fam-
ily of one of your classmates.
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

allele environment homozygous multifactorial inheritance

bloodline F1 generation Human Genome Project phenotype
co-dominance F2 generation incomplete dominance P generation
continuous distribution gene law of segregation pleiotropy
crossing over gene map law of independent Punnett square
dihybrid (cross) genetics assortment purebred
discontinuous genotype linkage (groups) recessive
distribution heredity monohybrid (cross) recombinant
dominant phenotype heterozygous multiple allelism trait

Essential Understandings

6.1 The Origins of Genetics  A test cross is a way to determine a genotype. It is

 Gregor Mendel performed extensive scientific ex-
periments in the mid-1800s on the common pea
plant in order to determine patterns of inheritance.
 Mendel formulated two laws of inheritance, the
law of segregation and the law of independent
assortment.
 A hybrid cross involving dominance produces off-
spring that have a 3:1 phenotypic ratio and a
1:2:1 genotypic ratio in the F2 generation.
 A dihybrid cross involving dominance produces off-
spring that exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2.
 Although Gregor Mendel’s explanations were not
immediately accepted, they eventually became the
basis of the branch of science called genetics.
 Human traits such earlobe shape follow Mendel’s
laws of inheritance.
6.2 Genetic Analysis
 A Punnett square can be used to outline the possi-
ble outcomes (offspring) that could result from a
particular cross.
the cross of the individual being tested to a ho-
mozygous recessive individual.
6.3 Genetics After Mendel
 Homozygous parents of differing phenotypes will
produce offspring with an intermediate phenotype
if incomplete dominance is in effect.
 The ABO blood group system exhibits multiple
allelism and co-dominance.
 Some traits determined by multifactorial inheritance,
like height in humans, show a continuous distri-
bution in phenotypic expression.
 Linked genes do not assort independently. As a
result, linkage reduces the number of different
gametes possible in a parent organism and thus
reduces the variety of offspring phenotypes
observed.
 Crossing over promotes recombination and vari-
ety among offspring.
 Knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped
geneticists produce gene maps.

 Mendel’s Law of Segregation and Law of

Independent Assortment are accounted for in the
events of meiosis.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Review your sequence diagram of the scientific process
on page 153. How would you revise it, based on what you
have learned?
2. Summarize the key concepts in the chapter in a concept
map.
3. Consider the timeline of scientific discovery in genetics
and the role of women. What impact did society have
on the participation of women?

CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 183

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts combinations. What is the probability that one of these
combinations would be passed on to the next generation?
1. If “A” is linked with “B” and “a” is linked with “b,” how
many different phenotypic combinations would be observed 11. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous
in the offspring resulting from the cross AaBb x aabb? female with a light-haired blue-eyed male, given that
a) 1 b) 2 dark hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light
c) 4 d) 6 hair (a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, what is the cor-
e) 8 rect genotype of the offspring?

2. The genotype of an individual that shows the dominant 12. If a couple has three children, all girls, what is the prob-
phenotype can be determined by crossing it with an in- ability that the next child will be a girl? Explain.
dividual that is:
a) heterozygous dominant 13. Outline how a geneticist would explain each of the fol-
b) heterozygous recessive lowing observations.
c) homozygous dominant a) continuous distribution of phenotypes in traits such
d) homozygous recessive as human height
b) intermediate expression
3. If a male produces 400 sperm cells and his genotype is c) identical twins brought up in different environments
AABb, on the average, how many sperm of each kind are very different for a particular trait.
will he produce? The “A” gene and the “B” gene are not
linked. 14. Explain why Mendel suggested that two “factors” rather
a) 200 AB, 200 Ab than one determined each of the pea plant traits
b) 300 AB, 100 Ab studied.
c) 100 aB, 100 ab, 100 Ab, 100 AB
d) 100 AB, 300 Ab 15. Explain the difference in phenotyphic expression
multifactorial inheritance. Illustrate this difference
4. If a gene “b” is lethal in the recessive condition bb, then graphically.
from a cross AaBb x AaBb, how many offspring out of
16 would you expect to die? The genes are not linked.
a) 1 b) 4 Applying Inquiry/
c) 8 d) 16 Communication Skills
5. Alleles for the same trait separate during:
16. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked. The
a) fertilization b) mitosis
following information is provided.
c) meiosis I d) meiosis II
A is at one extreme end of the chromosome
A crosses over with C 35% of the time
6. The relationship of a genotype to a corresponding phe-
B crosses over with C 5% of the time
notype is sometimes compared to the relationship that
B crosses over with F 20% of the time
exists between a blueprint and the appearance of the
A crosses over with E 10% of the time
building produced from the blueprint. Why do you think
B crosses over with E 30% of the time
this is a good comparison?
E crosses over with D 35% of the time
D crosses over with F 25% of the time
7. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
What is the correct sequence of the genes on the
a) purebred and hybrid
chromosome?
b) heterozygous and homozygous
c) dominant and recessive
17. Determine the genotypes of the parents in each of the
d) phenotype and genotype
following crosses involving the ABO blood group system.
8. Explain why it is not necessary to produce a Punnett Parental Types of Offspring Observed
square whenever you are asked about the phenotypes Phenotypes A B AB O
that result from a dihybrid cross.
a) B x A 1/2 1/2
9. If a trait shows incomplete dominance, what type of b) B x A 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
expression is observed in the hybrid? c) B x O 1/2 1/2
d) AB x B 1/2 1/2
10. How many different types of gametes would an organism
e) B x B 3/4 1/4
with the genotype AaBbcc produce? List the different
f) AB x B 1/4 1/2 1/4

184 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

18. In a certain plant, tall (T) is dominant to short (t) and and height. Explain how two below average height
red flowers (R) are dominant to white flowers (r).The re- parents could produce an above average height child.
sults of a cross of a TtRr plant with a ttrr plant is shown
in the table. 22. In studies of a vegetable, plants with crinkled leaves are
crossed. The F1 genotype is raised and two other phe-
Phenotype Tall, White Tall, Red Short, White Short, Red notypes appear in the offspring in the numbers shown
in the table below.
Number of
offspring 415 95 85 405 Phenotype of Straight Crinkled Curly
Plant Leaves Leaves leaves
Is this what Gregor Mendel would have expected? Which
Number of
of his laws can’t be applied to this situation? How can
Offspring 192 410 214
these data be explained?

a) Construct a hypothesis to explain these results.

19. “Logically, one would expect the dominant trait to
b) Outline further crosses that could be made to test
appear in a larger percentage of individuals than the
your hypothesis.
recessive trait.” Discuss the validity of this statement.
c) How might you use a chi-square table to test the va-
lidity of your hypothesis?
20. You have studied the ABO blood group system. This is
d) Set up a chi-square table, as shown below, to
just one of many such systems. Two other examples
make the calculation of how far the results observed
are the MN system and the Rh system. The MN system
differ from what you would expect from your hy-
shows co-dominance and the Rh system shows domi-
pothesis.
nance according to the following charts.
Expected Observed Expected Deviation (o-e)2 (o-e)2/e
MN Corresponding Rh Corresponding
phenotypic numbers numbers (o-e)
phenotypes genotypes phenotypes genotypes
ratio (o) of (e) of
each each
M MM Rh  (positive) RR, Rr
phenotype phenotype
N NN Rh  (negative) rr

MN MN

The identities of 4 babies in a hospital nursery are confused dur-

ing an evacuation of the hospital. Using your knowledge of the Total= χ=
three blood group systems (ABO, MN and Rh), match the parent
sets to the proper child. Making Connections
Baby Parental Pairs
A. AB/N/Rh+ 1. O/MN/Rh- B/M/Rh+ 23. Measure and record the heights of at least 50 individu-
als of the same sex in your age group (within one
B. O/MN/Rh+ 2. AB/N/Rh+ AB/MN/Rh+
year). Produce a graph (number of people versus height)
C. B/M/Rh- 3. A/MN/Rh- AB/MN/Rh- for your data. Explain the shape of your graph in terms
D. A/MN/Rh- 4. AB/N/Rh- A/N/Rh+ of the genetics involved for this trait.

24. Pretend that you are about to interview Gregor Mendel

21. Polygenic inheritance can be illustrated by a hypotheti-
in 1866 just after the publication of his work. Design ten
cal inheritance of height. Assume height is determined
questions to ask him in order to write a news article out-
by five pairs of genes found at five different loci. Capital
lining his thoughts and work. Write an article that could
letters(A,B,C,D,E) represent alleles that contribute to
have appeared in a paper at the time.
height, while lower case letters (a,b,c,d,e) represent al-
leles that do not. The table shows the relationship be-
25. Studies in human genetics are much more difficult to
tween the presence of a capital letter in the genotype
carry out than studies in plants or fruit flies. Give five
reasons why is so.
Height Number of Capitals in the Example
Genotype 26. Many scientists including Mendel have had their work
Above average 6–10 AABbCcDDEe go unnoticed by other scientists of their time. Give an
Average 5 AaBbCcDdEe explanation why new discoveries are often ignored by
the rest of the scientific community.
Below average 0–4 aaBbccDdEe
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 185
 CHAPTER 7

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Genetics and Society
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 explain how the concepts of DNA,
genes, chromosomes, and meiosis
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from


generation to generation (7.1)
explain how the sex of an
W hen you look at the world around you, you see a great diversity of dif-
ferent animals and plants. What makes one different from another?
Why is a cat different from a dog, or a worm different from a human? The
individual can be determined biological answer lies in the genes, the chromosomes, and specifically the
genetically (7.1) DNA. The power of the DNA molecule to self-replicate and to direct the
 demonstrate an understanding that formation of other cell compounds make genetic continuity possible.
the expression of a genetic
disorder linked to the sex
chromosomes is more common in
males than in females (7.1)
 describe genetic disorders in terms
of the chromosomes affected,
physical effects, and
treatment (7.1, 7.2, 7.3)
 research genetic technologies
using sources from print and
electronic media, and synthesize
the information gained (7.2, 7.3
and culminating task)
 identify and describe examples
[CATCH GEN 41- figure for chapter
of Canadian contributions to
knowledge about genetic opener - Karyotype of Cri-du-Chat syn-
processes (7.1, 7.2, 7.3) drome identical to figure 12.8 b) in
Krogh. P.U. as is.
 describe and analyze examples
Caption: Figure 7.x.
of genetic technologies that
were developed on the basis of
scientific understanding (7.1, 7.3,
Investigation 1, Investigation 2)

FIGURE 7.1 Karyotypes are important diagnostic tools. The karyotype illustrated
here is of a male with a rare condition known as Cri-du-Chat (“cry of the cat”). This
condition results from the deletion of part of chromosome 5, as indicated by the
arrow.

186
Chromosomes carry the genes from generation to generation. Chromosomes
are organized in a particular pattern for each species and any change from
what is standard for the species is usually disadvantageous to the individual.
Research is continuing into the genetic causes of many disorders. This knowl-
edge has allowed geneticists to better understand the “stuff of life.” Techniques
developed today may someday make it possible to alter hereditary informa-
tion in order to cure some genetically transmitted diseases. While our knowl-
edge of genetics creates a better understanding, many of the techniques in
genetic engineering challenge society to consider risks and benefits of ap-
plying that knowledge and the ethical and moral issues it presents.

Discovering Biology
Advances in Genetics
The media tend to portray each genetic advance today as an incredible land-
mark in biotechnology. In groups of four to six, identify several examples of
genetic advances that have received a great deal of attention in the media. Is
the impact of these dramatic cases being exaggerated? As a group, come to
consensus about the degree of impact and present your opinion to the rest
of your class in a one- to two-minute presentation.

CHECKPOINT
In groups, brainstorm
genetic advances that are
in the news. Create a web
to summarize your
discussion.

Genetics

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 187

 7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain how the number and form of the chromosomes identify a species and how
karyotypes are used
 explain how sex is determined in humans

 use Punnett squares to explain why a disorder linked to the sex chromosomes is more
common in males than females
 describe the history of DNA research and how the understanding of the structure of
DNA led to the modern concept of the gene
 explain the key role of DNA replication in mitosis, meiosis, and the transmission of
hereditary characters
WORD ORIGIN

Chromosome from the Greek

chroma, meaning “colour”, and
soma meaning “body”, derives
from the fact that chromo-
somes take up stain quickly
and become obvious “coloured
bodies” while the other cell
structures remain faint.
Each species of organism has a specific
number of chromosomes in each diploid
body cell. Humans have a diploid num-
ber of 46 and these 46 chromosomes are
arranged in 23 homologous pairs with
one homolog of each pair coming from
each parent. The vast majority of
organisms studied to date have a diploid
number between 10 and 50. For exam-
ple, pea plants have 14 chromosomes,
while the common mouse has 40.
Striking exceptions to this pattern are
the radiolarian (a marine protist) with
1600 chromosomes and a particular

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

centromere position

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 X Y

satellite

FIGURE 7.2 The human karyotype serves as a reference to the draft of the complete map of the
human genome. Each chromosome shows a distinctive banding pattern and centromere position.
Chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 have satellites.

188 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 three types of chromosomes
satellite
centromere
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.3 The three types of human chromo-
somes based on centromere placement:
a) metacentric
b) submetacentric
c) acrocentric. The knobs on the acrocentric
chromosomes are called satellites.
species of roundworm and an Australian
desert plant with only 2. Other organ-
isms besides humans have 46 chromo-
somes but this does not mean they share
a common appearance with humans.
The features of a particular species are
not determined simply by the chromo-
some number but rather by the spe-
cific information carried on the
chromosomes.
Chromosomes can only be seen in
cells that are actively dividing. During
the other phases of the cell cycle the
hereditary material is not condensed and
appears grainy. In this state it is called
chromatin. Scientists wishing to study
chromosomes stimulate cultured cells to
multiply actively. The cells are then
treated with colchicine, a chemical that
stops mitosis at metaphase. The cells are
then fixed (killed without disrupting the
chromosomes), stained, and prepared
for microscopic examination and pho-
tography. Chromosomes that have been
treated in this manner can be counted
and studied easily.
The homologous pairs of chromo-
somes vary enough to be distinctive. In
humans each homologous pair has a
special banding pattern (resulting from
the stain), length, shape, and knobs or
constrictions. See Figure 7.3.
Sex Determination
Once the chromosomes have
been photographed, they can
be sorted into homologous
pairs based on their distinc-
tive features (size, shape, type,
banding pattern). The result-
ing chart is called a
karyotype. See Figure 7.4.
Karyotypes are useful for
determining whether or not the chro-
FIGURE 7.4 A normal male
mosomes are normal in number and karyotype
structure. Early studies of karyotypes re-
vealed that some organisms possessed
one pair of homologs that were not iden-
tical in size and shape. This pair was
somehow related to the sex of the indi-
INFOBIT
vidual. The cells of females in many
species possess two identically shaped It is interesting to note that the
X chromosomes, while the males pos- ratio of male newborns to
sess a single X chromosome and a female newborns is not 50:50
smaller Y chromosome. Human males as most people assume. The
therefore have 22 pairs of autosomes world average for births over
the last 20 years is 106 boys
(non-sex chromosomes) plus one X and for every 100 girls, that is,
one Y, while females have 22 pairs of au- 51.5% of newborns are sons.
tosomes plus two X chromosomes. The However, statistics for Canada
male genotype is designated XY while show that this rate has fallen
the female genotype is XX. over the same period with a
decrease of 2.2 males per
In both the male (XY) and female 1000 births. Studies of this sort
(XX), only one sex chromosome can were launched following an
be passed on in a mating. The possibil- explosion of a pesticide plant
ities for sex of the offspring of any in Italy in 1976 that coincided
mating are shown in Figure 7.5 on page with a significant increase in
girls born to families that were
190. Figure 7.6 shows the results in the exposed to the pesticide.
form of a Punnett square.
Discovering Biology
Preparing a Human Karyotype
A karyotype is a chart of the chromosome makeup of any cell.
1. Obtain a photograph of a colchicine metaphase preparation of
a human cultured cell.
2. Prepare a karyotype of this cell by arranging pairs of chro-
mosomes side by side in descending size from chromosome
1 to chromosome 22.
Decide the chromosome number and sex of the individual
whose cells were being cultured. Explain whether this is a nor-
mal or abnormal karyotype.
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 189
 Sex Linkage
Thomas Hunt Morgan, through his
MOTHER FATHER
meticulous studies with the common
fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, in-
troduced the idea of sex linkage when
XX XY
he observed that the inheritance of
meiosis I certain traits was linked to the sex of the
fruit fly.
X X X Y The human X chromosome is quite
large and contains many genes while the
meiosis II Y chromosome contains only a few.
Genes on the Y chromosome are involved
X X X X X X Y Y in determining maleness. Any traits con-
trolled by genes on the X chromosome
are called X-linked traits. This form of
linkage gives results contrary to Mendel’s
Law of Independent Assortment. A gene
on the X chromosome in the male has
X X X Y
no matching allele on the Y chromosome.
fertilization Therefore any gene on the X chromo-
some, whether dominant or recessive, is
expressed in males. The most common
XX XY
examples of traits illustrating X-linked
inheritance in humans are hemophilia
DAUGHTER SON (“bleeder’s” disease, affecting 1 out of
every 4000 males) and colour blindness
FIGURE 7.5 Sex determination in humans. Note that the sex of any child is deter- (affecting 8 out of every 1000 males).
mined by the father. If a sperm cell with the Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, a son Males with the most common form of
will result. On the other hand, if the fertilizing sperm cell contains an X chromo- colour blindness, red-green colour blind-
some, a daughter will result. ness, cannot distinguish between the
colours of the dots in Figure 7.7 in order
to see the number 5.

XY (father)
Gametes

X 1/2 Y 1/2
X 1/2 XX XY
female male
XX (mother)
Gametes X 1/2 XX XY
female male
F1 – chance female child: 1/2
chance male child: 1/2

FIGURE 7.6 Punnett square to demonstrate

sex determination FIGURE 7.7 Test for red-green colour blindness

190 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 These X-linked afflictions have a
readily recognizable pattern of inheri-
tance as affected individuals are almost
PIG-A
Paroxysmal nocturnal
hemoglobinuria
DMD
Duchenne muscular
dystrophy
ATP7A Menkes syndrome
IL2RG
X-linked severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID)
TNFSF5 Immunodeficiency
with hyper-IgM
FMR1 Fragile X syndrome
MeCP2 Rett syndrome
ALD Adrenoleukodystrophy
HEMA Hemophilia A
FIGURE 7.8 Some of the genes mapped on the
human X chromosome, showing their relative
locations. The rare abnormal form has been
indicated. The characteristic banding pattern is
shown and the centromere location is indicated.
exclusively male. In addition, X-linked
traits like hemophilia that are determined
by a recessive gene tend to appear in
every other generation. The disease skips
generations. This pattern is explained in
the Punnett squares below. The typical
transmission of the hemophilia gene is
followed in the circles.
X Linkage in Hemophilia Look at the pat-
tern of inheritance in the family shown
below. The parental cross was between
a male with hemophilia and a female ho-
mozygous for the normal allele for blood
clotting. In such a cross there are three
possible gametes involved, with two
possible genotypes for males and three
possible genotypes for females as shown
in Table 7.1. Hemophilia is expressed
only in the males in this family, and its
expression skipped a generation. It is
not seen in the F1 generation.
Possible gametes involved in
hemophilia are:
• X H —normal dominant allele—
usually simply designated X
• Xh—recessive allele for hemophilia
• Y—lacks the gene for this trait, no
locus for information for this trait

TABLE 7.1 Genotypes and Phenotypes Possible in Inheritance of Hemophilia

Males Females
Genotypes Phenotypes Genotypes Phenotypes
XY normal male XX normal female
XhY affected male, hemophiliac XXh normal female (carrier)
h h
XX affected female (very rare)

Xh Y
P cross Xh Y  XX Gametes
Xh 1/2 Y 1/2
XX X 1/2 X Xh 1/4 XY 1/4
Gametes
X 1/2 X Xh 1/4 XY 1/4

F1 generation all daughters carriers, show normal phenotype

all sons normal
XY
F1 cross XY  X Xh Gametes
X 1/2 Y 1/2
X Xh X 1/2 XX 1/4 XY 1/4
Gametes
Xh 1/2 X Xh 1/4 Xh Y 1/4

F2 generation 1/4 chance of an affected son

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 191

 Genetics problems can involve traits
that are determined by genes on the au-
tosomes (autosomal inheritance) or by
genes that are on the X chromosome
(X-linked inheritance). Care must be
taken when answering problems that in-
volve a combination of the two types of
inheritance. A model solution and strat-
egy is given below for one of these types
of questions.

EXAMPLE 1
Human Genetics Problem In humans the gene for normal blood clotting is
dominant to the gene that causes hemophilia. This trait is X-linked. The gene for
tasting PTC is dominant to the gene for non-tasting. This trait is autosomal. A
heterozygous taster woman who is also heterozygous for blood clotting is mar-
ried to a non-taster man who has normal blood clotting. What is the chance that
they will produce a non-taster hemophiliac son?

Given From the phenotypes, you can determine the genotypes of both parents.
The mother is TtXXh and the father is ttXY. Notice that the father cannot have the
recessive Xh allele or he would be affected with hemophilia.

Required These parents must be crossed to produce the F1 generation. Then

you can determine the probability of this couple producing a non-taster hemophil-
iac son. This son will have a genotype of ttXhY.

Analysis Use the following steps to produce a Punnett square to show the cross
and the children in the F1 generation.
1. Establish the coding you are going to use. Write this at the top of your answer.
2. Outline the genotypes of the parents based on the information given.
3. Determine the number of different combinations that can be passed on in the
egg and sperm cell. The number of combinations will determine the dimen-
sions of your Punnett square. The genes for tasting and blood clotting are on
separate pairs of homologous chromosomes. They will assort independently.
4. Construct a Punnett square showing the parents and the gamete combinations
possible.
5. Carefully fill in the different possibilities for the F1 generation.

Solution

1. Blood clotting (X-linked) Tasting (autosomal)

X normal clotting allele on X T tasting
Xh recessive allele for hemophilia t non-tasting
Y Y chromosome with no allele for blood clotting

2) Father – ttXY Mother – TtXXh

3) Father, ttXY – two possible combinations in the sperm he produces.

– each has a 1/2 chance of being produced.
Mother, TtXXh – four possible combinations in the eggs she produces.
– – each has a 1 / 4 chance of being
produced.


192 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 4) The dimensions of the Punnett square required are 2  4.
ttXY
Gametes PRACTICE PROBLEM
tX 1/2 tY 1/2
Use the method outlined to
TX 1/4
answer the following practice
TtXXh tX 1/4 problem.
Gametes
TXh 1/4
In humans the gene for nor-
tXh 1/4 mal colour vision is dominant
to the gene for colour blind-
ttXY ness. This trait is X-linked.
5) Each of the 8 squares in
Gametes
the F1 generation has an The gene for tasting PTC is
tX 1/2 tY 1/2 dominant to the gene for non-
equal chance of occur-
TX 1/4 TtXX 1/8 TtXY 1/8 ring. As a result, each of tasting. A non-tasting woman
who is a carrier for colour
TtXXh tX 1/4 ttXX 1/8 ttXY 1/8 the 8 squares has a prob-
blindness is married to a het-
Gametes TXh 1/4 TtX Xh 1/8 Tt Xh Y 1/8 ability of 1 / 8 . Note that erozygous tasting, normal
tXh 1/4 ttX Xh 1/8 tt Xh Y 1/8 this probability can also man. What is the chance that
be calculated for each they will produce each of the
square in the F1 by multiplying the probabilities of each type of gamete being following children?
formed (1/2 × 1/4 = 1/8).
a) a son
b) a non-tasting son
Statement The only square that represents a non-tasting hemophiliac son
c) a non-tasting colour-
is the one in the bottom right of the Punnett square. Therefore the cor- blind son
rect answer for this problem is 1/8. d) a tasting colour-blind
daughter
Note – Remember this value represents a probability and does not neces-
sarily have to happen. This couple could have 16 children with no non-
tasting hemophiliac sons.

allowed doctors to study the inheri-

Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
One of the more important gene loci
to be mapped on the X chromosome
is the locus that can contain the de-
fective allele for Duchenne muscu-
lar dystrophy. The gene responsible
for this X-linked condition was pin-
pointed in 1987 at the Hospital for
Sick Children in Toronto by a team
led by Dr. Ronald Worton. The gene
was identified and cloned. The abil-
ity to identify the gene locus in cells
tance pattern of this trait and to
understand the disease better.
Geneticists are able to identify the
presence of this allele in heterozy-
gous normal females who have the
potential to produce sons with
Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Males with the allele for
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
undergo loss of size, strength, and
activity in muscle. Winnipeg scientist
Dr. Judy Anderson recently discov-
ered a method of triggering muscle
growth. Dr. Anderson discovered that
nitric oxide released from muscle
fibres is the trigger to muscle growth.
She hopes that her research will lead
to a way to make muscles grow as FIGURE 7.9 Dr. Judy Anderson researches
needed and improve the quality of life the control of muscle growth.
for those with muscular dystrophy.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 193


Dr. Murray Barr and
the Barr Body
Dr. Murray Barr attended the
University of Western Ontario and
received his MD in 1933. He was
responsible for starting a new era
in research and diagnosis of genetic
disorders. In 1948 he was conducting
a clinical investigation to study
whether increased nerve cell activity
produced structural changes in the
nerve cells. A chance examination of
the sections of nerve tissue from cats
revealed that the cell nuclei in some
of the cats contained a prominent
mass of chromatin while the cell
nuclei in other cats lacked this
mass. Further research, which Barr
described as “curiosity-driven,”
clearly showed that this chromatin
mass was present in the nuclei of
female cats and absent in those of not have a Barr body despite being
male cats. This mass of sex female. This condition is referred to
chromatin, found only in females, is as X0. A Klinefelter’s syndrome male
now known as the Barr body. who is XXY, and so has one more X
Further studies in 1961 by Mary chromosome that usual, will show a
Lyon and Lillian Russell showed that Barr body despite being male. Today
the Barr body was an inactive X chro- geneticists use a knowledge of Barr
mosome in a female XX cell. Cells bodies to improve diagnosis and
in females have two X chromosomes treatment of individuals with sex
while those of males have only one. chromosome abnormalities.
Females compensate for having two
copies of the X chromosome by
condensing one of them into an
inactive form. Which X chromosome
Barr body
is condensed is a matter of random
chance in each cell.
The discovery of this “extra”
information through Barr’s studies
resulted in a new area of genetics
called human cytogenetics. The as-
sociation between chromosomal
abnormalities and developmental
defects was shown. The technol-
ogy of karyotyping for diagnosis de-
veloped from this understanding. For
example, a Turner’s syndrome female FIGURE 7.10 A typical female cell showing a
who has only one X chromosome will Barr body

DNA cell. Later, in 1880, nuclein became

For over 100 years scientists have stud-
ied the molecules of the cell in an at-
tempt to reveal some of life’s deepest
secrets. Today molecular geneticists have
a basic understanding of how life forms
are able to reproduce themselves and
produce new cells. The key to this un-
derstanding is the molecular structure
of chromosomes. All chromosomes are
made of deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA)
and proteins. Knowledge of the role and
structure of DNA has developed over a
period of time beginning in the 1800s.
In 1869, a German chemist named
Frederich Miescher isolated a substance
from the pus collected from infected
wounds and boils. He called this sub-
stance nuclein because he found that it
was concentrated in the nucleus of the
known as nucleic acid because it
exhibited acidic properties. The impor-
tant role of this substance and its struc-
ture were not known at this time.
In 1928, the British scientist
Frederick Griffith performed experi-
ments on several strains of a form
of bacteria called Pneumococcus.
Bacteriologists had identified one strain
of Pneumococcus that lacked a smooth
outer capsule. As a result this “rough”
form is easily destroyed by a host or-
ganism’s immunological defences. This
form that cannot cause disease is termed
non-virulent. A second strain, which
does have a smooth outer coating,
is quite capable of producing a life-
threatening form of pneumonia and is
termed virulent. Griffith injected a

194 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

combination of dead smooth bacteria block molecule of DNA is a nucleotide Investigation
and live rough bacteria into mice. composed of a sugar molecule, a phos-
Refer to page 230,
Although he suspected that this would phate molecule, and a nitrogenous base. Investigation 2.
be a harmless combination, all the mice The chemical properties of the possible
died of pneumonia. Samples of blood nitrogen-containing bases found in
taken from the dead mice were swarm- DNA— adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
ing with virulent smooth bacteria that (G) and thymine (T)—ensure that if ade-
were still capable of killing other mice. nine is found on one side of the ladder’s
Somehow the hereditary information for rung, then thymine must be found on the
a smooth capsule had been passed from opposite side (or vice versa). See Figure
the dead smooth bacteria to the living 7.18 on page 196. In the same way cy-
rough bacteria. tosine is always matched with guanine
In 1944, Oswald Avery, and his co- (or vice versa). These matched pairs are
workers, McLeod and Macarty, identified called complements (A with T, C with G).
the “transforming principle” in Griffith’s
experiments as DNA. For the first time,
a glimpse of the key role of DNA had been
obtained. A functional model of the struc-
ture of DNA was first proposed by two
scientists, Francis Crick (an Englishman)
and James Watson (an American). Their
outline of DNA structure presented in
1953 earned them the Nobel Prize. In the
early 1960s many studies, including
those of Marshall Nirenberg and Har
Gobind Khorana, resulted in an inter-
pretation of the language of the instruc-
tions encoded in DNA. This can be
summed up as “DNA codes for RNA and
RNA codes for protein.”

The Structure of DNA

FIGURE 7.11 Although we give most of the
The Watson-Crick model has enabled a
credit for the model of DNA to Watson and
better understanding of the roles of genes Crick, many other scientists, such as Rosalind
and chromosomes. Watson and Crick de- Franklin, made important contributions.
scribed DNA as a double helix. See
Figure 7.16 on page 197. They were able
to determine this from photographs pro-
duced by Rosalind Franklin using a tech-
nique in X-ray diffraction (see Figure
7.12). Photographs using this specialized
technique indicated that the molecule
had a helical structure.
This double helical shape is best
illustrated by imagining a twisted lad-
der. A computer-generated model of
DNA is shown in Figure 7.14. The two
sides of the ladder are made up of a
repeating sequence of sugar (deoxyri- FIGURE 7.12 This image created by Rosalind
bose) and phosphate groups. The rungs Franklin using a technique known as X-ray
of the ladder are composed of a pair of diffraction helped Watson and Crick to under-
nitrogenous bases. The basic building stand that DNA was a double helix.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 195

WEBLINK The complementary base pairing de- helical chains forming the ladder-shaped
pends on the shape of the DNA molecule molecule. (Figure 7.14)
and the ability of the base pairs to form If you know the sequence of bases in
hydrogen bonds. Modern computer tech- the nucleotides on one side of the ladder,
To find out more about three-
dimensional molecular models, nology allows us to view and manipu- then you also know the sequence on
go to late computer-generated, three- the other side because of complementary
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. dimensional models of DNA to observe base pairing. Scientists quickly realized
the hydrogen bonds linking the two that the “code of life” was somehow

NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

nitrogenous sugar
NUCLEOTIDE base (deoxyribose)

O
G C
O
P phosphate
group
P
O
T A O
P

P
O
G C
O
P

P FIGURE 7.14 Computer-generated models like

O T
A O this one are useful in helping us visualize the
P helical structure of DNA.
P O G C
O
P
O T
P A
O
P
P O T A O
P

FIGURE 7.13 The basic

DNA
double helix building block in the DNA
molecule is the nucleotide
with its three parts: a phos-
phate group, a sugar, and a
nitrogenous base. These
nitrogenous bases are linked
together in two separate FIGURE 7.15 Striking views of replication have
chains that are joined in the been observed through the electron microscope.
middle in a complementary In this micrograph the process of replication is
fashion, A with T, and C with clearly seen in human DNA in a cultured cell. The
G. These two chains are then replication bubble increases in length, indicating
wound around one another that chain growth happens in two directions
in a double helix. from a common origin.

196 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity


reflected in the sequence of nitroge-
nous bases in the rungs of the double
helix. A long sequence of these nitroge-
nous bases makes up a gene and the
order of the bases in the gene determines
what product the gene will produce. The
sum of the genes in a cell in turn deter-
mines what kinds of proteins a cell will
make. Ultimately, it is the molecular
structure of the proteins that gives each
cell its individual characteristics.
Replication—
Copying the Code
Every cell must duplicate its hereditary
information prior to mitosis or meiosis.
The ability of DNA to produce a copy of
itself in the process of replication is
unique among all biological molecules.
This process begins when the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs, forming
the rungs of the ladder, break apart. This
FIGURE 7.16 The model of
DNA (shown here in the back-
ground) constructed by
Watson and Crick is undoubt-
edly one of the most impor-
tant advances in biology in
the twentieth century.
“unzipping” process produces two half-
ladders or strands of DNA still held by
their sugar phosphate backbones. Free-
floating DNA nucleotides found inside
the nucleus, such as adenine nucleotide
and cytosine nucleotide, now make their
way to these strands and attach them-
selves to the exposed nitrogenous bases.
These free-floating nucleotides will only
bond to their complementary bases. This
process is shown for a very short piece
of DNA in Figure 7.17 on page 198.
When the process is complete, two
identical helices just like the original are
produced, with each helix containing one WEBLINK
of the original strands. This method of
Investigate the work of
replicating the hereditary information is
Meselson and Stahl and others
termed semiconservative. See Figures to prove semi-conservative
7.17 and 7.18. If the original molecule replication. Prepare diagrams
had kept both old chains while a com- of all possible types of
pletely new double-stranded molecule replication. Begin your
research at
was built, the replication would have
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
been conservative.
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 197
 DNA to be replicated

G C
T A
A T
G C
C G

T A

Strands separate OLD

C
G
T A
T
A
C NEW
C G

G
T

Each strand now serves as a template for the synthesis

of a separate DNA molecule as free nucleotides base-pair
with complementary nucleotides on the existing strands.

C FIGURE 7.18 As the DNA unwinds, each of the

G C original strands (shown in red) acts as a
T A template for a complementary strand (shown in
A yellow)
T
A A
G T C
C G
G C G nucleus of the cell directed development
T

C
A
A

in the cytoplasm. Investigations in the

T

1960s clearly showed that a message

reflecting the DNA code in the nu-
cleus was transferred from the nucleus
G C This results in two G C to the site of protein synthesis in the
T A identical strands of DNA. T A
cytoplasm.
Order of bases The production of this message is
A T A T encodes
information termed transcription. This process be-
G C G C for protein gins with the unzipping of a segment of
production. DNA (much as in replication). This seg-
C G C G
ment represents a coding unit (one
T A T A
gene) determining a specific protein. In
this process it is not DNA nucleotides
FIGURE 7.17 The resulting two molecules of DNA are identical to the original. that hydrogen-bond to the exposed
bases. Instead, nucleotides of ribonucleic
acid (RNA) complementary base-pair by
hydrogen bonds to one of the exposed
Transcription and DNA strands. There is one difference
Translation in the case of RNA base-pairing. Each
DNA material never leaves the nucleus. adenine on the DNA strand pairs with
Experiments carried out by Joachim uracil instead of thymine (as would hap-
Hammerling on the single-celled alga, pen in DNA base-pairing). The other
Acetabularia, demonstrated that the three pairs, T with A, C with G, and G

198 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

with C occur as in DNA base-pairing. The OVERVIEW OF TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
RNA nucleotides arrange themselves
along the DNA strand using the DNA DNA
strand as a template. The single-stranded
RNA molecule produced is called mes- TRANSCRIPTION
(in nucleus)
senger RNA or mRNA for short.
The production of mRNA is called mRNA
transcription because the information in
DNA has been transcribed into another
complementary form (mRNA) that will be
used in protein synthesis. In this way the
information coded in the DNA has a way
to get out into the cytoplasm without
the DNA ever having to leave the nucleus.
In some insect tissues seen under the mi-
croscope, regions of the chromatin that
are actively engaged in transcription ap-
pear as “puffs” in stained preparations
of chromosomes. The puffs indicate ribosome
active production of mRNA.
The process of protein synthesis mRNA
that occurs on the ribosomes is termed TRANSLATION
(in cytoplasm)
translation. In this process the language
of the base sequence in the mRNA is
protein
translated into the sequence of amino
acids in a protein. When the various types
of amino acid are linked with peptide
bonds in a particular order, the specific FIGURE 7.20 In transcription a length of DNA unwinds, ribonucleotides pair with
polypeptide results. This polypeptide will the bases on the exposed strands, and a length of messenger RNA is formed. This
mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus and moves into the cytolasm where it binds to
acquire its secondary, tertiary, and qua- a ribosome. In translation at the ribosome, the sequence of bases on the mRNA is
ternary protein structure by bond for- translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
mation and folding of the molecule. The
protein molecule will then take on its spe-
cific function as a regulatory or structural
molecule, either within the same cell or
elsewhere in the organism.
You can now see how DNA directs
protein synthesis. The sequence of ade- quantity? The chromosomes of all cells INFOBIT
nine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in of an organism have exactly the same
the DNA of the chromosome is used as a instruction (the same genes). How, then, Once a cell has undergone dif-
ferentiation, it has not neces-
template to determine the sequence of are cells triggered to differentiate in
sarily lost its genetic potential.
bases on the messenger RNA. This mes- order to carry out different functions? This is illustrated by organisms
senger RNA then dictates the sequence of Scientists today are conducting research that can regenerate lost body
amino acids to be linked together at the ri- to learn the mechanisms that must parts. When a starfish loses a
bosome and to form the protein product. somehow “switch on” some genes while leg, some cells in the stump
undergo dedifferentiation,
Once scientists had produced an out- “switching off” others to allow only
divide and then differentiate
line of protein synthesis, they turned certain information to be used to pro- once again to produce a new
their attention to explaining several other duce specific proteins in particular cells. leg. In some organisms these
difficult puzzles involving the chromo- These are the areas of experimentation, single, isolated differentiated
somes. How does the cell know to pro- controversy, and active theory con- cells can undergo dedifferenti-
ation and then develop into a
duce a particular protein at the struction today. Researchers suggest that
complete organism.
appropriate time and in the correct not all genes are structural genes.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 199

 Current evidence seems to point to the
existence of two other types of genes,
regulator and operator genes, which can
switch structural genes on and off.
Section 7.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Are two organisms with an identical
diploid number of chromosomes nec-
essarily identical? Explain.
2. How can different homologous pairs of
chromosomes be distinguished from
one another?
3. A couple has four children, all sons.
Does this mean that there is a better
chance of a daughter on a fifth preg-
nancy? Why? Why not?
4. Under what conditions could a
hemophiliac father produce a
hemophiliac son?
5. Outline the structure of DNA as de-
scribed by Watson and Crick.
6. Distinguish among the following pro-
cesses by describing the location of
each and the molecules involved:
a) replication
b) transcription
c) translation
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. How has the understanding of the
structure of DNA contributed to cur-
rent thinking about genes?
8. Red-green colour blindness is inher-
ited as an X-linked recessive trait. If a
man who has normal vision marries a
colour-blind woman, what would be
the expected genotype and phenotype
ratios for this trait in their children?
9. A man and his wife both have normal
colour vision. The woman gives birth
to a daughter who has red-green colour
blindness. The man claims that he
200 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Scientists now have an understanding of
the structure of the hereditary material
and are also beginning to understand
how it is regulated and controlled.
could not have fathered this daughter.
Does genetics back his claim? Explain
your answer.
10. In the fruit fly Drosophila, the gene for
red eyes, R, is dominant to the gene for
white eyes, r. This trait is X-linked.
Predict the genotypic and phenotypic
ratios that would result from each of
the following crosses:
a) a homozygous dominant female
and a red-eyed male
b) a homozygous dominant female
and a white-eyed male
c) a heterozygous red-eyed female
and a red-eyed male
d) a heterozygous red-eyed female
and a white-eyed male
e) a white-eyed female and a red-eyed
male
f) a white-eyed female and a white-
eyed male
11. A male fruit fly with normal bristles on
his body is crossed with a female fly
that exhibits forked bristles on her
body. This cross produces 125 males
with forked bristles and 131 females
with normal bristles. How would you
explain the inheritance pattern of this
trait?
Making Connections
12. The description of the structure of DNA
provided by Watson and Crick is one
of the most important discoveries in bi-
ology in the twentieth century. Name
three legal or social issues resulting
from this discovery.
13. Propose how society would be differ-
ent today without an understanding of
genes, chromosomes, and DNA.
7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the occurrence of mutations and their importance in genetics

 describe the genetic basis of several types of genetic disorders

 explain the role of nondisjunction in causing genetic disorders

 explain how studies in population genetics demonstrated the relationship between

maternal age and Down syndrome
 use the proper coding to construct pedigree charts

 identify the type of inheritance illustrated in pedigrees

Mutation Scientists strongly suspect that these mu-

tagens can also affect humans.
Since DNA directs protein synthesis and
Mutations found in the somatic
the proteins determine the type of cell,
(body) cells of an organism will usually
you might predict that any alteration in
go unnoticed unless a significant num-
the genetic information would upset
ber of cells are involved. Of course, these
the normal operation of a cell or organ-
mutations cannot be passed on to the
ism. You would be correct. Any change
next generation. The more serious type
in a gene that is accompanied by a loss
of mutation is found in the gametes of a
or change in the functioning of the ge-
parent organism. There are two reasons
netic information is termed a muta-
for concern about mutation in gametes.
tion. Many mutations are harmful.
This gamete may be passed on to pro-
Fortunately, DNA is normally a very sta-
duce an entire organism with this mu-
ble substance and is not easily altered.
tation in every cell. Second, this mutation
If a gene is altered, in most cases the un-
could be passed on to offspring and con-
desirable information is in the form of
tinue for many generations.
a recessive allele. As a result, the harm-
Aspects of mutation and mutation
ful effects of the changed gene will be ex-
rate are important and are of concern
pressed in heterozygous condition.
to society. Clinical health problems vis-
Scientists have demonstrated that
ible at birth are called congenital
mutations can occur spontaneously in
defects. They are caused by mutations
any living organism. Spontaneous mu-
in the genes, environmental agents, or
tations do not have any known cause.
a combination of the two. Environmental
Mutations appear to occur at fixed rates
agents, called teratogens, cause con-
in different species. H.J. Muller in the
genital defects by altering the expression
1920s developed techniques for mea-
of a gene or genes. For example, a
suring the frequency of Drosophila mu-
mother who contracts German measles
tation. In later studies Muller showed
(Rubella) in the first three months of a
that a higher than normal rate of mu-
pregnancy runs a high risk of producing
tation in Drosophila occurred if the flies
a child with congenital defects. This is
were grown at abnormal temperatures
also true for a mother who abuses alco-
or were bombarded with X rays. Any
hol during pregnancy. In these cases, the
factor that can cause mutation is termed
abnormalities result from an environ-
a mutagen. For example, experiments
mental influence; a virus or alcohol.
on mice have confirmed that radiation,
Congenital defects like club foot, spina
abnormal temperatures, and certain
bifida (an open spine at birth), and con-
chemicals can act as mutagenic agents.
genital heart defects are thought to be

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 201

 Mutation: Normal DNA Mutation:
Incorrect base-pairing Incorrect sequence
of base pairs

G C G C G C

T A T A T A

A T A T C G

G T G C G C

C G C G C G

T A T A T A

DNA with point mutations

FIGURE 7.20 Two examples of mistakes possible during DNA replication. Mistakes
like these occur frequently but may be corrected during replication. Changes like
these “point mutations” may result in defective proteins.

partly genetic, but the role of each of the

contributing factors is not known.
On the other hand, some mutations
cause genetic defects that are obviously
inherited. Some defects are caused by a
single abnormal gene. Diseases such as FIGURE 7.21 Sickle cells are the result of a
hemophilia, albinism, cystic fibrosis, and point mutation.
sickle cell anemia are produced by a sin- a) Normal red blood cells.

gle recessive gene mutation. In these cases
the undesirable defect is the result of a
change in the DNA code for a single gene.
Sickle Cell Anemia Sickle cell anemia
is a blood disorder inherited as an au-
tosomal recessive trait. People who are
homozygous for this gene have Hb S, an
abnormal form of the oxygen-carrying
pigment, hemoglobin, in their red blood
cells. As a result, their red blood cells
take on a peculiar “sickle” shape instead
of the normal disc shape. The abnormal
shape leads to blockage of capillaries,
damage to other red blood cells, and se-
vere anemia. This disease, which is often
fatal in early childhood, is caused by a
single amino-acid replacement in the β
chains of this macromolecule. This
means just one change in a chain of 146
amino acids. This amino-acid replace-
ment is brought about by a change of
one nitrogenous base along the DNA se-
quence coding for this protein! The ef-
b) Red blood cells containing Hb S become
sickled in shape when oxygen is low.
fect of this seemingly harmless replace-
ment is drastic and often lethal. The so-
lution of this molecular puzzle involved
protein chemists, molecular geneticists,
and physiologists. Physicians and coun-
sellors continue to be involved in the ef-
fort to support families who have a
member homozygous for the sickle-cell
allele. Treatment is provided through
transfusion and careful monitoring of the
person’s lifestyle to avoid overexertion
and infection. Since 1998 attempts have
been made to treat some patients
through bone marrow transplants, a
treatment that itself carries some risk.
Cystic Fibrosis At the Hospital for Sick
Children in Toronto, in 1989, Dr. Lap-
Chee Tsui led a team that discovered the
chromosomal location of the gene
responsible for cystic fibrosis, a serious

202 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity


FIGURE 7.22 Lap-Chee Tsui led the Toronto
team responsible for locating the gene for cystic
fibrosis on chromosome 7.
condition inherited as an autosomal
recessive. Cystic fibrosis affects the lungs
due to excessive mucus production. The
mucus builds up and makes breathing
very difficult. Individuals who have cys-
tic fibrosis must take many medications
to help them digest their food and have
daily physical therapy to clear their lungs
of mucus.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
The other major type of inherited
abnormality involves whole chromo-
somes rather than single genes.
Polyploidy, a condition where the cells
contain an extra whole set of chromo-
somes, is possible in some plants but is
lethal in humans and most other ani-
mals. A more common abnormality in
chromosome number is the result of an
extra chromosome or the absence of a
single chromosome, a condition called
aneuploidy. This type of defect tends to
be more severe than a single gene defect
and is often lethal before birth, due to
spontaneous abortion, or shortly after
birth. An individual possessing an extra
chromosome (that is, three of one kind)
is termed a trisomic while an individual
lacking one of a pair of chromosomes is
termed a monosomic. Trisomics and
monosomics usually arise as a result of an
XY
X 1/2 Y 1/2
O 1/2 XO 1/4 YO 1/4
Gamete lacking a Turner’s syndrome Will not survive
sex chromosome
XX XX 1/2 XXX 1/4 XXY 1/4
Gamete formed
from nondisjunction “super female”; Klinefelter’s
usually normal syndrome
abnormal meiotic division in which chro- FIGURE 7.23 Nondisjunction
mosomes fail to separate. This is termed and its effect on the chromo-
nondisjunction. some makeup of offspring.
Down syndrome is one of the more The “0” indicates the ab-
sence of a sex chromosome.
common abnormalities in chromosome
number observed in humans. Scientists
have been able to identify the cause of
this syndrome from karyotypes. Down
syndrome is caused by a third chromo-
some 21, an arrangement called trisomy
21. As a result, individuals with Down
syndrome have a total of 47 chromo-
somes in every body cell. Individuals with
this syndrome have characteristic faces,
eyelids, tongues, and hands, and are de-
velopmentally challenged in varying de-
grees both physically and mentally.
Nondisjunction also can affect the
segregation of the sex chromosomes, pro-
ducing individuals with extra or missing
sex chromosomes. Nondisjunction may
occur in either the male or female parent
and in either division of meiosis. The out-
comes of a mating involving gametes pro-
duced by nondisjunction in the female
parent are shown in the Punnett square
in Figure 7.23.
In addition to these numerical
anomalies, parts of chromosomes can
be altered during meiosis due to mis-
takes in crossing over. These mistakes
result in deletions, duplications, inver-
sions, and translocations.
Down Syndrome and
Population Genetics
Down syndrome occurs in about 1 out
of every 700 live births. This is the
average when mothers of all ages are
considered. Trisomies of chromosomes
other than 21 do occur but are not in
high frequency. These conditions have
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 203
 more damaging effects than Down syn- of a trait in a family. In medical genet-
drome, and therefore the fetus may ics involving humans, these considera-
abort spontaneously or the child may die tions are of obvious importance to the
shortly after birth. individuals involved in the cross or fam-
Most of what you have learned so ily under study. Geneticists, however,
far has been restricted to a considera- have extended their studies beyond this
tion of a specific cross or the recurrence level to study whole populations in pop-
ulation genetics. Researchers today
study the frequency of a gene in the gene
pool or the frequency of a genotype in
the whole population. The gene pool is
the term used to describe the “pooling”
of all the alleles for a specific trait in the
whole population.
Population studies, involving data
collected from thousands of births, have
found an obvious relationship between
FIGURE 7.24 This girl with maternal age and the frequency of Down
down syndrome and her syndrome offspring. Dr. Irene Uchida, a
mother learn how to use a world famous cytogeneticist at the
computer. McMaster University Medical Centre,
studied chromosomal abnormalities and
has conducted much research in this
area.
Table 7.2 shows statistics on the fre-
quency of Down syndrome based on ma-
ternal age. The fact that 45-year-old
mothers produce a Down syndrome
child in 1 in 32 births may not appear
particularly abnormal. But if we com-
pare this frequency to 1 in 1925 in 20-
year-old mothers, the effect of maternal
age is clearly significant. A comparison
of these two groups shows an increase
in the chances of a Down syndrome child
to be 60-fold. This information has been
helpful for counselling older expectant
mothers.
FIGURE 7.25 The karyotype Researchers have recognized the im-
of a female individual with portance of intensive training in Down
Down syndrome. There are
syndrome children prior to the age of
three of chromosome 21
(arrowed). two. In many cases Down syndrome
Mother’s age Probability of Down
syndrome individuals are able to integrate into so-
ciety by attending traditional schools and
20 1 in 1925 also receiving job training.
25 1 in 1205 Table 7.3 summarizes some human
disorders that are produced by gene mu-
30 1 in 885
tation or chromosomal abnormalities.
35 1 in 365

40 1 in 110
TABLE 7.2 Down Syndrome 45 1 in 32
and Maternal Age

204 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

TABLE 7.3 Genetic Disorders in Humans

Type of Genetic Disorder Pattern or Means of Inheritance Symptoms in Individuals Affected by Condition

Single Gene Defect

Sickle cell anemia · autosomal recessive · blood disorder involving abnormal hemoglobin
· red blood cells have a reduced ability to carry
oxygen and appear sickle-shaped in low oxygen

Cystic fibrosis . autosomal recessive . syndrome of effects

. mucus accumulates in lungs
. problems with digestion

Tay-Sachs disease · autosomal recessive · severe brain deterioration due to improper fat
metabolism
· usually causes death by age three or four

Albinism · autosomal recessive · lack of pigmentation in skin

Achondroplasia · autosomal dominant · abnormal bone growth results in short

· 80% caused by a new mutation legs/arms and prominent forehead
· 1 in 25 000 to 40 000 live births

Huntington disease · autosomal dominant · brain tissue degeneration; onset around thirties
to forties, usually after reproductive years

Hemophilia · X-linked recessive · blood does not clot properly

· predominantly in males

Red-green colour blindness · X-linked recessive · inability to distinguish between different

colours
· predominantly in males

Duchenne muscular dystrophy · X-linked recessive · progressive wasting of muscles

· predominantly in males

Chromosomal Defect

Cri-du-chat syndrome · partial deletion of chromosome 5 · improperly constructed larynx produces “cry of
the cat” sound to voice
· mentally challenged

Fragile-X syndrome · break in the long arm of X chromosome · abnormal facial features; mentally challenged
· syndrome of effects

Down syndrome · trisomy 21/47 chromosomes · abnormal facial features, hands and feet, de-
velopmentally challenged in various ways
· 1 in 700 live births

Klinefelter syndrome · XXY/47 chromosomes · sterile males, tall with long arms
· one extra chromosome · breast development
· 1 in 800 live births

Turner syndrome · XO/45 chromosomes · sterile females, secondary sexual features do

· one missing sex chromosome not develop fully
· 1 in 10 000 live births

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 205

 Pedigrees in Human Genetics predicting the probability of having an af-
fected child in subsequent pregnancies.
A few of the many genetic diseases ob-
The patterns followed by simply inher-
served in humans have been described
ited genetic traits (single gene defects) are
in Table 7.3. Human geneticists have re-
influenced by several factors. The pattern
alized for a long time that these unde-
within a family will be affected by:
sirable traits tend to run within family
a) whether the gene is on an autosome
groups rather than randomly across a
(22 pairs in humans) or X-linked (on
population. Geneticists have developed
the X chromosome)
a type of chart called a pedigree that is
b) whether the trait is dominant or
useful to show the patterns of transmis-
recessive
sion of a trait within a given family. The
c) the chance of transmission of the
pedigree charts summarize family data
gene from the parents to children
using a set of symbols. Figure 7.26 il-
(by way of the gametes)
lustrates some of the more commonly
The simplest patterns can be altered or
used symbols.
confused by many factors, especially
Pedigrees are usually produced after
when multifactorial inheritance is in-
an undesirable trait has appeared in a
volved. The following description con-
family. Geneticists collect data on rela-
siders only the three most common
tives, stretching back for as many gen-
patterns for simple inheritance. These
erations as possible. The chart produced
are:
may be of use to the geneticist in identi-
a) autosomal recessive inheritance
fying the way the trait is transmitted or
b) autosomal dominant inheritance
it may be useful in counselling parents
c) X-linked recessive inheritance
on the cause of the disease, or in

heterozygotes for autosomal

male recessive traits

female carrier of X-linked recessive

mating death

dizygotic twins (non identical) marriage between related individuals

monozygotic twins (identical) parents and children: with method

I
of identification, affected individual
is II-2

sex not specified II

1 2 3

3 number of children of specified sex

affected individuals

FIGURE 7.26 Some of the commonly used symbols in pedigrees

206 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

The pedigrees for each of these three FIGURE 7.27 Dr. Margaret
types of inheritance are distinctive. The Thompson, a former member
of the genetics team at the
features provide the necessary clues
Hospital for Sick Children in
for geneticists wishing to identify an in- Toronto and an educator in
heritance pattern. The following stereo- medical genetics.
type pedigrees illustrate these useful
clues. The distinctive features of each
method of inheritance are also listed.

Autosomal Recessive Inheritance The fea-

tures of autosomal recessive inheritance
are:
• Both parents of an affected individ-
ual must be heterozygous
• Affected individuals may not appear
in every generation (that is, the trait
may skip generations)
• Males and females are affected in
equal numbers (Figure 7.28).
I
1 2
Autosomal Dominant Inheritance The fea-
tures of autosomal dominant inheritance
are: II
• Half of the children of an affected 1 2 3 4 5 6
parent are expected to be affected
• The trait is transmitted only by af-
fected individuals and does not skip III
generations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• Males and females are affected in
equal numbers
• Father-to-son transmission is IV
possible (Figure 7.29). 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIGURE 7.28 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal recessive inheritance

I
1 2

II
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

III
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

FIGURE 7.29 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal dominant inheritance

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 207

 I X-linked Recessive Inheritance The features
1 2 of X-linked recessive inheritance are:
• No father-to-son transmission
(affected father to carrier daughter
and in turn to half of her sons)
II • Predominantly males are affected;
1 2 3 4 5 6 affected females are extremely rare
• The trait skips generations (Figure
7.30).
A famous pedigree is shown in Figure
III 7.31. This pedigree shows the inheri-
1 2 3 4 5 6 tance of the X-linked genetic disorder of
hemophelia in the royal houses of
FIGURE 7.30 Stereotype pedigree for X-linked
Europe.
recessive inheritance

I Louis II
George III
Grand Duke Hesse

Edward
II Duke of
Duke of Kent
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
(1767–1820)

III Victoria
Albert
(1819–1901)

Victoria Helena Leopold

IV Empress Edward VII Princess Duke of Beatrice
Frederick Christian Albany

Kaiser Irene Alix (Alexandra) Alice Victoria

V Frederick
Wilhelm George V Princess Tsarina 3 2 of Eugénie, Leopold Maurice
William
II Henry Nikolas II Athlone wife of
Alfonso XIII

Lady
Duke
George Waldemar Henry Henry May
VI of 3 ? ? ? ?
VI Abel
Windsor Earl Prince Anastasia Smith Rupert Alfonso Gonzalo
Mountbatten Sigismund Viscount
of Burma of Prussia Trematon

VII Elizabeth Prince Margaret ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

II Philip Juan Sophie
Carlos

?
VIII ?
Lady Prince Anne Edward
Diana Charles Andrew

Carrier female 3 Three female

IX
William Henry Hemophillic male ? ? Status uncertain

FIGURE 7.31 This pedigree represents one of the first useful applications of
pedigrees; showing the transmission of hemophilia in the royal families of Europe.

208 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

Discovering Biology Constructing a Pedigree
A pedigree shows the patterning of transmission of a trait in a family. Choose a
trait that is easy to identify in humans such as tongue rolling or type of ear
lobe. Construct a pedigree for your family or that of a friend’s, outlining the
inheritance of this trait for as many related individuals as possible.
Section 7.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. a) In your own words, define the term
mutation.
b) Distinguish between spontaneous
and induced mutations.
c) What mutagenic agents can induce
mutations?
2. Mutations in the gametes are more crit-
ical than those in body cells. Explain.
3. Identify some examples of single gene
defects.
4. Construct a flow chart to illustrate the
effects of the mutation that causes
sickle cell anemia. Demonstrate these
effects at the level of the gene, the mes-
senger, and the protein.
5. What causes chromosomal abnormal-
ities such as Down syndrome where
the affected individual has an abnor-
mal number of chromosomes?
6. What is a pedigree chart and why is
it useful in genetics studies?
7. List factors that affect the pattern of in-
heritance for a given trait.
8. What are the three common patterns
of simple inheritance? Describe the
distinctive features of each of these
patterns.
9. Construct a pedigree chart including
the following features:
a) at least 4 generations
b) at least 25 individuals
c) autosomal recessive inheritance
d) 1 relative to relative marriage
e) 1 set of identical twins
10. A man with the genetic defect hiskul-
phobia marries a woman who does not
have the defect. They have eight chil-
dren, four boys and four girls. One of
the daughters and three of the sons
have hiskulphobia. The hiskulphobic
daughter marries a normal man and
they have two boys with hiskulphobia
and three normal daughters. One of the
sons with hiskulphobia produces eight
children, four sons with hiskulphobia
and four normal daughters. Another
one of the sons with hiskulphobia pro-
duces four normal daughters, two nor-
mal sons and two sons with
hiskulphobia.
a) Produce a pedigree for this family
indicating the affected individuals.
Write in the genotypes of individu-
als where you can determine with
certainty their genetic make-up.
b) What inheritance pattern does this
trait appear to show? Explain your
answer.
11. How are studies in population genet-
ics different from studies of individual
crosses? Why are studies of this sort
often valuable to the geneticist?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
12. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have
been associated with negative effects
on the hatching of birds in Lake
Ontario. Design an experiment to in-
vestigate whether these effects are truly
genetic or merely environmental.
13. In the Canadian population, 80% of the
babies born with Down syndrome are
born to women under age 35. How
would you explain this?
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 209
 7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the relationship between genetics and traditional breeding techniques

 evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding

 describe several methods of prenatal diagnosis and the use of each of these methods

 explain the process and application of recombinant DNA

 describe the draft results of the Human Genome Project

 describe the steps involved in cloning

 describe some uses of DNA typing in society today

 describe ethical issues that must be considered when using current techniques in
genetics

The development of the modern concept

of the gene has been an amazing intel-
lectual journey. From the idea of factors,
through that of a position on a chromo-
some, to a length of DNA that codes for
a particular protein, biologists have con-
tinued to learn about the nature of the
gene. Surprisingly, early discoveries had
little effect outside the university or
breeding laboratory. However, the tech-
nological developments that have led to
the mapping of the human genome and
the combining of DNA from different, un-
related organisms are bringing genetics
from the laboratory into society. No per-
son today is unaffected by genetics.
Whether it is the possibility of knowing
our own personal genetic makeup or the
chance of being affected by a genetic dis-
order, applications of genetics are ev-
erywhere. As well, there are the ethical
issues such as whether we approve of
cloning or simply whether we will buy
and eat genetically modified foods.
Traditional Breeding
Strategies
Plant and animal breeders realized the
advantages of controlled or selective
breeding long before Gregor Mendel
manipulated pea plants. The earliest
farmers quickly realized the value of sav-
ing seeds from the best of the year’s
FIGURE 7.32 These Bassett hounds clearly
show the result of many generations of controlled
breeding.
crop. The best milk-producing cattle or
wool-producing sheep were mated while
the livestock of poorer quality was pre-
vented from mating. The result, more
often than not, was a higher production
crop or a better quality herd. In some
cases, growers observed a mutation that
created a new characteristic that was
desirable in a crop. Seedless grapes and
the navel orange originated from these
chance mutations. These plants were
then cultivated using vegetative propa-
gation, a method of asexual reproduc-
tion. Today many farmers rely on seed
companies to provide selectively bred
seeds or on skilled livestock breeders to
help them develop a quality herd.
Once a number of desirable traits
have been obtained in a plant or animal,
this set of traits can be passed from gen-
eration to generation intact as a result

210 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

of a type of controlled breeding called
inbreeding. In plants, inbreeding
involves the self-pollination of a
desirable plant. This controlled self-
pollination maintains a good crop be-
cause it prevents the introduction of any
new, possibly undesirable genes into the
plant’s genotype. In animals, a similar
result is attained by mating close rela-
tives. In cattle, brother-sister matings
are used to maintain a good herd. The
intent of many generations of inbreed-
ing in a plant or animal is to produce a
genotype homozygous for the desirable
traits.
There can be a serious drawback to
inbreeding. All organisms possess some
rare harmful recessive alleles that do not
express themselves in the heterozy-
gous condition. There is an increased
chance that two of these recessive alle-
les could come together as a result of in-
breeding. Two related individuals that
are crossed could have inherited the
same recessive allele from a common
ancestor. A homozygous recessive
individual could show some severe
abnormalities.
Another drawback of this
homogeneity (homozygous genotype) is
seen in the susceptibility of some plants
and animals to disease. The hazard of
losing a whole crop to blight or an in-
sect attack may be increased.
Another method of selective breed-
ing to ensure a quality crop or herd uses
a different approach. In hybridization,
two completely different parents, each
homozygous for a different desirable
trait, are crossed to produce a het-
erozygous plant or animal. Breeders
hope that the resulting hybrid will ex-
hibit the desirable traits of both parents.
Hybridization or outbreeding has been
used extensively in the production of
high quality corn crops. The drawback
for the farmer is that seed must be pur-
chased from the supplier every season.
In plants or animals when different
strains or species are crossed, the re-
sulting offspring often show combina-
tions of desirable traits (increased size,
increased yield, quick development, etc.). INFOBIT
This tendency is termed hybrid vigour
to indicate the advantages that the hy- A continuing low level of
brid offspring may gain because of their thyroid hormone will result in
effects on mental development
genetic variability. in a developing child. Dr. Jean
Dussault and his colleagues
at Laval University have
Genetic Screening developed a simple screening
Genetic screening is used to identify those test for newborns that detects
individuals with an increased risk of in- congenital hypothyroidism
and so allows treatment to
heriting a disorder. This increased risk is
prevent developmental effects.
often tied to a group of specific ethnic
background because these individuals
share a common genetic background.
Screening may involve karyotype studies,
or biochemical tests. In many cases in-
dividuals heterozygous for a disadvanta-
geous gene can be determined. Once this
information is obtained, appropriate
counselling or treatment can be given.
Huntington’s disease is a lethal dis-
ease inherited as an autosomal domi-
nant trait. The disease does not appear
until after the affected individuals are in
their thirties or forties. When the dis-
ease does appear, the affected individ-
ual has often produced offspring. The
gene will be passed on to half of the off-
spring who will grow up with the knowl-
edge that they may develop this
devastating disease. Geneticists can now
identify people who will be affected with
Huntington disease by testing for a “ge-
netic marker” on the chromosomes.
This genetic screening technique has
advantages and disadvantages for the
families involved. To know that you will
develop a lethal disease at an early age
may have a greater negative effect on a
person’s life than to be faced with a 50%
chance of the disease.
Genetic Counselling
Genetic counselling is offered at regional
genetic centres. The counsellor provides
and explains genetic information to edu-
cate patients and family practitioners
about both common and unusual genetic
conditions. This process offers non-di-
rective counselling to many prospective
parents and to families with affected chil-
dren. These groups can then make
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 211

A Screening
Success Story —
Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is an autosomal re-
cessive trait involving the protein that
controls iron absorption. Scientists
have recognized that 1 in 10 people
of northern European descent are
carriers of this defect. Symptoms ap-
pear in adulthood after years of high
absorption of iron in the intestine.
This iron is then deposited in exces-
sive amounts in the liver, heart, pan-
creas, and other organs. This leads
to tissue damage and, if left
unchecked, death. It was first rec-
ognized in 1865 in patients who had
diabetes, cirrhosis, and increased
skin pigmentation (brought on by the
iron deposits). Once the problem is
identified, effective treatment is avail-
able, so it is important to test for this
condition.
The gene responsible for this de-
fect was identified on the short arm
of chromosome 6 in the mid-1990s.
This discovery has resulted in an
increased accuracy of diagnosis and
the effective use of population screen-
ing. In addition, it has helped re-
searchers in their efforts to
understand iron metabolism.
Hemochromatosis is caused by
one of two “missense” mutations in-
volving simple nucleotide replace-
ments in the DNA. In one case the
nucleotide guanine has been replaced
with adenine at nucleotide 845 and
in the other the nucleotide cytosine
has been replaced with guanine at
nucleotide 187. In either case the al-
teration results in a non-functional
protein.
In the past, doctors relied on the
measurement of iron levels in blood
serum to identify suspected cases of
hemochromatosis. However, this was
often confusing as other conditions
could cause similar effects. Liver
biopsies (where a small piece of liver
tissue is removed surgically) some-
times led to complications but were
necessary to identify affected indi-
viduals. Today, genetic tests done
on a small sample of blood are read-
ily available and allow effective iden-
tification for many people, so that only
a few require liver biopsies. In the fu-
ture, screening of whole populations
may be a cost-effective way to iden-
tify individuals prior to the onset of
this disease and subsequent tissue
damage. A population screening pro-
gram for hemochromatosis has been
started in England because of the high
incidence of the disorder in the pop-
ulation. These types of programs will
most likely spread to other countries.
Once the correct diagnosis has
been established, the patient begins
therapy: a simple, inexpensive, and
safe treatment. Treatment involves
the removal of approximately 500 mL
of blood from the affected individ-
ual once a week in a process called
a phlebotomy. This lowers the iron
levels in the blood as this sample
would contain approximately 250 mg
of iron. Over time this decreases
excess iron stores and the frequency
of phlebotomy can be reduced.
Studies of this genetic abnor-
mality will undoubtedly lead to a bet-
ter understanding of iron absorption
and metabolism in this disease and
others involving iron metabolism.

informed decisions about child rearing or
child bearing. The importance of the ge-
netic counsellor becomes obvious if you
consider that about 5% of all births pro-
duce a child with physical or mental prob-
lems of varying severity. These problems
could be present at birth or could develop
later in life. Genetic counsellors have re-
ceived special training in screening and
testing methods and are skilled in coun-
selling and educating.
Today, genetic counselling is often ob-
tained by people in one of the following
risk groups:
• Pregnant women, 35 years or older,
because of the increased risk of bear-
ing a child with chromosomal abnor-
malities (especially Down syndrome).
• Parents who have already produced
a child with a genetic abnormality.
• Parents who have other family mem-
bers with a genetic abnormality.
• Couples from ethnic or racial groups
with a high risk for a specific genetic
disease (Tay Sachs, thalassemia and
sickle cell anemia). Often, carrier tests
can be used to identify two carrier
parents who could have an affected
child. Carrier screening tests have
been developed for the diseases men-
tioned above.

212 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 The genetic counsellor must obtain
extensive background information about
a given family before appropriate coun-
sel can be given. This background may
include the following:
1. The nature of the birth problem in
question
2. A family pedigree going back two or
more generations
3. Results of the examination of the af-
fected individual (and sometimes
other family members) by a clinical
geneticist, a doctor specializing in
genetics
4. An assessment of the extent of the
role of the environment to clarify the
cause of the disorder. Environmental FIGURE 7.33 Genetic counsellors provide a
great deal of useful information to couples who
influences can sometimes produce wish to have children. They are especially helpful
what appears to be a genetic defect. for parents who may be “at risk.”
5. Results of laboratory tests if
appropriate

A diagnosis of the disease and the identified by the counsellor. When the
probabilities involved must be clearly genetic studies are completed, the

FIGURE 7.34 These genetic technologists are working in a typical genetics lab.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 213

WEBLINK
Explore the Web to find out
about genetic services that are
available in your community
and Canada-wide. Identify the
hospitals in your area that have
counselling services. What
genetic problems are screened
for in prenatal tests at
these facilities? Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
214 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
counsellor can assist other medical per-
sonnel in providing the family with a more
complete and realistic view of the situa-
tion. Once the nature of a problem has
been identified and the probabilities of re-
currence and other implications have been
discussed, the family can then make more
informed choices about child bearing.
As we gain more knowledge about
genetic conditions and their transmis-
sion, the education of family practition-
ers becomes more important. A
knowledge of genetics and the gather-
ing of family histories from patients by
family doctors becomes critical in rec-
ognizing potential problems and helping
families to get appropriate counselling
and treatment. Genetic counsellors at re-
gional genetic centres can help educate
family doctors to make them effective in
this role. For example, most family doc-
tors today monitor families with a
predisposition to cancer. Studies have
shown that some individuals have an in-
creased chance of contracting cancer due
to their heredity. The monitoring of fam-
ilies with a history of breast or ovarian
cancer in women or colon or prostate
cancer in men is useful to identify peo-
ple who are at increased risk for cancer.
This valuable information is instrumen-
tal in the early diagnosis and prevention
of cancer in these individuals.
Clearly, accurate genetic information
is of use in making many significant de-
cisions. Most of the screening performed
today is to identify those at risk during
pregnancy and to outline the reproduc-
tive options. However, many scientists
suggest that screening techniques may
someday allow us to construct a
genetic profile of every individual. It has
been suggested that in the future this ge-
netic “prophecy” may be used in mak-
ing decisions about occupations or in
avoiding potentially harmful environ-
ments that might “turn on” undesir-
able genes.
Some groups that provide support
to individuals with genetic problems and
their families have concerns. They fear
that someday funding to support these
individuals may be cut off or reduced if
society perceives that certain defects
should never occur if proper screening
techniques are used. This would raise a
very sensitive issue. How would an in-
dividual with a genetic problem (whose
parents chose not to be screened) feel if
society suggested that their condition
should never have occurred and that
they are financially responsible for their
own care?
Prenatal Diagnosis
Prenatal diagnosis involves the testing
of the fetus to check for a problem for
which the family is at risk.
The most widespread technique of
prenatal diagnosis, amniocentesis, is
usually performed during the sixteenth
week of pregnancy. A small amount of
the amniotic fluid that surrounds the de-
veloping fetus in the uterus is obtained
by inserting a needle through the
mother’s abdominal wall. This fluid also
contains fetal cells that may reveal a
great deal of information about the fetus.
(Figure 7.36). Doctors use another tech-
nique called ultrasound (Figure 7.35) to
locate the position of the fetus and pla-
centa to prevent any injury to the mother
FIGURE 7.35 This image of the fetus was cre-
ated on a computer screen when high-frequency
sounds from an ultrasound scanner held against
the mother’s abdomen bounced off the fetus.
 or fetus when the needle is inserted.
Ultrasound is also useful in visually iden-
tifying a large number of physical
anomalies. The technique of amniocen-
tesis has been developed to the point
that it carries very little risk for the
mother or child.
The fluid obtained in the sample is
analysed biochemically. An elevated level
of alpha-fetoprotein may indicate the
presence of a neural tube defect such as
spina bifida. Children with spina bifida
are born with part of the spinal cord ex-
posed along the backbone. The cells ob-
tained in the sample are grown in tissue
culture for subsequent biochemical and
chromosomal analysis including kary-
otyping. Problems such as trisomy 21
(Down syndrome) would be identified in
this testing. About half of the tests per-
formed today are for mothers over 35
years of age. About one-third of the tests
performed involve the use of Maternal
Serum Screening. The remainder of the

1. AMNIOCENTESIS

14–16 week fetus

centrifugation

DNA testing

amniotic
fluid withdrawn
several
weeks
fetal cell culture later
placenta

uterus

2. CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING

9–12 week fetus

1. Results of biochemical tests

2. Karyotype

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

fetal cells 1 day later

suctioned from 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
chorionic villi

20 21 22 X Y

This fetus has 3 copies ...and is a male

of chromosome 21
(Down syndrome)...
FIGURE 7.36 Two methods of prenatal testing—amniocentesis and chorionic villus
sampling

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 215

 tests are for individual family situations result is produced. If the levels are
based on a previous child with a de- abnormal, a screen positive result, then
tectable problem or on a family history. there is an increased chance that the
Over 95% of the women at risk who child may have one of the three defects
use amniocentesis find that their unborn targeted. In these cases an amniocente-
fetus does not have a genetic problem. sis or ultrasound is then offered to find
Thus in the majority of cases this tech- out if the baby really has one of these
nique offers reassurance to couples. If a problems. MSS has provided yet another
defect does exist, action may be taken tool for geneticists and prospective par-
during pregnancy or soon after birth to ents to gain useful information about a
optimize delivery care and medical care pregnancy.
of the child. However, if the child is af- As our knowledge of the human
fected with a severe defect, the mother genome expands, prenatal tests will
might look at the choice of continuing or become more sophisticated and infor-
of ending the pregnancy. Although am- mative. Screening techniques may some-
niocentesis does not guarantee a “nor- day be available to analyze the genetic
mal” child, it has added a new makeup of all individuals and not just
dimension to genetic counselling. those at risk. If this happens, society has
An alternative to amniocentesis, to decide on the most appropriate ap-
chorionic villus sampling, was devel- plication of the technology.
oped in the 1980s. In this technique per-
formed in the tenth week of pregnancy,
Recombinant DNA
some of the cells from one of the mem-
branes surrounding the fetus are One of the most amazing results of our
removed and analysed. Results of this increased understanding of the gene has
test can be obtained within one to two been the development of recombinant
weeks. Inconclusive results and an in- DNA techniques. These techniques allow
creased chance of miscarriage due to the scientists to equip an organism with
procedure compared to amniocentesis, DNA that is not normally found in that
have reduced the frequency of use of this
technique. It is used for pregnancies that
have a high risk (greater than 25%) of a
severe genetic condition.
A less invasive testing procedure
known as Maternal Serum Screening
(or MSS) has been available since 1993.
This blood test is done on pregnant
women between the sixteenth and twen-
tieth week of pregnancy and can be ar-
ranged through a doctor or midwife.
MSS is used to gain information about
the chance of a baby having Down syn-
drome, trisomy 18, or an open neural
tube defect. If the fetus has any of these
defects, it will produce abnormal
amounts of certain hormones that will
cross the placenta into the mother’s cir-
culation. These unusual levels can be
measured simply by testing a sample FIGURE 7.37 These small circular segments of
of the mother’s blood. In most cases DNA called plasmids that are not part of the bac-
the levels of the hormones are in the terial chromosome, have been extremely useful
normal range and so a screen negative in recombinant DNA techniques.

216 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 organism. This new information, which
has been introduced into the host, can
then be used to cause the cell to produce
a specific protein. Simple organisms
used as the host, like bacteria, tend to
reproduce quickly. Thus, the protein can
be produced in large quantities.
Although this procedure was first per-
formed with viral genes being inserted
into a bacterial host, scientists quickly
extended this transfer to inserting
human genes. One of the first success-
ful transfers involved the human gene
for insulin production. Follow Figure
7.38 as you read the outline of this tech-
nique.
A segment of human DNA contain-
ing the insulin gene is isolated in the lab.
At the same time a circular molecule of
DNA called a plasmid is removed from
an E. coli bacterial cell (see Figure 7.37).
The two strands of DNA are now cut
using a type of chemical scissors called
a restriction enzyme. These sophisti-
cated enzymes recognize specific se-
quences of nucleotides along the DNA
strand and break the chemical bonds to
snip out a length of DNA. Scientists have

Human cell containing

gene of interest
Bacterium

protein synthesis plasmid

DNA bacterial
chromosome

human protein
of interest

1. Use restriction enzymes

to snip gene of interest
Use same
from the isolated human
restriction enzyme
genome.
to snip plasmid.

2. Insert gene into plasmid

(complementary sticky-ends recombinant DNA
will fit together).

transformation

3. Transfer the plasmid back

into bacterial cell.

replication

4. Let bacterial cells replicate.

Harvest and purify the
human protein produced
by the plasmids inside the
bacterial cells. bacterial
clones

FIGURE 7.38 This method

was perfected in 1982 for the
human insulin gene.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 217

 developed over 1000 different restric-
tion enzymes to date. The specific en-
zyme used in this procedure slices out
the insulin gene from the human DNA
and produces “sticky ends” on the E. coli
DNA that can recognize the ends on the
insulin gene. The sticky ends of the
two different DNA molecules are now re-
combined to form a single intact plas-
mid. This circular plasmid is then
inserted into another E. coli host cell.
When this host cell divides, the recom-
bined plasmid is replicated. A huge num-
ber of E. coli cells can be produced, each
capable of producing human insulin.
This technique was perfected in 1982.
Once this gene was inserted into the E.
coli cell it turned the bacterial cell into
a “mini-factory” capable of producing
a cheap, endless supply of quality insulin
for diabetics.
Insulin was the first of many
important biological substances pro-
duced using recombinant DNA. Human
growth hormone (HGH) is produced in
a similar fashion today. This has re-
placed the traditional expensive tech-
nique of extracting this chemical from a
human source. The list of possible
applications of genetic engineering ap-
pears endless. Recombinant DNA is now
used extensively in the chemical, phar-
maceutical, and food processing indus-
tries. Many applications of recombinant
DNA involve releasing genetically altered
organisms into the environment. As a
result, strict research guidelines must be
developed and enforced.
Recombinant DNA techniques have
been actively used in agriculture for
many years. There is debate continuing
between different sectors of society
and also different countries over the use
of genetically modified (GMO) foods.
Gene Therapy
Direct use of genetic techniques is part
of effective medicine today. Genetic
therapy is accomplished in one of two
ways. A normal gene product can be
given to an affected individual who
shows the symptoms of a disease. This
type of treatment is used extensively
today in treating the disease diabetes
with the normal gene product insulin. A
second method of therapy would be to
actually manipulate the abnormal DNA

ability to think and interact and

Dr. Peter St. George-
Hyslop and
Alzheimer’s Disease
Dr. Peter St. George-Hyslop is one of
the world’s top neurological re-
searchers on Alzheimer’s disease.
Head of the Tanz Centre for Research
in Neurodegenerative Diseases, he
has personally discovered two of the
four genes that have been linked to
Alzheimer’s at his laboratories at the
University of Toronto. Dr. St. George-
Hyslop is driven in his attempt to
understand and find treatments for
this disease that takes away the
remember.
Alzheimer’s disease (known as
AD) affects approximately 300,000
Canadians today. Dr. St. George-
Hyslop’s team of researchers are
striving to identify a gene that pro-
duces a protein that is thought to be
responsible for killing brain cells in
AD patients. He hopes that if the gene
can in fact be identified, then re-
searchers can better understand how
it works and develop drugs to inter-
act with the genes to halt the pro-
gression of the disease. The
identification of this “therapeutic tar-
get” would allow scientists to identify
potential AD victims in advance and
to begin treatment prior to the onset FIGURE 7.39 Dr. Peter St. George-
of the disease. Hyslop in his lab at the Tanz Centre for
Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases

218 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity


Dr. Barbara McClintock
1902-1992
Mendel’s work was not recognized at
the time that it was published. The
language that he used to explain
hereditary patterns was foreign to the
scientific community of his day. New
theories often meet with a great deal
of resistance. Another clear illustra-
tion of this pattern is seen in the work
of Barbara McClintock.
Geneticists initially thought that
the genome of any species was made
up of a fixed number of genes that
were arranged in unchanging se-
quences on the chromosomes.
McClintock presented a new view of
genomes. Barbara McClintock re-
ceived her PhD from Cornell
University in 1927, took a research
position at the University of Missouri
in 1936 and came to the Cold Spring
Harbour Laboratories in New York in
1941. In 1945 she was appointed
president of the Genetic Society of
FIGURE 7.40 Spotted kernels in corn.
This characteristic provided the first
demonstration that genes could move
through the genome.
America and was only the third
female member of the National
Academy of Sciences. This was
unusual as university research and
appointments of this type were dom-
inated by males.
McClintock’s research focused on
making the connection between the
behaviour of chromosomes in a spe-
cial type of crossing over and the phe-
notypic effects on corn kernels. She
was interested in explaining why
some corn kernels had a spotted
appearance even though all of the
cells in a kernel had the same genetic
makeup and so should have had the
same pigmentation. The spotted ap-
pearance meant that, in some of the
cells of the kernel, genes for pig-
mentation were being turned off.
After meticulous experimentation
McClintock reasoned that a control-
ling element could be “transposed”
from one place to another on a chro-
mosome. These elements, or “jump-
ing genes,” would insert themselves
into the chromosomes and influ-
ence the activity of the neighbour-
ing genes, turning them on or off. The
influence of these transposable ele-
ments caused some of the kernels to
have no pigment or to have spots of
purple on white. McClintock pre-
sented her findings at a major
genetics symposium in 1951.
McClintock’s elegant model was
based on many years of rigorous
experimentation and data collection
but the suggestion that genes could
move met with great resistance. The
geneticists of the 1950s paid little at-
tention to her theory. A basis for
her explanation was provided as
techniques in genetics became more
sophisticated in the late 1960s and
early 1970s. By that time the genetic
material had been identified as DNA,
the code had been deciphered, and
methods to study individual genes
had been developed. Her jumping
genes, or transposons as they are
now called, had started to appear in
experiments involving other species:
FIGURE 7.41 Barbara McClintock, a
superb researcher, decades ahead of her
time.
bacteria, insects, and even mammals
including humans.
These transposons are thought
to have many influences in a wide
range of species. They obviously have
a role in gene regulation and help
explain the wide range of variation
seen in certain proteins (like the pig-
mentation in corn kernels). These
transposons have been linked to the
development of drug resistance in
bacteria. In these bacteria, the trans-
posable elements for drug resistance
can be passed from one bacterium to
another. Transposons help create
genetic diversity and may cause rapid
evolutionary change. They may also
provide a mechanism for genes to
move from one species to another.
Current research is attempting
to make the link between these
elements and human disease. In fact
some geneticists have suggested that
up to 50% of mutations in our
genome may be attributed to trans-
posable elements.
Unlike Mendel, Barbara
McClintock lived to see the signifi-
cance of her work recognized and
received the Nobel prize in 1983 at
the age of 81.
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 219

FIGURE 7.42 The effect of traditional gene therapy. Mice that have the gene de-
fect for obesity, as shown on the left, can be injected with the normal gene prod-
uct, leptin. These mice will eat less, burn more calories, and will not become
obese. This result is shown in the mouse on the right.
WEBLINK
Investigate how recombinant
DNA techniques are applied in
one of the following areas:
pollution control
mineral extraction
plant improvement
animal improvement
transgenics
Write a supported paragraph
on your chosen topic.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
220 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
in a parent or offspring in order to bet-
ter treat a disease. Techniques to em-
ploy this second approach are no longer
just theoretical possibilities.
One of the most exciting and long-
term goals of genetic engineering is to
actually correct some hereditary defects.
This type of gene therapy (human gene
transfer) would involve inserting a
proper working copy of a gene into the
cells that lack the ability to produce their
own protein. In the case of diabetes this
would involve the transfer of the normal
gene for insulin production into the cells
of the pancreas that lack this gene so
that the diabetic could produce insulin.
This technique would involve inserting
the insulin gene into a vector, such as a
virus, that would carry the gene to the
site in the body that requires the correct
copy of the gene. This vector would then
insert itself into these cells and trans-
fer the required gene. These cells would
now have the ability to produce their
own insulin. The key is to get the gene
transferred into the stem cells at the
correct site. Stem cells are capable of di-
viding and are not yet producing the
product, insulin. For the therapy to be
successful the modified stem cells would
have to divide and the new cells would
have to become differentiated to produce
insulin over the person’s lifetime.
To date, scientists have encountered
several difficulties in human gene
transfer.
• It is very difficult to get the correct
copy of the gene into enough cells in
the right location in the body. Many
genetic defects affect more than one
organ or one system. Researchers
suspect that our first successes will
involve those defects that are re-
stricted to specific organs or a sin-
gle system.
• Sometimes the immune system of
the human recipient will undergo an
immune response that reduces the
effectiveness of the gene transfer.
• There are problems getting the new
cell line to continue dividing and
producing the new protein.
In spite of these roadblocks, researchers
are enthusiastic about the potential of
gene therapy.
Some success has already been
achieved in treating Adenosine
Deaminase deficiency (ADA), a genetic
defect that involves a key protein in the
immune response. Children affected with
ADA cannot survive outside a sterile en-
vironment. They must be isolated in an
enclosed and carefully monitored cham-
ber. Several documentaries have dealt
with “bubble boy,” a term derived from
the plastic chamber in which ADA chil-
dren used to live. Now there is a partial
treatment of ADA, the first genetic con-
dition to be treated by gene therapy.
Experimental therapies involving the re-
moval of stem cells from the bone mar-
row followed by gene insertion and
reimplantation have been successful.
Several ADA patients have been able to
live nearly normal lives.
The availability of gene therapy tech-
niques in humans will raise many social
and ethical issues. The greatest challenge
will be to decide the extent to which
these techniques are used. Many ethi-
cists feel that once we have the poten-
tial to alter human inheritance, these
techniques may be abused.
The Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project will ulti-
mately map the location of somewhere
between 30 000 and 35 000 genes on
the chromosomes of the human genome.
In addition, the sequence of the bases
(A,C,G, and T) in the nucleotides of the
DNA comprising each gene will be cat-
alogued. The project began in 1990 and
now involves the co-ordinated efforts of
at least 40 countries. The development
of specialized sequencing machines
(Figure 7.43) and the input of funds
from companies anticipating the com-
mercial applications of this information
have ensured the progress of the metic-
ulous research. As a result, the com-
pletion of the project is ahead of
schedule, with the rough draft of the
human genome published in 2001. The
finished sequence should be available
sometime in 2003.
The rough draft outlines approxi-
mately 95% of our genome and has iden-
tified many interesting and surprising
facts. The list below outlines some of the
information released in the initial draft.
• The distribution of genes on the
human chromosomes is surprising.
Our functional genes are concen-
trated at specific places in our
genome, with other large regions
simply containing so-called “junk”
(or non-coding) DNA. These areas
that serve no apparent purpose
comprise 50% of our genome, a very
high percentage when compared
to other organisms like the worm,
C. elegans (7%) and the fly,
D. melanogaster (3%). See Table 7.4
on page 222.
• It was originally thought that we had
approximately 100 000 genes in our
genome. Current estimates put this
number at somewhere between
FIGURE 7.43 Sophisticated
sequencing machines have helped
scientists complete the Human
Genome Project ahead of
schedule. The insert shows a com-
puter screen with a sequence of
base pairs forming part of the
human genetic code. Each
coloured band represents one of
the four nucleotide bases.
30 000 and 35 000. This is only
twice as many genes as the worm or
fly. How can we explain human com-
plexity with so few genes? Scientists
are suggesting that individual genes
may be somehow responsible for the
production of more than one protein
and that the interaction of our genes
is more sophisticated than that of
other organisms.
• More than 200 genes in the human
genome are similar to genes in
numerous types of bacteria, sug-
gesting that there have been several
different gene transfers from differ-
ent forms of bacteria during recent
evolution.
• Scientists have been able to identify
the ratio of mutations in males ver-
sus females by studying the X and
Y chromosomes. They found that the
ratio of mutations in males versus
females is 2:1.
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 221
 • Different regions of DNA have se-
quences that are almost identical to
one another even though they may
be far apart on a given chromosome
or even on different chromosomes
altogether. These repeated sequences
are the result of transposable ele-
ments that have spread by inserting
copies of themselves in various
places in the genome. As much as
50% of our genome may be derived
from these transposable elements.
• The human genome is now esti-
mated to contain 3 164 700 million
code letters (nucleotides).
• Recombination rates appear to be
higher towards the ends of chro-
mosomes and also on the chromo-
somes with short arms. The rate of
crossing over has been estimated as
one crossover per chromosome arm
in each meiosis.
The completion of this project does not
mean scientists now have a complete
understanding of our genetic traits.
This simply means that we know the
location and code of each gene. The
ultimate goal of the geneticist is to un-
derstand the relationship between
genotype and phenotype. This will in-
crease the understanding of disease.
What alterations in the code cause dis-
ease and why? Why are some alter-
ations harmless while others are so
detrimental? Using this “Book of Life”
to find the answers to these questions
is the work of the twenty-first century.
The human genome is not the first
genome to be analyzed. Geneticists have
outlined the gene sequence in numerous
organisms starting with yeast in 1989.
Table 7.4 summarizes the sequencing of
several organisms and the possible
applications of this knowledge.

TABLE 7.4 The Sequencing of Genomes

Organism S. cereviseae E. coli C. elegans D. melanogaster Thale H. sapiens M. musculus

yeast bacteria worm fruit fly cress plant human mouse

Sequencing 1989 1991 1990 1999 1996 1990 1999

process began

Sequencing 1996 1997 1998 2000 2000 2003 2005

process rough draft
completed available 2001

Number of 16 single 6 4 5 23 20
chromosome prokaryotic
pairs chromosome

Number of 12 million 4.6 million 100 million 180 million 119 million Approx. 3 billion
base pairs 3 164 700 million

Number of 6 241 4 405 19 000 13 600 25 500 Approx. 30 000 – Approx.

genes 35 000 40 000

Possible Knowledge of Used in gene Shows how Used more Allows us to May lead to Used as
applications genetic splicing to genes construct advanced improve ability to models for drug
function transfer human tissues methods of nutritional eliminate tests on genetic
insulin gene gene value of crops genetic conditions
sequencing conditions

222 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

Cloning
There are different levels of cloning. The
production of insulin by bacteria is a
method of gene cloning as all the bac-
teria have the same new foreign gene in
their cells. Biologists often grow cells that
are identical to each other for studies of
cell processes. These are cellular clones.
Today, biotechnology in combination
with reproductive technology is being
used to produce clones of whole organ-
isms by transfer of a complete nucleus.
This is nuclear cloning. The resulting
clones are identical to each other in
terms of the DNA found in their cells. FIGURE 7.44 Dolly, the first
mammal produced by nuclear
One of the more successful groups
cloning
headed by Ian Wilmut of Scotland pro-
duced the widely publicized “Dolly” in • The egg cell now behaved as if it had
1997. Dolly was the first mammal cloned been fertilized by the normal means
from the cells of another adult mammal. and began dividing. The DNA (from
Dolly was produced using the fol- the mature udder cell) was some-
lowing method: how reprogrammed by the proteins
in the egg cell to direct the normal
• Cells from the udder of a six-year-
development of an embryo.
old sheep were cultured in the lab.
• The embryo was put back into a sur-
• An egg cell of a second sheep was
rogate “mother” sheep.
extracted and its nucleus was
• Dolly was born 21 weeks later.
removed.
• The enucleated egg was then placed Dolly is the identical clone of the sheep
beside one of the nucleated udder that donated the DNA from the udder
cells in a Petri dish. cells. One area of concern with this type
• A small electric change was passed of nuclear cloning is that Dolly is aging
through the egg cell and the two at the same rate as the sheep that do-
cells fused. nated the nucleus from the udder cell,

surrogate
mother

DNA
udder cells
1 2 5

egg 3
Dolly

FIGURE 7.45 Cloning Dolly. An udder cell 1 from a white sheep and an enucle-
ated egg 2 from a black sheep were 3 stimulated with an electric current. Fusion
4 occurred. The embyro was implanted in 5 a surrogate mother. Dolly 6 was
born.

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 223

 rather than at the rate of a sheep born
on the day Dolly was born.
Since the birth of Dolly, Wilmut has
extended this technique to include
recombinant DNA. He inserted the
human gene for clotting Factor IX, a
chemical missing in one type of
hemophilia, into the sheep DNA donor
cell. The resulting clone that was pro-
duced, named Polly, now produces this
human protein. The production of this
Investigation type of “transgenic” clone is thought to
Refer to page 228, have extensive applications in both the
Investigation 1. production of human chemicals and in
the use of animal organs for human
transplantation. Recombinant DNA tech-
niques could be used to remove the
sheep genes for proteins that would
cause organ rejection in transplantation.
These genes could be replaced with
human genes that would be compatible
with the genes of an organ recipient. The
use of animals for this purpose and the
potential to clone humans raise many
questions about the ethics of such prac-
tices. Still more questions will be raised
as more technologies are developed.

lengths. The size of these pieces bloodstain labelled in Figure 7.46 is

DNA Profiling
In the mid-1980s a British geneticist
named Alec Jeffreys developed a new
method of identifying people on the
basis of their DNA. Each person has
nucleotide sequences that are re-
peated many times at different loca-
tions on the chromosomes. These
repeat sequences don’t code for any
protein and vary from person to per-
son. The identity process of DNA
profiling or fingerprinting has now
replaced to a great extent the use of
blood types to convict criminals or to
identify fathers in paternity cases.
The steps in this process are:
1. A DNA sample is removed from
some nucleated cells. A very
small sample of semen, saliva,
hair roots, or blood can provide
sufficient DNA.
2. The DNA sample is treated with
restriction enzymes to cut the
DNA into pieces of varying
will vary with the lengths of the compared to a number of profiles
repeat sequences that the DNA from different individuals. One of
donor possesses. these profiles, number 3, is a clear
3. The pieces of DNA are run match to the bloodstain profile.
through a process called gel elec-
trophoresis. This separates the
numerous DNA fragments based
on their length. The smaller frag-
ments migrate further in the gel.
4. This arrangement of pieces with
the order intact is transferred to
a sheet of nylon.
5. The nylon is treated with
radioactive probes. These probes
are sequences of DNA that
will recognize complementary
sequences in the segments on the
nylon.
6. An X-ray film is exposed to the
nylon, with the radioactive probes
showing the location of the differ-
ent segments. A pattern that looks
like a bar code is produced that is
unique to the individual tested.
Figure 7.46 shows how DNA FIGURE 7.46 Evidence of a match. Only
profiles are used in forensic investi- one of the DNA profiles matches that of
gations. The profile from DNA in the the bloodstain profile.

224 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

 Decision-Making Skills
Defining the Issue
Case Study
Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
What Genes Can Tell Us Justifying the Course of Action
Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Huntington’s disease is a neurological dis-

order that affects portions of the central
nervous system that regulate movement,
intelligence, and behaviour. Onset of the
disease usually occurs at about age 40, and
the average life expectancy of a person with
Huntington’s disease is 55 years.
Huntington’s is an inherited disease
caused by an autosomal dominant trait.
The gene for the disease is passed from
parents to offspring from one generation
to the next. There is a 50/50 chance that
offspring of a parent with the Huntington’s
gene will manifest the disease. A test is
available that will indicate if an individual
will get the disease by identifying a “genetic
marker” on the chromosomes. The test will
also indicate when onset of the disease will
likely occur.
For individuals who are at risk for
Huntington’s disease, the decision whether
or not to take the test may be a difficult one.
They have to consider the impact positive
test results will have on their lives and
the lives of their loved ones. In addition,
the test is very expensive and so cost may FIGURE 7.47 Lab technician examines a DNA profile obtained from a
small amount of DNA left at a crime scene.
be a factor.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue presented to a person who is at risk 4. Complete a risk/benefit chart to summarize your
for Huntington’s disease. research.
2. Research Huntington’s disease, focusing on symptoms, 5. Write a personal opinion piece, explaining what you
treatment, and the social impact of the disease. would advise someone at risk for Huntington’s disease
3. When a person at risk for Huntington’s decides to take to do.
the test, who are the people who will be impacted by the
test results?

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 225

 The Ethics of Current Human genetic information has
Practices the potential to be misused. People could
be subjected to genetic discrimination or
The techniques and practices discussed
bias on the basis of their genetic
in this section have the potential to alter
makeup. Decisions about people’s op-
and direct the path of evolution in many
portunities are made every day. If peo-
species of organisms, including our own.
ple’s access to employment, education,
Genetic manipulation can bring about
insurance, or medical treatment, for ex-
sudden and significant changes in an or-
ample, are made in relation to their
ganism’s characteristics. Many ethicists
genetic makeup, ethical questions will
today say that we have no right to alter
arise. In the 1960s sickle-cell carriers
the genetic makeup of any species.
were inappropriately denied insurance.
There is no guarantee that use of this
This practice has now been prohibited.
technology will produce change that is
We naturally think of genetic infor-
in the best interest of the species, or of
mation as private. Most people view the
other species with which the altered
idea of using genetic information as an
species interacts. The complexity of the
invasion of privacy. Yet the use of genetic
interactions of genes means that altered
information could benefit society in some
organisms could have the potential to
instances. For example, England has
cause great harm. For this reason, strict
several hundred thousand DNA profiles
regulations now control the type and ex-
of individuals who have criminal
tent of recombinant DNA technology per-
records. Some people believe that these
mitted in the lab.
profiles should be actively used by po-
Our society has far more informa-
lice to solve crimes and to prevent fu-
tion about the genetic makeup of species
ture crime.
than ever before. The Human Genome
Government regulations do not al-
Project and the advancement of im-
ways keep pace with the advancement
proved identification techniques may
of biotechnology and commercial ap-
soon give us a glimpse of individual
plications. Several current applications
human’s genetic potential and predis-
have been developed prior to any con-
position to disease at a very early age.
sideration of the legal and ethical ram-
Do people want this information? For
ifications. Many countries are just now
example, although most cancers have no
outlining restrictions or bans on nuclear
obvious genetic link, about 10% of
cloning, well after the development of
women with breast cancer have inher-
this technique. New questions are being
ited a gene that indicates a predisposi-
raised every day. For example, a possi-
tion to breast cancer. Would these
ble decision facing parents in the future
women behave differently if they knew
relates to the use of stem cells. Medical
they had this gene? Would they seek
research suggests that stem cells from
more intensive medical monitoring than
umbilical cord blood can be frozen and
if they did not know they had the gene,
used in future cancer treatment. Will the
or than if they did not have the gene at
freezing of stem cells be an option for
all? Difficult questions also arise in re-
future parents? What will be the impli-
lation to Huntington’s disease (an auto-
cations of their decision?
somal dominant disease). There is
With the laboratory as a classroom,
currently no cure for Huntington’s dis-
researchers learn more and more every
ease. Most people manifest this serious
day about how to interact with the ge-
illness in their thirties or forties. Would
netic code to predict, prevent, and treat
these people like to know that they will
disorders and diseases. These new tech-
become ill, or would they prefer to live
nologies have the power to enhance the
their lives without the knowledge of their
quality of life. They also challenge our
future?

226 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

ethical beliefs and multiply the choices
we will face in our lifetimes. The view of
the future that genetic research provides
Section 7.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Why is it advantageous to control
breeding in plants and animals?
2. How is inbreeding performed in
a) plants
b) animals?
3. List the problems that can result from
inbreeding.
4. Conduct research to find and describe
an example of hybridization in plant
and animal breeding.
5. Briefly outline three of the roles of
genetics in medicine.
6. What types of individuals are most
likely to consult with a genetic coun-
sellor?
7. Briefly explain how amniocentesis is
performed.
8. Write a supported paragraph on the
use of recombinant DNA today. How
might this process be used in the fu-
ture to actually eliminate some hered-
itary diseases?
9. Outline the steps in each of the
following:
a) DNA profiling
b) recombinant DNA
c) cloning of mammals such as Dolly
Making Connections
10. Each of the following statements con-
cerns an issue that society may have
to deal with as gene therapy and
brings with it the need for responsible
and ethical application of what we learn.
genetic screening become more
commonplace. Read the four state-
ments and select one. Make a point-
form Agree/Disagree chart to consider
both sides of the issue. Once you have
completed this summary chart, write
a position paper outlining your posi-
tion on one of the issues described. In
order for your work to be persuasive,
you must consider both the legal and
ethical aspects of the issue. In addition,
you should also discuss/dispel some of
the arguments that people with the op-
posing viewpoint would suggest.
a) Prospective parents who have a
family history of a genetic condition
that can be identified in prenatal
testing and are at risk should be re-
quired to undergo genetic screen-
ing.
b) Ultimately you would hope all par-
ents would take advantage of
screening techniques in an effort to
reduce the frequency of children
born with genetic abnormalities.
c) As long as there are strict guidelines
controlling gene therapy, society will
not have to be concerned about
abuses of this technology.
d) Private biotech companies that have
invested millions of dollars in the
Human Genome Project have a right
to obtain patents for specific gene
sequences. Other private companies
or research facilities should have to
ask permission or even pay to use
this information in their studies.
CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 227

Investigation 1
Gel Electrophoresis Simulation
The application of gel electrophoresis was described
for the production of DNA profiles. This technique can
also be used to determine the size of fragments from
digested samples of DNA. This type of information has
helped in analyzing DNA and in the ultimate se-
quencing of DNA. The following exercise is a simula-
tion of this technique.
Gel electrophoresis combines the techniques of chro-
matography and electrophoresis. DNA samples that
have been treated with restriction enzymes, that split
the DNA into fragments of varying size, are loaded in
wells at one end of a sheet of gel. This gel is usually
made of agarose, a naturally occurring substance
extracted from a type of seaweed. An electric field is
applied to LAL1
the gel, and the DNA fragments migrate
across the gel from the cathode (negative end) towards
the anode (positive end). Macromolecules separate
according to their molecular weight and charge. Small
fragments move farther through the microscopic pores
in the agarose gel. The gel contains a stain that causes
the DNA fragments to show up and a striped pattern
results. This technique is summarized in Figure 7.48.
The movement of a DNA fragment of a specific
size will be constant if the conditions of electrophore-
sis are the same (that is, voltage applied, gel type and
concentration, and time allowed). Scientists have col-
lected data on DNA “markers,” samples that have been
digested by restriction enzymes into fragments of
known size. The length of these fragments is described
as a number of base pairs (bp) for small fragments or
kilobase pairs (kb = 1000 base pairs) for larger ones.
Under set electrophoresis conditions, these known
fragments will have the same “relative mobility” value
(Rf) that is calculated using the following equation.
distance that the DNA fragment travels from
the start (at the well in the gel)
Rf =
distance from the start to the end point of
the gel
Information from these markers is used to plot stan-
dard curves on semi-log graph paper. The fragment
size (in bp or kb) is plotted vs. the Rf value of these
DNA segments of known size. The curve is used to
determine the size of unknown DNA fragments.
228 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 7.3)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Problem
How many base pairs (bp) are present in DNA frag-
ments that have undergone gel electrophoresis?
Materials
 ruler
 calculator
 note paper
 scissors
 standard curve of fragment size
Procedure
1. On a blank sheet of note paper, construct a scale
down the left-hand margin. Your scale should start
with 0 cm at the top of the margin. This will rep-
resent the negative electrode where the sample wells
are located at the start. Run your scale down the
margin to 20 cm, which will represent the end point
and positive end of the electrophoresis process. Place
a horizontal line across your page at the starting
point and at the end point.
2. Cut a strip of paper 1 cm wide and 15 cm long. This
represents your unknown DNA sample. This sam-
ple has been treated with a restriction enzyme and
has been split into five fragments. Cut your sample
into five fragments with the following lengths:
Fragment # 1 – 5.6 cm
Fragment #2 – 4.4 cm
Fragment #3 – 2.2 cm
Fragment #4 – 1.7 cm
Fragment #5 – 1.1 cm
3. Following gel electrophoresis these fragments have
arranged themselves on the gel the following dis-
tances from the start (that is, from the wells at the
top of your page).
Fragment #1 – 7 cm
Fragment #2 – 8 cm
Fragment #3 – 11 cm
Fragment #4 – 12 cm
Fragment #5 – 14 cm
(continued)

mixtures of DNA
fragments of different sizes
FIGURE 7.48 Three samples of DNA have been treated with different combina-
tions of restriction enzymes and have been placed in the wells at the top of the
gel. When an electric charge is applied to the gel, the fragments migrate through
the pores with the smaller fragments travelling farther down the gel. The completed
gel has three different patterns of fragments because different restriction enzymes
have been used on the three samples.

cathode –

long fragments
gel

power
source

glass
plates
short fragments
completed gel
anode +

Analzing and Interpreting Concluding and Communicating

1. Describe the general trend that you observe for
the arrangement of your fragments on the gel.
2. Calculate the Rf values for each of the fragments.
3. The graph in Figure 7.49 represents the standard
curve plot for the conditions of your gel elec-
trophoresis. Use this graph to determine the size
(number of base pairs) of each of the five fragments
in your unknown sample.
4. How many base pairs were in the original sample
of DNA (your 15 cm strip of paper)? How did you
calculate this value?
5. Describe how this type of information is important
to scientists studying DNA today.
6. This technique can be used to study genetic varia-
tion in populations. A specific protein is extracted
from members of the same population and these
samples are subjected to protein electrophoresis.
The different molecular forms of the protein re-
sulting from differences in genotype create bands at
different locations in the gel. By studying variations
at a number of loci, similarities in individuals in the
population can be studied. Describe several uses
of this type of information.

100 000 Extending

7. Research gel electrophoresis to describe the
following:
Fragment size (bp)

a) specific details of the process and the equipment

10 000 used
b) different types of restriction enzymes and gels
and the type of testing in which they are used
c) applications of these techniques in genetics
8. The technique of gel electrophoresis is so precise
1 000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 that it is possible to determine if the individual being
Rf value tested is homozygous or heterozygous. Discuss how
this fact might be applied in genetic studies.
FIGURE 7.49 Standard curve of fragment size versus Rf
value

CHAPTER 7 Genetics and Society 229


Investigation 2
DNA Extraction
Many sophisticated biochemical techniques exist today
for the analysis of DNA. Techniques like DNA profiling
or the production of a karyotype that once appeared to
be quite complicated are now used extensively in soci-
ety in medical and legal settings. The advent of se-
quencing techniques used in the Human Genome Project
has raised the level of biochemical analysis to new
heights. Regardless of what DNA manipulation is being
carried out, scientists must have samples of DNA that
have been extracted from the cells under study. In this
lab you will extract a DNA sample from an onion.
Problem
How can we extract DNA from onion cells?
Materials LAL1
 120 mL of water  filter paper
 1.5 g uniodized salt  glass Petri dish
 5 g baking soda  250-mL beaker
 5 mL shampoo (no  3 large test tubes with
conditioner!) stoppers
 10 mL isopropanol  glass stirring rod
(chilled)  blue litmus paper
 scalpel  safety goggles
 1/8 of an onion
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles during the DNA extraction.
Procedure
1. Prepare the DNA extraction solution by mixing
the water, shampoo, salt, and baking soda in a
250-mL beaker.
2. Place the section of onion you have been given in
the Petri dish and cut into small pieces. Gradually
add water as you cut the onion to give the final
product the consistency of applesauce.
3. Place 5 mL of the onion mixture in one of the large
test tubes and add 10 mL of the DNA extraction
solution that you prepared in step 1.
4. Place a stopper in this tube and shake the tube vig-
orously for 2 minutes.
5. Filter the contents of the tube into another large test
tube. Keep the filtrate and discard the onion residue.
6. Add 10 mL of isopropanol to the liquid in this
tube and gently swirl the contents to mix the iso-
propanol with the contents of the tube. Long strands
of DNA should now start to appear.
230 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 7.1)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Materials, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
7. Insert a glass stirring rod into the tube and spool the
DNA onto the glass rod by slowly twirling the rod.
8. Place some of the DNA fibres on a microscope slide
and observe them under a microscope.
9. Place some of the fibres on blue litmus paper and
observe any colour change.
10. Place 10 mL of water in the third test tube and add
some of the DNA sample to the water using the glass
stirring rod. Stir the contents with the rod.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What purpose is served by cutting the onion into
very small pieces?
2. What effect does the extraction solution have on the
onion sample?
3. What does the filtering process tell you about the
DNA molecules?
4. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA. What
physical features can you observe in the extract that
makes you believe it is DNA?
5. What happened when the isopropanol was added
to the liquid that passed through the filter? What
does this tell you about the behaviour of DNA?
6. What happens when you place some of the DNA
sample in water and stir it? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
7. What happened when you tested the DNA sample
with the blue litmus paper? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
Concluding and Communicating
8. List the characteristics/features of DNA that are
identified in this investigation.
9. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA if it
is heated.
10.Explain the effect of temperature in terms of the
viscosity of the DNA material.
Extending
11.Carry out research to identify the role of each of the
following substances used in this investigation:
shampoo, baking soda, salt, and isopropanol
12.Repeat this investigation with other plant sources
of DNA and compare the results and success rate
to those of the onion extraction.
Adapted with permission from Let’s Talk Science, Partners in Science
Newsletter Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2000.
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

amniocentesis double helix karyotype selective breeding

autosomes Down syndrome Maternal Serum Screening semi-conservative
chorionic villus sampling gene mapping messenger RNA (mRNA) teratogens
(CVS) genetic counselling mutagens transcription
cloning genetic screening pedigree translation
congenital defect genetic therapy plasmid ultrasound
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) hemophilia recombinant DNA
DNA profiling homogeneity replication
(fingerprinting) Human Genome Project restriction enzyme

Essential Understandings

7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA
 Chromosomes isolated from cultured cells can be
isolated, stained, and grouped in homologous pairs
in a chart called a karyotype.
 Each species has a specific number of chromosomes
in all body cells.
 In humans the male genotype is identified as “XY”
while the female genotype is “XX.”
 X-linked traits like hemophilia affect far more males
than females.
 Scientists are attempting to map the loci of spe-
cific genes on the chromosomes in gene maps.
 James Watson and Francis Crick outlined the molec-
ular structure of the chromosomal chemical, DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
 Replication is termed semi-conservative because the
halves of the DNA molecule are conserved one in
each of the two chains of DNA produced.
 DNA can produce a message during transcription
(mRNA) to direct cell activity outside of the nucleus.
 The messenger RNA is translated at the ribosome
during protein synthesis.
7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees
 A mutation may occur spontaneously or it may be
induced.
 Genetic conditions like hemophilia are the result
of a single gene defect.
 Genetic conditions like Down syndrome result from
an abnormal number of chromosomes.
 In population genetics researchers study the fre-
quency of a gene in the gene pool or the frequency
of a genotype in the whole population, rather than
in individuals or families.
 Population genetics studies have identified an
increased risk of a Down syndrome birth in older
mothers.
 Pedigrees are a very useful method of illustrating
family histories for specific traits.
 The mode of inheritance of a particular trait can
often be determined by studying a pedigree
involving that trait.
7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics
 Desirable combinations of traits can often be
obtained in agriculture using inbreeding or
hybridization techniques.
 Inbreeding may result in the appearance of a rare
and sometimes severe genetic abnormality.
 Genetic counsellors provide a valuable service for
prospective parents.
 Amniocentesis, ultrasound, and chorionic villus test-
ing often provide valuable information about the
fetus.
 Recombinant DNA techniques are used to splice
together the genetic information of two different
organisms.
 Recombinant DNA has allowed scientists to make
bacterial “factories” useful in the chemical, phar-
maceutical, and food processing industries.
 One of the long-term goals of genetic engineering
techniques is to cure genetic defects using gene
therapy.
 DNA profiles have been extremely useful in con-
victing criminals.
 The cloning technique used to produce Dolly may
have extensive applications in agriculture.
 The current and potential applications of our knowl-
edge of genetics raises many ethical issues.

Consolidate Your Understanding

 One of your focuses for this chapter is the consid- be dealt with when society pursues genetic
eration of the ethics of genetic technologies that are biotechnologies.
available today. Outline five different issues that must

CHAPTER 7 Using Our KnowledgeC HofA Genes,

P T E R 7 Chromosomes,
Genetics andand DNA
Society 231
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Harmful X-linked traits determined by a recessive gene
a) tend to appear in females only
b) do not skip generations
c) are usually not passed on from father to son
d) are usually passed on by carrier males
2. Which of the following statements about chromosomes
is true?
a) the greater the number of chromosomes, the more
complex the organism
b) different species of organisms have different diploid
numbers of chromosomes
c) the characteristics of a species are not determined
simply by the number of chromosomes but rather
by the specific information on the chromosomes
d) most organisms have less than 10 chromosomes
3. Humans possess
a) 22 pairs of sex chromosomes and 1 pair of auto-
somes
b) 23 pairs of autosomes
c) equal numbers of autosomes and sex chromosomes
d) 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromo-
somes
4. The farther apart linked genes are on the chromosome
a) the more frequent the crossovers
b) the less likely they are to be separated by a crossover
c) the less likely they are to assort independently
d) the greater the chance of a mutation
5. The most important job of the genetic counsellor is to
a) decide if couples should have children
b) make decisions for prospective parents
c) decide who should have amniocentesis
d) provide useful information for parents
6. Which parent ultimately decides the sex of a child?
Explain.
7. Which type of genetic defect is easiest to identify in a
karyotype?
8. In a pedigree how would you recognize that a particu-
lar trait is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait?
9. Describe how the structure of DNA leads to its possible
self-replication.
10. List the negative effects of homogeneity.
11. How are inbreeding and hybridization different in terms
of the genotypes produced? When is it advantageous to
use each approach?
232 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
12. Distinguish between the two types of genetic technolo-
gies, screening and therapy.
13. How have restriction enzymes been critical in recombi-
nant DNA techniques?
14. Does amniocentesis guarantee a healthy baby? Explain
your answer.
15. What type of parental cross could produce a hemophil-
iac female?
16. Describe some surprising information that is being
released concerning the Human Genome. How is this
information creating a different view of the genome
when compared to our view prior to the release of this
information?
17. a) How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in
the cells of a Turner syndrome individual? Explain
your answer.
b) How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in
the cells of a Klinefelter syndrome individual?
Explain your answer.
18. Scientists were initially puzzled when studying the func-
tion of DNA by the ability of the DNA in the nucleus to
control the activity going on in the cytoplasm. They were
particularly puzzled by the fact that the DNA never left
the nucleus. How is this control feat accomplished?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
19. Colour blindness is inherited as an X-linked recessive.
A heterozygous (for eye colour) brown-eyed normal male
is married to a heterozygous brown-eyed, colour-blind
female. Use a Punnett square to determine the answer
to the following questions. Assume that a heterozygous
brown-eyed individual carries the recessive allele for
blue eyes.
a) What is the probability that they will have a daugh-
ter who is a carrier for colour blindness with brown
eyes?
b) What is the probability that they will have a son who
is colour-blind with blue eyes?
c) What is the probability that they will have a colour-
blind child?
20. A woman, who is a carrier for colour blindness, has 8
children, 4 boys and 4 girls. Each of her children marry
and have 8 children, 4 boys and 4 girls once again. Of
her 64 grandchildren, how many would you expect to
be colour-blind males according to probability? Assume
 that her marriage and her children’s marriages are with
people not carrying the recessive allelle.
21. An old man said to his grandson, “One quarter of you is
me.” Is this statement correct in terms of the genetics
involved? Explain.
22. In the fruit fly, Drosophila, red eye (R) is dominant to
sepia eye (r), and straight wing (S) is dominant to curved
wing (s). These genes are carried on different chromo-
somes. If a pure breeding sepia-eyed, straight-winged
fly is mated with a pure breeding red-eyed, curve-winged
fly, what phenotypes and genotypes will appear in the
F1? If two of these F1 flies are allowed to mate, what phe-
notypes will be observed and in what ratio?
23. Studies have shown that more male babies are conceived
than female. How might this be explained? Eventually
throughout childhood these numbers become the same.
Why is there a higher mortality of male babies prior to
birth and after birth?
24. Construct a model of the DNA molecule showing its chem-
ical makeup. Your model should clearly illustrate how
this molecule contains a coded message.
25. Consider the trait of “hitchhiker’s thumb,” with pheno-
types of curved and straight thumb. Construct a pedi-
gree for your family outlining the inheritance of this trait
for as many related individuals as possible.
26. A pregnant woman, aged 37, is informed that there is
a 1 in 200 chance of her child having Down syndrome.
Why is this probability significant?
27. Tay Sachs disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive
gene and is a fatal disorder. You have been approached
by a couple who have lost a child to Tay-Sachs. There
was no history of this disease in their immediate family.
They would like to have another child but they are con-
cerned about the appearance of this trait in a second
child. What advice can you give them about the chances
of this disorder appearing in a second child?
28. Produce a graph to illustrate the relationship between
maternal age and the incidence of Down Syndrome in
newborns. Choose the type of graph that will most clearly
illustrate this relationship.
29. A man with a Y-linked disorder has three sons and three
daughters with the same wife. His first son has two sons
and two daughters with his wife and the second son has
three daughters with his wife. Draw the pedigree for this
family. How could you tell if this disorder was Y-linked
or X-linked recessive by looking at the pedigree?
Making Connections
30. A father has just been informed that his son has mus-
cular dystrophy. The father works at a chemical plant
and suspects he has been exposed to a possibly muta-
genic substance during an accident. He has approached
you for advice about the genetics involved. What rec-
ommendation would you make to the father if he asks
for advice about suing the chemical plant for his son’s
medical costs?
31. Should genetic engineering be done on humans? Write
a paragraph to express your opinion.
32. Many of the biotechnology companies that are working
on the Human Genome Project have applied for patents
on the genetic information. In Britain, authorities have
denied all patent applications on the basis that no one
can have a patent on the information of a living organ-
ism. Do you think that companies should be able to
patent this information? Why or why not?
33. Research cystic fibrosis. Write a description of this dis-
cease under the headings:
a) cause
b) symptoms
c) rate of occurrence
d) prevention
e) treatment
f) support groups
34. Research one of the plant products listed below in order
to outline how genetic engineering has played a role in
the development of this product.
Canola Potato
Corn Soybean
Cotton seed Squash
Flax Tomato
35. Some learning disorders can be linked to genetic ab-
normalities such as fragile X syndrome. Some people
argue that these children would be better to have a kary-
otype test done to identify the genetic cause of the learn-
ing disorder. In this way the cause of the disorder has
been identified and the best path in educating these in-
dividuals can be pursued. On the other hand, some peo-
ple suggest that when we assign a specific chromosomal
cause to the disorder then the classification of this
child may act as a roadblock to their opportunities. Which
argument seems to make more sense to you? Explain
your choice.
CHAPTER 7 Review 233
 EXPLORING CAREERS
Communicating Your Skills
Genetics to careers in biology is what
the high-speed chip has been to careers
in the computer industry: a source of
incredible growth that seems to gain
momentum with every new discovery or
improvement in technology. There is
already a vast number of careers and
opportunities in biotechnology and
genetics. You can find lists of jobs on the
Internet. There are even glossy print
magazines filled with career advertise-
ments for biologists in all sorts of
specialties.
Jobs. That means application forms
and interviews. Imagine you have grad-
uated from university and are ready to
look for a job. Or you’re taking the
FIGURE 1 Dress for success. When you are invited to an interview for any job,
arrive in neat, business-like clothing. The job itself may require you to wear jeans
and a lab coat, but this is not appropriate attire before you are hired. (Hint: If the
interview goes well, you might be offered a tour of the facilities. Depending on the
facilities, it may be wise to wear shoes that can take a little punishment.)
234 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
co-op program at your university (a
co-op program is one in which you take
academic courses one term, then work
in a related occupation the next). You
can give a prospective employer a list of
your courses and marks, as well as an
up-to-date résumé of any work experi-
ence, but what you need is the ability to
talk confidently about your skills and
qualifications.
From Classroom to the
Workplace
You’ve been asked to come for an
interview at the local hospital. There are
a wide variety of summer jobs available
for students, from cashier in the cafe-
teria to assisting in the laboratories to
helping with patients. You would prefer
a job helping with patients because
you are considering a career in
medicine. How could you talk about your
skills in a way that shows you would be
good at this type of job?
1. Which of the skills listed on the next
page would be most important in
the job you want? (These are skills
you are developing in this biology
course.) Choose five you wish to
emphasize. For each of these skills,
write descriptive statements as if
you are:
 listing this skill on your résumé.
 listing this skill in an email or
cover letter.
 putting this skill in the section
titled “Any Special Skills” on an
application form.
 talking about this skill in an
interview.
Here’s an example:

Skill: communicating procedures and results

On a résumé: experience using data tables, graphs, and other

formats to communicate technical information

In an email or cover letter: I can communicate technical information clearly and

concisely, using a variety of formats.

On an application form (if asked): communicating technical information

In an interview: I’m hoping for a job where I’ll be helping with

patients and interacting with medical staff. One of
my strengths is communicating technical information,
which would help me understand instructions from
the nurses and record any observations required. I
have experience writing reports, making presentations,
and talking with others about procedures and results.
I’m comfortable using a variety of tables and
graphs, including creating these on computers.

Look over your statements. You are talk- any advice to improve your
ing about the same skill, but in each case presentation for next time. This
you had to adapt what you said to suit could be your next job interview!
how it was being presented. Sometimes,
as on the application form, you won’t
have much room. So use clear, mean- List of Skills
ingful terms. In an interview, it’s your • assembling
and using appa
opportunity to explain your skill in • communicat ratus
ing procedures
detail, pointing out any aspects that will • compiling an and results
d organizing da
show how that skill is important to the • coordinatin ta
g tasks
job you want. • decision-mak
ing
• designing pr
ocedures
• identifying va
Looking Outward • interpreting
riables
patterns and tr
2. Most people find writing about their • problem-sol ends in data
ving
skills a great deal easier than • recording ob
servations
talking about them, yet it is talking • researching
topics under st
that will make the difference • selecting an udy
d using instrum
between getting that job or not. So • selecting an ents effectively
d using the ap and accurately
practise! Write statements like the • time manag propriate grap
ement hi ng technique
ones here, then practise saying them • using approp
riate techniqu
out loud. Your family and friends can posing of labo es for handlin
ratory materia g, storing, and
be your first audience. Once you are • working in ls dis-
a team
confident, find a neighbour or fam- • working inde
pendently
ily friend who conducts interviews. • working with
Ask this person to listen to how you others
present yourself and your skills. Use

Exploring Carrers 235

 ACHIEVEMENT TASK

Genetics and Discrimination

Background Information
It is clear that knowledge of a person’s genetic make-up may be useful in
making all sorts of decisions in areas ranging from childbearing to job se-
lection. This “genetic prophecy” could lead to a new form of discrimination
in a society that places greater emphasis on genetics. It is possible that peo-
ple could be denied educational opportunities or turned away from jobs
because of their genetic makeup. As our knowledge of genetics increases,
society will have to decide how genetic information will be used.

SCENARIO

You have been appointed to an ethics panel studying the many potential
applications of genetic research. You have been asked to comment on the
current status of one of the following genetic technologies and to provide rec-
ommendations to limit the potential for discrimination in future genetic re-
search.
 The Human Genome Project
 Genetic Engineering
 Genetic Markers
 DNA Profiling

236 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

Part A: Genetic Disorders
1. Select one of the following genetic disorders
and describe the disorder according to the
following criteria: (1) chromosomes affected;
(2) physical effects; and (3) treatment.
• cystic fibrosis
• muscular dystophry
• fragile X Syndrome
• Down syndrome
Part B: Research Technology
2. Choose one of the technologies in the
scenario and research it according to the
following criteria: (1) define the technology;
(2) describe the technology involved; (3)
identify its potential uses or applications;
and (4) identify how information gathered
using this technology could be misused.
3. For the technology chosen, create a histor-
ical timeline of the discoveries in genetics
that have led to its development. On the
timeline, identify the individuals who have
contributed to these discoveries.
Part C: The Future of Research
4. What are the variables that influence pub-
lic opinion on the continuation of genetic
research using this technology? Explain.
5. Using your own research, complete a
risk/benefit analysis of the genetic technol-
ogy with respect to its potential for
discrimination.
6. Based on the information you have found,
make recommendations about the future of
genetic research.
Part D: Proposing a Course of
Action
7. Write a recommendation that outlines
control mechanisms to limit the potential
discrimination that could arise from the use
of this technology. Use the following crite-
ria for your recommendations: (1) include
a range of perspectives, both pro and con;
(2) include recommendations for testing of
future research and technologies; and (3)
look at the social, ethical, and economic
impact of the technology.
A C H I E V E M E N T TA S K 237
UNIT 2 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts c) a chain of sugar and phosphate molecules
d) a sequence of peptide bonds producing a polypeptide
1. A sex cell that results from meiosis will contain
a) the diploid number of chromosomes 9. A knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped ge-
b) any given number of chromosomes neticists produce
c) one of each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes a) karyotypes
d) any combination of chromosomes that is the b) pedigrees
haploid number c) Punnett squares
d) genetic maps
2. Aneuploidy often results from
a) duplication 10. One of the drawbacks to inbreeding techniques is that
b) crossing over sometimes:
c) translocation a) severe mutations occur
d) nondisjunction b) abnormal numbers of chromosomes result
c) rare recessive traits can be found in the homozy-
3. The genes located at the same loci on homologous chro- gous condition
mosomes are known as d) resulting individuals are sterile
a) autosomes
b) homozygotes 11. Why is meiosis necessary in organisms that reproduce
c) alleles sexually?
d) heterozygotes
12. In what two ways does meiosis encourage variability?
4. Which pair of terms is most alike in meaning?
a) segregation, crossing over 13. In humans, at the end of reduction division in meiosis:
b) heterozygous, hybrid a) How many cells exist?
c) phenotype, genotype b) How many chromosomes exist in each cell?
d) recessive, dominant c) How many chromatids does each chromosome have?

5. An organism with the genotype AaBbcc would produce 14. How are homologous chromosomes the same? different?
how many different types of gametes?
a) 1 15. Why is it advantageous for females to produce one large
b) 2 functional egg in the meiotic process rather than four
c) 4 smaller ones?
d) 8
16. Why did Mendel propose each of the following ideas
6. If the diploid number of chromosomes is 30 for a given when developing his theory to explain patterns of
species, how many chromosomes are present in a ga- inheritance?
mete of this species? a) He suggested that his pea plants possessed two fac-
a) 1 tors for each of the seven traits studied (rather than
b) 14 one).
c) 15 b) He suggested that each pea plant passes on only one
d) 30 of its two factors in its gametes (rather than both).

7. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous
female with a light-hair blue-eyed male, given that dark
hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light hair
(a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, and the genes are car-
ried on autosomes, which of the following would be the
correct genotype of the offspring?
a) AaBb
b) Aabb
c) AaBB
d) AaBb
8. The Watson and Crick model indicated that the genetic
message is somehow determined by
a) the number of chromosomes in a body cell
b) a sequence of nitrogenous bases in the nucleotides
17. How is the phenotype of a hybrid different when the trait
shows dominance as opposed to incomplete dominance?
18. Two parents who have the same phenotype for a given
trait produce an individual with a differing phenotype
for the same trait. How would Mendel have explained
this observation?
19. When long radish plants are crossed with round radish
plants, the resulting plants produce oval radishes. How
would you explain this observation?
20. What must be true in order for geneticists to observe in-
dependent assortment? Explain why this must be true.

238 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

21. There is a wide range of continuous shades of skin
colouring in humans. How is this explained?
22. Why are there more men than women with colour
blindness?
23. A farmer has a bull that has a black coat, the dominant
trait inherited as a simple Mendelian trait. In this breed
of cattle white coat is the result of the homozygous
recessive condition. How would the farmer go about
determining the genotype of the bull?
24. “There will be nothing left for genetic researchers to
study once the Human Genome Project is completed.”
Discuss the validity of this statement.
25. Outline the two general approaches to gene therapy.
Which one of these has been used extensively in the past?
What roadblocks still exist in trying to accomplish the
other method of therapy?
26. In a certain plant grey seed colour (G) is dominant to
yellow seed colour (g). In the crosses shown in the chart
below the phenotype of the parent plants is known, but
their genotypes are not. The numbers of each phenotype
are recorded for the F1 generation. Identify the possi-
ble genotype(s) for the first parent given in each of the
following crosses.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
27. Use a series of diagrams to show how crossing over leads
to an increase of variation in genetic recombination.
28. Produce a table comparing sexual and asexual repro-
duction using the headings listed below.
a) number of parents
b) examples of this method
c) appearance of offspring relative to parents
d) advantages and disadvantages of this process
29. If a mother is blood type AB and produces a child with
blood type AB, list the possible genotypes of the father.
Which genotype(s) is (are) not possible? Explain why.
Cross Parent #1 Parent #2
1 grey yellow
2 grey grey
3 grey yellow
4 grey grey
30. A species of rabbit that lives in the harsh cold environ-
ment of the Himalayas normally has black fur on its ears
and feet. If this black fur is removed and the rabbit is
placed in a warmer environment, the hair that grows in
is not black. How would a geneticist explain this unex-
pected observation?
31. In fruit flies the genes for wing shape and body stripes
are linked. In a fly with the genotype WwSs, W is linked
to s and w is linked to S. How could this fly produce
gametes with four different combinations of alleles?
Identify which of these combinations would be termed
parental and which would be termed recombinants.
32. A knowledge of probability is important in any analysis
of genetic crosses.
a) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
ity that they will have five sons? (Assume that the
probability of a son in any given pregnancy is 1/2.)
b) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
ity that they will have three sons and then two
daughters?
c) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
ity that they will have a family of three sons and two
daughters? (Note that this probability is different
from the answer to part b.)
33. Use the rules outlined in question 6 to answer the fol-
lowing questions.
a) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC x
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the geno-
type AABBCC? (Assume that the genes are not linked.)
b) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC x
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the same
phenotype as the first parent given in the cross?
34. In rabbits the allele for black hair (B) is dominant to the
allele for brown hair (b) and the allele for short hair (S)
is dominant to the allele for long hair (s). The genes
are not linked. If a pure-breeding black, short-haired
male is mated with a brown, long-haired female, what
will their offspring look like? What are the genotypes
of the F1 individuals? If two of these F1 rabbits are mated,
what phenotypes would you expect to observe in the off-
spring and in what proportions?
Grey in F1 Yellow in F1 Genotype(s) of
parent #1?
52 52
127 41
63 0
86 0
Unit Review 239
35. A fruit fly that is heterozygous for both grey body and
red eyes (GgRr) is crossed with a fly having a black body
and purple eyes (ggrr). When this cross is carried out
most of the offspring look like the parents, but 7% have
grey bodies with purple eyes and 7% have black bodies
with red eyes. How would you explain these results?
36. A male fruit fly with normal wings is crossed with a
female fruit fly with miniature wings. The cross produces
165 males with miniature wings and 170 females with
normal wings. How would you explain the inheritance
pattern of this trait?
37. Once nerve cells reach maturity, they do not replicate
their DNA. These cells have lost their ability to divide.
Assume that x represents the amount of DNA found in
one of these nerve cells. Four other cells that have
been removed from various parts of the human body are
analyzed for their amounts of DNA. The researcher
obtains the following results:
Cell Relative Amount of DNA
nerve cell 1.0 x
Cell #1 0.5 x
Cell #2 2.0 x
Cell #3 1.7 x
Cell #4 1.0 x
Match each of the numbered cells to the correct location
in the human body listed below.
Location A – cell lining the intestinal tract in the S phase
Location B – a sperm cell
Location C – a skin cell just beginning interphase
Location D – a bone cell beginning mitosis
38. In a high school population genetics study, a student
collects information on the simple Mendelian trait of
tasting in humans. The allele for tasting (T) is
dominant to the allele for non-tasting (t). The phenotype
of 100 students is identified, with 84 being tasters and
16 being non-tasters. Follow the steps outlined below to
calculate the frequency of the two alleles in this gene
pool and the frequency of the genotypes in the population.
a) There are 100 students in the population. As a
result there are 200 genes in the gene pool.
b) Let the frequency of T in the gene pool be repre-
sented by the letter p and the frequency of t in the
gene pool be represented by the letter q. p + q must
equal one as these are the only alleles in the gene
pool for this trait.
c) The frequency of tt individuals in the population is
16/100. The chance of two tt alleles coming together
in this gene pool is represented by q2(q x q). Thus
q2 = 16/100. How would you use this equation to
240 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
determine the value of q? What is this value?
d) Now use the equation p + q = 1 to calculate the value
of p.
e) Now that you have values for p and q, you can cal-
culate the frequency of the three genotypes in this
student population using the following calculations.
Frequency of TT individuals = p2
Frequency of Tt individuals = 2pq
Frequency of tt individuals = q2
f) What does p2 + 2pq + q2 equal? Why does this have
to hold true?
g) Information of this sort concerning population ge-
netics questions can be summarized in a slightly dif-
ferent version of a Punnett square. The outside of
the Punnett represents the frequency of genes in the
gene pool and the inside represents the frequency
of genotypes in the population.
T=p t=q
T=p TT = p2 Tt = pq
t=q Tt = pq tt = q2
h) Make a copy of this Punnett in your notebook and
replace the letters p and q with the actual values for
the student’s population study.
39. Produce a pedigree chart that would be typical of
X-linked inheritance. Your pedigree should include at
least 4 generations and 25 individuals.
40. Using a knowledge of blood types, match the parents to
their proper child.
Baby Parent set (father/mother)
A: AB,MN,Rh 1. B,MN,Rh– O,MN,Rh+
B: O,N,Rh– 2. O,N,Rh+ O,MN,Rh+
C: A,MN,Rh+ 3. A,M,Rh– AB,MN,Rh–
D: B,M,Rh+ 4. AB,M,Rh+ O,N,Rh+
41. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked.
The following information has been determined exper-
imentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the
chromosome?
A is located at one extreme end of the chromosome
A crosses over with C 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 10% of the time
C crosses over with F 20% of the time
F crosses over with E 30% of the time
E crosses over with B 20% of the time
D crosses over with F 5 % of the time
D crosses over with B 15% of the time
42. In fruit flies, red eyes are dominant to white eyes and
long wings are dominant to vestigial (partially formed)
 wings. Two red-eyed, long-winged flies are crossed
and produce offspring according to the results shown in
the chart below.
Females Males
Red-eyed with long wings 6/16 3/16
Red-eyed with vestigial wings 2/16 1/16
White-eyed with long wings 3/16
White-eyed with vestigial wings 1/16
What are the genotypes of the parents? Produce a
Punnett square that will show the results of this cross.
Making Connections
43. Both competition and cooperation are common in sci-
entific research today. How might competition between
scientists and the corporations that employ them affect
projects like the mapping of the human genome?
44. Researchers have found that the incidence of spina bifida,
a spinal cord disorder, can be reduced if women of child-
bearing age who are capable of getting pregnant consume
small quantities of folic acid in their diet. One of the eas-
iest ways to ensure folic acid consumption in these women
is to add it to common food sources like cereal grains. Is
it acceptable for an entire population to receive an addi-
tive of this type that benefits a small proportion of the
whole population? Defend your point of view.
45. Tests to determine individuals who are genetically sus-
ceptible to developing various forms of cancer are cur-
rently becoming more sophisticated and widespread in
their use. There are people who think that the day would
come when society will insist that these individuals
must take steps to protect themselves against the devel-
opment of cancer so that society will not be financially
burdened by the cost of their treatment. Write a para-
graph to express your view on this issue.
46. Mendel concluded that some type of inheritable “factor”
was responsible for the patterns of inheritance that he
observed in his pea experiments. This conclusion was
drawn without ever seeing or knowing about genes. In
a similar fashion Morgan and Sturtevant described the
patterns of inheritance of linked genes without actually
observing the genes that were carried on the chromo-
some directly. Are these examples of bad science when
scientists suggest the existence of structures such as
genes without actually seeing them? Support your view-
point with several arguments.
47. The possibility that a genetic profile of any individual
could be produced in the near future raises many
questions. Express a supported viewpoint in response to
each of the following questions.
a) Should an employer have access to this personal
genetic information?
b) Should an insurance company have access to this
profile?
c) Should the government record and keep these
profiles for all citizens?
d) Should this information be recorded by the law
enforcement agencies for all known criminals?
e) Would some individuals try to avoid having their in-
formation recorded for fear of being discriminated
against because of their genetic makeup?
48. Search Internet and media sources to identify commis-
sions that have been established in various countries to
study the ethical, social and legal implications of our ex-
panding genetic knowledge. Describe any suggestions that
these commissions make concerning the impact of human
genetics research on individuals, families and society.
What problem areas have been identified by these groups
and what suggestions or solutions are offered? Are dif-
ferent countries that are dealing with these considerations
producing the same recommendations? Give several ex-
amples to support your answer to this question.
49. Experiments utilizing each of the following organisms
has contributed significantly to our knowledge of ge-
netics. Select one of these organisms and research in
order to identify the following:
a) scientist(s) that has(have) worked with this organ-
ism (you may need to select one scientist, as your
organism may have been used extensively by many
scientists)
b) a brief description outlining the steps in their re-
search
c) some of the results of their work
d) the conclusions drawn from the experiments using
this organism
e) the significance/impact of this work in the field of
genetics
50. Select one of the following organisms:
i) Paramecium viii) Thale cress plant
ii) yeast ix) bacteria
iii) fruit fly x) worms
iv) mouse xi) corn
v) humans xii) chickens
vi) nematode xiii) Neurospora (bread mold)
vii) Chlamydomonas (a green algae)
Write a supported paragraph to show how the study of
the organism you selected has contributed to our knowl-
edge of genetics.
Unit Review 241
242 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity
 UNIT

Internal Systems
3
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
A
ll living things require a way to bring nutrients and oxygen into
their bodies and a way to get waste products out. In single-celled or-
ganisms like the amoeba, the process is relatively simple: substances
By the end of this unit, enter and exit directly through the cell membrane. In complex multicellular
you will be able to: organisms, however, more sophisticated methods are required. Multicellular
creatures like humans rely on complex internal systems to get the job done,
 describe and explain the major
processes, mechanisms, and among them the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems. Every time
systems, including the respiratory, you take a breath, you rely on your respiratory system to absorb oxygen and
circulatory, and digestive systems, deliver it to your bloodstream. Every time you take a bite of food, you rely on
by which plants and animals your digestive system to extract nutrients and pass them along to your blood-
maintain their internal environment stream. Every time your heart beats, you rely on your circulatory system to
 illustrate and explain, through transport oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to all the cells in your body.
laboratory investigations, the
contribution of various types of
systems and processes to internal
regulation in plant and animal
systems
 evaluate the impact of personal
lifestyle decisions on the health of
humans, and analyze how societal
concern for maintaining human
health has advanced the develop-
ment of technologies related to the
regulation of internal systems

Scanning electron micrograph of a human lung showing a bronchiole surrounded by alveoli

242
 The quality of the air you breathe and the food you eat affects the smooth
operation of your internal systems. Smokers, for example, risk developing
respiratory illness, such as bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung can-
cer. An unbalanced diet, like a diet with too many fatty foods, can cause con-
ditions like heartburn and weight gain. A high level of stress or a lack of
exercise can lead to circulatory system disorders such as high blood pres-
sure, stroke, or heart attack.
In order to make good personal choices about your nutrition and lifestyle,
it is important to understand how your internal systems work. In this unit,
you will investigate the structures, functions, and processes of the digestive,
respiratory, and circulatory systems. You will also examine diseases that can
affect these systems, as well as the drugs and technology currently available
to treat them.

BIOLOGY HEADLINES

 Obesity Epidemic Costs Billions
Canada has one of the worst obesity problems in
the world, with almost half of the adult population
being overweight or obese. The problem also af-
fects a large number of children. Statistics indicate
that obesity in young people is growing faster than
in adults. It is estimated that obesity is responsi-
ble for about 75% of diabetes cases and about 30%
of cardiovascular problems. Physicians warn that
treating obesity-related medical problems carries
a costly price tag, approximately $15 billion a year.
 Puffer Replacement
There may be some relief in sight for children who
rely on inhaled medication to control their asthma.
A new Canadian-developed asthma drug is the first
of its kind to be approved by Health Canada for
use by children. Young asthma sufferers over the
age of six can take the medication in the form of
a chewable, cherry-flavoured tablet. The medica-
tion blocks chemicals that constrict the airway. In
one study, 40% of the patients taking the tablet
were able to stop using inhaled corticosteroids,
which over time may hamper growth.
 Pessimists Have Higher Higher Blood Pressure Than
Optimists
A recent study has shown that pessimists have
higher blood pressure than their more optimistic
counterparts. In the study, 100 people were given
monitors that recorded their blood pressures every
30 min. After each interval, subjects were asked
to describe their mood. Subjects with pessimistic
outlooks tended to have higher blood pressures
than the more optimistic subjects. Researchers be-
lieve that the pessimists in the group did not deal
as well with stress, which is a known cause of high
blood pressure.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit you will demonstrate your learn-
ing by completing the task Dissection in Science
Education. As a member of a school board you will be
asked to prepare a position paper on whether the
dissection of animals in the Science classroom should
continue. See page 360.

243
 CHAPTER 8

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Nutrition and Digestion
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe the importance of nutrients
and digestion in providing
substances needed for energy and
I n human society, food selection, preparation, and consumption are cen-
tral activities. The expression “you are what you eat” sums up the general
understanding that food is important to a person’s well-being. At the level
growth (8.1, 8.2, 8.3, Investigation 1, of a single cell, the equation for cell respiration tells us how glucose is
and Investigation 2) metabolized for the release of energy to the cell.
 demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of metabolism and of the
cardiovascular and respiratory
systems (8.1)
 describe how the use of
prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis (8.2, 8.3)
 compare the anatomy of different
organisms—vertebrate and
invertebrate (8.4, Investigation 3)
 select and integrate information
about internal systems from various
print and electronic sources or from
several parts of the same source
(8.1, 8.2, 8.3)
 identify examples of technologies
that have enhanced scientific
understanding of internal systems
(8.3)
 provide examples of Canadian
contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (81, 8.3)
 analyze and explain how societal
needs have led to scientific and
technological developments related
to internal systems (8.3)
 present informed opinions about
how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
personal choices concerning
nutrition and lifestyle (8.1)

FIGURE 8.1 The epithelium in the esophagus, false-colour scanning electron

micrograph (SEM). The epithelium is many layers of flattened cells. The microfolds
keep the esophagus moist and lubricate and protect the surface against abrasion.

244 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 How does food selection relate to cellular activity? The answer is the di-
gestive system. Every organism needs a supply of nutrients to fuel the pro-
cesses that drive cellular metabolism.
The human body requires six types of nutrients in order to function. It
can obtain these requirements from an infinite combination of foods. However,
you need to extract the useful nutrients from the food you eat, deliver them
to your cells, and eliminate wastes.
To take in and use food, the body needs the various organs of the diges-
tive tract. Examination of their unique structures will help you to understand
how they perform the vital functions of mechanical and chemical digestion,
secretion, and absorption. You need to be informed about how to balance
healthy nutrition and exercise to achieve overall fitness. This chapter will de-
scribe components in foods that are important for good health, suggest healthy
eating patterns, and discuss some common disorders that arise from a defi-
ciency or an excess of certain nutrients in the diet.
In this chapter, you will study the components of food required to fuel
your body and learn the food groups necessary to ensure a daily supply of
nutrients. By examining the structures of the digestive system and the way
they interact with other structures, you will be able to understand how nu-
trients are acquired, digested, absorbed, and distributed in order to meet the
needs of your body’s cells. You will consider technologies that enhance
understanding of the digestive system and Canadian contributions to the field
of nutrition and health.

CHECKPOINT
Discovering Biology Draw a branching diagram
to indicate the components
Food for Thought! of a balanced meal.

In our society today, people are becoming more aware of what they eat. Think
Balanced
of what you have eaten over the last 24 hours. List all these items in your meal
notebook. From your knowledge and experience, attempt to group these items
into the following categories: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Compare your
list and a partner’s. Discuss with your partner the following:
 the make-up, similarities, and differences in your diets over the last 24
hours
 the functions of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats within your body

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 245


WORD ORIGIN
Macro from the Greek, makros
meaning “ big” and Micro from
the Greek, mikros, meaning
“little”; for example, micro-
cosm means “a small sample
of society.”
246 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
8.1 Nutrition
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the importance of proper nutrition and the nutrients needed for energy and
growth
 explain how personal choices in nutrition are directly related to health and well- being
 appreciate Canadian contributions to the field of nutrition
Your body is like a machine. To perform
at its best, it needs fuel to supply it with
energy. When you provide your body
with nutritious foods it is able to per-
form well. However, when you eat foods
with little or no nutritional value, your
body is unable to function to the best
of its ability. Taking care of your body
through a balanced diet will help you to
stay fit, have more energy, and be
healthy.
Every cell in the body must have a
constant supply of energy to remain alive
and perform its particular functions.
Energy comes from the consumption of
nutrients and the circulatory system
plays a key role in delivering these vital
nutrients throughout the body. The
amount of energy that different people
require depends on their level of activ-
ity, their specific medical conditions, and
whether they are male or female. As
shown in Table 8.1, males generally have
higher energy needs and therefore must
take in more energy than females to
maintain health. This difference in the
daily energy requirements of men and
women is mainly associated with the dif-
ference in average size between the
sexes.
Food not only supplies the energy
vital for life, but it also provides impor-
tant building materials that allow bod-
ies to grow, develop, and rebuild injured
and damaged cells. In general, a
nutrient is any substance that has a
useful function when taken up by body
cells. The food that provides your body
with the energy it needs to function
properly is measured in joules. A joule
is the metric unit used to measure
energy. The large amount of food energy
required for maintenance, growth, and
repair makes it more appropriate to
measure energy in kilojoules (1 kJ =
1000 J). The joule and kilojoule are the
metric units used to indicate food energy
content but many food companies still
recognize and use the calorie as a unit
of measurement. It is important for
consumers to know that a calorie is a unit
of heat. It is the amount of heat needed
to increase the temperature of one gram
of water by 1°C. To convert calories to
joules, the value in calories is multiplied
by 4.1855. A commonly used unit is the
kilocalorie (sometimes called the dietetic
Calorie) with the symbol Cal. A kilo-
calorie is the amount of energy needed
to increase the temperature of one kilo-
gram of water by 1°C (1 Cal = 4.1855 kJ).
Table 8.1 indicates the recommended
daily energy intake.
In human development, there are
times when growth spurts occur. For ex-
ample, during puberty, both males and
females grow significantly taller. In these
instances certain nutrients may be more
useful than others. Also, a larger total
energy intake may be needed. However,
even after a person reaches adult size,
maintenance and repair are important.
All food substances can be divided
into two general groups: organic foods,
which are produced by living organisms,
and inorganic foods that come from
rocks, soil, and the seas. The organic
components of food include carbohy-
drates, fats, proteins, and vitamins, while
the inorganic components include min-
TABLE 8.1 Recommended Daily Energy Intake INFOBIT

Stage of Development Mass (kg) Height (cm) Energy (Cal) Energy (kJ) Lactose is a disaccharide pre-
sent in milk. Eighty percent of
Infants
the world’s population) cannot
0.0–0.5 yrs. 6 60 __kg  115 kg  481 digest lactose after about the
0.5–1.0 yrs. 9 71 __kg  105 kg  439 age of two. The condition
results when lactase, the
Children enzyme that is required to
1–3 13 90 1300 5 441 digest lactose, is absent.
Lactase splits the lactose into
4–6 20 112 1700 7 115
two monosaccharides, glucose
7–10 28 132 2400 10 045 and galactose. The inability to
Males digest lactose is called lactose
intolerance. It is important to
11–14 45 157 2700 11 301 note that the lack of this en-
15–18 66 176 2800 11 719 zyme is the normal condition in
adult mammals, though many
19–22 70 177 2900 12 138
people perceive the lack of
23–50 70 177 2700 11 301 lactase to be abnormal. Milk is
51 + 70 177 2400 10 045 really an essential food only for
infants and toddlers.
Females
11–14 46 157 2200 9 208
15–18 55 163 2100 8 790
19–22 55 163 2100 8 790
23–50 55 163 2000
51 + 55 163 1800 8 371
Pregnant 300 1 256
Lactating 500 2 093

erals and water. Since carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins are consumed and
needed in large amounts daily, they
are also called macronutrients.
Vitamins and minerals are taken in
minute quantities and are thus called
micronutrients. Roughage (nutritional
fibre) is also an important part of a com-
plete diet. It does not have any nutri-
tional value, but it aids in good digestion.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are
organic compounds made only of car-
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
the major source of energy required
for all bodily functions. Common ex-
amples of carbohydrates include
starches, sugars, and cellulose. They are
important because they provide a ready
source of the glucose needed in cellular
respiration. Glucose is a simple, single,
sugar unit or monosaccharide. Other
monosaccharides include fructose and
galactose. Simple sugars do not have to
be digested or broken down. They can
be used directly and are therefore good
sources of quick energy. More complex
carbohydrates, such as disaccharides
(two sugar units) and polysaccharides
(many sugar units) must first be digested
before they can be used by the body.
Good sources of carbohydrates include
breads, cereals, and pasta. Many plants,
such as potatoes, rice, and breadfruit,
store carbohydrates as starch. When
more carbohydrates than your body re-
quires are ingested, the excess amounts
are stored in the short term as glycogen
in the liver, in muscle, or are converted
to fat. Cellulose is a polysaccharide found

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 247

INFOBIT
Michael Julius, a researcher
at Toronto General Hospital’s
research unit, has shown a
possible link between a protein
in breast milk and the activa-
tion, or start-up, of the infant’s
own immune system.
M AT H L I N K
Remember:
1 g of carbohydrate provides 4 C
or 16.7 kJ.
1 g of fat provides 9 C or 37.6 kJ.
248 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
in the cell wall of plants. It is not di-
gestible by humans and is therefore not
considered to be a human nutrient, even
though it is a carbohydrate. It provides
the human system with roughage.
However, for a herbivore like a plant-
eating rabbit, cellulose would be a very
important part of the diet. Rabbits, un-
like humans, are well equipped to break
down cellulose into a useful digestible
form. They have a suitable bacterial flora
in their large intestine. In humans, cel-
lulose remains undigested and passes
through the alimentary canal to be elim-
inated through the anus as feces.
Fats Fats (also known as lipids), in mod-
erate quantities, are part of a balanced
diet and are important for maintaining
good health. Fats perform several im-
portant roles within the body. The phos-
pholipid bilayer in the cell membrane
surrounding all body cells includes lipid
and cholesterol. Fats surround vital or-
gans and joints and act like a protective
cushion. Fats surround nerves and help
them to deliver signals quickly and ac-
curately. As well, a layer of fat just un-
derneath the skin helps to insulate the
body against changes in the external en-
vironment. Fats are concentrated
sources of energy. One gram of fat pro-
vides approximately 37.6 kJ of energy,
while one gram of protein or carbohy-
drate provides only 16.7 kJ. However,
fat intake must be moderated since ex-
cessive fat intake can lead to obesity.
Fats, like carbohydrates, are organic
compounds composed of carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen, but the ratio of
these atoms is different from that in car-
bohydrates. The basic structure in fats
is the triglyceride, a three-carbon glyc-
erol molecule with three fatty acids
joined to it. Fatty acids are long chains
of carbon atoms with an acid group at
one end. Depending on the hydrogen
atoms present, a fat can be either a liq-
uid or a solid at room temperature. If
every available chemical bond of the
carbons in the chain is holding a hy-
drogen atom, the chain is described as
saturated. Generally if a fat is a solid at
room temperature it is a saturated fat.
If it is a liquid at room temperature, it
is an unsaturated fat. Butter, lard, and
animal fat are solid at room tempera-
ture and are therefore examples of sat-
urated fats. In contrast, vegetable oil is
an example of an unsaturated fat.
Some fat is a healthy component of
daily nutrition. Our society has led us to
believe that fats cause us to put on extra
weight and are therefore unhealthy and
to be avoided. It is true that an excess
of fat does contribute to weight gain.
However, your body requires a certain
amount of fat each day to function prop-
erly. It acquires this fat when you eat a
balanced diet. There are various fatty
acids, such as linoleic, linolenic, and
arachidonic that are considered
essential nutrients. They cannot be sup-
plied by any other food source.
Therefore it is important to include some
fat, even in a low energy diet.
Proteins Proteins are the most impor-
tant compounds for providing struc-
ture within the body. Not only do
proteins make up critical parts of mus-
cles, skin, and internal organs, but they
are also the most abundant of the or-
ganic compounds found within body
cells. Some proteins are enzymes that
are vital for cellular function. In spe-
cialized cells, proteins act as cell surface
markers that are targets for specific hor-
mones. Cell membrane proteins provide
channels in the phospholipid bilayer of
cells. Without these channels, valuable
nutrients would not be able to enter or
exit body cells.
The body has a variety of proteins
that differ in shape, size, and function.
All proteins are built from a set of 20
amino acids. These amino acids are
joined together by peptide bonds. Of the
20 amino acids, 8 must be obtained in
the diet. These are called essential
amino acids. If necessary, the atoms in
these essential amino acids can be re-
arranged to form the other 12 amino
acids. However, a well-balanced diet
ensures that all 20 amino acids will be
consumed. Table 8.2 summarizes com-
mon functions of proteins.
Food sources of protein include
meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans,
nuts, and lentils. A lack or inadequate
supply of protein in the diet leads to
disease.
Micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals are micronutri-
ents and differ from the macronutrients
in significant ways. Vitamins and min-
erals are taken in extremely small quan-
tities daily, often in milligrams; they
cannot be used as an energy source.
There are many vitamins and minerals
needed on a daily basis to sustain life
and maintain health, each with a spe-
cific role to play in the body’s overall
metabolism.
amounts of other elements. Most vitamins
act as coenzymes, joining to specific en-
zymes (proteins) to make sure that bio-
chemical reactions within the cell take
place properly. Table 8.3 lists some key
information about the vitamins that hu-
mans require. Vitamins fall into two major
groups, ones that are fat-soluble and ones
that are water-soluble. The fat-soluble vi-
tamins are A, D, E, and K. They are found
TABLE 8.2 Functions of Proteins
Role of Protein Function Within the Body
Enzyme Help to catalyze chemical reactions within the body.
Hormone Substances that influence specific cellular and metabolic
functions. They act at a different location from where they are
formed.
Cell Surface Marker Proteins on the surface help to identify specific target cells to
which special molecules (for example, hormones) can bind.

Structural Provide support and structure to the organism (for example,

Vitamins Vitamins are organic com- hair and nails are made of a protein called keratin) and to the
pounds, required in very tiny amounts as cell (transmembrane proteins).
part of a balanced diet. They are vital to
Transport Many transport structures, such as channels and pumps, are
life. They contain atoms of carbon, hy- made of specialized proteins that help move materials into and
drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small out of cells.

TABLE 8.3 Important Vitamins and Minerals Required in the Human Diet

Vitamin or Mineral Some Common Food Sources Some Important Functions Within the Body
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A eggs, butter, and leafy green vegetables growth and proper vision
D milk, liver, eggs growth, helps to absorb calcium from the digestive tract
E vegetable oils, milk, leafy vegetables protects cell membranes
K vegetables, tomatoes, soy beans blood clotting
Water-Soluble Vitamins
B1 seafood, meats, grains growth, proper heart muscle functioning
B2 milk, poultry, vegetables carbohydrate metabolism
B12 meats and liver production of red blood cells
C citrus fruits, vegetables growth, healthy gums and blood vessels
Common Minerals
Calcium milk and milk products tooth and bone formation
Iron meats, green vegetables hemoglobin formation
Sodium salt muscle contraction; transmission of nerve impulses
Potassium fruits regulation of the heart beat; transmission of nerve impulses
Iodine Iodized salt thyroid activity

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 249

INFOBIT
Most vitamins are easily lost or
destroyed by heat, by exposure
to oxygen, or by being dis-
solved out of food into water.
To prevent the loss of vitamins,
it is recommended that as little
water as possible is used to
cook vegetables and fruits.
Foods rich in vitamins B and C
should be cooked for only a
short time.
in the fats and oils that you ingest. This
is another reason that a certain amount
of fat intake is part of a healthy, balanced
diet. Vitamins A, D, E, and K cannot be
excreted, but break down over time as
they participate in metabolic processes.
Therefore a regular intake of fat-soluble
vitamins is recommended to replace those
that are metabolized. Reduction of fat in-
take over a long period of time will result
in the elimination of these vitamins from
your body. Water-soluble vitamins include
the B and C vitamins. Water-soluble vita-
mins are eliminated from the body rela-
tively quickly and so a daily intake is
recommended. If too much vitamin B or
C is taken in, the excess is excreted in the
urine.
Testing for the presence of vitamins
in food is not a simple matter. It is usu-
ally done in a laboratory. These tests are
performed on animals like white mice,
guinea pigs, and monkeys. The animals
are divided into two groups—one exper-
imental group and one control group. A
food to be tested for its vitamin content
is fed over a period of time to one group,
and not to the other. Over time, the effects
of the deficiency of the vitamin can be
observed.
Minerals Minerals are inorganic com-
pounds required by the body. Some of
the most important molecules in the
body contain minerals. For example, the
hemoglobin molecule, the protein found
in red blood cells, contains four iron
atoms. This arrangement allows red
blood cells to transport oxygen to body
cells. Calcium is another important min-
eral and is a major component for
healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also
helps nerve and muscle cells to function
properly and helps blood to clot.
Although the body does not destroy
the minerals that it takes in, it does lose
many of them in sweat and urine. It is
therefore important for these minerals

Scurvy and the
Discovery of
Vitamins
The discovery of the chemical food
substances now called vitamins has
an interesting background. History
relates that many of the sailors who
were part of Magellan’s crew when
he explored the Pacific Ocean in 1519
became ill with an unknown disease.
The sailors lived on salted meats be-
cause these foods remained unspoiled
throughout a long voyage. After
weeks at sea, the sailors became list-
less, their muscles became weaker
and weaker, and finally they suffered
serious nosebleeds. Some died.
Others who had stronger constitu-
tions survived and went ashore when
the ships reached land. Sailors who
ate the fresh fruits that grew native
to the shore on which they landed re-
covered from the illness later known
as scurvy.
It was discovered that English
sailors who were fond of the juice of
lemons or limes did not experience
scurvy. Or, if they did, they recovered
when fed lemon juice regularly.
Although British Navy officials were
unaware of the reasons for this, they
passed a law that required every ship
to carry a cargo of lemons for the
crew’s consumption. Of course, it was
difficult in those early days before re-
frigeration to prevent spoilage of
fresh food. However this precaution
did help to prevent the occurrence of
scurvy, which we now know to be
due to a deficiency in vitamin C
(ascorbic acid).
At about the same time, it was
discovered that Chinese and Japanese
seamen whose diets consisted mainly
of white rice and fish, fell ill to the
disease beriberi (meaning I cannot!
I cannot!) The disease weakens mus-
cles and finally paralyzes them.
Japanese doctors discovered that
beriberi could be relieved and even
prevented by the addition of vegeta-
bles, meat, condensed milk, and
whole grain rice to the diet. The
cause of beriberi is now known to be
a deficiency of thiamin (vitamin B1)
in the diet.
After years of study and experi-
mentation, scientists in various coun-
tries concluded that there are
chemical substances in foods that are
necessary to regulate all body func-
tions and to prevent disease. These
substances were named vitamins.
The diseases that result from an in-
sufficency or total absence of vitamins
are called vitamin deficiency
diseases. In 1932 ascorbic acid, the
molecule now known as vitamin C,
was isolated from lemons.

250 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

to be replenished. By consuming a
balanced diet we are able to obtain our
requirement of minerals. Plants are
reservoirs of minerals because they
are able to absorb them from the soil
and incorporate them into their tissues.
Fruits, whole grains, meats, and veg-
etables contain iron, phosphorus, cal-
cium, and magnesium. These foods also
contain a variety of other trace ele-
ments, such as zinc and selenium, that
the body needs in small amounts. Table
8.3 details some minerals, including
iron, that make up an important part of
our diet, and are used by the body in
many ways.

Water
Although water is not an energy source
it is considered the most important sub-
stance for all animals, including humans.
Without food, you could survive for sev-
eral weeks, but without water you would
die within days. Most of the weight of the
human body is water. Plasma, the liquid
component of the blood, is more than
90% water. Water is the means of trans-
port for all the nutrients. Every living cell
in your body is in contact with water in
which life-sustaining molecules are dis-
solved. The watery extracellular fluid
bathing each cell also carries away
metabolic wastes.
On hot days, or when you exercise
vigorously, sweat glands remove water
from your tissues and use it to moisten
the surface of your body. As this sweat
evaporates, it cools your body. Each time
you take a breath, some moisture from
the surface of your lungs is lost to the
outside air. Since water is continuously
lost from the body, it must be continu-
ously replenished. It is recommended
that you drink six to eight glasses of
water each day, a volume of about 1–1.5 L.
Clearly nutrients are important to
the maintenance of health. An organ-
ism’s diet may vary, but the six basic nu-
trients that we have discussed are vital
to sustain life. Since organisms have di-
verse feeding patterns, structural adap-
FIGURE 8.2 The frosty breath in dry, wintry air shows that water is lost from the
lungs.
tations allow them to acquire and ingest
their food in different ways. Scientists
have used these feeding patterns to help
them classify animals as herbivores
(plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters),
or omnivores (plant and meat eaters).
Anorexia nervosa
and bulimia
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are two
different but related medical and psy-
chiatric conditions that are categorized
as eating disorders. Both disorders are
more common in females than males.
Adolescent girls have the highest risk of
developing these two illnesses. Patients
with anorexia nervosa are characterized
by an intense fear of gaining weight and
a poor self-image. They also have
anorexia and are very thin and much
below their ideal weight based on their
height. These patients have amenorrhea
(a lack of menstrual periods), and often

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 251

 exercise excessively or abuse laxatives. Benefits of Healthy Eating
Bulimia is characterized by periods of
Healthy eating is a matter of personal
binge eating (often thousands of Joules
choice. Canada’s Food Guide to Healthy
at a sitting), alternating with fasting and
Eating on page 253, Figure 8.4 recom-
self-induced vomiting. Many individuals
mends the optimal amount and type of
with bulimia use diuretics, laxatives, and
foods that should be consumed daily. A
substances to induce vomiting. There
properly balanced diet and regular ex-
is some overlap between these two con-
ercise are two essentials for maintain-
ditions and bulimic behaviour can be
ing health and fitness. Regular exercise
seen in some patients with anorexia.
is one method of building muscle,
The causes of these eating disorders
reducing fat, increasing metabolism, and
are thought to be a combination of ge-
maintaining a healthy body weight. The
netic, social, and environmental factors.
metabolic rate is the total of all anabolic
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia can lead
and catabolic reactions going on in the
to many serious and possibly life-threat-
body at any time. It may be expressed
ening medical complications. Some of
as joules per hour.
these complications are outlined in Table
People who are physically fit have a
8.4 on page 253.
higher metabolic rate than those who
Treatment of these two conditions is
are unfit. This is because fit individuals
usually a slow process and involves a
have a higher percent of their body mass
combination of medical and psychiatric
composed of muscle rather than fat.
interventions. Some patients must be ad-
Muscle cells have a higher rate of
mitted to hospital if treatment is to be
metabolism than fat cells.
successful.

Canadians Active
in
Nutrition Research
Raymond (Ray) U. Lemieux is a
prominent Canadian organic chemist,
recognized as one of the world’s lead-
ing scientists in carbohydrate chem-
istry. Ray Lemieux was born in Lac
La Biche, Alberta, on June 16, 1920.
During his career, Lemieux has made
contributions that go beyond chem-
istry and extend into biology and
medicine. He gained international
recognition in 1953 as the first per-
son to synthesize sucrose (table
sugar). This discovery has been called
the “Mount Everest of organic chem-
istry.” In 1994 he was named a a staple for their babies’ diets. Before
Companion of the Order of Canada. long Pablum became a household
name, and to this day, many
Drs. Alan Brown, Fred Tisdall, and Canadians use the brand name
Theo Drake invented Pablum in interchangeably with “infant cereal.”
1930. Their goal was to improve
the nutrition of infants. Pablum was
the first ready-to-use vitamin-and
mineral-enriched baby cereal. These
three experts in their field had rec-
ognized the importance of proper nu-
trition for normal growth and
development, but also noted a lack of
foods available to cater to the special
nutritional requirements of babies.
Following extensive research and nu-
merous trials, they created Pablum
(from the Latin word “Pabulum,”
which means food), the first thor-
oughly cooked and dried infant
cereal.
With its high nutrient content
and ease of preparation, Pablum was FIGURE 8.3 Pablum, a popular food for
quickly adopted by new mothers as generations of Canadian babies.

252 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 TABLE 8.4 Complications of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia

Organ system Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia

Endocrine and amenorrhea, osteoporosis, thyroid menstrual irregularities

metabolic dysfunction, abnormal temperature
regulation

Cardiovascular bradycardia (too slow heart rate), Ipecac poisoning (ipecac is a substance
hypotension (low blood pressure), used to induce vomiting)
arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythm)

Renal (kidney) renal stones; decreased filtration low potassium (from diuretics)
properties of the kidney

Gastrointestinal decreased gastric emptying, acute gastric dilatation or rupture, parotid

constipation, abnormal liver function enlargement, inflammation of the
esophagus (esophagitis), low potassium
(from laxatives), esophageal rupture

Hematologic anemia, low platelets, and low white respiratory aspiration pneumonia
blood cells

Respiratory aspiration pneumonia

© Ministry of Supply and Services Canada 1990. Cat. No. H39–166/1990E, ISBN 0-66217438-0

FIGURE 8.4 Canada’s Food Guide indicates the

importance of a balanced diet.

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 253

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Health and the Media  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Different diet promoters bombard us each day in

the media, each claiming to make us feel healthy
and look better. Celebrity spokespeople work to con-
vince us that their diet is the best. But who is right?
The following are some examples of the variety of
diets that are marketed. Liquid protein diets that
claim to contain all the nutrients you require in a
powdered milkshake you can take at each meal.
Protein diets that consist of protein like chicken,
beef, cheese, and eggs. A fruit and vegetable diet
where you can eat as much as you want for break-
fast, lunch, dinner and snacks. A back-to-basics diet
that contains all the food groups.
Which diet do you choose?
 Liquid protein diets claim to contain all the
nutrients you require in a powdered milk-
shake you can take at each meal.
 Protein diets consist of chicken, beef, cheese,
and eggs.
 A fruit-and-vegetable diet allows you to eat as
many fruits and vegatables as you want for
breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks.
 A back-to-basics diet contains all the food FIGURE 8.5 One type of diet allows unrestricted consumption
groups. of fruits and vegetables.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Behind every fad diet, there is a marketing campaign.
Brainstorm different groups who contribute to the cre-
ation of these campaigns.
2. Using the Internet, research one of the diets in the sce-
nario or select a fad diet currently in the media. Identify
the claims made by the diet. Compare the daily nutrient
requirements of the fad diet with the recommendations
from Canada’s Food Guide. Summarize the comparisons
in a table.
3. What are the risks associated with the diet? What are
the potential benefits?
4. Why are fad diets so popular in our society? How does
this compare with other societies around the world?
Explain.
5. Should marketing influence something as important as
diet and health? Why? Why not? Explain fully.
6. What are the elements of a healthy diet? Use your re-
search to prepare a promotion piece to highlight what
you believe is the healthiest diet.
7. Plan a class symposium on fad diets. Share media ad-
vertising and decide the most important criteria needed
to assess the value of a fad diet.

254 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Section 8.1 Review
Understanding Concepts 6. For breakfast, a student eats a bowl of
cereal and milk that provides 175 Cal
1. Runners often have a small snack be- of energy. Her walk to school requires
fore competing in a race. Based on 400 kJ of energy. Calculate whether the
your knowledge of macronutrients, energy yield from the breakfast would
suggest an appropriate snack for be sufficient to meet the student’s en-
runners before a race. ergy requirements for the walk to school.
2. Your uncle is a heart patient and asks 7. You are trying to maintain a diet that
you to help him decide between two dif- allows you to consume no more than
ference salad dressings. The label on 430 Cal at lunch. You decide to go to
one dressing reads that it has the local burger shop to buy your
completely hydrogenated fat and the lunch. The table summarizes three pos-
label on the other dressing reads that it sible meal selections. Based on your di-
has partially hydrogenated fat. etary requirements, explain which
Hydrogenation refers to the number of selection would be most suitable.
single bonds between the carbon atoms.
Which dressing would you recommend?
Meal Type Carbohy- Proteins Fats
3. What is the advantage of including drates (g) (g) (g)
bran in a balanced diet?
chicken burger 30 21 18
4. The table below lists three different
groups of people who have a special fish and chips 45 24 32
need for a mineral(s) in large amounts. pizza 38 19 23
Suggest reasons to account for their
special dietary requirements.

Group Mineral(s) required in Reason

particularly large amounts
youngsters aged 12 to 17 calcium and phosphorus
women and teenage girls iron
pregnant and breast-feeding women calcium and phosphorus

Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. The table below shows the approxi-
mate daily energy requirement of
people in different age groups and
occupations.

Group Daily Energy Requirement (Cal) Daily Energy Requirement (kJ)

Male Female Male Female
age 13–15 2870 2400
age 16–19 3350 2200
adult office worker 2400 2100
adult construction worker 4300 2870

a) Copy out the table and calculate the

energy requirement in kilojoules
for males and females.
b) Suggest reasons why the caloric in- Making Connections
take suggested for a construction 8. In what ways do you think society
worker is different from that of influences an individual’s perception of
an office worker. a health body weight?
c) Explain why an individual has
higher caloric needs during the
teenage years.

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 255

 8.2 The Digestive System
atom
Key Understandings
(hydrogen)
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the digestive process

 explain the structure of the gastrointestinal wall

molecule  describe how nutrients are absorbed by the body

(water)

organelle From a Cell to a System— is composed of many organ systems,

(mitochondrion) Hierarchy in Biology
The living world is organized in a series
of hierarchical levels. Hierarchy de-
scribes a definite order from less com-
plex to more complex. The first level is
cell
the cellular level. Cells can perform all
(muscle)
the necessary functions that define life.
In considering nutrition and digestion,
a single cell acquires the nutrients it
tissue needs through diffusion, osmosis, and
(muscle) active transport. Larger organisms con-
tain more cells and are more complex.
With increased complexity, more so-
phisticated methods are needed to ac-
quire and transport nutrients. Therefore,
cells in multicellular organisms spe-
cialize. Muscle cells, nerve cells, and skin
cells are all examples of this specializa-
organ
(heart) tion. Cells that have similar functions are
grouped together to form tissues. The
tissue level is the second level of hier-
archy. There are four main types of tis-
sue that make up vertebrate bodies.
They are connective tissue, epithelial
tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle
tissue.
Building a Digestive System
One level of complexity higher than the
tissue level is the organ level. This level
consists of several types of tissues that
organ system come together and coordinate to perform
(cardiovascular) one overall function. Some examples of
organs in the digestive system include
the stomach, the liver, and the small
intestine. An organ system is a group
FIGURE 8.6 Levels of orga- of several organs that work together to
nization in the human body perform a vital body function. Your body
each of which plays a role in the main-
tenance of your internal environment or
homeostasis.
As you learn about the digestive, res-
piratory, and circulatory systems, you
will better understand their interdepen-
dence. All cells in the body require nu-
trients and oxygen. These essentials are
provided by the digestive and respira-
tory systems. The circulatory system en-
sures that these substances are promptly
delivered to every body cell.
Structures, Functions,
and Processes of the
Digestive System
The digestive tract, also called the gas-
trointestinal tract or alimentary canal,
is basically a tube that is open at both
ends. This muscular tube that passes
through the body from the mouth to the
anus is the central feature of the diges-
tive system. The inner surface or lumen
of this tube is continuous with the outer
surface of the body, and so technically,
is an extension of the external environ-
ment. Its structure allows food to enter
through one end, products of digestion
to become absorbed through the lining
of the tube, and waste products to be
eliminated through the other end. This
basic design is present in simpler
organisms, such as the earthworm. With
evolution, only the complexity of the
system increases as each component
takes on specialized structures and per-
forms specific functions.

256 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 In mammals, the digestive tract con-
sists of a long convoluted alimentary
canal extending from the mouth to the
anus (Figure 8.6). The digestive system
also includes accessory organs: the sali-
vary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall-
bladder. Accessory organs provide the
enzymes and other substances that are
essential for digestion to occur. The di-
gestive tract begins with the oral cavity
and includes the mouth, pharynx, esoph-
agus, stomach, small intestine, large in-
testine, and anus. Each of these areas is
specialized for a particular phase in the
overall process of digestion, but the basic
structure of each is similar.
Structure of the Wall of the
Digestive Tract
The layers of tissue that make up the
gastrointestinal wall, going from the
lumen, which is the innermost layer, to
the outermost layer, are: 1) the mucosa;
2) the submucosa; 3) a circular layer of
FIGURE 8.7 The digestive tract is a tube that consists of
various layers of tissue—the mucosa, submucosa, circular
and longitudinal muscle, and the serosa.
SMALL
INTESTINE
smooth muscle; 4) a longitudinal layer WORD ORIGIN
of smooth muscle; and 5) the serosa
(Figure 8.7). Tissue from the French tissue
The mucosa, or epithelial lining, meaning “woven.” This is an
appropriate use of the word
consists of a variety of mucus-secreting, since many tissues are woven
enzyme-secreting, absorptive, and en- together to make organs.
docrine (hormone-secreting) cells. The
submucosa is a layer of connective tis- System from the Greek
sue that supports blood vessels, lym- sustema, which means “an
organized whole.”
phatic vessels, and nerves. The
lymphatic vessels are part of the lym-
phatic system and serve the role of
transporting lipids that cannot enter the
blood. The circular smooth muscle
forms a ring around the lumen; con-
traction of this muscle constricts the
lumen. The longitudinal smooth mus-
cle is arranged along the length of the
digestive tract so that its contraction
shortens a segment of the tract. The
serosa is composed of connective tissue;
it forms the covering of the digestive
tract and separates it from the rest of
the abdominal organs.
Absorption of
nutrients
microvilli
VILLUS epithelium
lymphatic
vessel
capillary
network
Mucosa: highly folded
lining of intestine where
absorption occurs
Submucosa: connective
tissue containing blood
vessels and nerves
Circular and longitudinal
muscle layers: used
for peristalsis
Serosa: connective tissue
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 257
 Steps in Digestion
The central function of the digestive sys-
tem is to change the foods you eat into
chemical forms your body can use.
Anything your body cannot use must be
properly eliminated. The digestive sys-
tem acquires food through ingestion.
Food is typically in a form that is com-
pletely unsuitable for use by body cells.
Food becomes useful only after it has
been converted into diffusible substances
that can pass though the walls of the
small intestine and blood and lymphatic
vessels in the process of absorption.
Therefore, food molecules must be trans-
formed into smaller and simpler units.
This preparation of food for absorption
is termed digestion, and takes place in
the alimentary canal. During digestion
all carbohydrates are converted into
monosaccharides, such as glucose, fruc-
tose, and galactose. All proteins are con-
verted into amino acids, and fats are
broken down into fatty acids and glyc-
erol. Two types of digestion are involved:
mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion.
Mechanical digestion occurs mainly
in the mouth and stomach. In mechan-
ical digestion, solid food masses are
shredded, torn, ground, and shaken. All
mammals that eat solid food use their
salivary glands liver
gall bladder
pancreas
mouth with esophagus stomach
teeth
FIGURE 8.8 Components of the digestive system
258 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
teeth to shred, tear, and grind food. This
helps increase the surface area available
for chemical digestion. Incisors are flat,
blade-like teeth used for biting,
canines shred and tear, and pre-
molars and molars grind and crush.
Carnivores have greatly enlarged canine
teeth for biting and tearing. These teeth
are primarily used to shred meat.
Canines are the fang-like teeth located
at the front corners of the mouth.
Herbivores, on the other hand, have in-
cisors specialized for snipping leaves and
flat pre-molars and molars that are used
primarily to grind the tough fibrous plant
food that they eat into a fine pulp. Since
most humans eat both plants and ani-
mals, they are omnivores. Therefore,
human teeth resemble the teeth of both
carnivores and herbivores.
Chemical digestion can occur once
food has been broken down into smaller
components that have a high surface
area. The food is mixed with various
juices from the digestive glands and then
enzymes act upon the broken-down food.
The steps of mechanical digestion
occur at several stages, aided by a va-
riety of mechanical activities generated
by the muscular walls of the digestive
system. As a result, a rich, soupy juice
is formed. This soup is not necessarily
in the final form from which food
sphincters
accessory organs
alimentary canal
anus
small intestine large intestine
 substances can be properly absorbed.
Absorption occurs primarily in the small
intestine. In the large intestine only
water and some vitamins are absorbed.
Elimination occurs through the rectum
and anus. The nervous and endocrine
systems help the digestive system to
function by providing impulses and
hormones that target and stimulate di-
gestive organs and glands.
Organs of the Digestive Tract
The Oral Cavity Food enters the human
digestive system by manipulations of the
mouth (Figure 8.9). Besides taking in
food, the mouth begins to dismantle it,
using lips, tongue, teeth, and jaw mus-
cles. Incisors, chisel-like teeth in the front
of the mouth, cut food into bite-sized
pieces. Canines are used for gripping
and tearing food. The tongue, a slippery,
mobile platform, manipulates food dur-
ing chewing, pushing it back to the
molars. In the mouth, the chewed food
is mixed with saliva that contains the
enzyme salivary amylase. This enzyme
begins the chemical digestion of carbo-
hydrates. The mechanical and chemical
digestion of food results in a moistened
ball-like mass, or bolus, that is easier to
swallow. The bolus is well lubricated
so that it does not scratch the delicate
mucous membranes of the digestive
tract.
incisors
(for cutting)
cuspid
(for tearing)
premolars
(for crushing)
upper
dental
arch
molars
(for crushing) hard palate
FIGURE 8.9 The oral/buccal cavity
Close your eyes and swallow. WORD ORIGIN
Analyze the familiar movements in your
mouth and throat. First, the tongue lifts Peristalsis from the Greek
the bolus to the roof of the mouth and peri, meaning “around” and
stellein meaning “wrap”
pushes it back so that it can be swal-
lowed. The bolus passes through the
pharynx and glides over the epiglottis,
a sort of trap door that prevents food
from entering the trachea (windpipe) so
that choking does not occur. Food then
drops into the esophagus, a long thin
tube with muscular walls.
Microfolds
FIGURE 8.10 False-colour scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the
lining of the esophagus. The epithelium consists of many layers of
flattened cells. The microfolds on the cell keep the espohagus moist.
The Esophagus The esophagus is a mus-
cular tube with a diameter of 2 cm that
connects the pharynx and the stomach.
At its point of connection with the stom-
ach there is a ring of smooth muscle
called the cardiac or lower esophageal
sphincter. Constriction of this sphinc-
ter prevents reflux, or back flow of food
from the stomach into the esophagus.
When constriction of this sphincter is
weak, reflux of food occurs easily. This
is commonly what causes babies to
spit up after a feeding.
Peristalsis is a series of coordinated
muscular contractions. It is the mecha-
nism that moves food along the diges-
tive tract. Food starts at the mouth
and is moved along the alimentary canal
toward the anus. Peristalsis is indepen-
dent of gravity and is the main force that
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 259
 moves the bolus of food down the that propels food forward at a rate that
esophagus and into the stomach. When is appropriate for digestion and
a bolus of food stretches a segment of absorption.
the digestive tract, the smooth muscle
behind the bolus contracts while the a)
smooth muscle in front of the bolus
relaxes. This coordinated contraction of bolus of food
the circular and longitudinal muscle tongue
pharynx
layers produces a wave of constriction
epiglottis

Longitudinal
muscle trachea

Circular
muscle b)

Subs
muscle

Epiglottis protects
opening to larynx.
Mucosa

esophagus

c)

FIGURE 8.11 A cross-section of the esophagus.

Discovering Biology A Model of Peristalsis

larynx
Peristalsis is the mechanism that moves food along the digestive esophagus
tract. Take an old nylon stocking and cut off both ends, so that it is bolus of food
tube-like. Now, take an orange and attempt to pass the orange from
one end of the d)
nylon tube to the a) esophagus
other.
 What kinds of
things do you
have to do to
keep the or-
cardrac sphincter
ange moving b)
through the
stomach
nylon tube?
 How is this
FIGURE 8.13 The movement of food down the
model similar
esophagus
to peristalsis?
a) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted.
 How is it dif- b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed.
ferent? c) Bolus of food passes to esophagus.
FIGURE 8.12 A model of peristalsis d) Peristalsis moves bolus of food toward
stomach. Cardiac sphincter still closed.

260 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

The Stomach The human stomach is a
J-shaped stretchable organ that is able
to hold approximately 1.5 L of food. The
stomach acts as a reservoir to receive all
the food at once, before releasing it into
the intestine at intervals. Sphincter mus-
cles regulate the movement of food
throughout the digestive tract. Two
sphincter muscles control the passage of
food coming into and out of the stom-
ach: the cardiac sphincter and the
pyloric sphincter. The contraction of the
cardiac sphincter closes the opening to
the stomach but when this sphincter
relaxes, food is allowed to enter. The car-
diac sphincter gets its name from its
location close to the heart. The stom-
ach’s muscular walls churn and squeeze
each bolus that enters the stomach from
the esophagus. Thick layers of smooth
muscle, and numerous folds in the stom-
ach, called rugae, enable the stomach
to expand. When expansion occurs, the
smooth muscle stretches and the rugae
gradually disappear. This stretching can
be compared to the coiled cord on a tele-
phone. When the cord is stretched, the
coils disappear, and the wire straightens
out and lengthens.
Within the stomach, food is me-
chanically digested and mixed with
gastric juices. Gastric glands in the stom-
ach lining contain cells that secrete
hydrochloric acid, and other cells that
secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of
pepsin. In the stomach’s acidic envi-
ronment, pepsinogen is converted into
pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down
protein. Pepsin can actively break down
protein only at a low pH. The pH of the
stomach is 2; therefore, protein diges-
tion is initiated in the stomach. A sec-
ond enzyme found in the stomach of
children is rennin. This important en-
zyme slows down the movement of milk
through the digestive tract by clotting
the milk and so allows more time for the
breakdown and absorption of nutrients.
Hydrochloric acid not only provides an
ideal acidic environment for pepsin to
function, but it also sterilizes the upper
digestive tract and destroys invading
microbes that may be ingested with the INFOBIT
food. Mucus is secreted by mucous cells
within the gastric glands. It lines the Heartburn occurs when stom-
stomach, forming a protective coating ach acids reflux into the
esophagus. The esophagus
against the corrosive effects of the hy-
does not have a mucus lining
drochloric acid. Approximately 500 mL to protect it and as a result,
of gastric fluid is produced after the con- the acid irritates the cells,
sumption of a large meal; about 1500 mL causing a burning sensation.
of gastric juice is secreted daily.
Chemical and physical digestion in
the stomach changes the food bolus into
a liquefied paste called chyme. Muscular
contractions of the stomach wall that mix
food with gastric secretions also propel
the mixture through a ring of smooth
muscle, called the pyloric sphincter, into
the small intestine. The sphincter is usu-
ally partly open so that small amounts
of chyme (about 5 mL) squirt into the
duodenum with each wave of gastric
peristalsis. Some chemical digestion, but
no absorption of any significance, occurs
in the stomach.
Stomach ulcers are very common
disorders. They are caused when the hy-
drochloric acid creates a hole through
the mucous lining of the stomach.
Excessive hydrochloric acid secretion
contributes to peptic ulcers. Beneath the
thin layer of stomach cells lies a rich
esophagus
muscular
wall
STOMACH
pyloric sphincter
duodenum of
small intestine
rugae
FIGURE 8.14 An internal and external view of the stomach
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 261
INFOBIT
Aspirin and alcohol are two
examples of the few sub-
stances that can be absorbed
into the bloodstream through
the lining of the stomach.
This explains why pain relief
occurs soon after ingesting an
aspirin and why intoxication
can happen rapidly.
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Fetal Pig-Dissection
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Absorption through the wall of
the small intestine is the
mechanism by which nutrients
can be taken up by the body.
Research active and passive
cellular transport mechanisms
in absorption and set up a
T-chart. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
262 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
network of capillaries. Acids irritate the
cells of the stomach lining, resulting in
further irritation. Therefore, antacids
usually provide prompt pain relief as
they neutralize excess acid. Recent in-
vestigations suggest that many stomach
ulcers are the result of infection by the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori. This in-
fection results in the loss of protective
mucus and so allows damage to the
stomach wall. Many ulcers can be cured
permanently by antibiotics that treat the
underlying bacterial infection.
The Small Intestine Ingestion takes food
into the mouth and alimentary canal, but
not into the body. The small
intestine, the major site of digestion and
absorption, enables food substances to
enter the body’s internal environment.
The small intestine consists of three con-
secutive sections called the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. Chyme containing
digested food particles enters the small
intestine. The partially digested food is
further subjected to mechanical diges-
tion through segmentation movements.
In these movements, segments of the in-
testine that are not adjacent alternately
Duodenum:
receives secretions
from pancreas
and liver
Jejunum:
performs most of
digestion and
chemical
absorption
Ileum:
absorption
continues
FIGURE 8.15 The small intestine
contract and relax. This results in a thor-
ough mixing of the contents with in-
testinal juices before the chyme is
propelled further along the alimentary
canal. Intestinal juices contain secretions
from the small intestine and from large
accessory digestive glands, the pancreas
and the liver. The ileocecal valve is an
anatomical landmark that separates the
small intestine from the large intestine.
The small intestine is considerably
longer than the large intestine. The name
small intestine is attributed to its
diameter, which is smaller than the
diameter of the large intestine. The small
intestine is as long as 6 m on average,
but the large intestine is only about
1.5 m in an adult.
Mechanical and chemical digestion
is ongoing as food travels through the
digestive tract. Once the food reaches
the small intestine, it is broken down to
its simplest form and ready for absorp-
tion. Almost every nutrient digested is
absorbed into the body through the walls
of the small intestine. Intestinal absorp-
tion uses active and passive cellular
transport mechanisms. Some transport
mechanisms are unique to the intestinal
SMALL INTESTINE
large
intestine
absorptive cells. After passing across the
mucosal epithelium, the water-soluble
nutrients flow into the blood capillaries
of the villi for transport to the liver and
then to all the body’s cells. The products
of fat digestion are absorbed into the
lacteals, tiny lymphatic vessels in the
villi, that connect to the lymphatic
system. See Figure 8.15.
The lining of the small intestine has
finger-like extensions of the mucosa
called villi that project into the lumen.
In turn, the surface of each cell in a
villus is covered with a carpet of tiny
microvilli. The net effect of the villi and
microvilli is to increase the surface area
of the intestine to maximize its ability to
absorb food. Approximately 80 % of all
INFOBIT
It takes food approximately five
hours to pass through the
human small intestine. The
total surface area available for
absorption of nutrients is ap-
proximately 300 m2, about the
size of a tennis court.

FIGURE 8.16 The intestinal wall

a) One fold with many villi
b) The structure of the intestinal wall
c) The surface cells of a villus carry microvilli one plica or fold

villi

microvilli

epithelium
mucosa

capillary network

lacteal

sub
mucosa

circular
muscle

longitudird
muscle lymphatic
serosa vessel

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 263

WORDORIGIN
Itis, from the Greek it is, indi-
cating sickness or disease; so
appendicitis means an inflam-
mation of the appendix and
colitis means an inflammation
of the colon.
WEBLINK
Using the Internet, research
signs and symptoms that a
person suffering from Crohn’s
disease might display.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
ileum of
small intestine
Cecum:
receives material
from small
intestine
appendix
ileocecal
valve
FIGURE 8.17 The large intestine
264 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
absorption occurs in the small intestine.
The remaining 20% of the absorption oc-
curs in the stomach and the large intes-
tine. The possibility of maximizing
surface area to allow for efficient diffu-
sion of substances is an important theme
in biology. Single cells divide to keep the
ratio of cell surface to volume at the op-
timum for diffusion. In the small intes-
tine the villi and microvilli increase the
surface area available for diffusion of nu-
trients into the cells of the intestinal wall.
Villi are nestled within a network of cap-
illaries that allows for easy diffusion and
transport from cells in the intestinal wall
to the blood. In this way the products of
digestion of food can be transported and
distributed to all body cells.
LARGE INTESTINE
Colon:
reabsorption
of water and
vitamins
Rectum:
end of
digestive tract
anus
The Large Intestine The large intestine
consists of consecutive sections—the
cecum, ascending transverse descend-
ing and sigmoid colon, rectum, and
anus. The main functions of the large in-
testine are to reabsorb water and to hold
and compact the unabsorbed material
from the small intestine. The cecum is
the chamber where chyme passes from
the small intestine into the large intes-
tine. Passage of chyme between the
small and large intestines is regulated
by the ileocecal valve. Jutting out from
the cecum is the appendix. The function
of the appendix is debatable, but the
presence of a large amount of lymphoid
tissue suggests it functions as part of
the lymphoid system. When the ap-
pendix becomes inflamed, appendicitis
occurs.
The unabsorbed material moves
slowly through the colon and as water,
salts, and some vitamins are reabsorbed
into the body, the waste products of di-
gestion are accumulated and are pre-
pared for elimination. The solid waste is
called feces or stools. Feces pass
through the rectum and exit the body
through the anus. A subsidiary function
of the large intestine is to assemble
certain vitamins, for example, vitamin K.
Vitamin production occurs due to the
activity of micro-organisms in the large
intestine.
Inflammatory bowel disease is a
common illness that affects the small
and large intestine. There are two main
types of inflammatory bowel disease:
Crohn’s disease and ulcerative
colitis. Each of these conditions has at
its root an inflammatory process that af-
fects the lining of the small and large in-
testine. In ulcerative colitis, the
inflammation starts at the rectum and
spreads backward, through the large in-
testine. In Crohn’s disease, the inflam-
mation can start anywhere along the
gastrointestinal tract, but is mainly lo-
calized in the small intestine.
Defecation is controlled by two anal
sphincters and occurs usually once or
twice a day in humans. The feces are
about three-fourths water and one-
fourth solid matter. Of the solid matter,
about 30% is bacteria (normal residents
of the intestine), about 30% is undigested
roughage, about 20% is fat, about 15%
is inorganic matter, and about 3% is pro-
tein.
Constipation is one of the most com-
mon problems of the digestive tract
and affects approximately 2% of the
population at any given time. Numerous
medical conditions can cause constipa-
tion. Regular bowel movements are
important in maintaining health.
Individuals who have constipation often
complain of abdominal discomfort and
bloating. Laxatives, whether purchased
over the counter or through a
prescription, are one method of treating
constipation. Generally, laxatives act to
increase the passage of stool through the
rectum. There are various forms of
laxatives—tablets, liquids, and powders.
Foods high in fibre also function as
laxatives. Some of these are bran,
prunes, and raw fruits and vegetables.
Other laxatives work by increasing
the water content of the feces, or by
softening the stool.

FIGURE 8.18 A radiograph of the large intestine

INFOBIT

water While 1500 mL of watery mate-

rial arrives in the colon daily,
bacteria about 1350 mL are reabsorbed,
leaving only about 150 mL that
are eliminated with the feces.
undigested roughage

lipid

inorganic matter

protein WORDORIGIN

Feces, from the Latin fauces,

pl. meaning “dregs” or
“sediment.”
FIGURE 8.19 The percent composition of feces

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 265

 Section 8.2 Review
Understanding Concepts taining this pH?
d) Account for the change in pH in the
1. Draw a diagram to explain how food stomach over the 30 min after a
ingested into the digestive tract is re- person has ingested several antacid
ally still a part of the outside world. tablets.
2. Explain why you would still be able 9. You are a zoologist working at a zoo.
to swallow a piece of food if you were You are studying the ingestion patterns
standing on your head. of various animals. Examine the two
3. List ways that mechanical and chemi- animal skulls below, and create a T-
cal digestion differ. chart that summarizes whether the an-
4. What is the function of hydrochloric imals are herbivores or carnivores.
acid in the stomach? Suggest types of foods that zookeepers
could feed these animals.
5. Why are villi and microvilli important
to the function of the small intestine?
What would be the result of a reduc-
tion in the number of microvilli?
6. Comment on the appropriateness of the
names “small” intestine and “large”
intestine.
7. Having surgery may require that a
patient does not have anything to eat
or drink for 12 h before the operation.
a) Research the mechanisms that help
the body cope without food for a Skull #1
long period of time.
b) What happens to the body under
conditions of starvation?

Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Plot the data below using a line graph.
a) Why is the pH scale appropriate to
Skull #2
Time after Ingesting an pH of Stomach
Antacid Tablet (min)
FIGURE 8.20 Skulls #1 and #2
0 1.5

10 1.68

20 1.8

30 2.1

measure the effects of an antacid

tablet?
b) What is the normal pH of the
stomach?
c) What acid is responsible for main-

266 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and
their Associated Enzymes
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the functions of enzymes involved in digestion

 illustrate a feedback loop as a mechanism of homeostasis

 explain how the hormone insulin helps to maintain blood sugar levels

 appreciate the work done by Canadian scientists Banting and Best

 describe the technology used to examine the digestive system

 analyze improvements in liver transplantation in response to societal needs

The accessory organs of digestion are
the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and
gall bladder. Salivary glands secrete
saliva that contains enzymes that initi-
ate the breakdown of starch. Both the
pancreas and the gall bladder release
their secretions into ducts that empty
into the duodenum. The pancreas se-
cretes a number of enzymes that help
complete chemical digestion that has
been started in other regions of the ali-
mentary canal. The pancreas also se-
cretes an alkaline solution containing
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) that neu-
tralizes the hydrochloric acid released
in the stomach. The liver produces bile,
a substance that acts like a detergent in
the breakdown of fat. The bile is con-
centrated and stored in a sac called the
gall bladder. Since the lumen of the di-
gestive tract is actually an extension of
the outside world, secretions from these
accessory organs are considered to be
exocrine, or “outside” the body.
Salivary Glands
The salivary glands secrete saliva, a
fluid made up of two types of secretions.
Some salivary glands (the parotids) se-
crete a watery fluid that contains sali-
vary amylase. This is an enzyme that
digests starch. Others (the buccal glands)
secrete a thick, slippery fluid called
mucus, which is high in the glycopro-
tein mucin. The cells that line the
esophagus also secrete mucus. As the
tongue is stimulated by many taste and
tactile sensations, parts of the nervous
system respond to increase the secretion
of saliva.
The Liver and Gallbladder
The liver is the second-largest organ in
the human body, after the skin. It weighs
about 1.5 kg, and its major digestive
function is the synthesis of bile. Bile is
a mixture of bile salts, bile acids, choles-
terol, phospholipids, fatty acids, and
water. The liver is divided into two large
lobes, the left and the right. In
biology, a lobe is a well-defined part of
an organ separated by boundaries.
Lodged within a recess under the right
lobe of the liver is the gallbladder. It is
a muscular sac that stores and concen-
trates the bile that it receives from the
liver. When fat enters the duodenum, en-
docrine cells in the duodenum release a
hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK)
into the blood. CCK causes the gallblad-
der to contract and send bile through the
bile duct into the duodenum. Liver cells
produce approximately 1 L of bile daily.
The liver is an organ with many
functions. It plays a key role in regulat-
ing body metabolism. In fact all blood
leaving the absorptive areas of the body,
the stomach and the intestines, flows
through the liver before entering the
general circulation. This allows the liver

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 267


Investigation
Refer to page 279,
Investigation 1
INFOBIT
The liver is the largest reser-
voir of blood in the body, hold-
ing about 25% of the cardiac
output at any given time. That
is why, when administering
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR), it is vital to “landmark”
so that you do not damage the
liver. If you were to compress
on the breastbone without first
landmarking, you might cut the
liver and cause severe internal
bleeding.
268 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
right
lobe
cystic
duct
GALLBLADDER
duodenum of
small intestine
FIGURE 8.21 The accessory organs. The liver and pancreas release their secretions into the
small intestine at the duodenum.
to extract absorbed nutrients or toxins
from the blood. The nutrients continue
into the general circulation, while the
toxins are properly disposed of. Catalase,
an enzyme found in almost all body cells,
but in highest concentration in liver cells,
plays a key role in decomposing toxins
like hydrogen peroxide into the safe
products of water and oxygen.
Additionally, when people use sub-
stances like drugs and alcohol, the liver
detects these as toxic to the body and
tries to eliminate them. People who
abuse alcohol and drugs experience liver
damage over time.
Alcohol and the Liver The relationship be-
tween excessive alcohol use and liver
damage has been known for many years.
In fact, in the western world, alcohol is
the most common cause of liver disease.
Heavy alcohol consumption for many
years can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
Cirrhosis is a condition where the liver
is scarred and contains fibrous tissue.
Cirrhosis hinders blood flow through the
liver and so hinders metabolic processes.
It depresses all functions of the liver.
In this way, excessive alcohol consump-
tion disrupts the homeostasis of the
LIVER
left
lobe
common
hepatic
duct
common bile duct
PANCREAS
pancreatic
duct
individual’s internal environment. The
development of alcoholic cirrhosis is cor-
related with the duration and quantity of
alcohol consumption. There are many
ways in which alcohol can damage the
liver. It causes direct damage and even-
tual death of hepatocytes (liver cells). It
also changes the fat composition of liver
cells, resulting in a fatty liver. Some of
these changes are reversible if the
person stops drinking alcohol.
Individuals with alcoholic liver
disease may show a variety of symptoms.
The most common complaints in people
with alcoholic hepatitis, a condition
causing inflammation of the liver, are
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and abdom-
inal pain. Some people experience weight
loss, fever, and jaundice which causes a
yellow discoloration of the skin. Ascites,
a condition where fluid collects in the
abdomen, is also common in liver
disease.
The mainstay of treatment for
alcohol-induced liver disease is complete
abstinence from alcohol. Other forms of
therapy include a combination of dietary
changes, vitamins, and steroids. In
severe cases, liver transplantation may
eventually be necessary.
The Pancreas
The pancreas lies behind the stomach
and extends laterally from the duode-
num. It is a finger-shaped organ and
measures about 15 cm in length. It is
specialized for secretion and is the
source of a number of substances es-
sential to the digestive process. When
chyme leaves the stomach through the
pyloric sphincter it is slightly acidic. The
chyme must be neutralized so that this
acidic mixture does not corrode and ir-
ritate the cells that line the small intes-
tine. Once acid enters the small intestine,
a hormone called secretin is released
from the cells in the duodenal wall. This
hormone is absorbed into the blood-
stream and carried to the pancreas.
Here, it signals the release of bicarbon-
ate ions from the pancreas. Bicarbonate
ions not only help to neutralize the
hydrochloric acid, but also increase the
alkalinity in the duodenum to a pH of 9.
This is significant, because in an alka-
line environment, the enzyme pepsin
(from the stomach) becomes inactive.
The pancreatic secretions also con-
tain enzymes that continue the break-
down of the three major components
of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids. Lipases work on lipids, carbo-
hydrases digest sugars and starches,
and proteases break apart proteins.
Regulating Blood Sugar—
an Example of Homeostasis
To maintain health, your body must keep
certain conditions constant or within an
acceptable range. Examples of these con-
ditions are blood pressure, respiration
rate, body temperature, and blood sugar
levels. Homeostasis means the mainte-
nance of a steady internal state.
Negative feedback is an important con-
cept associated with homeostasis and
can be summarized in three steps:
1. A variable is identified that has
changed by either rising above or
falling below its normal range, called
the norm or set point.
2. Receptors detect the change and sig-
nal other parts of the body to respond
in order to restore the steady state.
3. Organs receive the signal and
respond accordingly. The responses
restore the body to its normal con-
dition. Sometimes, the response is ac-
complished by the release of
hormones.
The response of the organ to correct
the problem and restore balance is called WEBLINK
negative feedback. Many organ systems
in your body help maintain homeosta- Estimates suggest that obesity
sis. The pancreas, for example, is the is responsible for 75% of
most important organ responsible for diabetes cases and 30% of
cardiovascular problems.
blood sugar control. Lifestyle changes can reduce
The body has a well-defined system these risks. Research the
for dealing with fluctuations in blood information on one of these
sugar. The overall goal of homeostasis as diseases and prepare a
it relates to blood sugar is to maintain summary chart to indicate
ways to prevent these diseases.
blood sugar at approximately 4–6 mmol•L–1. Begin your research at
This range is considered the body’s set www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
point under normal conditions. After a
meal, as simple sugars are absorbed into
the bloodstream, there is a direct rise in
blood sugar level. This rise is detected by
specialized receptor cells that then stim-
ulate the release of insulin from the beta-
cells found in the pancreas. The release
of insulin, which promotes the uptake of
glucose from the blood will ultimately re-
store the blood sugar level to its normal
range of 4–6 mmol•L–1. At this point the INFOBIT
receptor cells respond to the normal con-
ditions and the release of insulin stops. If Diabetes affects millions of
blood sugar levels fall below the set points, Canadians. There are two
the hormone glucagon from the alpha types: Type 1 and Type 2.
Generally, Type 1 diabetes
cells of the pancreas stimulates reactions
occurs when there is destruction
to mobilize energy reserves so that of the specialized pancreatic
glucose is released from the liver. cells that make insulin. These
Homeostasis is an important concept beta (β) cells are within struc-
tures called the Islets of
in biology and involves other body sys-
Langerhans. As a result there
tems. However, it is not exclusive to bi-
is no insulin produced in the
ology. A thermostat is another example body and individuals with Type
of a negative feedback loop. Heat flow 1 diabetes must take insulin
through a house is controlled to keep from an external source, by
injection. Type 2 diabetes is
room temperature at a constant level, the
set point. The thermostat is a device that usually age dependent, though
other factors like poor diet,
helps to monitor and regulate room tem- high blood pressure, obesity
perature. It consists of a thin coil made and infections can help bring it
of two different metals fastened together. about.
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 269

The Discovery of Insulin
In 1921, two Canadians, Frederick
Banting, a physician, and Charles
Best, a science summer student, iso-
lated insulin. Their ground-breaking
physiological studies were conducted
in the laboratory of John J.R. Macleod
at the University of Toronto. Banting
and Best tied the pancreatic duct of
experimental dogs. They waited for
seven weeks for the pancreas to
shrink. From the remaining pancreas
tissue of these dogs, they collected the
hormone insulin produced by the
beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans.
They isolated the hormone and
then injected it into other dogs made
diabetic by the removal of their
pancreases. When the diabetic dogs
were injected with the isolated hor-
mone, their symptoms of diabetes
disappeared. The replacement ther-
apy was successful.
Banting and Best wanted to call
the hormone “isletin” after the cells
that produce it, the Islets of
Langerhans. However, it was agreed
that the hormone would be known as
“insulin” which is derived from the
Latin word insula meaning “island.”

M AT H L I N K Because the different metals expand and Human Digestive Enzymes

The concentration term mmol • L–1
relates the molar mass of a
substance to a volume of a
liquid. Since the molar mass
of glucose is 180, 4–6 mmol • L–1
means 0.72–1.08g• L–1.
WORD ORIGIN
Thermostat from two Greek
words, therm meaning “heat”
and statos meaning “steady.”
contract at different rates, the coil bends
Enzymes are proteins found in both
and unbends with changes in air tem-
plants and animals. They act upon other
perature. The moving coil pushes on an
substances called substrates. Enzymes
electric switch that turns the heat source
speed up all chemical changes in the
on or off. When the temperature falls
body, not only those connected with di-
below the normal range, the metal coil
gestion. They speed up reactions with-
responds to switch the heat source on.
out themselves becoming changed in the
This response results in the temperature
process and are therefore known as bi-
rising back to normal. If the temperature
ological catalysts. Enzymes are produced
overshoots the normal temperature
by two kinds of glands: those with and
range, the coil responds by switching the
those without ducts. The pancreas and
heat source off. This response results in
salivary glands have ducts, while duct-
the temperature falling back to normal.
less glands line the stomach and small
intestine. The entire gut is also lined
by millions of mucous gland cells.

Thermostat switches no heating insulin release

heating OFF.

response/s response/s
Heating continues. Temperature Glucose Glucose
result
Temperature rises falls to level in level falls to
stimulus return stimulus result
above set point. set point. blood rises. set point.
to norm
Blood Glucose
Norm or Set Point
4-6 mmol L-1
•

Temperature Temperature Glucose Glucose

result
rises to stimulus falls below level rises to result stimulus level in
return
set point. set point. set point. blood falls.
to norm
response/s response/s

heating Thermostat glucagon release and other reactions

a) switches heating ON. b) to convert storage products to glucose

FIGURE 8.22 Negative feedback loops

a) a thermostat
b) regulation of blood sugar in human

270 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 The lock-and-key model is an aid to
understanding the relationship between
the enzyme and the substrate. This
model implies that the enzyme and the
substrate fit together in a specific man-
ner so that the enzyme can carry out its
function.
Digestive enzymes break down car-
bohydrates, proteins, and fats into sim-
pler units by adding water. Water can
break the bond holding two monomers
together. This is called hydrolysis, which
literally means “destruction by water.”
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the
mouth. Salivary amylase breaks down
starch, a complex carbohydrate, into
disaccharides. Further digestion of car-
bohydrate occurs in the duodenum.
The enzyme pepsin works only in a
very acidic environment. Protein diges-
tion occurs in the stomach where the
acidic environment allows pepsin to
work optimally to break proteins into
shorter chains of amino acids. Most en-
zymes involved in completing the di-
gestion of macronutrients are produced
in the pancreas and empty into the duo-
denum of the small intestine. Pancreatic
enzymes work best in a pH of 7 to 8.
Therefore, the bicarbonate ions that the
pancreas secretes provide the ideal con-
ditions for these enzymes to function.
INFOBIT
You have three pairs of salivary
glands. The sublingual glands
in the floor of the mouth, the
submandibular glands just
below the jaw, and the parotid
glands deep to the cheek.
Saliva is an alkaline, watery,
mucus solution. It contains
potassium, chloride, and
bicarbonate ions as well as
amylase, a digestive enzyme
that begins starch digestion.

H 20 H 20 H 20

Chemical
digestion

Absorption to
blood

Absorption to
lymph
a) Carbohydrate digestion b) Protein digestion c) Lipid digestion vessel

FIGURE 8.23 Activity of enzymes in regions of the digestive system

a) Areas of carbohydrate digestion
b) Areas of protein digestion
c) Areas of lipid digestion

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 271

 Investigation Pancreatic juice is a mixture of several
enzymes. Protein-digesting enzymes or
Refer to page 281,
Investigation 2 proteases are made and stored in inac-
tive forms, so they do not digest the pan-
creas itself. The inactive enzymes become
active only after they have reached the
intestine. For instance, trypsinogen is re-
leased and becomes activated in the in-
testine as trypsin, an enzyme that
completes protein digestion by splitting
dipeptides into amino acids. Other pan-
creatic enzymes include pancreatic
amylase, lipases, and nucleases. All of
these enzymes require particular con-
ditions for their most efficient action.
FIGURE 8.24 An endoscope
FIGURE 8.25 The inside of the small intestine
as photographed by an endoscope.
272 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
Bile
Food in the small intestine is mixed, not
only with pancreatic fluid, but also with
bile. Recall that bile is made by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder. Bile enters
the intestine through a duct. Though it is
not an enzyme itself, bile has two func-
tions in the intestine.
It acts in the same fashion as a
detergent. While detergents help to
emulsify fatty substances in your kitchen
sink, bile emulsifies fat in your small in-
testine by breaking the fat down into
small globules. It is important to note
that the chemical structure of the fat is
not changed even though it has been
physically broken down. The globules
are kept separate from each other within
the watery environment. Bile salts also
help in the absorption of lipids from the
intestine.
Gallstones sometimes develop when
large amounts of water are absorbed
from bile, leaving behind solids, which
block the bile duct. Removal of the gall-
bladder because of gallstones sometimes
results in difficulty with fat absorption
later on.
Endoscopy
An endoscope is a device consisting of
a tube containing an optical system,
composed of a light-emitting glass fibre.
It is used for observing the inside of a
hollow organ or cavity. These observa-
tions may be made through a natural
body opening or through a small inci-
sion. When the endoscope is used to ex-
amine the digestive system, it can be
inserted through the mouth to investi-
gate the upper digestive tract. A
colonoscopy can be performed in a sim-
ilar manner by inserting the optical sys-
tem through the anus to investigate
the lower digestive tract. The endoscope
is used to view such things as stomach
ulcers or polyp formation in the colon.
Tiny forceps, fitted into the endoscope,
can even extract small pieces of tissue
for further testing.
Frontiers in Liver
Transplantation
Of all the wonders of modern medicine,
none has captured the public imagina-
tion more than organ transplantation.
Today, organs such as the heart, kidney,
lung, pancreas, and liver are being trans-
planted with increasing success around
the world. The first successful human
liver transplant was performed in the
mid-1960s by Dr. Thomas Starzl in
Denver, Colorado.
The liver is the second-largest organ
in the body, and is vital to life. It per-
forms many essential functions. The liver
breaks down and removes harmful
chemicals and drugs. It changes nutri-
ents into energy for growth and activity.
It produces bile, a substance that helps
the body absorb vitamins and metabo-
lize fat. The liver also produces proteins,
particularly proteins responsible for
blood clotting and balancing body fluids.
For liver transplants, the only re-
quirements are that the donor and re-
cipient are approximately the same size,
and of compatible blood types. Donors
and recipients do not have to be
matched by tissue type, sex, or age. The
donor and recipient of the transplant
must also be free from any chronic in-
fections or untreatable cancers.
Very often livers are donated, with
the consent of the next of kin, from in-
dividuals who are brain dead, usually as
a result of a head injury or brain hem-
orrhage. When such a donor is identi-
fied, a computer network contacts
transplant centres and arrangements are
made to retrieve whatever organs may
be donated. Frequently this involves a
team from a transplant centre flying to
the donor hospital to remove the organs,
and returning with them for the trans-
plant operation.
Transplant using liver from a living
donor is also possible, especially for pe-
diatric patients. Liver cells are unique
because they have the ability to regen-
erate quickly. Therefore, some pediatric
patients receive only a small portion of
a liver from a larger donor. This liver
segment will grow as the child grows,
and will provide satisfactory liver func-
tion. Donors with a compatible blood
type can donate part of their liver to an-
other person. Within three months, the
donor’s liver grows back to its previous
size and shape.
In any organ transplant, it is important
to create conditions so that the new organ
and the patient’s own body cells communi-
cate properly. If the organ is not properly
matched to the recipient, then the recipi-
ent’s body cells will reject the organ. There
are drugs called immunosuppressants
that help to suppress the recipient’s
immune system, and fight the rejection
of the transplanted organ. Transplant
recipients must take immunosuppressants
for the rest of their lives.
There is, however, a paradox in organ
transplant success and advancement. The
greater the success in human-to-human
organ transplantation, the more demand
there will be for such procedures. This
will undoubtedly create longer and longer
waiting times for organ recipients. Already
in Canada alone, thousands of frustrated
and desperately ill candidates are wait-
ing for donor organs. In March 2001, pe-
diatric cardiologist and transplant
immunologist Dr. Lori West at Toronto’s
Hospital for Sick Children reported suc-
cessful heart transplants between new-
borns of incompatible blood types.
Because the infant’s immune system is
not fully functional, the rejection problems
seen in older people have not occurred.
In this way precious donated organs were FIGURE 8.26 Dr. Lori West
showed that heart transplan-
able to be used rather than wasted. tation between newborns of
With modern medicine, physicians incompatible blood types was
can keep critically ill patients awaiting possible.
transplantation alive. Surgeons are also
successfully transplanting organs into
patients who are sicker and older. The
number of patients awaiting transplants
continues to climb. To deal with these es-
calating numbers, medicine is exploring
a variety of alternative solutions, includ-
ing xenotransplantation, meaning the
use of organs from animals as transplants
in humans. Biotechnology initiatives are
studying designs for drugs to prevent the
rejection of these transplanted organs.
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 273
 Section 8.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Draw the alimentary canal to show
where the accessory organs are lo-
cated. Why does the digestive tract
need accessory organs?
2. What is the role of the liver in
digestion?
3. What is the role of the gallbladder?
4. Define an enzyme and indicate why
shape is important for enzyme
function.
5. What digestive enzymes does the
pancreas produce?
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
6. A diabetic must test her blood sugar
several times during the day. Below are
her blood sugar readings for the past
24 hours. Recall that a normal blood
sugar reading is 4–6 mmol•L–1.
Time of day Blood sugar reading
8:00 a.m. 4.6
10:15 a.m. 7.8
6:15 p.m. 3.2
11:00 p.m. 13.0
a) Which value represents her blood
sugar in the fasting state?
b) She finishes her soccer game after
school and comes home feeling
very hungry. Why do you think that
her blood sugar is low at 6:15 p.m.?
What could Lisa have done to pre-
vent low blood sugar?
c) As a celebration of her soccer vic-
tory, she has a hot fudge sundae
after dinner with her friends. How
will this affect the amount of insulin
in her next dose.
7. Examine the table below.
Note that a (+) indicates that the item
is present in the test tube and a (-)
indicates that it is not present in the
test tube. Note also that iodine turns
dark blue in the presence of starch.
a) In test tube #1, Benedict’s test
shows an orange precipitate. What
substance in the test tube accounts
for this precipitate?
b) Tubes #2 and #5 are controls in
this experiment. Why do you think
these controls are necessary?
c) What does boiling saliva do to its
activity and its effect on starch?
How can you know this from the
information in the table?
Making Connections
8. Crohn’s disease is a condition in which
the small intestine becomes inflamed
and the absorption of food through the
small intestine is affected.
a) What social implications might
there be for a teenager suffering
from Crohn’s disease?
9. In a chart, show the pros and cons of
using animals in health care research.
10. There are diffening opinions about the
practice of organ donation and organ
transplants. Describe the ethical con-
siderations that might influence how
decisions about thses practices are
made.

Tube Starch Saliva Iodine Test Benedict’s test

1   no change orange precipitate
2  boiled dark blue no change
3   dark blue no change
4   no change no change
5   no change no change

274 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

8.4 Digestion in Other Organisms
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 compare the anatomy of different organisms
 understand how the components of digestive systems have been modified to suit the
unique digestive needs of different organisms
Amoeba
As a one-celled organism, the amoeba
does not have a complex system for di-
gestion. Its means of acquiring and stor-
ing food are very simple. The amoeba
surrounds its food by extensions of the
cytoplasm called pseudopods. This pro-
cess of engulfing and ingesting food,
called phagocytosis, requires energy
from ATP. Once inside the amoeba, food
can be stored in a food vacuole. Food
vacuoles can move within the amoeba.
Enzymes that break down the food are
released into the food vacuole. Within
the food vacuole the specific pH allows
enzymes to work at their optimum.
FIGURE 8.27 An amoeba. Since the amoeba is
unicellular, the basic means of acquiring food
(diffusion, active transport, and phagocytosis) are
sufficient to meet its nutritional needs. Excess
food is stored in vacuoles.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish have a gastrovascular cavity
with branches that radiate outwards
from a central circular canal. Digestion
occurs within this cavity and in the cells
FIGURE 8.28 The jellyfish is
able to absorb nutrients from
its gastrovascular cavity. It can
acquire its nutritional needs
through diffusion.
lining it. Only the lining cells have direct
access to nutrients, but the nutrients
have only a short distance to diffuse to
other body cells.
Earthworm
The regions of the alimentary canal in
the earthworm differ according to their
function in the digestive process. The
earthworm burrows through the ground
and uses a shovel-like prostomium to
scoop up soil. The muscular pharynx
then sucks soil into the worm’s mouth.
The nutrient-containing soil passes
through the esophagus and is stored
and moistened in the crop. Since the
earthworm lacks teeth, the muscular giz-
zard is equipped with small grains of
sand and gravel, allowing food from the
crop to enter and mechanical digestion
to occur. Organic matter in the food is
chemically digested and nutrients are
absorbed in the intestine. The indi-
gestible material is eliminated through
the anus.
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 275

esophagus
mouth crop
intestine
pharynx anus
gizzard
interior wall of
of intestine intestine
FIGURE 8.29 The earthworm exhibits all the main components of an alimentary
canal. Some added features include the crop where food is stored and the gizzard
where pebbles help to mechanically break down food.
Bird
Birds have an alimentary canal with or-
gans similar to the earthworm. Birds are
able to eat a variety of foods, including
insects, worms, berries, and seeds. Like
the earthworm, birds have both a crop
for storing food and a gizzard for me-
chanically digesting food. Gravel pieces
in the gizzard help grind the food into
digestible pieces. Most chemical diges-
tion occurs in the bird’s stomach.
Nutrients are absorbed in the intestine.
Cow
Ruminant mammals, such as cattle,
sheep, and deer, have a more elabo-
rate system with a stomach that has four
chambers. This is because they digest
cellulose, a substance that is undigested
in humans. When a cow first chews and
swallows a mouthful of grass, the food
enters the rumen. It later travels to a re-
gion called the reticulum. Bacteria found
in the rumen and reticulum start to
break down the cellulose. The cow helps
in this process by regurgitating and re-
chewing food from time to time. This
“rumination” or “chewing the cud”
276 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
softens and helps break down plant
fibres, making them more accessible to
the bacteria, and thereby more
digestible.
Plant Connect: Digestion
In most ways, plants are organized dif-
ferently from humans. However, there
are mechanisms within plants that are
similar to human digestive processes.
For example, plants need to have a high
surface area to allow for proper nutri-
ent absorption. This is accomplished
through their root system, which ab-
sorbs water and inorganic nutrients
from the soil. Important minerals include
potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen.
Each root has many root hairs that in-
crease the absorption capacity of the
root. Compare this situation to humans
where villi in the small intestine have
microvilli that also increase surface area
to enhance absorption.
Of course plants are very different
in that they manufacture sugars through
photosynthesis. However, they do require
a transport system to carry water and
inorganic nutrients to the site of photo-
synthesis in the leaves and to carry man-
ufactured nutrient products (sugars) to
other tissues for use and storage. These
two aspects are kept separate. The xylem
transports water and minerals from the
roots to the leaves, and the phloem car-
ries sugars away from the leaves to other
tissues. Compare this to the human
where the transport system, the circu-
lation, receives the products of digestion
and carries them to the liver and the rest
of the body tissues.
Xylem and phloem are discussed in
detail in Chapter 16.
A third similarity between plants
and people is the importance of home-
ostasis. Just as humans regulate their
blood sugar, breathing rate, tempera-
ture, and so on, plants control the re-
lease of water through their stomata.
Stomata are the site of gas exchange in
plants and also the sites of water release
through the process of transpiration. For
these purposes the stomata are open. move away from the norm), responses
If the external humidity drops so that the occur in the leaf so that the stomata
plant is losing water faster than it can close. Transpiration is reduced and in-
be replaced from the xylem (conditions ternal conditions return to normal.

mouth

esophagus gizzard
intestine
crop

stomach

anus

FIGURE 8.30 The digestive system of a bird

intestine four-chambered
stomach
reticulum

esophagus

rumen

FIGURE 8.31 Ruminants, such as cows, have four stomachs. As herbivores, their
diet requires that they break down cellulose, a very complex carbohydrate. This re-
quires that they “chew the cud” to break the fibrous material into small pieces.

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 277

 Section 8.4 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. How does the single-celled amoeba in-
gest its food?
2. Which structures in the earthworm’s
alimentary canal are similar to those
in humans? Which are different? A
Venn diagram may be useful to com-
pare these two organisms.
3. What is the purpose of a cow “chew-
ing the cud”?
4. a) Why do you think that organisms,
such as earthworms and birds,
might find a storage device like the
crop useful?
b) Study the food web that includes
these animals and predict how the
web would be affected if some of
these organisms did not have the
ability to gather food and store it
in their crop for later use.
wolf
bird
snake
frog
worm
insect
grass
FIGURE 8.32
278 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
5. Animals, such as the earthworm,
grasshopper, and bird all have crops.
Recall that crops are important organs
in the alimentary canal that function
to store food. Expain why these or-
ganisms might benefit from the ability
to store food. Consider their size, their
position in many food chains, and so
on.
6. Construct a table to show the various
organs and components of the diges-
tive tract. Identify the structures com-
mon to all of the organisms discussed
in this section. Explain why each is
vital to the proper functioning of the
digestive system.
Making Connections
7. Animals in captivity do not hunt for
their food.
a) Research how the dietary needs of
the animals are determined.
b) Describe the impact this has on
their ability to survive if returned
to the wild.
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 8.2, 8.3)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
What Effect Does Temperature Have  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
on an Enzyme?
A catalyst is something that speeds up a chemical re- TABLE 8.5 Set-up of Test Tubes for Investigation
action while itself remaining unchanged. An enzyme
is a biological catalyst. Enzymes work best under Test tube #1 Liver at room temperature
specific conditions, and these conditions can vary for Substrate: water
each enzyme. Each enzyme acts specifically on a sub-
Test tube #2 Liver at room temperature
stance called the substrate. This investigation will en-
Substrate: H2O2
able you to explore the role of temperature in enzyme
activity. The enzyme will come from a homogenate of Test tube #3 Liver in an ice Bath
fresh liver. The substrate used will be hydrogen per- Substrate: water
oxide. Remember that one of the roles of the liver is
Test tube #4 Liver in an ice bath
detoxification. One way that the liver accomplishes Substrate: H2O2
detoxification is through oxidation.
Test tube #5 Liver in a hot water bath
Substrate: water
Problem
How does temperature affect the function of enzymes Test tube #6 Liver in a hot water bath
present in fresh liver? Substrate: H2O2

Materials 3. Plug in the hot plate. Add about 150 mL of water

 goggles  blender to a 250-mL beaker and place it on the hot plate.
 100–150 g liver per  ice Set the temperature gauge on the hot plate high
group  knife enough to allow the water in the beaker to boil.
 hot plate  test tube rack 4. Add approximately 2 mL of liver homogenate to
 water  tape each of the 6 test tubes so that the homogenate
 6 test tubes  black marker occupies about 1 cm from the bottom of the test tube.
 250-mL beakers  hydrogen peroxide 5. Take test tubes #3 and #4, and place them in the
 beaker tongs (3% H2O2) ice bath for approximately 15 min.
 test-tube tongs 6. Take test tubes #5 and #6 and place them in the hot
water bath, after it has come to a boil. Leave these
test tubes in the hot water bath for 15 min.
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles when adding the hydro-
gen peroxide substrate and observing the reaction. The
test tubes in the boiling water bath will be very hot. Use
beaker tongs to handle the glassware.

Procedure
1. Use the knife to chop the liver into fine bits. Place the
chopped liver into the hand blender. Add about
50 mL of water. If the homogenate is too thick and
stringy, you can add a little more water (10–20 mL).
Blend the liver until it is homogenous. Pour this into
a 250-mL beaker and label it “liver homogenate.”
2 Place the 6 test tubes in a test-tube rack. Use the
tape and black marker to label each of the test tubes
as in Table 8.5: FIGURE 8.33 Set-up for enzyme investigation

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 279

(continued)

7. While test tubes #3–#6 are in the hot water bath,
add the substrate to test tubes #1 and #2. Add
2 mL of water to test tube #1 and record your ob-
servations. Similarly, add 2 mL of H2O2 to test tube
#2 and record your observations. Using a data table
like Table 8.6, record the rate of reaction on a scale
of 0–4 as in Table 8.7.
9. Similarly, take test tubes #5 and #6 from the hot
water bath. Turn off your hot plate. Add 2 mL of
water to test tube #5 and 2 mL of H 2 O 2 to test
tube #6. Record your observations.
10. As an addition, take test tube #2, and when it has
settled, add another 2 mL of H2O2. What do you ob-
serve? Repeat this step for test tubes #4 and #6.

TABLE 8.6 Observations of enzyme activity

Analyzing and Interpreting
Test tube #1 1. From your observation chart, suggest how tem-
perature affects the functioning of the enzyme.
Test tube #2 2. Account for the differences in the rates of reaction.

Test tube #3 Concluding and Communicating

3. Based on your observations, why were both water
Test tube #4
and H2O2 used in this investigation?
4. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the
ice bath?
Test tube #5
5. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the
hot water bath?
Test tube #6 6. What was the purpose of repeating the addition
of H2O2 to test tube #2 at the end of the investiga-
tion?
7. Considering your observations from test tubes 5
TABLE 8.7 Rates of Reaction
and 6, how might this experiment be compared to
the changes that occur when frying an egg?
Scale Number Rate

0 No reaction
1 Slow
2 Moderate
3 Fast
4 Very fast
Extending
8. If large chunks of liver were used as a source of
enzyme instead of homogenizing the liver, what
might you have observed? Explain your answer.
9. If potato had the same enzyme as liver, at what tem-
perature would the enzyme work best? Why?

8. After 15 min, take test tubes #3 and #4 from the

ice bath and add 2 mL of water to test tube #3 and
2 mL of H2O2 to test tube #4. Record your obser-
vations.

280 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 8.1, 8.3)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Enzyme Activity in Fruit  Concluding and Communicating

Food breaks down into different sub-units through the Analyzing and Interpreting
action of specific enzymes. Some fruits contain an
1. Which fruits contained an enzyme that breaks down
enzyme that breaks down gelatin or prevents it from
gelatin?
forming into a matrix.
2. Why do you suppose that there are only certain
flavours of Jell-O?
Problem 3. What are some limitations of your study?
Which common fruits contain an enzyme that prevents
gelatin from forming?
Concluding and Communicating
Materials 4. How could you apply your results to food
preparation?
 gelatin
 hot water 5. How is this investigation comparable to the condi-
 cold water tions in your stomach?
 pineapple 6. What is meant by “protein denaturation”? Suggest
 other fresh fruits advantages and disadvantages of this property.
 a number of bowls or beakers of uniform size 7. Write a lab report to summarize your procedure
 stirring rods and observations.

Experimental Design Extending

1. In groups develop a hypothesis to answer this prob-
lem. Design your investigation.
2. Describe the purpose, materials, and methods that
you plan to use. Decide how you are going to record
and report your observations and conclusions.
3. Select the control you will use for the presence of
enzyme activity.
4. Design a procedure to test for enzyme activity.
5. Suggest variables that you could manipulate to test
for effects on enzyme activity in fruits.
6. Have your teacher approve your investigative de-
sign before carrying out the experiment.
7. Research whether pineapple has any therapeutic
benefits in losing weight or in maintaining good
health.
8. A meat tenderizer (available as a powder in most
grocery stores) has a chemical effect that helps to
tenderize meat. Hypothesize the mechanism by
which this occurs and predict whether meat ten-
derizers would also prevent gelatin from solidify-
ing and forming a matrix.
9. Conduct an investigation to show whether the en-
zyme papain, from fruits like the pineapple, can
be successfully used as a meat tenderizer.

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 281

 C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

TABLE 8.8 Structure and Function in the Human

Digestive System

Organ Function

Mouth Mixes food with saliva and salivary

forms a bolus; begins the gland
process of mechanical and
chemical digestion
mouth tongue
Esophagus Passageway to allow the bolus (oral cavity)
pharynx
of food to travel from the mouth
to the stomach salivary
esophagus
glands
Stomach Continues mechanical and
chemical digestion of food;
protein digestion begins in the
acidic environment

Small Intestine Major site of absorption of

nutrient molecules through
specialized villi

Liver Synthesizes bile; remove toxins

from the blood; many metabolic
functions liver

Gallbladder Stores bile produced by the gallbladder stomach

liver; releases it to duodenum
pancreas
Pancreas Secretes insulin that helps
sugar to enter cells; releases colon
bicarbonate ion to duodenum
make duodenum alkaline;
cecum
secretes pancreatic enzymes small
jejunum
intestine
Large Intestine Absorbs some vitamins; appendix
absorbs water from feces and ileum
stores feces before elimination
rectum
Rectum and Anus Site of elimination of feces
anus

FIGURE 8.34 The digestive system in humans

282 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Key Terms

absorption elimination mechanical digestion serosa

alimentary canal homeostasis micronutrient submucosa
bolus immunosuppressants mineral villi
Calorie ingestion mucosa vitamins
carbohydrate kilojoule negative feedback xenotransplantation
chemical digestion lipase organ system
chyme longitudinal smooth muscle peristalsis
circular smooth muscle macronutrient protease

Essential Understandings

8.1 Nutrition  Digestion is the result of many different organs that

 There are six main types of nutrients: carbohydrates, work together along the digestive tract.
fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. 8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their Associated
 Macronutrients are needed in large quantities, Enzymes
micronutrients in small quantities each day.  Accessory organs help to complete the digestion of
food molecules by secreting enzymes into the ali-
 Humans require a well-balanced diet to ensure
mentary canal.
proper growth, repair, and function of body tissues.
 Human digestive enzymes are catalysts that speed
 Many diseases result from too much or too little
up chemical reactions; there are three main types:
nutrient intake.
carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.
8.4 Digestion in Other Organisms
8.2 The Digestive System
 Organisms have developed specialized structures
 The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube that is
to help them digest food in their respective
open at both ends.
environments.
 Proper digestion is a result of both mechanical
and chemical digestion.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 245 and review
the branching diagram you made to show the compo-
nents of a balanced meal. Revise your diagram based on
what you learned in the Chapter.
2. Construct a concept map to explain the process of
digestion.
3. Research the employability skills and educational re-
quirements necessary to become a nutritionist. In what
businesses can a nutritionist expect to find employment
opportunities?
4. Reflect on your learning. Describe the impact of society
on the way many individuals define nutrition.

CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 283

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/

Communication Skills
1. The salivary glands produce an enzyme that begins the
digestion of 14. Exposed photographic film has black silver salts bonded
a) starches b) lipids to it by a thin layer of gelatin (a protein). An experiment
c) proteins d) monosaccharides was conducted to better understand the digestion of
gelatin by the enzyme trypsin. The end point of the ex-
2. Bile is stored in and released from the periment is showed by the clearing of the film as shown
a) pancreas b) gallbladder in the diagram below.
c) duodenum d) liver pH Time to clear (min)
6.0 32
3. The function of bicarbonate in the duodenum is to
a) digest protein 6.5 20
b) neutralize acid from the stomach 7/0 13
c) combine with the bile to dissolve food Exposed clear
film
8.0 4
d) activate the production of intestinal enzymes film
9.0 9
silver
4. The large intestine functions mainly in salts 9.5 20
a) absorption of water and the synthesis of some start finish 10.0 35
vitamins FIGURE 8.35
b) digestion of fats and proteins Seven test tubes, each with a different buffered pH so-
c) absorption of nutrients lution and 1 mL of 1.0% trypsin solution, were placed in
d) recycling of digestive enzymes a water bath at 37°C for 5 min. Small pieces of ex-
posed film were placed in each test tube simultaneously,
5. This enzyme breaks down fats: and the time taken for the film to clear was recorded.
a) amylase b) bile The results are shown in Figure 8.35.
c) glycerol d) lipase a) Plot a graph of time to clear versus pH. Include all
the graphing conventions that you have learned.
6. What is the function of a sphincter in the body? List four b) At what pH does trypsin work most effectively?
different sphincters along the digestive tract. c) Explain why it was necessary to place the seven test
tubes in the water bath for 5 min before inserting
7. What is an ulcer? the film into each.

8. Why are you able to eat an orange while standing on 15. Reflect and write a short paragraph on the importance
your head? of biological hierarchy. Suggest a non-biological exam-
ple of when hierarchy might be useful.
9. Why does pepsin not remain active in the duodenum?
16. Generalize why surface area is an important concept in
10. What is heartburn and how is it caused? biology. Use a mindmap to brainstorm some specific
examples of the importance of surface area in a living
11. What is an enzyme and how does it work? system.
(Note: There are many examples, and using an encyclo-
12. Complete the following chart on digestive enzymes and pedia or the Internet may be helpful.)
their substrates.
17. Explain why homeostasis is vital in a living organism.
Enzyme Substrate Product(s) Use one concrete example of homeostasis that you
maltase maltose learned in this chapter to help support your explanation.
sucrase glucose and fructose
18. Sketch a diagram of the topography of the wall of the
lactase glucose and galactose
alimentary canal in your notebook. Label the various
peptidase polypeptides tissue layers starting from the lumen and working out-
lipase lipids ward. Explain why each tissue layer is important.

19. An experiment was conducted to better understand the

13. Distinguish between a crop and a gizzard. Name two properties of fats. The results of the experiment are sum-
animals that have these structures. marized in the table on the next page.
a) What conclusion can be made about the relation-
ship between oil and water?

284 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Tube Procedure Result
1 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with The oil separated
4 mL of water and let stand for from the water.
2 min.
2 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with A milky mixture
4 mL of detergent solution and let formed.
stand for 2 min.
3 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with A milky mixture
4 mL of alcohol and let stand for formed.
2 min.
b) Account for the “milky mixture” that was formed in
tube #2 and #3.
c) In your digestive system, what substance behaves
similarly to the detergent in test tube #2?
20. Study the table.
Location in the digestive tract pH
mouth 6.8
stomach 2.0
duodenum 9.0
a) Based on this information, would a bolus of carbo-
hydrate be acidic or basic?
b) How does the pH of chyme change from acidic to
alkaline once it leaves the stomach?
Making Connections
21. Dieting is very common in our society. One diet entails
eating only proteins and avoiding the consumption of
carbohydrates, yet Canada’s Food Guide to Healthy
Eating recommends that we eat a balanced diet daily.
a) How has the popular media influenced the way that
people decide to diet?
b) What is problematic about omitting entire food
groups from one’s diet?
c) Some areas of the world rely only on carbohydrate-
based diets to live. Propose a plan of action whereby
our affluent society can help Third World coun-
tries meet their daily nutritional requirements.
22. Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which patients see
themselves as overweight and stop eating almost com-
pletely. Food in fact becomes distasteful to them. They
never feel hungry, deny their condition, and remain
unconcerned for themselves. Although anorexia is an
eating disorder, anorexic patients are cared for by a psy-
chiatrist (a doctor who specializes in mental disorders).
Society does a lot to impose certain images on youth, es-
pecially girls.
a) Discuss some of the ways that society ushers girls
into a frame of mind that may cause them to be-
come anorexic.
b) Suggest ways that the media can prevent this kind
of imagery from affecting impressionable youth.
c) What are some support systems that your local com-
munity provides to help girls experiencing anorexia?
23. Obtain a community newspaper and clip out five ads per-
taining to weight loss and dieting. Paste these ads on a
page and critique them. There is a big market for weight
loss. You will find ads ranging from pills, hypnosis,
diet maintenance, and liposuction to tummy tucks, and
diet shakes.
a) Rank the techniques in the ads that you chose in
order of most effective to least effective.
b) Evaluate the pluses and minuses of each method
of weight loss.
-You may wish to include cost in your appraisal.
-Contact some of the agencies to make specific in-
quiries if necessary.
c) Since these esthetic procedures require the use of
specialized technologies, they can be costly. This re-
stricts them to only some sectors of society. Should
these procedures be covered by a provincial health
plan?
24. The Canadian Diabetes Association has a code that helps
diabetics to make healthy food choices.
a) Contact a local branch of this society and inquire
about the symbols that they have in place to help
their members make good food choices.
b) With the information you gather, visit your local gro-
cery store and select five different items that have
these symbols on their packaging.
c) Make a chart that outlines the products that you
have chosen and the smart food choice symbols as-
sociated with each item.
d) Using your five items, make some recommendations
to a diabetic friend who wishes to choose a healthy
snack.
25. Vegetarianism is becoming increasing popular in the
western world. Advocates for vegetarianism cite nutri-
tional, ethical, and environmental reasons for this lifestyle
choice.
a) Research the environmental impact of cattle raising
versus agriculture and the various costs that are in-
curred in farming plants vs. farming animals.
b) Meat eaters argue that a vegetarian diet does not
provide enough protein. To what extent is this state-
ment true?
c) Animal rights groups maintain that it is cruel to raise
and kill animals for human consumption.
Furthermore, they protest against the injection of
hormones into animals to make them gain weight
and thereby become more marketable. Construct a
risk/benefit analysis chart to decide whether
animals should be used for human consumption.
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 285
 UN
CHAPTER 9

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Respiration
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe the process of ventilation
and gas exchange from the
environment to the cell (9.1)
A ll life is lived on the edge! You could live for a few weeks without food,
and for a few days without water. But, if you were without oxygen for
more than four minutes, irreversible brain damage and death could result.
 demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of the respiratory system
(9.2, Investigation 1, Investiagtion 2)
 describe how the use of prescription
or non-prescription drugs can disrupt
or help maintain homeostasis
(9.1, 9.3)
 compare the respiratory anatomy of
different organisms—vertebrate and
invertebrate (9.4, Investigation 3)
 select and integrate information
about the respiratory system from
various print and electronic sources
or from several parts of the same
source (9.1, 9.2)
 identify examples of technologies
that have enhanced understanding
of internal systems (9.1, 9.2,
Investigation 1)
 analyze and explain how societal
needs have led to scientific and
technological developments related
to the respiratory system (9.1, 9.3)
 present informed opinions about
how scientific knowledge of the
respiratory system influences
personal choices concerning
nutrition and lifestyle (9.2, 9.3)

FIGURE 9.1 The bronchial tree. Each bronchus divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi
and then into bronchioles.

286
 To stay alive and function, your cells need energy. You have learned that
energy can be obtained when glucose is broken down during cellular respi-
ration as shown in the equation for energy release.
Oxygen is a necessary reactant in this equation and without it energy in
the form of ATP cannot be generated in the mitochondria. Carbon dioxide is
a product of ATP formation and must be disposed of. We live in a sea of air
that contains a variety of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon diox-
ide. Oxygen represents approximately 21% of air. The challenge is to bring
the oxygen to all the body’s cells and to remove the carbon dioxide. In mul-
ticellular organisms, a specialized system is required to ensure that adequate
amounts of oxygen are available for body cells. This is the respiratory sys-
tem. In your consideration of the human respiratory system you will
explore the anatomy of the organs and their function. You will consider some
of the basic requirements for efficient oxygen diffusion and investigate the
concepts of vital capacity, lung volumes, and reserve volumes. You will also
explore the relationship of exercise to breathing and overall good health. You
will also consider the effects that smoking and medications have on various
components of the respiratory tract and the techniques and technology
designed to maximize respiratory function.

Discovering Biology
Wait a Minute, Breathe! CHECKPOINT
 Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. When your teacher gives the sig-
Using a K-W-L chart, list
nal, take a deep breath. Try to hold your breath for as long as possible.
what you know about the
When you can no longer hold your breath, let it out and immediately put
respiratory system in the
your head down on your desk to indicate that you have let your breath
first column, as well any
out. How long were you able to hold your breath?
questions about the respi-
What do you think causes you to let your breath out and inhale a fresh ratory system you have in
breath? the second column.

 Work with a partner. Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. Have your Know Wonder Learn
partner count the number of times that you breathe in and out in one
minute. How many breaths do you take on average in one minute?

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 287

 9.1 The Respiratory System
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the differences between external, internal, and cellular respiration

 describe the pathway of oxygen from the atmosphere to a tissue cell

 describe the anatomy of the respiratory system

 explain how the structure of different parts enables them to perform their functions

 explain the roles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiration

INFOBIT
SCUBA gear first allowed
humans to breathe successfully
and move freely under water.
In fact the name SCUBA means
“self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus.”
Respiration can be defined as the ex-
change of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between an organism and its external
environment. Cells need oxygen to live,
but as a consequence of living they gen-
erate carbon dioxide. The respiratory
system supplies oxygen to the cells and
removes carbon dioxide. When the level
of carbon dioxide in the blood rises
above normal, chemoreceptors detect
this increase and relay the information
to the brain. As a result, the breathing
rate increases so that more oxygen is
brought into the body and more
carbon dioxide is removed.
Additional functions of the human
respiratory system include defending the
body against invasion by micro-organisms,
producing sounds for speaking, and
assisting in the control of body fluid pH.
The respiratory system, in combination
with the circulatory and nervous systems,
works to maintain homeostasis, through
the operation of negative feedback
mechanisms.
The Components of
Respiration
Respiration can be divided into several
components (Figure 9.2).
Ventilation or Breathing Breathing is the
process by which oxygen is taken in from
the external environment. Breathing in-
volves both: inhalation and exhalation.
These movements allow the body to take
in the oxygen it needs for cellular
activities and to dispose of carbon
dioxide, a waste product of cellular
activities. Reptiles, birds, mammals, and
some amphibians exchange gases in
specialized structures called lungs. In
humans, as in other organisms, the
respiratory structure must have a large
surface area so that it can take up
enough oxygen to supply every cell in
the body.
External Respiration External respira-
tion is the exchange of gases across the
respiratory surface between the air sacs
or alveoli and the blood. The respiratory
surface is where the oxygen diffuses into
the organism and the carbon dioxide dif-
fuses out. This surface must be moist to
function so that diffusion can occur. The
circulatory system functions as a link
between the different components of res-
piration. The blood carries the oxygen
from the lungs to all the cells of the body.
Internal Respiration Internal respiration
is the exchange of gases between the
blood in capillaries and individual cells
in the tissues. Oxygen diffuses out of the
blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in.
This exchange at the level of individual
cells makes it possible for cellular res-
piration to occur.
Cellular Respiration This process occurs
at the cellular level, in the mitochondria.
It involves the use of oxygen to help in
the harvesting of energy from food
molecules. Cellular respiration needs
to occur in every cell. To support cellu-

288 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 external internal
respiration respiration

respiratory system circulatory system tissue cell cellular

respiration
O2 O2 O2
atmospheric
air
CO2 CO2 CO2
mitochondrion

alveolar capillary capillary tissue

membrane interface

FIGURE 9.2 The relationship of external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration, and
the interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The circulatory system connects the lungs
and the tissues of the body and transports the gases to and fro.

lar respiration the digestive system pro- smaller conducting passageways, and
vides the reactant glucose to the cell. lungs.

The Anatomy of the

Respiratory System bronchioles

The branches of an upside-down tree

can be considered a good analogy to de-
scribe the human respiratory system. tertiary bronchus
Many parts of a tree, such as its trunk,
branches, twigs, and leaves, nicely cor- secondary brochus
respond to the components of the human
respiratory system (Figure 9.3). A
respiratory system is a group of organs
working together to bring about the ef-
ficient exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between an organism and its en-
vironment (Figure 9.4). The entire
human respiratory tract can be visual- trachea
ized as one long tube that starts with the
nasal and oral cavities and ends in many
sacs called alveoli where the actual ex-
change of gases takes place. The human FIGURE 9.3 This inverted model of the respira-
respiratory system consists of the nose, tory system shows why a tree is a good analogy
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, for the respiratory system.

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 289

 The Nasal and Oral Cavities Air contain-
ing oxygen can enter the body through
the nose or mouth. Approximately 21%
of every inhaled breath is oxygen. If air
enters through the nose, it has the added
benefit of being warmed, moistened, and
filtered. In order to be efficiently utilized
by the body, oxygenated air must be
warmed to body temperature (37°C). The
nose is rich in blood capillaries that help
to warm the air. The nasal cavity is also
lined with mucus-secreting cells; the
mucus helps to moisten and filter the in-
coming air. Cilia that line the nasal FIGURE 9.5 The cilia beat to remove debris
cavity beat back and forth together like from the respiratory system. False-coloured
scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of cilia on
the oars of a row-boat (Figure 9.5). Cilia
the nasal epithelium
and nose hairs both act to filter out de-
bris and large particles from the air.
When air is inhaled through the oral
cavity, some of these vital steps are The Pharynx After the oxygen molecule
missed. passes the nasal cavity and the oral cav-
ity, it encounters the muscular pharynx.
The pharynx is a common path for both
air and food. It has two branches: the
sinuses
trachea, or windpipe, and the esopha-
gus. There is a tiny flap of connective
nasal cavity
tissue called the epiglottis that goes back
pharynx and forth between the larynx at the top
of the trachea and the esophagus. When
you are eating, the epiglottis covers the
larynx opening of the trachea to prevent food
trachea from entering the windpipe. If you place
right lung left lung your finger at the top of your Adam’s
left bronchus apple (larynx), and swallow, you feel
bronchioles your larynx moving up against your
epiglottis. When air accidentally enters
the esophagus, it collects and is removed
by the process of burping. When food
accidentally goes into the windpipe in-
stead of the esophagus, coughing occurs.
If coughing does not dislodge the food
item, choking may result.

The Larynx At the top of the trachea is

the larynx. The larynx is made up of
several pieces of cartilage, the largest
diaphragm
piece being the Adam’s apple. Because
the larynx produces sound, it is some-
times known as the voice box. Inside the
larynx are two highly elastic folds called
FIGURE 9.4 The anatomy of the respiratory the vocal cords (Figure 9.7). Air being
system released from the lungs rushes past

290 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

pharynx
bolus of food
vocal cords
larynx
epiglottis folded over the
entrance to the larynx cartilages
(airway closed) glottis

tracheal cartilages

trachea
FIGURE 9.7 Posterior view
epiglottis of larynx and vocal cords.
upright Sound is produced by air
(airway open) vibrations that result from the
contraction of the vocal cords.
pharynx. The pharynx is common to the
digestive and respiratory systems, so
trachea when the dirt and debris reach the phar-
ynx, they can easily be swallowed.

Respiratory Structures
FIGURE 9.6 The epiglottis helps to direct traffic
into the respiratory and digestive systems.
Within the Chest Cavity
Within the chest cavity, the trachea di-
vides into two branches, the right and
the vocal cords and causes them to vi-
left bronchi (singular: bronchus).
brate. When muscles cause the vocal
Following the tree analogy, the trachea
cords to contract, the air passing be-
is like a trunk and the bronchi are the
tween them vibrates and produces
sound. a) b)

The Trachea The trachea, or windpipe,

larynx
is a hollow tube that allows air to pass
from the pharynx into the lungs (Figure esophages
9.8). The trachea functions much like a
drinking straw. Its straw-like structure
provides a passageway that air can use
as it journeys from the pharynx to the trachea lumen of
bronchi. Tough, flexible C-shaped trachea
cartilage rings surround the trachea,
prevent it from collapsing, and provide mucous
glands
it with support. The trachea also con-
tains some smooth muscle. Some of
the cells that line the trachea produce
mucus. This mucus is swept out of the tracheal
cartilage
air passageway by cilia on other cells.
In this way, particles trapped in the bronchi
mucus are carried to the upper part of FIGURE 9.8 The trachea. The
C-shaped cartilage rings keep
the trachea. This upward beating of the
the trachea open to allow air to
cilia in the trachea can be compared to pass to the lungs: a) Anterior
an upward-bound escalator. Dirt and de- right lung left lung
view b) Cross-sectional view of
bris are directed upward toward the trachea and esophagus

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 291

WORD ORIGIN
Alveolus, from the Latin alveolus
meaning “the cell of a honey-
comb.” This is the diminutive of
alveus meaning “a beehive.”
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Research the effect of air
pollution on childhood respira-
tory illnesses. Compile a list
of illnesses, symptoms, and
suspected causes. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
292 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
main branches. The left bronchus leads smallest bronchioles. Each lung contains
to the left lung. The right bronchus leads approximately 150 million alveoli.
to the right lung. Alveoli occur in grape-like clusters. In
The lungs are the main organs of the tree analogy, the alveoli might be
the respiratory system. The bronchi, like compared to the tree’s leaves since they
the trachea, are lined with cilia that beat actually allow gas exchange to occur. The
upward towards the pharynx. Filtering alveoli, in combination with an exten-
of air can still occur here if some of the sive network of capillaries, are the site
debris gets past the nasal and tracheal of gas exchange. The wall of the alveoli
cavities. Bronchi branch into smaller and the wall of the capillaries come to-
tubes called bronchioles. Both the gether to form the respiratory mem-
bronchi and the bronchioles are lined brane. The alveoli and the capillaries are
with smooth muscle. The bronchi and each only one cell thick so that the in-
bronchioles branch, ensuring that haled air and the blood are separated
oxygen-rich air that has been inhaled is by a membrane only two cells in thick-
delivered to all regions of the lungs. Cilia
and a thin layer of mucus line the larger
bronchus alveoli
bronchioles but are not present in the
very small bronchioles. The cilia and the
mucus sheet help to trap dust and for-
eign particles and prevent them from
reaching the alveoli.
The essential role of the bronchioles
is demonstrated if anaphylactic shock
occurs. Anaphylactic shock results when
a person is severely allergic to a foreign
substance. Some common causes of ana-
phylactic shock include nuts and bee
stings. When the allergic person comes
in contact with the harmful substance,
their body reacts to it by causing the
smooth muscles in the bronchioles to FIGURE 9.9 Each bronchus divides into smaller
swell. As a result, the muscles have a and smaller bronchioles that supply alveoli with
“pinching” effect on the brochioles. If the inspired air.
person is not treated quickly, the bro-
chioles can become completely blocked,
and air can no longer travel to the lungs. vein
An epi-pen is a portable treatment de- artery
vice. The epi-pen is used to inject
alveolus
epinephrine into the person experienc-
ing the anaphylactic shock. The
epinephrine causes the muscles to relax
and enables the person to breathe more
easily. Most people who have severe al-
lergic reactions carry an epi-pen with
them at all times.
capillary network
The Alveoli The bronchioles continue to
branch until they end in a cluster of tiny FIGURE 9.10 The alveoli. The alveoli and the
hollow air sacs called alveoli (singular: surrounding capillaries are the site of gas
alveolus). The alveoli are the ends of the exchange.
ness. Gas exchange occurs across this
respiratory membrane and the
alveoli must be moist to assist the diffu-
sion. The respiratory system as a whole,
from the nose to the lungs, brings clean,
fresh air into the alveoli. The alveoli are
the functional units of the respiratory
system, where gas exchange happens.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must dif-
fuse across the delicate membranes of
the alveoli, so the membranes must be
very thin. Recall that diffusion is the
spontaneous movement of a substance
from an area of higher concentration
Section 9.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Compare the properties of air that
enters the respiratory tract through the
nose with air that enters through the
mouth.
2. What do you think would happen if the
alveoli became much thicker than nor-
mal? Explain how gas exchange would
be affected.
3. There are certain conditions that
result in a decrease in production of
cartilage. Why might these conditions
cause difficulty breathing?
4. Cilia line the inside of the respiratory
tract and play a key role in trapping
dirt and foreign objects. If the cilia beat
abnormally, what other mechanisms
would there be to prevent debris from
entering the respiratory tract and caus-
ing an infection?
5. “An inhaled molecule of oxygen, when
it enters your lungs, is still a part of the
outside environment.” Explain the
validity of this statement.
6. Construct a Venn diagram to com-
pare external and internal respiration.
to one of lower concentration without
the use of energy. For diffusion to occur
in the respiratory system, a thin
membrane that can filter and moisten
air is essential for the maximum amount
of diffusion to occur. The total surface
area of the alveoli must be very large. In
humans the respiratory surface is equal
in size to half the area of a tennis court.
Foreign substances that reach the alve-
oli, like inhaled smoke, may damage the
delicate membrane, decrease the sur-
face area, and reduce a person’s ability
to obtain oxygen by diffusion.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. The graph shows the partial pressures
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in dif-
ferent locations within the body. Decide
which structures points A, B, and C
depict.
Partial pressure
A B C
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
FIGURE 9.11
Making Connections
8. Use various print and electronic
sources to research household per-
fumes and analyze their positive and
negative effects on health.
9. a) Desctibe the impact of local indus-
tries on air pollution?
b) Propose strategies to ensure that
the emissions in these industries
are properly regulated in order to
protect the encironment.
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 293
 9.2 The Physiology of Respiration
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the process of ventilation and describe the structures involved

 compare the anatomy and physiology of breathing to a mechanical model

 understand how gas exchange occurs in the alveoli

 explain how breathing rate is regulated in humans

 understand the influence of fitness on respiratory efficiency

Efficient gas exchange can only occur
if the alveoli are regularly flushed with
fresh air. Every time a breath is taken,
or air moves in and out of your lungs,
two major actions occur. During
inhalation or inspiration, the thoracic
cavity enlarges and the lungs fill with
air. During exhalation or expiration,
air is pushed out of the lungs and the
thoracic cavity decreases in size.
Breathing is the cyclic repetition of in-
halation and exhalation (Figure 9.12). It
requires the coordinated effort of many
muscles. Breathing delivers oxygen to
the alveoli and removes carbon dioxide.
The average adult takes 12 to 16 breaths
each minute.
When you breathe, you might think
that your lungs are expanding. In fact,
your lungs are not able to expand on
their own. They are connected to a large
dome-shaped muscle called the
diaphragm and to the walls of the tho-
rax by the pleura. The diaphragm is
located along the bottom of the rib cage
and separates the chest cavity from the

rib cage
air air
inhaled exhaled

Muscle Muscle
contraction relaxation
expands contracts
lung rib cage. rib cage.

diaphragm

contraction of relaxation of
diaphragm diaphragm
(moves down) (moves up)

a) Inhalation b) Exhalation

FIGURE 9.12 The mechanism of breathing

a) In inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down, and the intercostal muscles contract,
moving the rib cage out and up. These activities increase the volume of the chest cavity.
b) In exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, and the intercostal muscles relax, moving the rib
cage in and down. These activities decrease the volume of the chest cavity.

294 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

abdominal cavity. The pleura contain a
lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to
move smoothly as they passively expand
and recoil. The diaphragm contracts and
relaxes in response to stimulation from
the nervous system.
Pressure differences between the at-
mosphere and the chest cavity determine
the quantity and rate at which gas is ex-
changed. To properly understand the
mechanism of breathing, it is necessary
to understand some basic principles
about how gases behave. Gases move
from areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure. Therefore, when the in-
ternal pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure, gas is drawn inwards in in-
spiration. When the opposite is true, gas
moves outwards, resulting in expiration.
Inhalation air
Internal pressure decreases.
rib cage lung
balloon
diaphragm
Exhalation air
Internal pressure increases.
FIGURE 9.13 The mechanics of inhalation and
exhalation. The bell jar models the relationship
between the diaphragm and lungs.
To gain a better understanding of INFOBIT
the mechanism of breathing, consider
the bell jar model in Figure 9.13. In this Lungs have a total capacity of
model, the jar represents the thoracic about 6 L and the more fit a
person is, the greater the
cavity, and a stopper with a tube rep- exchange of air. In a normal
resents the trachea. The tube opens into breath (at rest), we exchange
the neck of a balloon just like the tra- only about 0.6 L. While exercising,
chea opens into the bronchi. The bal- a person can consume up to 20
loon suspended inside the jar represents times the amount of oxygen
consumed at rest.
the lungs. Bell jars are unique because
they have a flexible bottom. When the
flexible bottom of the bell jar moves
down, it parallels what happens when
the diaphragm in humans moves down.
That is, the volume of the jar (chest cav-
ity) increases and the pressure inside it
decreases. The air outside the jar re-
mains at atmospheric pressure. To
equalize the pressure inside and out, the
air rushes through the tubing (trachea)
into the jar, thus inflating the balloon
(lungs).
When the diaphragm relaxes, it re-
turns to its curved position. This action
causes the volume of the chest cavity to
decrease. As the volume decreases, the
pressure in the chest cavity outside the
lungs increases. This increased pressure
causes the lungs to deflate. This pushes
the air out of the lungs. Carbon dioxide
leaves the body with each exhalation.
During breathing, the body relies on
the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles. The sequence of inhalation and
exhalation brings air into the body.
Rapid and deep breathing brings in
more air. When a person is short of
breath, the person can call upon other
muscle groups to help inhale and exhale.
One example of a time when other
muscle groups might aid in breathing is
during strenuous activities like running
and swimming.
Regulation of Breathing
Movement
When a child, in a temper tantrum,
holds his or her breath, the medulla
oblongata in the brain eventually takes
over the control of breathing and the
child is forced to breathe. Breathing is
an involuntary activity. It is controlled
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 295
 by a negative feedback loop that keeps
the oxygen and carbon dioxide concen-
brain tration in the blood relatively constant
(Figure 9.14). Oxygen is vital to all parts
medulla breathing control of the body, but the brain is especially
centres sensitive to a low level of oxygen. If the
brain is deprived of oxygen for more
contraction
CO2 increase / pH than four minutes, irreversible brain
of muscles
triggered by decrease in blood damage occurs. Possibly for this reason,
nerve signals O2 sensor in the medulla oblongata controls vital
artery mechanisms like breathing and heart
rate.
The body continuously tries to main-
tain a steady state, or homeostasis.
Recall that negative feedback is one way
rib muscles your body responds to imbalances and
O2 decrease
in blood attempts to restore normal balance.
Breathing movements are involuntary.
diaphragm
The mechanism of breathing is coordi-
nated by chemoreceptors that detect
changes in the pH of the blood. These
FIGURE 9.14 Control centres in the brain that regulate the rate and depth of special receptors are sensitive to the lev-
breathing els of gases in the blood, especially the
level of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide when mixed with
INFOBIT Homeostasis is water forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid
at set point.
then breaks down into bicarbonate ion
The human body functions best
(HC03) and hydrogen ion (H+). When the
at sea level. Above sea level
the air we breathe decreases Increase in blood concentration of hydrogen ion in a solu-
in pressure and there is a CO2 concentration tion increases, the pH is lowered. Blood
gradual decrease in oxygen that is high in carbon dioxide has a pH
content. An inadequate supply Increase in the concentration lower than the norm of 7.4. The drop in
of oxygen in an area of low of carbonic acid (H2CO3) pH (moving away from the norm) causes
atmospheric pressure is one of
the causes of altitude sickness. the medulla oblongata to relay messages
Increase in the concentration of to the muscles of the diaphragm and rib
H ions in the blood (lowered pH) cage to stimulate breathing. Breathing
helps to expel excess carbon dioxide, and
Stimulation of chemoreceptors so restores the pH of the blood to normal;
in the brain this inactivates the chemoreceptors. See
Figure 9.15.
Activation of respiratory _
+
centre in the brain CO2 + H20 H2CO3 H + HCO3

Message is sent to Gas Exchange in the Alveoli

FIGURE 9.15 A flow chart
to show how breathing rate
is regulated to maintain
homeostasis
increase breathing rate.
Decrease in
CO2 concentration
Homeostasis is restored.
There are nearly 300 million alveoli in
the healthy lung. It is at the alveoli that
the respiratory and circulatory systems
interact (Figure 9.16). Deoxygenated
blood is directed from the heart to the
lungs where it flows through the network
of capillaries that surrounds each alve-

296 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION
air breathed
in
O2 EXTERNAL
CO2 RESPIRATION
alveolus in
lung
capillary
tissue
cell
INTERNAL
O2 RESPIRATION
CO2
FIGURE 9.16 External and internal respiration.
External respiration occurs at the alveoli. Internal
respiration occurs at the tissue cells. The
circulatory system connects the two.
olus. This blood contains a large amount
of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen.
The air in the alveolus has a high oxy-
gen content, but a low carbon dioxide
content relative to the surrounding
blood. These conditions are ideal for dif-
fusion. After the alveoli are ventilated
with fresh air, the next step in the res-
piratory process is diffusion of oxygen
from the alveoli into the blood and dif-
fusion of carbon dioxide in the oppo-
site direction. The process of diffusion
is simply random motion of molecules
intertwining their ways in both direc-
tions through the respiratory membrane.
The oxygen-rich blood then returns to
the heart for transport to the body’s cells.
Lung Volumes and Vital
Capacity
The average adult breathes once every five
seconds, about 12 breaths per minute. If
the function of breathing is to fill the alve-
oli with fresh air, and we understand the
mechanism behind breathing, it is natu-
ral to wonder how much air is moved with
each breath. Air is a gas, and has the INFOBIT
to flow. Air moves into and out of an
organism much like the ebb and flow of Carbon monoxide is an
the ocean tide. It is fitting that the amount odourless, colourless, and
potentially fatal gas. It is
of air that passes in and out of the lungs commonly found in car
with each breath is known as the tidal exhausts and cigarette smoke.
volume. It ranges from 250 to 500 mL for When inhaled, carbon
most adults. The depth of each breath and monoxide competes with
the rate of breathing can vary greatly, oxygen to bind to hemoglobin,
the molecule in the red blood
depending on the body’s needs. cell that normally carries
The total lung capacity is the max- oxygen. However, carbon
imum volume of air that can be held in monoxide is more than 200
the lungs at any given time. At rest, the times more efficient at binding
tidal volume is only a small fraction of the hemoglobin than oxygen is.
High levels of carbon monoxide
total lung capacity, and even the deepest in the blood therefore deprive
expiration cannot expel all the air in the the body of oxygen.
lungs. The volume of air that can be
forcefully exhaled, after a normal tidal
volume is exhaled, is called the expira-
tory reserve volume. During a deep
breath, an extra volume of air up to 2 L
can be taken into the lungs. This is known Investigation
as the inspiratory reserve volume. In Refer to page 309,
normal people, 4.5 L of air can be inhaled Investigation 1
and exhaled with effort. The maximum
amount of air that can be moved into
and out of the respiratory system is
called the vital capacity. The vital ca-
pacity is always about 1 to 1.5 L less
than the total lung capacity because if
the lungs became completely deflated,
they would collapse. Therefore, biolo-
gists call the air that remains in the lungs
after maximal expiration the residual
volume. See Figure 9.18 for the rela-
tionship of the respiratory volumes. The
space occupied by conducting airways,
the trachea, the bronchi, and the bron-
chioles is termed “anatomical dead
space.” That is, 150 mL of the air in the
airways is “stale.” It is always the last
bit of air to be exhaled from the
previous exhalation and is therefore
depleted of oxygen. When 500 mL of air
is inhaled, and 150 mL occupies anatom-
ical dead space (and does not even reach FIGURE 9.17 The air within
the alveoli), only 350 mL of the inhaled the swimmers’ snorkels does
air is available to be exchanged. not enter the lungs for gas
exchange. Like the 150 mL of
Your vital capacity is greatly affected
air that remains in your
by your daily activities. Regular exercise trachea with each breath, a
increases the body’s need for oxygen. snorkel adds to the volume of
Strenuous exercises like swimming help anatomical dead space.
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 297
 6000
tidal volume
residual volume
expiratory reserve volume
5000 inspiratory reserve volume
total lung capacity
3300 vital capacity
mL
4000 4000
4800
mL
Volume (mL)

Volume (mL)
1900
6000 mL
3000 3000
mL
3100
500 mL mL
4200
2000 2000 500 mL mL
1000
mL 700
mL
1000 1000
1200 1100
mL mL

a) Lung capacity in males b) Lung capacity in females

FIGURE 9.18 Lung volumes a) in males b) in females

WEBLINK
Explore the benefits to the
respiratory system of time
devoted to regular exercise.
Design an exercise program for
a healthy teenager. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
to increase vital capacity. Some swim-
mers have a vital capacity of over 6 L.
However, other lifestyle choices, like
smoking or inactivity, dramatically de-
crease the vital capacity by reducing the
ability to exchange oxygen for carbon
dioxide. Vital capacity can be measured
with a device called a respirometer.
Breathing In Outer Space
Inside the crew compartment of the
space shuttle, the life-support system
maintains an atmosphere of 79% nitro-
gen, 21% oxygen, and an atmospheric
pressure of 100 kilopascals 1(kPa). This
is identical to Earth’s atmosphere at
standard sea-level conditions. The
shuttle’s oxygen and nitrogen supply are
carried in separate tanks. The nitrogen
is stored in gaseous form while the
oxygen is stored as a super cooled
liquid and is heated to a gas before being
released to the cabin. A five-person crew
uses about 3.5 kg of nitrogen and 4 kg
of oxygen per day. In cellular respiration
the astronauts use the oxygen and pro-
duce carbon dioxide, which they expel
each time they exhale. Carbon dioxide
could be fatal if allowed to build up in
the cabin. To get rid of the carbon diox-
ide, the cabin air is continuously filtered
through replaceable canisters that con-
tain lithium hydroxide and activated
charcoal. These two substances remove
carbon dioxide and any other contami-
nants from the air. One of the biggest
dangers astronauts face while in space
is a fire inside the cabin, because smoke
could quickly overwhelm the life support
system and poison all on board. For this
reason, no flammable materials are al-
lowed on board and fire extinguishers
and smoke detectors are placed around
the cabin.

298 UNIT 3 Internal Systems


Norman Bethune,
Physician, Inventor,
Humanitarian
Norman Bethune who was born in
Gravenhurst, Ontario, in 1890,
became world-renowned as a
humanitarian. Bethune was also a
gifted innovator. As a physician, he
contracted tuberculosis (TB) in
1928, at a time when the chance of
a recovery was very small. He
insisted on having the then-experi-
mental technique of pneumothorax
in which one of the patient’s lungs
is collapsed to allow it to heal. He
recovered and returned to Montreal
where he developed new surgical
techniques and designed more than
a dozen new instruments for tho-
racic surgery. While treating patients
with tuberculosis, Bethune became
convinced that access to medical
care was the right of every person.
As a result, he operated free clinics
for the poor.
Bethune fought the Fascists in
Spain in 1936 and it was there that
he developed the first mobile blood-
transfusion unit, which allowed
wartime wounded to have transfu-
sions in the field. This saved many
lives. Arriving in China in 1938, he
set up the first mobile medical unit
and by the time of his death in
November 1939 he had established
more than 20 teaching and nursing
hospitals.

Section 9.2 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Copy the data table into your notebook.
Complete the table to summarize the
major differences between inhalation
and exhalation.
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of a bell jar
as a model of the mechanism of breath-
ing. Draw a T-chart, like the one shown
below, in your notebook. Brainstorm
the advantages and disadvantages of
the model.

Inhalation Exhalation Advantages of Disadvantages of

Volume in the lungs
Position of the
diaphragm
Position of the rib 7.
cage
2. Draw a typical alveolus surrounded by
a capillary bed. Indicate on your
diagram whether oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels would be higher or lower
after an inhalation. What passive pro-
cess occurs during gas exchange in the
alveoli? Explain why this process takes
place.
3. Define “anatomical dead space.” How
would wearing a snorkel affect your
anatomical dead space?
4. Draw a diagram to illustrate the role
of chemoreceptors in maintaining
homeostasis in the respiratory system.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills Making Connections
Using a Bell Jar Using a Bell Jar
Study the following set of data.
Patient A B C D
Breaths/Min 10 18 12 7
a) From the data, decide which of the
patients has a respiratory rate in
the normal range.
b) From the data, which patient(s)
might have a respiratory condition?
c) Suggest factors that might cause a
person to breathe faster, resulting
in more breaths per minute.
d) Assess whether the number of
breaths a person takes per minute
is sufficient to determine the health
of his or her respiratory system.
Are there other factors that need
to be considered?

5. The average human takes about 8. Technology has allowed us to prolong

1 breath every 5 s. Calculate how many life. What ethical and moral consider-
breaths the average human would take ations are involved in deciding whether
in 20 min. or not to sustain life on a ventilator?

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 299


Investigation
Refer to page 311,
Investigation 2
Homeostasis at set point
Asthma attack
Decrease in airway diameter
due to bronchoconstriction
Decrease in the air that
enters the lungs
Intervention by the use of a puffer
Bronchodilation
Increase in amount
of air that enters the lungs
Homeostasis is restored.
FIGURE 9.19 The flow chart
shows how puffers act to
restore homeostasis
300 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
9.3 Respiratory Disorders
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 understand how adverse conditions within the respiratory system may lead to disease
states
 explain the causes of respiratory diseases
 describe how puffers and bronchodilators function
 describe the impact of smoking on respiratory health
Asthma bronchioles to facilitate delivery of air to
and from the alveoli.
Asthma is a condition that results in the
contraction of the smooth muscle that
surrounds airways. This reaction is Emphysema
thought to be partly allergic in nature. Emphysema is another respiratory dis-
This narrowing of the airways makes order often associated with chronic
breathing much more difficult. People bronchitis. Like bronchitis, emphysema
with asthma are prescribed puffers makes it difficult for air to pass through
that contain drugs that act as the respiratory system to reach the alve-
bronchodilators. That is, they cause the oli (Figure 9.20). When cilia, lining the
narrowed bronchi and bronchioles to in- bronchi and bronchioles, become dam-
crease in diameter, or dilate, which aged, they no longer effectively filter dirt
makes breathing easier. A puffer is an and debris or channel it up towards the
artificial way to restore bronchi and pharynx to be swallowed. Consequently,
bronchioles to their normal diameter.
the debris builds up in the air tubes. In
Each puffer is designed based on the res-
piratory health of its user. In addition to
specific health issues, puffer medication
is adjusted for the person’s mass.
The flow chart in Figure 9.19 sum-
marizes the homeostatic mechanisms
that occur during an asthma attack.
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the
bronchial lining and is characterized by
an overproduction of mucus and
sputum and frequent coughing. This
condition is commonly related to
cigarette smoking, but it can also result
from other environmental irritants, such
as chemical vapours, and air pollutants.
Over time, the increased mucus
production can block smaller airways
and reduce respiratory efficiency, cre-
ating discomfort when breathing. FIGURE 9.20 This emphysema patient breathes
Bronchodilators may be prescribed to with the support of a portable air delivery system
increase the diameter of the bronchi and enriched in oxygen.

Emphysema leads to a decrease
in alveolar surface area.
Decrease in oxygen delivery
to the blood
Increase in respiration rate
Oxygen delivery to the blood is
improved.
FIGURE 9.21 The flow chart shows how the
respiratory system attempts to compensate in
emphysema.
turn, the bronchioles become con-
stricted. Less air is then able to get to
the alveoli. The air pressure that builds
up as a result of these hindered airways
causes the lung to appear inflated. The
alveoli, and their very thin membranes,
are unable to support increased pres-
sure. The alveoli try to accommodate
to increasing pressure, but eventually
their walls tear and become damaged
(Figure 9.21). Damaged alveoli result in
decreased surface area for gas exchange
and some cells may become deprived of
oxygen. To accommodate for this
decreased gas exchange area, the
breathing rate increases. The heart,
therefore, has to work harder than
normal. This attempt to maintain normal
oxygen levels is not true homeostasis
because extra stress is put on the heart.
The excess mucus leads to recurrent WORDORIGIN
lung infections. The person usually has
a persistent cough and may wheeze Emphysema, from Greek
asthmatically. The first signs and symp- emphusaein meaning “to puff
up.” Emphysema means
toms of cystic fibrosis typically occur in
“over-inflated lung.”
childhood. The condition is detected in
approximately one in 2500 live births in
Caucasians.
This is a multi-system disease that
affects the respiratory and digestive
tracts. In the respiratory system it causes
destruction of the airways. At the pre- WEBLINK
sent time there is no known cure for this
disease. However, with improvements in Research the availability in
antibiotics, pancreatic enzymes, and Ontario of programs that
chest physiotherapy, many people with promote respiratory health and
support groups for people with
CF live into adulthood.
respiratory diseases. Begin
your research at
Treatments Available for the www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Respiratory System
Nasal Sprays One common respiratory
medication is nasal spray. The most
common reason for using a nasal spray
is to clear blocked nasal passages. Nasal
passages become blocked when there is
inflammation in the passageway. This
can impair normal breathing because it
narrows the airway. Nasal sprays are
effective because they contain a steroid-
based chemical that helps to reduce the
swelling. Nasal sprays come in different
strengths based on the amount and type
of steroid chemical they contain.

Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive
genetic disorder in which abnormally
thick mucus blocks airways and other
passages. The mucus is not easily re-
moved so the normal processes to re- FIGURE 9.22 The use of a puffer assists this
move dirt and debris are not sufficient. person to breathe by opening the airway.

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 301


WEBLINK
Miners have a higher risk of
lung disease than the general
public. Research the specific
technologies needed in mines
to protect the respiratory
health of the miners. Write a
paragraph on this topic. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
302 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
Bronchodilators A bronchodilator is a
medication usually taken with a puffer.
It works by targeting the bronchioles that
sometimes become constricted and cause
respiratory difficulty. This difficulty is typ-
ically found in people with asthma. Some
common triggers that can narrow the air-
way include pollution, smog, cold air, and
exercise. For this reason, people with
asthma may use their puffers more fre-
quently during the winter, on smoggy
days, and before they exercise. Recent
developments suggest that a chewable
tablet may be able to replace puffers
for some asthmatic conditions in young
children.
Respiratory Health
There are many ways to maintain good
respiratory health. Regular exercise
helps to strengthen all body muscles in-
cluding your heart. The lungs are not
muscles, but they are governed by the
muscular diaphragm. Regular exercise
increases your lung volume and allows
your body to utilize oxygen effectively.
Environmental Hazards
Asbestos In the last few decades, soci-
ety has become more aware of the
harmful effects of environmental and
workplace chemicals. For many years,
asbestos was a material used to insulate
buildings and schools. It has been shown
that asbestos can cause diseases of the
pleura (the lining surrounding your
lungs), which can ultimately lead to lung
cancer. This can occur even as many
as 20 years after exposure to asbestos.
Asbestos exposure is likely in occupa-
tions such as mining or the manufac-
turing and installation of materials that
contain asbestos, such as brake lin-
ings, roofing shingles, and insulation.
Silica Silica is a substance that can ir-
ritate the respiratory tract as a result
of exposure over many years. Silica is
a major component of rock and sand.
Exposure is a problem in the occupa-
tions of mining, sand blasting, and ce-
ramic and glass manufacturing. Silica
damages the lungs, causing them to be-
come fibrotic. This means that the lungs
become less elastic and more rigid, caus-
ing lung volume to decrease.
Recycled Air Sick building syndrome is
a condition that results from indoor pol-
lutants such as cigarette smoke and
volatile organic compounds evaporating
from furniture and carpeting. The re-
circulation of air may also contribute to
the syndrome. People with sick building
syndrome suffer from various complaints,
including nausea, headaches, fatigue, and
mucous membrane irritation.
Smoking and
Second-hand Smoke
Smoking is one of the leading contribu-
tors to impaired respiratory health. If
you avoid smoking and second-hand
smoke, you will help to keep your res-
piratory system healthy. More and more
data are emerging to indicate that being
exposed to the cigarette smoke of others
also causes damage. Second-hand smoke
is known to cause lung cancer and con-
tribute to respiratory diseases such as
asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema
(Figute 9.23). The exposure of individuals
to second-hand smoke is now a public
health problem that poses significant
health risks to both children and adults.
Tobacco smoke contains a mixture
of gases, liquids, and particles. Almost
4000 chemicals have been found in to-
bacco smoke. Dozens of these are toxic
or known to cause cancer (carcinogenic).
Some of the more common compounds
in tobacco smoke include carbon monox-
ide, nitrates, ammonia, nitrosamines,
hydrogen cyanide, cadmium, sulfur
compounds, vinyl chloride, hydrocar-
bons, volatile alcohols, urethanes,
formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrazine.
Second-hand smoke is the mixture of
smoke from a burning cigarette as well
as the smoke that a smoker exhales.
Many toxic substances are found in
 NON-SMOKER SMOKER
greater concentrations in second-hand
smoke. Tar (the most carcinogenic com-
ponent) is 70% more concentrated in
second-hand smoke than in smoke taken
in by the smoker. These substances also
linger in the air for a long time. Studies
have shown that many of these pollu-
tants are found in higher concentrations
indoors than outdoors. Second-hand
smoke is known to be a leading work-
place health hazard.
Second-hand smoke is particularly
harmful to infants and young children.
Studies have shown that children whose
parents smoke have a higher risk of
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).
They are also at a higher risk for devel-
oping bronchitis, pneumonia, recurrent
ear infections, frequent colds, asthma,
and allergies. They also have more fre-
quent hospitalizations for bronchitis and
pneumonia. Also, children whose parents
smoke are more likely to smoke them-
selves as they grow older. Pregnant
women who smoke endanger their un-
born fetus. Babies born to mothers who
smoked during pregnancy are more likely
to be born prematurely and/or have a
lower birth weight. Second-hand smoke
also increases the risk of developing
cancer. By law, tobacco and cigarette
FIGURE 9.23 Lung disease
causes obvious changes in
the structure of the lung.
a) A healthy lung
b) A lung from a person who
smokes
companies must warn their patrons INFOBIT
about the risks associated with smoking.
Many cigarette brands claim to have Teenage girls represent the
built-in filters. Though these might trap fastest-growing population of
smokers.
some particles that would enter the
smoker’s lungs, non-smokers who inhale
second-hand smoke do so without a filter.
There are many things people can
do to decrease exposure to second-hand
smoke. They can limit the time spent in
environments where others are smoking.
They can also lobby for smoke-free
environments at work and school and
for laws that protect the rights of
non-smokers to breathe clean air. Cities
are establishing local laws to encourage
a smoke-free atmosphere in public
places. In fact, many restaurants already
have smoke-free environments.
Products that Help Improve
Air Quality
Air filters are usually industrial devices
that decrease the amount of suspended
pollutants released into the air. A
humidifier is a household device that
helps restore moisture to dry room air.
Moist air is easier to breathe than dry
air because it is less irritating to the air
passages.
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 303
 Section 9.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Discuss how poor air quality and pol-
lution may affect a child with asthma.
2. What is a bronchodilator?
3. How does smoking contribute to bron-
chitis?
4. What does emphysema do to the sur-
face area within the respiratory tract?
Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills
5. The following table describes the fre-
quency with which a person with
asthma uses a puffer.
July August September October November December
2/week 2/week 3/week 3/week daily daily
a) What is the relationship between
puffer use and the outside temper-
ature?
b) What other factors can influence
the frequency of puffer use by an
active child?
6. An arterial blood gas is a measurement
of the pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
content of the blood. Usually, the radial
artery is used to obtain a sample of
blood. The blood gases of three patients
were taken by the hospital respiratory
therapist and the pH values and CO2 val-
ues are summarized below.
Study the data and answer the fol-
lowing questions:
a) Assuming that 7.4 is the normal ar-
terial blood pH, which patient is in
a state of acidosis?
b) What is the relationship between
blood pH and the amount of car-
bon dioxide in the blood?
Making Connections
7. Smoking is one of the leading causes
of lung cancer and contributes to other
respiratory ailments. Another known
fact about smoking is that it is an ap-
petite suppressant.
a) Design and deliver a survey on
smoking to your class.
b) Summarize the reasons why some
teenagers feel the need to smoke.
c) Hypothesize what impacts teen
smokers might have on your com-
munity’s future health care system.
8. What are some substances currently
being mined in Ontario that might have
broad implications for the respiratory
health of citizens living near the min-
ing site?

Patient Blood Carbon

Name pH Dioxide (mmHg)
A 7.42 34
B 7.37 50
C 7.40 38

304 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Health and the Global  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Community
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

As the world becomes a global society, economics,

tourism, and families spread around the world, link
countries and people together as never before. This
can pose a challenge to health organizations. In
many developing countries, diseases that have long
been eradicated elsewhere, are still common.
Malaria, cholera and tuberculosis (TB) are all com-
mon ailments in developing countries. Canada has
been free of these illnesses, but as Canadians return
from countries where these diseases do exist, and
more immigrants and visitors enter Canada from
around the world, they bring with them the risk of
re-introducing diseases into Canadian society.
The media have recently given attention to the
increasing numbers of people in Canada being in-
FIGURE 9.24 Air travel links all parts of the world.
fected with TB—a bacterial infection that usually
targets the lungs. The World Health Organization
reports there are 8 million new cases of TB world-
wide every year, and only 16% of those who con-
tract the disease receive the available treatment. In coughs or sneezes, releasing the organism into the
1990, there were approximately 1 billion people in environment.
the world infected with TB. In Canada, there are ap- TB is a major disease within the global com-
proximately 2000 new cases reported every year munity. Health regulations and health actions, at a
and more than 100 deaths. The tuberculosis bac- national and international level, require ongoing re-
teria can be contracted when an infected person view.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Define the issue regarding the reappearance of a disease
like TB in Canada.
2. Speculate who are the people most concerned about the
rising number of cases of TB in Canada? Explain your
reasoning.
3. Research the history of TB in Canada and North America.
What is the risk of TB becoming a serious epidemic? In
what ways could those risks be avoided?
4. What social conditions contribute to the contraction and
spread of TB, especially in urban centres?
5. If you were working with the World Health Organization,
what actions would you propose to stop the international
increase in cases of TB? Prepare a 1or 2 page report to
justify your actions. Include social, environmental and
economic considerations in your proposal.

The Origins
C H A P T of
E R the
9 periodic law
Respiration 305
 9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various
Organisms
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 compare the respiratory systems of different organisms
 understand how an organism’s respiratory structures contribute to its internal
regulation
Earthworm
Some animals use their entire outer skin
as an organ for gas exchange. Generally,
for an organ to be effective in gas ex-
change, it must be thin, moist, and have
a large surface area. The earthworm
breathes through its skin. It has no spe-
cialized gas-exchange surfaces. Oxygen
diffuses into a dense net of thin-walled
capillaries that lie just beneath the
FIGURE 9.25 The earthworm.
The volume of the earthworm is
sufficiently small that the entire
outer skin can serve as a
skin respiratory surface. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged
capillaries directly by diffusion through the
skin and capillaries just beneath
the surface of the skin.
air sacs
FIGURE 9.26 The grasshopper.
The grasshopper exchanges
gases through a tracheal
system of branching tubes that
opening
bring air directly to body cells
without the involvement of the for air
circulatory system. tracheae
306 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
worm’s skin (Figure 9.25). Earthworms
and other organisms that breathe using
their skin must live in damp places or in
water, because their whole body surface
must remain moist. Animals that breathe
only through their skin and lack gas-ex-
change organs are generally small, and
many are long and thin or flattened. By
remaining small and flat, all the body
cells are in relatively close proximity to
the respiratory surface, so that oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged effi-
ciently by diffusion.
Insect
Insects like grasshoppers have a tracheal
system that consists of a network of
branching tubes. The tubes transport air
directly to body cells that are always in
close proximity to a tracheal tube. Being
close to a tracheal branch allows oxygen
to reach the body cells by diffusion
(Figure 9.26). Recall that diffusion is a
passive process, and so this method of
gas exchange enables insects to conserve
the energy that would be expended if they
had to circulate gases using a circulatory
system.
Grasshoppers have enlargements at
the end of their tracheal tubes, called
air sacs. These work like bellows. When
the grasshopper contracts its muscles,
air is forced out of the insect through
tiny openings called spiracles.
Fish
In fish, gills are feather-like extensions
of the body surface specialized for gas
exchange. Fish exchange gases with
the water that they live in so that they
do not have to spend energy to keep FIGURE 9.27 The fish. The flow of
the respiratory surface moist. On the water across the lamellae of the gill
arches allows the efficient exchange
other hand, the amount of oxygen avail-
of gases with the blood.
able in water is substantially less than
that in air. Gills need to be very
efficient to obtain enough oxygen from
water. The architecture of fish gills
allows them to efficiently exchange gases.
There are four gill arches on each
side of the fish’s body. Two rows of
gill filaments project from each gill arch. gill
lamellae
Each gill filament contains many flat of gill
structures called lamellae, which are the
actual respiratory surfaces of the fish.
A fish inhales water by opening its
mouth. As it does this, the gill cover-
ings (opercula) on the sides of its body
oxygen-
close tightly over the gills. The animal waterflow bloodflow
poor
exhales water by closing its mouth and blood
pumping water from its mouth cavity out
the sides of its body. The gill coverings
open during exhalation, allowing the
water to escape. These special ventila-
tion movements enhance the gills’ gas-
oxygen-
exchange efficiency by keeping the water rich
around the gills from stagnating and be- blood
coming deficient in oxygen (Figure 9.27).
Blood flows in an opposite direction to nostril
the water. This is called a countercur- glottis
rent flow. As blood flows by the incom-
ing water, it is able to efficiently pick up
the oxygen it needs to supply the fish’s
body cells. This system also minimizes
the use of energy.
lungs
Frog
The evolution from water to land de-
pended largely on the ability to retain a
moist surface for gas exchange. Living
on land meant that evaporation could dry
out the respiratory surface. The solution
was to internalize the respiratory sur-
face, and through this lungs came to be.
The amphibians are the group of or-
ganisms that bridge water and land
animals. Amphibians are able to exchange FIGURE 9.28 The frog. The frog combines the ability to exchange gases through
gases through their moist skin and their the skin and the mouth lining with the presence of lungs to maximize gas exchange.
moist lungs. Depending on the environ-
ment, they might use one or both of these surfaces for gas exchange. To help serve
methods. The frog is interesting because all body cells, frogs have their blood cap-
it is able to rely on its moist skin, its lungs, illaries located just underneath their skin
and the moist lining of its mouth as surface.

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 307

 Bird
Birds exchange gases differently from
humans. In contrast to the in-and-out
flow of air in the human alveoli, birds
have a one-way flow of air through the
lungs. Birds have several large air sacs
in addition to their lungs. The air sacs
ventilate the surface of the lungs. During
inhalation, both sets of air sacs expand.
The posterior sacs fill with fresh air from
the outside, while the anterior sacs fill
with stale air from the lungs. During
exhalation, both sets of air sacs de-
anterior
air sacs
air air
lungs lungs
posterior trachea
air sacs
Inhalation Exhalation
air sacs fill air sacs empty;
lungs fill
FIGURE 9.29 The bird. There
is one-way flow of air through
the bird’s lung as air sacs act
as reservoirs for fresh and
stale air. Section 9.4 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. How does the earthworm incorporate
all the necessary criteria for effective
gas exchange in its simple structure?
2. Why are a fish’s gills not suitable for
air breathing?
3. What is meant by “countercurrent
flow”?
4. What are the three ways that a frog can
exchange gases?
5. Compare the ways grasshoppers and
birds exchange gases. How are they
similar? How are they different?
6. After rain, it is common to see earth-
worms on the surface of lawns and
even on sidewalks. Hypothesize why
this is so.
308 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
flate. Air from the posterior sac is forced
into the lungs, while air from the ante-
rior sac exits through the bird’s trachea.
Plant Connect: Respiration
The organ of gas exchange in the plant
is the leaf; its role is similar to the lung.
In humans, a large surface area of the
lung is assured by the presence of alve-
oli. Plants can increase the surface area
available for gas exchange by growing
more leaves. In the respiratory systems
in animals moisture is essential for
proper gas exchange. Many multicellu-
lar animals have internalized their
respiratory systems in order to keep
them moist.
Plants have evolved a number of
strategies to minimize water loss. Many
plants have their stomata in pits on the
under surface of the leaf and have a
waxy cuticle. In others like Eucalyptus,
the leaves hang downward to cut water
loss from evaporation. In Canada’s conif-
erous forests leaves are reduced to nee-
dles so surface area for water loss is
reduced. In desert plants like cacti and
other succulents, leaves are reduced al-
most completely and form sharp spines.
7. Rank the respiratory systems of the fol-
lowing organisms from most efficient
to least efficient.
Insect __________ Frog ___________
Worm __________ Fish ___________
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Many fish live in watery environments
that contain very little oxygen.
Assuming that air is 760 mmHg, what
percent of air does oxygen represent?
How does this compare with the
amount of oxygen present in some bod-
ies of water (see values below).
Oxygen Present in Oxygen Present in
Air Water
160 mmHg 4 mmHg
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 9.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Measuring Lung Capacity—  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
A Comparative Approach
There are three ways that you might measure lung 1. Set up your data tables as shown in Table 9.1.
capacity in a school lab. Each requires the calcula- 2. Pour 250 mL of water into an empty 2-L bottle. Mark
tion of lung volume under conditions of normal and the water line on the bottle with a permanent mark-
deep breathing. The water displacement method de- ing pen and write 250 mL. Add 250 mL more, mark
pends on measuring the displacement of water as it and write 500 mL. Continue until the container is
the subject exhales through a straw into the exper- full. Write the numbers upside down on the bottle.
imental set-up. The balloon method measures the
3. Add water to the bucket or dishpan until it is 1/4
changes in the volume of a balloon as calculated
full. The container must be deep enough to
from its circumference. The respirometer method
accommodate the added height of the inverted soda
depends on using the technology of the respirome-
bottle.
ter to gauge the volume of air exhaled into it.
4. Hold your hand tightly over the mouth of the bot-
tle and turn it upside down in the dish pan. Remove
Problem your hand when the mouth of the bottle is below
Which method of measuring lung volumes is the most the water level.
useful and practical in a school setting?
LAL1 5. Put a clean straw into one end of the plastic hose
and place the other end of the hose into the mouth
Materials of the bottle (to about 10 cm). Keep the hose
 respirometer  water pinched or air may leak into the jug and water may
 disposable mouth-  bucket or dishpan leak out. Have a partner hold the bottle so that it
pieces  1 balloon per student does not fall over.
 stop watch  1 measuring tape 6. Pinch your nose closed and exhale normally into the
 drinking straws  calculator straw through your mouth. What is the volume of
 2–L soda bottle water displaced? That is your tidal volume. Repeat
 black permanent this step two more times. Record the values in Table
marker 9.1. Average the values.
7. To get a measure of your vital capacity, repeat the ac-
CAUTION: If you have a latex allergy, do not use balloons tivity but this time exhale a deep breath into the hose.
unless you are sure they are non-latex balloons. Do not Repeat this step two more times. Average the values.
share straws, balloons, or disposable mouthpieces. Allow
a few minutes between tests of maximum exhalation, 8. To set up for the next student, carefully pour water
otherwise you might feel weak or even faint. If you have through a funnel from the tub back into the emp-
health concerns about this investigation, discuss them tied 2-L bottle. Reposition the bottle below the water
with your teacher. level with the plastic hose in place as before. Insert
a fresh straw. Repeat steps 4–6.

Procedure Method 2: The Balloon

Method 1: Water Displacement 9. Stretch the balloon to make it a little more pliable.
10. Breathe in normally and put the balloon to your
2L-bottle filled 250

500 plastic hose lips. Exhale normally into the balloon.

with water 750

1000 straw 11. While keeping the balloon pinched at the neck, have
1250 your partner take the tape measure and measure the
500 balloon at its widest part, or circumference. Record
1750
the circumference in your notebook in Table 9.2.
2000

12. Repeat steps 9–10 twice more and calculate the av-
water erage circumference.
13. Repeat steps 9–12 three times but exhale a deep
FIGURE 9.30 Experimental set-up for water displacement breath into the balloon. Calculate the average cir-
investigation. cumference. 
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 309
(continued)

Volume is measured in cubic centimetres. To calcu-
late your tidal volume, substitute the average cir-
cumference value, represented by the variable “C”,
into the formula below.
V  1/6  1/π2  C3
Method 3: The Respirometer
14. Obtain a respirometer and adjust it so that the
gauge reading is zero. Most hand respirometers are
calibrated in litres.
15. Place a new disposable mouthpiece onto the
respirometer and then inhale and exhale normally
into the mouthpiece.
3. Which person would be more physically fit—an in-
dividual with a normal expiratory reserve volume
and extremely high vital capacity, or an individual
with an extremely high expiratory reserve volume
and a rather normal vital capacity? Explain the rea-
soning behind your choice.
4. Who do you think would have a shorter recovery
time after exercising—a well-conditioned student
athlete or an out-of-shape teacher? Explain your
answer fully.
Concluding and Communicating
5. Copy and complete the following using your results.

16. Record the volume that the respirometer reads, and
then zero the device. Repeat this for two more tri-
als. Take the average volume over the three trials
and record it in Table 9.3 in your notebook .
17. Repeat the series of measurements for deep breath-
ing and record the values.
18. Record observations for each member of the group
in tables similar to those shown below.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Which of the three methods is the most practical
for determining vital capacity?
2. What is the significance of vital capacity? Account
for any differences between the measured VC using
the three methods.
The tidal volume is _________ cm 3 and the vital
capacity is _______ cm3 using the water displace-
ment method. The tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the balloon
method and the tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the respirom-
eter method.
Extending
6. What were some possible sources of error in this
experiment?
7. How would you improve the design of the experi-
ment if you were repeating it?
8. Is this investigation accurate in assessing a person’s
tidal volume and total lung capacity? Explain your
answer.

TABLE 9.1 Water Displacement Method

Tidal volume TV Water displaced in trial Average TV

#1 #2 #3
Vital capacity VC Water displaced in trial Average VC
#1 #2 #3

TABLE 9.2 Balloon Method

Tidal volume TV Water displaced in trial Average TV

#1 #2 #3
Vital capacity VC Water displaced in trial Average VC
#1 #2 #3

TABLE 9.3 Respirometer Method

Tidal Volume TV Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Total Average TV

Vital Capacity VC Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Total Average VC

310 UNIT 3 Internal Systems


Investigation 2
The Effect of Airways of
Different Diameters
The respiratory system is an interconnected system of
air passages of different sizes. In this investigation you
will examine why it is important for the respiratory
system to have airways of different diameters and how
the diameter of the air passage affects the flow of air.
Problem
Why should the respiratory system have airways of dif-
ferent diameter?
Materials
This investigation
LAL1 can be performed using simple
household items. Find at least three objects of differ-
ent diameters. You can use, for example, a straw, an
empty toilet roll, and a piece of narrow rubber tubing.
Experimental Design
1. Place each object individually to your lips and blow
air through each one.
2. Set up a data table and note your observations,
specifically how easy it is to blow air through
each object.
3. For the second part of the investigation, obtain three
small elastic bands and three small sandwich bags
of the same size. Using the elastic band, attach the
sandwich bag to each of the above three objects.
4. Again breathe through the three objects, noticing
how many breaths it takes to inflate the sandwich
bag.
5. Attempt to obstruct the flow of air through the three
objects. Record your observations.
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 9.3)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What do you notice about how easy it is to get air
to move through each object? How does this relate
to the diameter?
2. What part of the respiratory system can the sand-
wich bag represent?
3. Did the number of breaths needed to inflate the
sandwich bag change for each of the three objects?
4. Explain the concept of “resistance” as it applies to
air flow and how the resistance relates to the
diameter.
5. What problems do you think could arise if the di-
ameter of the airways were to become too narrow?
6. What common respiratory illnesses affect the di-
ameter of the airways?
7. Some people with respiratory illnesses use puffers
to help them breathe. Discuss the technology of
puffers. What do they do to the airways?
8. Choose three respiratory disorders and complete
Table 9.4.
TABLE 9.4 Respiratory Disorders
Respiratory disorder Symptoms Causes Treatment
9. Prepare a presentation using Bristol board, or pre-
pare a pamphlet to suggest how a person with one
of the respiratory disorders listed in Table 9.4
might improve, or at least maintain, his or her
respiratory health.
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 311
 C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Summary Table of the Respiratory System

TABLE 9.5 Organs of the respiratory system

Organ Function

Nasal Cavity Filters, warms, and humidifies the air; detects smells.

Pharynx Chamber shared with digestive tract; conducts air to larynx.

Larynx Protects opening to trachea and contains vocal cords.

Trachea Filters air; traps particles in mucus; rings of cartilage help keep airway open.

Bronchi Airways in lungs; two main branches from the trachea (left and right bronchi); are lined with
cilia.

Bronchioles Smaller airways formed as main bronchi divide.

Alveoli Sites of gas exchange between air and blood; very thin membrane to allow for efficient diffusion.

Lung Organ that forms the foundation of the respiratory system in humans.

Diaphragm Muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity; during inspiration, the
diaphragm contracts and moves downward increasing the volume of the chest cavity; during
expiration the muscle relaxes, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.

Intercostal Muscles Muscles that surround the ribs and help expand the thoracic cavity during inspiration.

sinuses

nasal cavity

pharynx

larynx
trachea
right lung left lung
left bronchus
bronchioles

FIGURE 9.10 Use this figure and

the information in Table 9.5 to
summarize what you have learned diaphragm
in this chapter.

312 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Key Terms

abdominal cavity diaphragm internal respiration respiratory system

alveoli epiglottis lamellae respirometer
air sacs epi-pen larynx tidal volume
anatomical dead space exhalation or expiration lung thoracic cavity
bronchi external respiration nasal cavity total lung capacity
bronchioles gills opercula trachea
bronchodilators gill arches oral cavity tracheal tubes
chemoreceptors inhalation or inspiration pharynx vital capacity
countercurrent flow inspiratory reserve volume residual volume

Essential Understandings

9.1 The Respiratory System
 Respiration is necessary to allow efficient exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism
and the external environment.
 Respiration can be broken down into external res-
piration, the actual gas exchange between the alve-
olar air and the blood; internal respiration, the
gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells;
and cellular respiration at the level of the mito-
chondria.
 There are specialized structures that help with the
efficient exchange of gases.
 The passage of air starts at the oral and nasal cav-
ities and ends at the alveoli.
9.2 The Physiology of Respiration
 Muscles such as the diaphragm help with inhala-
tion and exhalation.
 The alveolus is the structure where the actual ex-
change of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
 The large surface area of the alveoli allows efficient
diffusion of gases to occur.
 Specialized structures in the brain help to control
breathing in response to information from chemore-
ceptors. This maintains the internal environment.
 Different lung volumes describe the different aspects
of breathing.
9.3 Respiratory Disorders
 Some respiratory diseases are caused by constric-
tion or blockage of the airways.
 Some respiratory diseases are caused by damage to
the structure of the alveoli.
 Medications may restore homeostasis by creating
conditions similar to a normal response.
 Smoking is a preventable cause of lung damage.
9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various Organisms
 Organisms have developed a variety of special or-
gans to help with gas exchange.
 The type of organ developed for respiration is as-
sociated with the organism’s environment.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 287 and review
the factors you listed to prevent heart disease. Revise
your list based on what you learned in this chapter.
2 Draw a concept map to describe how the circulatory sys-
tem functions.
3. Create an analogy that can be used to explain the rela-
tionship between the digestive, circulatory, and respi-
ratory systems you have studied.
4. Reflect on your learning. Explain why analogies are used
in teaching and learning.

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 313

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts
1. The order of air movement within the lungs is best de-
scribed as
a) bronchi to alveoli to bronchioles
b) bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli
c) bronchioles to bronchi to alveoli
d) trachea to bronchi to alveoli
15. What physical problems can produce a cough? Why is
the ability to cough an important one?
16. What is the purpose of a filter on a cigarette?
17. Write a supported paragraph to discuss the contribu-
tions of Norman Bethune or Banting and Best to
innovations for use in internal systems.

2. Which statement about the respiratory surface in ani-

mals is not true? Applying Inquiry/
a) The respiratory surface must be moist. Communication Skills
b) The respiratory surface must be thin.
c) The respiratory surface must be in touch with a pro- 18. Study the following data:
portionally large blood supply. Animal Oxygen Consumption (cm3/kg/h)
d) The respiratory surface must be external.
earthworm 75
3. Which of the following is not a structure located within butterfly 500
the lung? frog 120
a) bronchi b) bronchioles
c) larynx d) alveoli hummingbird 11 000
mouse 3000
4. What component of the human respiratory system traps person 200
suspended particles and humidifies the air?
a) nasal hairs b) mucus
c) cilia d) epiglottis a) Suggest why the earthworm has the lowest oxygen
consumption rate.
5. The amount of air always present in the lungs is called b) Why do you think the butterfly would have a higher
the oxygen consumption rate than the frog?
a) tidal volume b) alveolar capacity
c) residual volume d) total capacity 19. Examine Figure 9.31, depicting oxygen concentration in
the vessels of two organisms, one undergoing concur-
6. What term describes gas exchange between alveolar air rent flow, and the other countercurrent flow. You may
and the blood? recall that countercurrent flow is a gas-exchange mech-
anism found in fish. Refer to Figure 9.27, page 307.
7. How is sound produced? a) For both systems, how does the oxygen concentra-
tion between the water and the blood change as one
8. What is the function of mucus in the nasal passage? travels toward the body?
b) In a concurrent flow system, what happens to
9. What is the relationship between the level of body oxygen diffusion when there is no concentration
activity and the rate of breathing? gradient? How does this differ in a countercurrent
system?
10. Explain how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Concurrent Flow
blood can affect the breathing rate.
Water 100% 90% 70% 50% O2
11. Why is the “tidal” analogy appropriate for inhalation and
exhalation of air?
Blood 0% 10% 30% 50% O2
12. What happens if your brain does not receive oxygen
for more than 4 min? to body
Countercurrent Flow
13. What do you think happens inside your body when you Water 100% 70% 40% 15% O2
hold your breath? Why are you unable to hold your
breath forever?

14. Describe the journey of a carbon-dioxide molecule Blood 90% 60% 30% 5% O2
from the alveoli to the outside world. What structures to body
does it pass along its way out of the body?
FIGURE 9.31

314 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

20. Bronchcoscopy is the name of the procedure whereby
a long tube is inserted into a patient’s trachea and
used to look at different parts of the respiratory tract.
Based on your knowledge of the anatomy of the respi-
ratory system, propose what essential characteristics a
bronchoscope must have.
21. One of the basic principles of first aid is to ensure that
the airway is unobstructed. Based on the anatomy of the
upper respiratory tract, suggest why a “head tilt—chin
lift” is the initial step to ensure that an airway is clear.
22. The average adult takes about 12 breaths each minute.
Poor fitness results in breathing shallower breaths more
frequently. If an unfit person took 15 breaths each
minute, how many breaths more than the average per-
son would he or she take in one hour?
23. Consider the data in the following table.
Individual Breathing Rate O2 content in the Blood
(breaths/min) (mL/100 mL)
Nancy 15 20
Jessica 19 14
Fred 12 22
Matthew 24 6 c) Why is an elevated level of carbon monoxide a threat
a) Which student is probably a smoker? Explain.
b) Which student is probably an athlete? Explain.
24. Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by each gas in
a mixture. It is directly proportional to the percent of
each gas in the mixture. The partial pressure of oxygen
and carbon dioxide changes as blood flows through
different vessels in the circulatory system. A lab techni-
cian took several measurements at different vessel points,
and her results are summarized in the table below.
a) Draw a diagram to depict how these partial pres-
sure values for oxygen and carbon dioxide might
come about. Include the following components:
lungs, heart, body tissues, major blood vessels.
(Hint: Take into account your knowledge of
diffusion.)
b) Account for the difference in the partial pressure of
oxygen between inspired and expired air.
Making Connections
25. A stoma is a hole created at the base of the trachea to
facilitate breathing. Gather some information about
stomas, and outline some of the daily lifestyle changes
that a person with a stoma might be faced with.
a) Often patients with oral or throat cancer will have
a stoma. Yet, many of these patients continue to
smoke through their stoma. Design a program that
would help to wean some of these individuals
from their smoking practice.
b) Compare the concept of a “stoma” in humans to the
“stomata” of a green plant. How are they the same?
How do they differ?
c) Design a plan of action to educate people with
stomas to maintain good respiratory health.
26. Recent legislation requires that carbon monoxide detec-
tors be installed in all Ontario homes and buildings. This
is in response to deaths due to carbon monoxide poi-
soning.
a) Research why these devices are crucial to saving
lives.
b) What is carbon monoxide and what properties does
it have that are similar to oxygen? What proper-
ties are different from oxygen?
to the human respiratory system?
27. Humidifiers are popular electric devices in homes dur-
ing the winter. They can help to relieve symptoms such
as cough and dry skin.
a) Perform a product analysis on a humidifier.
Investigate exactly what it is used for, how much it
costs, and so on.
b) Suggest reasons why a family might invest in a
humidifier for their home. Are humidification sys-
tems included in the specifications for new homes
and buildings? Why or why not?

Vessel Partial Pressure of Oxygen (mm Hg) Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide (mm Hg)
inspired air 160 0.3
blood leaving alveolar capillaries 104 40
blood entering tissue capillaries 104 40
tissues < 40 > 45
blood leaving tissue capillaries 40 45
blood entering alveolar capillaries 40 45
alveoli of lungs 104 40
expired air 120 27

CHAPTER 9 Respiration 315

 C H A P T E R 10

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Circulation
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 explain the role of transport or
circulatory systems in the transport
A ll cells require nutrients and oxygen to survive, function properly, and
carry out cellular respiration. In multicellular organisms, diffusion be-
comes an inefficient means of meeting an organism’s demands for nutrients
of substances in an organism (10.1,
10.2, 10.4)
 demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of the cardiovascular
system (10.3)
 describe how the use of
prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis in the cardiovascular
system (10.2, 10.3)
 compare the anatomy of different
organisms—vertebrate and/or
invertebrate (10.4, Investigation 3)
 identify examples of technologies
that have enhanced the scientific
understanding of internal systems
(10.1, 10.2, 10.3, Investigation 1)
 design and carry out, in a safe and
accurate manner, an experiment on
feedback mechanisms, identifying
specific variables (Investigation 2)
 analyze and explain how societal
needs have led to scientific and
technological developments related
to internal systems (10.2)
 present informed opinions about
how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
personal choices concerning
nutrition and lifestyle (10.3)
 provide examples of Canadian
contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (10.2, 10.3)

FIGURE 10.1 A normal cardiac angiogram. This technol-

ogy demonstrates the coronary circulation. Blockages or
reduction in vessel diameter produce a pattern different
from that shown in a normal heart.

316
and oxygen. The circulatory system and its billions of red blood cells transport oxy-
gen and nutrients such as glucose to even the most remote body cells. It also
carries away the waste products of cellular respiration including
carbon dioxide. The components of the human circulatory system—the heart, the
blood vessels, and the blood itself—act to integrate the functions of the
digestive, respiratory, and other body systems and maintain the internal
environment. If we consider the central equation for cell respiration, the circulatory
system provides the reactants and carries away one of the products.

In this chapter, you will consider several characteristics of the circulatory system.
The four-chambered human heart is a unique double-pump system that supplies the
blood with the energy it needs to travel through two distinct circuits. One circuit car-
ries deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. The sec-
ond circuit carries oxygenated blood to all the body tissues.
You will also learn about blood pressure—how it is developed, what factors affect
it, and how it is measured. Finally, you will become aware of risk factors that pre-
dispose someone to diseases of the circulatory system, including coronary heart dis-
ease and heart attacks. In examining wider relationships, you will compare circulatory
systems in a range of animals and also compare them with circulation in plants.

Discovering Biology
Determining Your Body Mass Index
Your Body Mass Index (BMI) is important in determining whether you are
at risk for cardiovascular disease. You can calculate your BMI using the
simple formula below. First you need to know your mass in kilograms and
your height in metres.

mass in kilograms
BMI =
(height in metres)2

For example: If you have a mass of 70 kg and are 1.7 m tall,

CHECKPOINT
Calculation of BMI:
List the factors you know
70 kg that prevent heart disease.
BMI =
(1.7 m)2
Prevention Factors
= 24.91 kg/m2
•
Generally, a BMI of 20–25 kg/m2 is considered to be in the optimal range. A •
•
BMI of over 30 kg/m2 is considered obese and is associated with multiple
health problems such as Type 2 diabetes and heart disease.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 317

 10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the
Components of Blood
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the role of the circulatory system in complex organisms

 explain how the circulatory system functions as a transport system

 understand how the circulatory system works with other systems to deliver materials
needed for energy and growth
 identify and describe the components of the blood

 identify diseases that result if a component of blood is not functioning properly

The circulatory system interacts with
many other body systems, including the
digestive system and the respiratory
system to maintain the body’s internal
environment (Figure 10.2).
The cardiovascular system delivers
vital nutrients, such as oxygen, to all cells
in the body, and eliminates waste prod-
ucts and carbon dioxide. It transports
chemical messengers, such as hormones,
from one part of the body to another. It
also helps to maintain a constant body
temperature and plays an active role in
blood pressure control.
The three essential components in
any circulatory system are:
• a pump—the heart
• fluid—blood
• vessels along which blood travels—
arteries, veins, capillaries

FIGURE 10.2 Transport and THE TRANSPORT AND EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

exchange in the body’s
systems. The cardiovascular
system is the central system
of the body, which moves
materials into and out of
the other systems. The
respiratory system brings
oxygen into the body and
takes carbon dioxide out.
The digestive system
transforms the food you eat
into a form that can be used
Respiratory Digestive
and moved throughout the system system
body. The urinary system (O2 in, CO2 out) (nutrients in)
clears wastes from the body’s
fluids, conserving water and
other essential nutrients.
For good health all the
systems must work smoothly
together.
Urinary Cardiovascular
system system
(wastes (transport)
out)

318 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 The body’s principal extra-cellular
fluid is the blood. The average human
adult has 4 to 6 L of blood in the circu-
latory system. Females are generally
smaller than males, so they tend to have
less blood in their bodies. The blood con-
tains many individual components that
serve different functions. If blood is
placed in a test tube and spun in a
centrifuge, it separates into these com-
ponents. Heavier, solid, particles sedi-
ment to the bottom of the test tube. The
liquid component or plasma of the blood
remains at the top. Plasma accounts for
approximately 55% of the blood volume.
Plasma is 90% water. As shown in
Figure 10.3, many constituents are dis-
solved in plasma. These include salts,

centrifuge
withdraw
blood

place in tube blood

sample

plasma

55%

Formed elements Plasma

45%
red blood cells 99.9% water 92%
formed
white blood cells elements plasma proteins 7%
platelets 0.1%
other solutes 1%

Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets

FIGURE 10.3 The composition of the blood. Blood is 55% plasma and 45% formed
elements. The formed elements include erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 319

INFOBIT
Proteins on the surface of the
red blood cell determine blood
type. Humans are divided into
four major blood groups based
on the presence of two differ-
ent glycoproteins (agglutino-
gens A and B) on the surface
of their red blood cells.
Individuals with type A blood
have agglutinogen A on their
red cells. Type B blood has ag-
glutinogen B, type AB has both
agglutinogens A and B, while
type O has neither. Each blood
type is also associated with
specific proteins in the plasma,
called agglutinins. The plasma
of type A blood has agglutinin
B, plasma of type B blood has
agglutinin A. Plasma of type AB
blood has neither, while plasma
of type O has both agglutinins.
WEBLINK
The thalassemias are a group
of genetic conditions that af-
fect hemoglobin. Research the
origins, symptoms, and treat-
ment of the thalassemias.
Begin your research at the
Pearson Education Web site at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
β2
FIGURE 10.4 The four
chains of the hemoglobin
molecule. The heme groups
are shown in red.
α2
320 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
proteins, hormones, nutrients, waste flexibility and allows them to move
products, and gases. The second major through vessels of different shapes and
component in your blood is the formed sizes. As red blood cells pass through
elements: erythrocytes (red blood cells), the lungs, oxygen diffuses in and binds
leucocytes (white blood cells), and to the hemoglobin molecule. In this way
platelets. The elements account for 45% the blood becomes oxygenated. Each
of the blood volume. hemoglobin molecule can bind four
Red blood cells are the most abun- oxygen molecules. In the systemic
dant cells in the blood. They are manu- circulation at the level of the tissues, the
factured in the bone marrow and stored oxygen is released from the hemoglobin
in the spleen. Their primary function is molecule. The oxygen then diffuses
to carry oxygen. The average person’s into tissue cells and the blood becomes
bloodstream has approximately 25 trillion deoxygenated. The total surface area
red blood cells. These cells are constantly for diffusion in all your red blood cells
being destroyed and replaced. In fact, is greater than the area of a football field.
about two million red blood cells are
destroyed every second.
Red blood cells are unique because
they do not have nuclei or mitochondria.
The cytoplasm of red blood cells consists
of a water solution containing
hemoglobin molecules that bind oxygen
(Figure 10.4). Each red blood cell con-
tains about 250 million molecules of
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex
protein-based molecule made of four
protein chains, with iron at the core of
each. Iron is a key component of a red
blood cell and gives blood its bright
red colour when exposed to oxygen.
When a red blood cell is destroyed, the
iron is recycled in the red bone marrow
and is incorporated into a new red blood
cell.
As shown in Figure 10.5, red blood
cells have a biconcave shape that gives
FIGURE 10.5 Red blood cells. Mammalian red
blood cells have a life span of approximately
β1 120 days.
Anemia occurs when there is a de-
creased amount of hemoglobin in the
blood. This shortage may result from the
production of too few red blood cells
or from reduced amounts of hemoglobin
in each cell. Genetic disorders like sickle
cell anemia or thalassemias, or condi-
tions resulting in blood loss can cause
this decrease.
White blood cells called leucocytes
are responsible for helping to defend the
α1 body from disease and infection. There
are fewer white blood cells than red
blood cells. These amoeboid-shaped cells Discovering Biology Leukemia
destroy and consume invading bacteria
and damaged body cells. There are an Leukemia is a cancer of white blood cells. In this disease, leuco-
estimated five to nine million white cytes divide out of control. Therefore, large numbers of leucocytes
blood cells in one cubic centimetre of build up in the circulatory system.
blood. Like red blood cells, many leuco-
1. Examine the photomicrographs of blood smears in Figure 10.6.
cytes are manufactured in the bone mar-
row. When blood is tested, the presence 2. Devise a method of comparing the number of leucocytes in
of an elevated number of white blood the samples.
cells may indicate an infection within the
body. If you get cut, bacteria have a gate-
way into the body. White blood cells will
localize at the cut to fight bacteria. Pus
sometimes forms at the site of cuts and
scrapes. Pus is primarily a combina-
tion of living and dead white blood cells,
along with dead bacteria.
Platelets are important agents in
the blood for clotting. Platelets are ac-
tually cell fragments that have broken
FIGURE 10.6 What conclusions could you draw?
off from special cells in the bone mar-
row. There are about 250 million
platelets per cubic centimetre of blood.
When platelets encounter damaged
blood vessels, they break open. The
broken platelets then release chemicals
called clotting factors into the blood.
These factors help platelets to stick to-
gether to form a platelet plug. After that,
a more complicated sequence of bio-
chemical reactions takes place that re-
sults in the formation of a strand-like
molecule called fibrin. Fibrin helps to
form a scaffold so that repair can be ini-
tiated. Many strands of fibrin gather at
the ends of cut vessels, forming a mesh
or clot (Figure 10.7). Clots trap blood
cells and prevent them from passing FIGURE 10.7 Clot formation. In the process of INFOBIT
through the damaged blood vessel. A clotting, red blood cells become enmeshed in a
protein called fibrin. This prevents further blood Aspirin is called a blood thin-
scab occurs when fibrin, platelets, and loss from a damaged vessel. ner since it alters the process
blood cells mesh together to seal a
of clotting by preventing
wound until new tissue can grow and platelets from adhering to each
repair the broken skin. other. H.J.M.Barnett at McMaster
The blood of some individuals does Shock is a medical condition that re- University in Hamilton con-
not clot properly because it does not have ducted the first randomized
sults when the circulatory system can-
trial to evaluate the use of
the necessary proteins to form blood clots. not meet the needs of vital organs like aspirin to prevent vascular
These individuals continue to bleed for the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain. disease and stroke. Results
longer periods of time than normal in- When red blood cells that carry oxygen published in 1976 indicate that
dividuals. Hemophilia, one such blood are unable to reach these vital organs, aspirin treatment reduces the
condition, is inherited as an X-linked risk in stroke-threatened
the organs begin to shut down. In order
patients by 25%.
recessive condition (see Chapter 7). to prioritize the delivery of oxygen, the

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 321

 body reduces blood flow to the extrem-
ities (arms and legs) and reserves the
blood for the body’s core. Shock can
occur as a result of severe blood loss. It
can also occur when a person is emo-
tionally disturbed or frightened. The best
treatment for shock is to encourage the
person to rest in a semi-sitting position.
Section 10.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. If 20 mL of blood is spun in a
centrifuge, approximately how many
millilitres of plasma can be extracted?
2. What special property of red blood
cells allows them to pass through
capillaries?
3. Explain why blood that is exposed to
oxygen has a bright red colour.
4. Compare the number of white blood
cells present in the blood of a leukemia
patient to the number of cells in a per-
son without leukemia.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. You are a summer student working in
a blood laboratory. Blood samples from
three patients have arrived and you are
to analyze them. The names on the
labels are smudged and you are unable
to determine which test tube belongs
to which patient. On the hospital
database, you learn Patient A is a
healthy 40-year-old man; Patient B is
an 18-year-old girl who has a history
of chronic lung infections; Patient C has
a history of anemia. Using the follow-
ing table, match the tubes to the right
patients.
Hemoglobin (g •L–1)
Tube 1 122
Tube 2 151
Tube 3 88
322 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
Keeping the person warm and reassur-
ing him or her are also important.
Severe bleeding can be controlled by
applying direct pressure. It is important
to remember that shock can be life
threatening if overlooked and so
medical attention should be sought
immediately.
Normal values for hemoglobin: male
(140-180 g •L–1); female (120-160 g •L–1)
Normal values for white blood cells:
4.8  10.8 103 leucocytes •mL–1
6. Survey your class to find out the
different blood types of students.
Record known blood types in a chart.
a) What is the advantage of knowing
your own blood type?
b) Determine the percent distribution
of the different blood types in your
class. How does this compare with
the distribution in the Canadian
population?
c) Explain what is meant by the terms
“universal donor” and “universal
recipient.”
Making Connections
7. In recent years blood donation has
diminished. Propose a course of
practical action that can be taken to
promote the safe donation of blood.
Leucocyte ( 103 • mL–1)
14.4
6.2
10.0
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Fair Testing for Athletes?  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

In 1999, world-class cyclist Marco Pantani was

disqualified from the Giro Italia for having a hema-
tocrit level of 52%. He was accused of enhancing his
performance by using Erythropoetin or EPO, a
synthetic compound that increases the number of
red blood cells in the body.
EPO is taken by injection, and stimulates the
body to produce more red blood cells. This allows
the blood to carry more oxygen to the muscles. It
can also be risky. Athletes with artificially high
hemoglobin levels are at a greater risk of strokes
and heart attacks.
Pantani denied the charge against him, but it is
difficult to determine whether he was lying or telling
the truth. Since EPO is a naturally occurring hor-
FIGURE 10.8 Training at high altitudes can increase the number
mone, it is present in everyone. Therefore it is not
of red blood cells.
easy to identify doped athletes. There is no test to
measure EPO itself; a surrogate test that measures
the density of red blood cells in the blood must be
used. This measurement is called the hematocrit. Pantani is known to be one of the best hill
A study from the 1980s, before the invention of syn- climbers in the sport, and is known to train at high
thetic EPO, showed that the average hematocrit in altitudes. This training regimen can also increase
the blood of cyclists was 43%. Given that there is a the number of red blood cells. “I am a clean rider,”
variation in this number among cyclists tested, it the 29-year-old rider told the press. “My conscience
was decided that anyone with a hematocrit above is clear. I have nothing to do with doping. I don’t
50% would be disqualified for taking EPO. need doping to win races. I need hills to climb.”

Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue that is implied in this case study.
2. Create a T-chart to list the pros and cons that relate to
this issue.
3. In a web set out the different perspectives that might
influence an athlete’s decision to use performance
enhancing drugs.
4. Consider the analysis of Pantani’s hematocrit levels.
Based on your experience with experimental testing,
what are the factors you might consider when review-
ing Pantani’s hematocrit levels to confirm his innocence
or guilt?
5. Consider different kinds of media available. What would
be the most effective way to convey Pantani’s point of
view on his situation and the issue of blood doping to
his fans?
6. Draft a press release that Pantani would release to the
media outlining his case and the scientific evidence to
support it.
7. Plan a class role play of the jury that must deliberate
whether Pantani was innocent or guilty. Members of the
jury include: a little league baseball coach; a manufac-
turer of sports equipment; a news reporter; the widow
of a heart attack victim; a dietician; a hematologist.

The Origins
C H A P T Eof
R the
1 0 periodic law
Circulation 323
 10.2 The Structure and Function of the
Human Heart and Blood Vessels
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the anatomy of the human heart

 describe how the heart functions

 identify the three types of vessels that are found in the human circulatory system

 understand how the structures of arteries and veins differ

 explain how technology has improved scientific understanding of the circulatory

system
 give examples of ways Canadians have contributed to the development of technology

WORD ORIGIN
Myocardium: from the Greek,
mus or muos meaning “mus-
cle” and kardia meaning “a
heart”
The heart is a muscular organ that func-
tions primarily as a pump. To do so, it
must have chambers that receive and
blood chambers that deliver blood, and
valves that direct the flow of blood
through the chambers. It must also be
capable of contracting strongly to force
the blood out of the heart and through
the vessels. Since the heart is an organ,
it is composed of various tissues.
Epithelial tissue called endocardium
lines the inside chambers of the heart.
This provides a smooth surface that min-
imizes friction as blood flows from one
chamber to another.
The heart is made of muscle tissue
and has the ability to contract. The
propulsive force of the heart is made
possible by the myocardium. This heart
“wall” is made of cardiac muscle. The
heart contains its own intrinsic pace-
maker but also contains nervous tissue
that responds to stimuli to increase or
decrease the heart rate. It contains
connective tissue that protects and
encases it.
Your heart is about the size of your
clenched fist and is the hardest-working
muscle in the body. The ribs and sternum
(breastbone) protect it at the front and
the spine protects it at the back.
Deoxygenated blood is brought to the
right side of the heart and is pumped to
the lungs to pick up oxygen. The oxy-
genated blood returns to the left side of
the heart and is pumped to all parts of
the body. The heart contains four cham-
bers: right and left atria, which serve as
receiving chambers, and right and left
ventricles, which serve as delivery
chambers. The left and right sides of the
heart are separated from each other by
a muscular septum.
The Pulmonary Circuit and
the Systemic circuit
The pattern of blood flow in the human
heart is complex. However, the flow of
blood in the human circulatory system
can be divided into two distinct patterns.
The pulmonary circuit is a low-
pressure system. Deoxygenated blood
enters the heart at the right atrium. It
then flows to the right ventricle. The
right atrioventricular valve (AV-valve),
also known as the tricuspid valve,
located between the atrium and ventri-
cle on the right side of the heart, prevents
blood from flowing back into the right
atrium. From the right ventricle the
blood passes through the cup-like
pulmonary semilunar valve and enters
the pulmonary trunk. From the

324 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava aorta

lungs 7
pulmonary
3 arteries

pulmonary
The right side The left side of 4 veins
of the heart the heart pumps 5
pumps oxygenated right
atrium left
de-oxygenated blood to the
1 atrium
blood to the rest of the
lungs. body.

6 left
2 ventricle

a) SYSTEMIC b) inferior
CIRCULATION vena cava right
ventricle
FIGURE 10.9 A double circulation system
a) Blood returns from the systemic circulation, through the veins, to the right side
of the heart. The pulmonary circulation pumps the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated,
and then returns it to the left side of the heart. The blood is then pumped back out
of the left side of the heart, into the systemic circulation and through the arteries of
the body.
b) The right atrium of the heart (1) is filled with deoxygenated blood by the superior
and inferior vena cavae. The right atrium pumps the blood into (2) the right ventricle,
which contracts and sends the blood through (3) the pulmonary arteries to the
lungs. After picking up oxygen in the lungs, the blood is transferred back to the
heart, through (4) the pulmonary veins, and moves into (5) the left atrium. The left
atrium pumps the blood into (6) the left ventricle, which contracts and pumps the
blood out through (7) the aorta, and into the rest of the body

pulmonary trunk, blood is pumped
to both lungs by way of two pulmonary
arteries. As the blood travels through
the lung capillaries, it picks up oxygen
and releases carbon dioxide. The oxy-
genated blood now travels from both
lungs through the four pulmonary veins
to return to the heart at the left atrium.
From the left atrium, the blood
enters the left ventricle through the left
atrioventricular valve (also known as the
bicuspid or mitral valve) and then is
pumped to the rest of the body through
the systemic circuit.
The systemic circuit is a high-pres-
sure system. It must propel the blood
with enough force for it to travel to all
of the body parts. For this reason the left
ventricle of the heart is more muscular
than the right ventricle.
When the oxygenated blood leaves
the left ventricle it travels through the
aortic semilunar valve and enters the
aorta, which is the largest artery in your

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 325

 body. The aorta has many branches
throughout the body called arteries. Each
artery branches into arterioles that in
turn branch into capillaries. It is at the
level of the capillaries that oxygen is re-
leased to individual body cells.
Capillaries rejoin as venules that then
form veins.
Oxygen-poor blood from the upper
body returns to the heart through the
superior vena cava. Oxygen-poor blood
from the lower body reaches the heart
by way of the inferior vena cava. These
two large veins empty into the right
atrium.
The circulatory system acts as the
conduit between the alveoli in the lungs
Investigation and the the tissues of the body. Without
an efficient circulation system the tissue
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3 cells would be starved of the reactants
needed for cellular respiration.
Blood Supply to the Heart:
The Role of the Coronary
Circulation
The heart is no different from other mus-
cles in your body; it constantly requires
a fresh supply of oxygen. Therefore, in
order to receive nutrients, the heart has
a special circulation called the coronary
circulation that delivers oxygenated
blood directly to the heart muscle. This
mini-circulatory system consists of a left
and right coronary artery as shown in
Figure 10.10. The left coronary artery
has two major branches, the left cir-
cumflex artery and the left anterior de-
scending artery. Disease in the coronary
arteries prevents the heart from re-
ceiving enough oxygen. If heart muscle
tissue does not get enough oxygen, it
dies. If too much tissue dies, the heart
cannot pump effectively. The sudden
blockage of a coronary artery leading to
death of heart muscle is called a heart
attack. A heart attack can also cause an
irregular heartbeat and prevent the
heart from filling and contracting nor-
mally.
326 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
aorta
superior
vena cava pulmonary
artery
right
coronary
artery
left main
coronary
artery
left anterior
descending
coronary
artery
FIGURE 10.10 The coronary circulation. Damage
or blockage in the coronary arteries brings about
many heart attacks. Blockage of the left anterior
descending coronary artery, which supplies blood
to the heart muscle of the left ventricle, is in-
volved in almost half of all heart attacks.
Humans are born with all the mus-
cle and nervous tissue they will need
over their lifetime. This means that car-
diac muscle, once damaged, is not re-
placed. Sometimes when some cardiac
muscle dies, part of the heart may stop
functioning properly. However, other
parts of the heart take over that func-
tion. For example, if part of the left ven-
tricle is damaged by a heart attack, the
remaining functioning muscle in the left
ventricle will work overtime to make up
for the loss. This process is called com-
pensation. In people with advanced
heart disease compensation may no
longer be sufficient because so much of
their heart muscle has been damaged.
Heart disease continues to be a
major cause of death in Canada.
Contributing factors include smoking,
stress, lack of exercise, and a high-
cholesterol diet.
The Valves of the Heart
The human heart has four valves that
work to ensure that blood flows in the
proper direction. The tricuspid valve sep-
arates the right atrium and right ven-
tricle and the bicuspid or mitral valve
separates the left atrium and left ven-
tricle. The pulmonary valve is between
the right ventricle and the pulmonary
trunk and the aortic valve is between
the left ventricle and the aorta. Valves
open and close at different times to en-
sure blood flows in the proper direction.
Scientists have been able to harvest
valves from animals, such as pigs, and
to replace defective valves in humans. In
recent years, scientists have also de-
signed synthetic valves made of a special
type of plastic that can be implanted into
humans.
The Heart Cycle
and Heart Sounds
Your heartbeat is a result of the coordi-
nated contraction of heart muscle. There
is a specialized region of heart muscle in
the right atrium called the sinoatrial
node or pacemaker that maintains the
heart’s intrinsic pumping rhythm. In fact,
heart muscle is unique because nerves
that carry impulses to the heart do not
initiate the heartbeat. As a part of the
homeostatic mechanism, they merely
influence the rate and strength of the
heart’s contractions.
The heart works in a continuous
cycle of relaxation and contraction called
the cardiac cycle (Figure 10.11). During
diastole, when the heart is in relaxation,
blood flows into all four chambers. Blood
enters the right atrium from the systemic
circulation via the inferior and supe-
rior vena cavae. Blood enters the left
atrium from the pulmonary veins. Also
during diastole, the tricuspid and bi-
cuspid valves are open, allowing blood
to flow into the right and left ventri-
cles. Diastole ends with the contraction
of the atria to further fill the ventricles
with blood. In total, diastole lasts for
approximately 0.4 s. During this phase INFOBIT
of the cardiac cycle, blood pressure is
reduced and is referred to as diastolic Your “heart strings” are not
just the stuff of romance. The
pressure.
chordae tendinae are fibrous
Systole, the other major component
connective tissue structures
of the cardiac cycle, begins with the con- inside the ventricles that stabi-
traction of the ventricles, which lasts for lize the atrio-ventricular valves
approximately 0.3 s. At this time blood is during systole and allow the
valves to function properly.
expelled forcefully from the heart. Blood
from the right ventricle goes through the
open pulmonary semi-lunar valve into the WORDORIGIN
pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arter-
ies. Blood from the left ventricle goes Systole, from the Greek sun
through the open aortic semi-lunar valve meaning “together” and
into the aorta. During this time, your tri- stellein meaning “to put”;
therefore sustole, meaning
cuspid and bicuspid valves are closed so
a “putting together or a
that blood does not flow back into the
drawing in.”
atria. During systole, blood pressure is in- Diastole, from the Greek, dia
creased and is referred to as systolic pres- meaning “apart” and stellein
sure. The average adult has a systolic to meaning to put; therefore dias-
tole meaning “a pulling apart
diastolic pressure ratio of 120 mm Hg
or a letting out.”
over 80 mm Hg.
1 Heart is
relaxed. AV
valves are open.
Blood flows into
all four chambers.
0.1 s
2 Atria
0.3 s
contract.
0.4 s
Systole
Diastole
3 Ventricles contract.
Semilunar valves
are open.
FIGURE 10.11 The cardiac cycle
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 327
INFOBIT
A heart murmur is a sound
made when one of the valves is
not opening or closing properly
or when the diameter of the
open valve is less than normal.
When a valve only partially
opens or closes, some blood
may spill back in the direction
opposite to blood flow. The ac-
tual sound of a heart murmur is
due to turbulent blood flow.
INFOBIT
“oles”/“ules” – many terms in
biology have this ending—for
example, bronchioles, arteri-
oles, and venules. Think of
“oles” implying “smaller than
the adjoining structure.” For
instance, the arteries are the
structure that come before
arterioles, therefore, arterioles
are “smaller than arteries”;
similarly, venules are “smaller
than veins,” and bronchioles
are “smaller than bronchi.”
328 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
Heart Sounds At the beginning of sys-
tole, when the ventricles start to con-
tract, the pressure generated forces the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to close.
This produces the first heart sound. At
the end of systole, when the pressure in
the ventricles falls, the aortic and pul-
monary semi-lunar valves close. This
produces the second heart sound.
Cardiac Output The volume of blood
pumped from the left ventricle into the
aorta per minute is called the cardiac out-
put. It is the product of stroke volume and
heart rate. The stroke volume is the
amount of blood pumped by the left ven-
tricle each time it contracts. The heart
rate is the number of contractions per
minute. Both heart rate and stroke vol-
ume vary depending on factors such as
exercise and level of fitness.
Increased carbon dioxide in the blood
results in a lowered pH. This sets up a
negative feedback loop. The heart rate
is increased so that more blood is sent
to the lungs per minute. This results in a
more rapid release of carbon dioxide from
the lungs and so carbon dioxide concen-
tration and pH return to the norm.
FIGURE 10.12 When a patient is attached to a
heart monitor the traces show the conditions at
points in the heart as well as blood pressure and
other vital signs.
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels transport the blood from
one part of your body to another and
connect all the body systems. Blood is
pumped away from the heart in thick-
walled blood vessels called arteries.
Arteries then branch out to form
arterioles, which branch out further to
form capillaries.
Arteries must withstand the pres-
sure of the blood within them. The
biggest artery in the body is the aorta.
The major function of arteries and
arterioles is to transport blood under
pressure throughout the body. The
arteries are structurally suited for this
task. They consist of three distinct
layers: an inner layer of epithelial cells,
a middle layer of smooth muscle, and
an outer layer of connective tissue con-
taining elastic fibres that allow the ves-
sels to stretch.
Having muscular and elastic tissue
enables the walls of the arteries to
handle the high pressure of the pumped
blood. In fact, when the heart empties,
the blood moves in a pulselike wave
throughout the circulatory system. As
blood travels through your arteries it
pushes on the artery walls, causing
them to stretch. Just as a stretched rub-
ber band will store potential energy, an
artery will also store some energy when
stretched. When the bulge of blood flows
past a given section of artery, the artery
relaxes and releases some of the stored
energy. This helps to move blood along
farther. Branching in the circulatory sys-
tem allows the blood to be channelled
into different areas.
Arterioles are smaller than arteries.
They have a smaller diameter and are
a little less elastic. The contraction and
relaxation of arterioles is the major
determinant of the overall blood pres-
sure in the body.
Capillaries are the narrowest of all
blood vessels. Red blood cells must
squeeze through capillaries in single file
and so they slow down. This slower
pace allows them to pick up carbon
dioxide and unload oxygen by diffusion
into tissue cells. It has been estimated
that nearly every tissue of the body is
within 0.1 mm of a capillary. Branching
in the capillaries means a great increase
in the surface area available for diffu-
sion, and this makes transport within
the body more efficient. Because cap-
illaries are tiny structures and despite
the slow pace of movement through
capillaries, each red blood cell remains
in a capillary for only one to three sec-
onds. Capillaries also provide a bridge
between the arterial and venous sys-
tems. Capillaries merge to form venules.
Venules in turn merge to form veins.
Veins act as a reservoir and collectively
hold about half of the total blood vol-
ume. Veins have thinner walls, larger
diameters, and less muscle than arter-
ies. These features help them to read-
ily receive blood from the capillary
network.
Veins transport blood back to the
heart. Because most veins are below the
heart, they must work against gravity. To
facilitate the movement of blood towards
the heart, veins have valves that allow
the blood to flow in only one direction.
Contraction of your skeletal muscles also
keeps blood flowing towards the heart.
Skeletal muscles surround veins and
squeeze blood when they contract. In this
way, blood is pushed farther along on its
heart-bound journey.
ARTERY
connective
tissue
muscle
endothelium
capillary bed
FIGURE 10.13 Branching in the systemic system. In the arterial system the aorta branches
into arteries and arterioles. In the tissues arterioles branch into capillary networks that increase
the surface area available for diffusion. In the venous system capillaries merge to form
venules and venules merge to form veins.
Blood flow to the heart is also af-
fected by physcial activity. If you stand
or sit for long periods of time, this pre-
vents skeletal muscles from squeezing
blood back to your heart. As a result the
veins distend as the blood accumulates
in them. If veins are stretched constantly,
they lose their elasticity and the bulges
may become visible as varicose veins.
The Anti-Gravity Suit
The Anti-Gravity suit or “Anti-G Suit” is
a device worn by aircrew to counteract
the effects of positive acceleration on the
human body. Fighter pilots experience
extreme G-forces when flying. During
acceleration, the blood is pushed into
the lower half of the body and the shift
in blood volume away from the brain
can cause the pilot to black out. In re-
sponse to this problem, during World
War II, Dr. Wilbur R. Franks of the
Banting and Best Institute designed the
first anti-gravity suit. This special pres-
surized suit stopped pooling of blood by
boosting blood pressure and periph-
eral resistance. This prevented the pilot
from passing out at the controls. The
suits worn by astronauts and jet pilots
today are still based on Franks’ original
design. However, a new type of custom-
fitted liquid-filled suit is now being
tested.
CAPILLARY VEIN
connective
tissue
valve
muscle
endothelium
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 329
TABLE 10.1 Comparison of the Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Artery Capillary Vein

connective tissue connective tissue

smooth
muscle

smooth
capillary muscle
epithelium
valve in
epithelium
epithelial cells

• has 3 layers: epithelial cells, • thin with a very narrow diameter • elastic
smooth muscle and connective tissue • one cell thick • wall thinner than artery
• is able to stretch • abundant • has valves
• thick, muscular • site of gas exchange with tissue cells • carries blood towards heart
• carries blood away from heart

FIGURE 10.14 Varicose veins. Damage to
valves in veins results in a loss of elasticity and
a bulging of veins that may become obvious.
Cardiac Contractions
The sinoatrial node is a small patch of
specialized tissue that controls the rhyth-
mic pumping of the heart. It generates an
electrical signal that travels through the
heart to the atrioventricular node (AV
node) and then to the ventricles by way
of special fibres—the Purkinge fibres and
the Bundle of His. The electrical signal is
delayed for about 0.1 s at the atrioven-
tricular node, so that the atria contract si-
multaneously, before the ventricles
contract.
The rhythmic contractions of the
heart are the result of special charac-
teristics of the cardiac muscle cells.
Cardiac muscle cells are unique because
they can contract rhythmically even in
isolation. If a cardiac muscle cell is iso-
lated and placed in a Petri dish, it begins
to beat. If another cardiac muscle cell
from the same heart is extracted and
placed beside the cell in the Petri dish, it
will at first, have its own beat. Soon, the
two cells will syncopate their contrac-
tions and beat in unison.

330 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 Wave of Electrical signal Contraction of Contraction of
contraction delayed at ventricles begins in ventricles complete.
begins. AV node. heart apex.

SA node AV node bundle Purkinje

branches fibres

FIGURE 10.15 The control of the heart’s rhythm. The sequence of excitation is asso-
ciated with the waves shown on an electrocardiogram.

An electrocardiograph is a device
used to detect the heart’s electrical ac-
tivity. The heart produces current that
radiates through the surrounding tissue
to the skin. When electrodes are at-
tached to the skin, they sense these elec-
trical currents and transmit them to the
ECG machine. A graphic record, the
electrocardiogram or ECG, is produced.
It shows the different waves that rep-
resent the various parts of the cardiac
cycle. The appearance of the ECG varies
with the positioning of the electrodes.
Comparison of information from differ-
ent placements of the electrodes allows
you to check the performance of differ-
ent parts of the heart. ECGs are useful
because they are a non-invasive way of
diagnosing cardiac and non-cardiac ill- a)
nesses and enable monitoring of the
effects of many medications. R

FIGURE 10.16 a) An electrocardiograph is an T

instrument that monitors the electrical activity of P
the heart,
b) A normal ECG trace. The P wave shows depo- Q S
larization of the atria. The QRS complex shows
depolarization of the ventricles.The T wave shows
b)
repolarization of the ventricles.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 331


Artificial Pacemakers
In 1951 researchers at Toronto’s
Banting Institute, W.G. Bigelow and
John C. Callaghan reported on ex-
periments with the first electrical car-
diac pacemaker, which was designed
by John C. Hopps of the National
Research Council. Since that time and
with the development of transistor-
ized circuitry, thousands of people
have benefited from this technology.
Over 7500 patients in Canada alone
receive new pacemakers each year.
WEBLINK
Research artificial pacemakers
on the Internet. Construct a
time-line of pacemaker devel-
opment. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 345,
Investigation 1
332 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
A pacemaker is an artificial de-
vice that electrically stimulates the
heart to contract. These devices are
used to correct abnormal electrical
activity in people who have had prob-
lems with their heart, such as a heart pacing
attack. These devices may be tem- lead
porary or permanent, depending on
the patient’s condition. A pacemaker
pulse
consists of three components: the generator
pulse generator, the pacing leads, and
the electrode tip. The pulse genera-
tor contains the pacemaker’s power
source and circuits. The pacing leads
carry the electrical stimulus from the
pulse generator to the electrode tips.
Depending on the type of pacemaker, FIGURE 10.17 A pacemaker consists of a
the electrode tips can be placed in the pulse generator, pacing leads, and an elec-
atria, ventricles, or both. trode tip.
Blood Pressure and your diastolic pressure is called your
pulse pressure.
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted
The average normal systolic blood
on the walls of the arteries. It is gener-
pressure for adults is around 120 mm Hg
ated as your heart ejects blood into the
while normal diastolic blood pressure is
aorta with every beat. The aorta and
80 mm Hg.
other arteries have muscular walls that
Blood pressure is highest in the aorta
allow them to expand and passively
and then falls gradually. Blood pressure
recoil as the ventricles contract and
and velocity both decline as blood enters
relax. During systole, the aorta expands
the arterioles (Figure 10.19). The pressure
to accept the blood from the heart and
drop results from the resistance to blood
a wave of pressure is generated through-
flow caused by friction between the blood
out all the arteries. During diastole, the
and the inner walls of the arterioles.
aorta recoils, propelling blood along the
arteries into the arterioles and capil-
laries. This elastic property of vessels
allows for continuous blood flow
throughout the circulatory system.
Arterial blood pressure is directly
related to the amount of blood pumped
by the heart per minute and the resis-
tance to blood flow through the arteri-
oles. The systolic pressure is the
pressure that blood exerts on the wall of
the aorta during systole when blood
leaves the heart. The diastolic pressure
is the pressure that the blood exerts on
the wall of the aorta during diastole
when no blood leaves the heart. The dif- FIGURE 10.18 A sphygmomanometer is a
ference between your systolic pressure device to measure blood pressure.
 Regulation of blood pressure is es-
sential. Low blood pressure reduces your Discovering Biology Pulse rate
capacity to transport blood. High blood
pressure also creates serious, but differ- One easy way to measure your heart rate is to take your pulse. Pulse
ent problems. High blood pressure can is generated when arteries stretch during systole. What you actu-
weaken the walls of an artery and this ally feel is an artery bulging during systole. Between heartbeats
(during diastole), the arteries recoil due to their elastic properties.
can cause the vessel to rupture.
Two areas where your pulse is easy to detect are the radial pulse
(at your wrist) and the carotid pulse (at the side of your neck).
The Sphygmomanometer The arterial
blood pressure is determined using a 1. Take your pulse at the radial pulse. To feel your pulse, place
sphygmomanometer. This device con- your index and middle fingers on an artery and feel it stretch
sists of an inflatable cuff connected by and relax as a volume of blood flows past it. Record your heart
rubber hoses to a hand pump and to a rate (beats/min).
pressure gauge graduated in millime-
tres of mercury. The cuff is wrapped 2. Take your pulse at the carotid pulse. Record your heart rate.
around the upper arm and inflated to Compare the strength of the two pulses. Explain your
a pressure that will temporarily stop the observations.
flow of blood through the brachial
artery. As the pressure in the cuff is
lowered slowly, the examiner listens for Investigation
the sounds of blood flow in the brachial Refer to page 346,
artery by placing the bell of a stetho- Investigation 2
scope in the elbow crease.

Comparison of
blood vessel size

120 systolic pressure

Pressure (mm Hg)

100
80
diastolic pressure
60
40
20
0
50
Velocity (cm/s)

40
30
20
10
0
venules

veins

venae cavae
aorta

arteries

arterioles

capillaries

FIGURE 10.19 Blood pressure and velocity in the blood vessels

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 333

 Section 10.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. How does deoxygenated blood enter
the heart?
2. Calculate the cardiac output if the
stroke volume is 80 mL/beat and the
heart rate is 75 beats/min. Cardiac out-
put is the product of the stroke volume
and the heart rate.
3. Describe how structure and function
are related in a capillary.
4. Draw a diagram to show why the
human heart is considered to be a
“double pump” system.
5. The sinoatrial node is the heart’s pace-
maker. and has an intrinsic rate at
which it generates impulses. This rate
can be modified by many different fac-
tors. From the heart rates given below,
Select the one that corresponds to each
of the following scenarios.
Heart rates (beats/min):
72 186 54
a) Someone sleeping
b) Someone playing squash
c) Someone, at rest, watching televi-
sion
6. What is the most important determi-
nant of the overall blood pressure?
a) Graph the data of vessel type ver-
sus total cross-sectional area.
b) What is the trend in cross-sectional
area?
c) Explain this trend.
d) How might the cross-sectional area
of a single vessel influence the ve-
locity of blood flow?
e) How might the total cross-sectional
area of vessels affect velocity of
flow and pressure in vessels?
8. Examine the following pie graph,
which shows the distribution of blood
in the various vessels.
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
FIGURE 10.20

a) From the data, which vessels con-

Applying Inquiry/ tain the largest volume of blood?
Communication Skills b) Suggest why capillaries have such
7. The following table shows the total a low blood volume.
cross-sectional area of the different c) What percentage of the blood is
types of blood vessels at various points contained in the venous system?
along the circulatory tree.
Making Connections
Blood Vessel Total Cross-Sectional
Type Area (cm2) 9. High blood pressure, or hyperten-
sion, is a common problem in the gen-
aorta 2.5 eral population. It is a strong risk factor
small arteries 20 for the development of heart disease
arterioles 40 and stroke. Propose the economic and
social impacts of hypertension.
capillaries 2500
venules 250
veins 80
venae cavae 5

334 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

10.3 The Circulatory System
in Health and Disease
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 relate fitness level to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system
 describe common disorders that affect the cardiovascular system
 provide examples of drug treatments to restore homeostasis
 present scientific reasons for following an exercise program
 explain how Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
for internal systems
Hypertension or “high blood pressure”
is a disease that affects many Canadians.
Although a substantial number of
Canadians are diagnosed with this con-
dition, many others do not realize they
have high blood pressure. Blood pressure
for a healthy adult varies anywhere from
100–140 mm Hg systolic and between
70–90 mm Hg diastolic. High blood pres-
sure is usually defined as a consistent
blood pressure greater than 140/90.
Prolonged high blood pressure can dam-
age the heart and other blood vessels. It
can be the cause of cardiovascular dis-
orders, such as coronary heart disease
and stroke.
Hypertension can be treated by diet,
exercise, weight control, and medication.
This will decrease cardiac output,
lowering pressure in the arterioles,
and restore the person’s blood pressure
to the norm. Most anti-hypertensive
medications lower blood pressure and
restore homeostasis by decreasing the
cardiac output. Medications acting as
vasodilators decrease the resistance of
blood vessels. Diuretics are also
commonly used to help lower blood
pressure. Diuretics cause the body
excrete more urine. This reduces the
volume of liquid in the body, and so
reduces the high pressure that excess
fluid can create.
Atherosclerosis WEBLINK
This condition occurs when fatty de-
Research the reasons that high
posits containing cholesterol and lipids blood pressure is often called
accumulate in the lining of blood vessels. “the silent killer.” Create a
The plaques (sticky regions) decrease pamphlet that outlines the pre-
vention and treatment of this
the diameter of the blood vessel and the
condition. Begin your research at
elasticity of the vessel wall. This process
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
may occur in all arteries in the body, but
the coronary arteries are especially sus-
ceptible. Areas distal to the narrowing
of an artery can be deprived of blood
and nutrients. High-cholesterol diets M AT H L I N K
combined with other risk factors for
heart disease may result in abnormal Blood pressure is an example
of a value for which non-metric
blood circulation and eventual heart
units continue to be used.
attack or stroke.
Blood pressure is usually
reported as mmHg. Normal
Angina blood pressure for an adult is
120/80, systolic/diastolic. To
Like all muscles in the human body, the report blood pressure in metric
heart requires a constant and steady units (kPa), use the conversion
supply of nutrients. In a healthy heart 1mmHg = 0.13332 kPa.
this is supplied by the coronary circu- Therefore 120 mmHg
lation. Coronary artery disease means = (120 x 0.13332) kPa
= 15.998 kPa
that there are parts of the heart that do
not always receive enough oxygen. When
the heart is deprived of oxygen, an in-
dividual may complain of chest pain or
chest tightness called angina. Usually
this pain is felt behind the sternum,
but may also radiate to the jaw, back,
and arms. It can occur during periods of
exertion, during exercising or eating, or
when under emotional stress. Angina
can usually be relieved by rest or by a
medication, such as nitroglycerine.
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 335
 Heart Attack
A heart attack is a more severe form of
angina. During a heart attack, a clot
completely blocks a coronary artery and
there is death of cardiac muscle cells.
After the death of these cells, scar tissue
forms. After a heart attack, the damaged
heart may be weakened and may not be
able to pump blood as efficiently. Heart
attacks have many associated symptoms
including fatigue, dizziness, and indi-
gestion. The chances of a heart attack
increase with age. Some other factors
that influence the likelihood of having
a heart attack include smoking, poor
diet, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, a
family history of heart disease, and di-
abetes. Fortunately, many of these fac-
tors can be controlled. Frequent exercise
and healthy food choices can help to
prevent the occurrence of heart attacks.
Stroke
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel
(usually one going to the brain) is dam-
aged. A clot forms within the blood ves-
sel, or the blood vessel bursts due to high
blood pressure or a weakness in the ves-
sel wall. Symptoms depend on the vessel
involved and the part of the brain af-
fected. Usually the patient experiences
signs and symptoms on the opposite side
of the body to which the blood vessel is
located. Thus a damaged blood vessel
feeding oxygen to the right side of the
brain would result in a patient having
symptoms on the left side of the body.
Common symptoms of a stroke include
weakness, speech slurring, and numb-
ness. Some of these symptoms are re-
versible with time while others may be
permanent.
Drugs and Treatments
Relating to the Circulatory
System
Nitroglycerine is one drug used rou-
tinely to treat angina and works by di-
lating the coronary arteries. Typically it
is taken in a pill form or as a spray taken
336 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
under the tongue. Nitroglycerine is read-
ily absorbed and acts to dilate coronary
blood vessels almost instantly. This al-
lows more blood to reach areas of the
heart that are being deprived of oxygen.
The treatment acts to restore the blood
vessel diameter and oxygen availability
to the heart. It mimics a normal homeo-
static response to oxygen deprivation.
Nitroglycerine is also available as a patch
that individuals can stick on their skin.
The medication slowly dissolves upon
contact, passes through the skin, and is
absorbed into the bloodstream. In this
form, the nitroglycerine will maintain
homeostasis by providing a continuous
stimulus to dilate the blood vessels.
Nicotine is the active ingredient in to-
bacco. It is second only to caffeine as the
most widely used stimulant, and sec-
ond only to alcohol as the most abused
drug. It is also highly addictive. Nicotine
is toxic, and in combination with the tars
and carbon monoxide found in cigarette
smoke, it is a serious risk factor for lung
disease, various cancers, and heart dis-
ease. The effects of nicotine are complex
and include a rise in both blood pressure
and heart rate. Recently, a special chew-
ing gum containing 2 mg of nicotine has
been shown to reduce nicotine with-
drawal symptoms and help smokers stop
smoking. The blood concentration of
nicotine after chewing the gum is about
one half of the level if would be after
smoking. Therefore, chewing gum with
nicotine is one way that smokers can
try to quit smoking. Nicotine is also
available in patch form.
Technology and the
Circulatory System
Exercise Stress Test An exercise stress
test is a useful and non-invasive way to
check for the presence of coronary artery
disease. This test involves walking or
running on a treadmill that moves at
an increasing speed and incline. The
individual has continuous ECG and blood

Bypass Surgery
If the arteries that supply the heart
with oxygen become narrowed, cer-
tain parts of the heart may become
deprived of oxygen and the cells may
ultimately die. Coronary artery
bypass surgery is one of the most
common types of surgeries performed
in North America. Surgeons extract
a vein from the patient’s leg and use
it to redirect blood flow around the
diseased artery in the heart. Think of
a traffic jam. The new blood vessel
acts like a detour route allowing
blood to get around the traffic or in
this case, the blockage. More than
one blockage in the coronary circu-
lation may be treated in the same op-
eration: you may have heard of
people having triple, quadruple or
even quintuple, bypass surgeries.
In September 1999, cardiac sur-
geon Douglas Boyd at the London,
Ontario Health Sciences Centre
pressure measurements taken. The length
of time the individual can perform on the
treadmill combined with ECG changes and
the patient’s symptoms (for example, short-
ness of breath, angina) help the physi-
cian to determine whether coronary artery
disease is present.
Cardiac Catheterization Cardiac catheter-
ization is a method to detect the pres-
ence of coronary artery disease.
Individuals who have abnormal exercise
stress tests often go on to have cardiac
catheterization and an angiogram. A
catheter is inserted into the femoral
artery (located in the groin area) and
guided through the arterial system of the
body and into the heart and coronary
arteries. A dye is then injected through
performed a landmark procedure: a repaired. During this process Dr.
closed-chest bypass without the use Boyd relied on a videoimage of the
of a heart-lung machine. Research by moving heart to direct his work as he
Boyd and a colleague, cardiac anes- repaired the bleeding vessel in the
thesiologist John Murkin, had indi- confined space made by his incisions.
cated problems for patients after The advantages for the patient
being hooked up to the heart-lung are obvious: tiny incisions, ribs not
machine. Strokes affect 3%, another damaged, and no need to stop and
30% show significant loss of higher start the beating of the heart. The
result is a much shortened convales-
mental functions—immediately after
cence period. Dr. Murkin has demon-
the operation, and even after six
strated that these patients also show
months 20% still experience lapses
much less loss of memory and other
that are cause for concern, such as
higher mental functions after sugery.
difficulty doing a crossword puzzle or
forgetting familiar names.
Using a Zeus system
with computer assistance
as well as a robotic
endoscope and tools, Boyd
attempted the first
closed-chest, beating-
heart surgery. Working
through incisions without
opening the chest cavity,
Boyd slowed down the
movement of the heart,
cut a slot in the blocked
artery, and inserted a
shunt so that the blood
FIGURE 10.20 Drs. Douglas Boyd (right) and John
could flow even while the
Murkin (left) with the robot used in bypass surgery.
blocked artery was
the catheter into the bloodstream. The
dye enters the coronary arteries and
X-rays are taken of the blood vessels.
The angiogram can show the degree of
arterial blockage and how much blood
is actually flowing through the arteries.
Depending on the degree of narrowing,
the health care team may recommend
further intervention. In some cases,
individuals undergo bypass surgery or
angioplasty. With this procedure, a
small balloon is inserted through a
catheter and inflated in order to re-
duce the narrowing in the artery. During
cardiac catheterization, blood samples
may be withdrawn and pressures within
the heart can be measured to detect
valve problems and heart deformities.
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 337
 Nuclear Medicine Another method of di-
agnosis for patients who have an ab-
normal stress test involves radioactive
decay. The substance used is radioactive
thallium (thallium 201). This material is
injected while the person is undergo-
ing a stress test and the subsequent
decay of radioactivity in the circulation
of the heart is recorded. Normal coro-
nary arteries will show a regular pattern
of radioactive disintegrations. Diseased
coronary arteries will show a different
pattern.
How the Circulatory System
Responds to Exercise
The circulatory system adjusts in vari-
ous ways to changes in physiological
conditions. For example, muscles that
are exercised produce more carbon diox-
ide and lactic acid than muscles at rest.
The blood then becomes more acidic
as it passes through the muscles. The in-
crease in acidity makes the blood give
up more of its oxygen and dilates the
blood vessels. It also stimulates the ner-
vous system to increase the secretion of
adrenaline. This causes breathing and
heart rates to rise. A continuing
exercise program increases the body’s
capacity to use oxygen.
The Benefits of Regular
Exercise
Regular physical exercise is one of the
best things that you can do for your
body.
Think back to how good you have
felt after finishing some sort of physical
exercise, for example, a bike ride, a long
walk, or a game of tennis. The benefits
of regular exercise are numerous and
in this small section we hope to convince
you that exercise is one of the best ways
to improve your health. Exercise im-
proves the functioning of many body
systems. Exercise is good for the heart—
moderate exercise for 30 min, three to
four times per week, significantly
reduces the risk of coronary heart
disease. This is in part because exercise
improves the blood supply to the heart
muscle. It also helps a person to main-
tain an ideal body weight and therefore
reduces stress on the heart. The level of
“good” high density lipoprotein (HDL)

Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk,
Pioneer in Nuclear
Medicine
Nuclear medicine is an important as-
pect of diagnosis and treatment in in-
ternal systems. The methods of
diagnosis involve nuclear screening
devices to record radioactive decay
within the tissue being studied.
Radioactive iodine is used to test thy-
roid function; radioactive thallium
is used to show cardiac artery func-
tion; and radioactive phosphate is
used to indicate bone structure. 1951. Later in her career she devel-
Various form of radiation are also oped the Dosimeter, a machine that
used in the treatment of cancer. The allows regulation of the dose of radi-
objective is either to kill the cancer ation received by the patient.
cells directly or to affect cell division
in the cancerous tissue to slow the
growth of the cancer.
Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk was deeply in-
volved with the development of both
aspects of nuclear medicine for the
treatment of cancer. She was Chief
Medical Physicist for Saskatchewan
and developed the first nuclear scan-
ning machine for diagnosis. She was
a member of a University of
Saskatchewan team led by Harold
FIGURE 10.21 Dr Sylvia Fedoruk, a pio-
Elford Johns. This team developed neer in nuclear medicine, served as
the first non-commercial Cobalt-60 Leiutenant –Governor of Saskatchewan
therapy unit for cancer treatment in from 1988-1994.

338 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 FIGURE 10.23 The normal angiogram on the left shows patent (open) left and
right coronary arteries. The abnormal angiogram on the right shows blockages in
diseased coronary arteries.

FIGURE 10.22 Exercise on a treadmill is a form
of cardiovascular workout, but can also be used
for diagnosis of heart disease.
cholesterol is raised and the level of
“bad” low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol is lowered. A high level
of bad cholesterol is one important
risk factor in the development of
atherosclerosis.
In addition to the benefits on the
heart, exercise helps to strengthen the
lungs, tone the muscles, and maintain
bone strength. If you have diabetes,
exercise is important to help keep blood
sugar in the normal range and maintain
control of the disease. Finally, exercise
helps to improve self-esteem, concen-
tration, and mechanisms for coping with
stress.
In general the more exercise a per-
son is accustomed to, the higher his or
her ability to use oxygen during exercise
and the lower the oxygen debt built up
through accumulation of lactic acid. The
rate of oxygen used by most athletes
is 10% higher than that of a sedentary
person.
Even though the benefits of exercise
are proven, many people fail to exercise
on a regular basis. Many people choose
to play the passive role of spectator. In
many high schools there is little time
scheduled for sports activities. Also,
many people lead such busy lives, it is
difficult to find the time to exercise.
FIGURE 10.24 Aerobics can provide
cardiovascular workout.
INFOBIT
Cholesterol is transported in
the body bound to small lipid-
protein complexes called
lipoproteins. High-density
lipoproteins (HDLs) transport
cholesterol to the liver for
breakdown. HDLs are often
referred to as “good”
cholesterol in comparison to
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
that may release cholesterol
deposits into the walls of
arteries.
WEBLINK
Research the effects of
microgravity on the circulatory
system. Write a supported
paragraph. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 339

 Section 10.3 Review
Understanding Concepts 6. The respiratory and circulatory sys-
tems work closely together during ex-
1. List some contributing factors for heart ercise. The table below gives the
disease? oxygen consumption (L/min) and the
2. What responses in a normal individual total ventilation (L/min) for three dif-
are mimicked through the use of ni- ferent athletes.
troglycerine by an angina patient?
Oxygen Total ventilation
3. What is the purpose of bypass surgery?
consumption (y-axis)
4. What effect does nicotine have on the (x-axis)
heart?
Athlete A Athlete B Athlete C
0 0 0 0
Applying Inquiry/ 1 23 17 7
Communication Skills
2 41 31 18
5. A person has been taking an anti- 3 60.0 47.5 34.5
hypertensive medication for the past 4 78 63.2 46
six months. He has been monitoring
his blood pressure at home with a kit a) Graph the data. Draw the line of
he bought from the drugstore. The best fit for each of the three
table shows his blood pressures over athletes.
the past six months (mm Hg). b) What happens to the oxygen con-
Graph the blood pressure to show how sumption as the total ventilation in-
it has changed over time. Analyze the creases?
data and recommend a course of ac- c) From the data, which athlete
tion for the future. appears to be the most fit? What
physical activities are best known
for their ability to increase
cardiovascular fitness?

Blood Pressure Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Systolic 166 160 150 156 144 138
Diastolic 98 98 90 92 94 88

340 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various
Organisms
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 compare the anatomy of the circulatory systems in different organisms

 explain the role of transport systems in different organisms

 understand how the structures in transport systems are suited to their functions

Single-celled or very small organisms
rely on diffusion to supply oxygen from
their surroundings. As multicellular or-
ganisms become larger and more com-
plex, an efficient transport system is
essential.
Open and Closed Circulation
In the animal kingdom, there are
two different types of circulatory sys-
tems: opened and closed. An open
circulatory system consists of a body
sinus that contains all the vital organs.
This system is called open because blood
is pumped through open-ended vessels
to flow out among the cells. In fact, blood
is pumped into this body sinus and lit-
erally bathes all the body organs.
Imagine a bathtub being filled for a bath;
this is similar to an open system. When
the organs have been “bathed” in oxy-
genated blood, the blood is “drained”
from the body sinus, making space avail-
able for new blood to bathe the organs.
This “bathing” and “draining” follows
a continuous cycle. Open circulatory sys-
tems are most common in insects. In
contrast, a closed circulatory system
consists of vessels containing fluid and
a pumping mechanism to circulate the
fluid.
The Earthworm
The earthworm has a simple, but highly
efficient closed circulatory system.
Earthworms have blood that travels
through vessels. The two main blood
vessels in the worm are the dorsal
vessel and the ventral vessel, while
smaller vessels serve the cells in each
individual segment. The earthworm does
not have a heart. Instead, it has five
muscular “pseudohearts” that pump
blood around its body. The primary

dorsal vessel

ventral vessel
5 pseudohearts

FIGURE 10.25 The earthworm’s blood system transports nutrients absorbed from
the worm’s small intestine.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 341

 function of blood in the earthworm is to
deliver nutrients absorbed in the worm’s
small intestine to all its body cells.
Earthworms can exchange gases
through their moist skin so they do not
need lungs and the transport of gases in
the blood is of little importance.
Grasshopper
In an insect, such as the grasshopper,
the heart is located toward the posterior.
tubular
heart
pores
FIGURE 10.26 The pumping of the posterior
heart moves blood towards the insect’s head
and the rest of its body. Blood returns to the
heart through pores.
The heart is tube-shaped and the pump-
ing is facilitated by muscle contractions.
Nutrients diffuse directly from the blood
into the body cells. When the heart re-
laxes, blood returns to the heart through
several pores. Each pore has a valve that
closes when the heart contracts, to pre-
vent backflow of the blood.
The Fish
The cardiovascular system of a fish il-
lustrates the main features of a closed cir-
culatory system. The heart has two main
chambers. The atrium receives blood
from the veins, and the ventricles pump
blood to the gills via large arteries.
In Figure 10.27, red represents oxy-
genated blood and blue represents
deoxygenated blood. After passing
through the gill capillaries, the oxygen-
rich blood flows into other large arter-
ies that carry it to all other parts of the
body. The large arteries branch into
arterioles, small vessels that give rise to
capillaries. Networks of capillaries infil-
trate every organ and tissue in the body.

capillary beds
arteriole

artery
(O2-rich blood)

venule

vein
atrium
heart
ventricle

artery gill
(O2-poor blood) capillaries

FIGURE 10.27 In the fish, blood becomes oxygenated in the gill capillaries. It flows to all
parts of the body through arteries. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins.

342 UNIT 3 Internal Systems


pulmonary
vein
right left
atrium atrium
spiral
fold
ventricle
FIGURE 10.28 The frog’s three-chambered
heart allows only partial separation of oxy-
genated and deoxygenated blood.
The thin walls of the capillaries allow
chemical exchange between the blood
and the interstitial fluid. The capillar-
ies converge into venules, which in turn
converge into veins that return blood
to the heart.
The Frog
In amphibians, the heart has three cham-
bers, two atria and one ventricle.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left atrium through the pulmonary
vein. It mixes with oxygen-poor blood
in the single ventricle. The mixed blood
is then pumped to the body tissues and
lungs. Mixing is not complete because
of the spiral fold in the heart, so the brain
and upper limbs tend to receive blood
that is higher in oxygen. However, some
deoxygenated blood is recirculated to the
body. This system is somewhat inefficient
compared to the double-pump, four-
chambered heart of birds and mammals.
It is sufficient for the frog because frogs
are generally in active and can absorb
oxygen by diffusion into the blood as
the blood circulates through the mouth
and skin.
The four-chambered mammalian
heart is an efficient system that has al-
lowed mammals to exploit opportunities
for life on land. This system keeps
right left
atrium atrium
right left
ventricle ventricle
FIGURE 10.29 The four-chambered heart of
birds and mammals separates oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
completely separate in the pulmonary
and systemic circulations.
Plants
Plants have an internal transport system
with some similarities to the human sys-
tem. The human cardiovascular system
consists of a heart, blood vessels, and
blood fluid. Plants also have vessels that
allow them to transport fluids: in this case,
water and nutrients. Like the
vessels in humans, plant vascular tissue
provides a continuous internal conduc-
tion system between the roots, stems, and
leaves. Vascular bundles consist of xylem
and phloem tissue, and together, they
branch out to form “veins.” You can ob-
serve these veins in a plant’s leaves. The
circulatory system in humans also trans-
ports hormones, for example, insulin.
Plants also have hormones and these are
also transported through vascular tissue.
A notable difference is that plants
have separate systems for water and for
nutrient transport. Xylem tissue trans-
ports water that flows from roots to
leaves while phloem tissue transports
nutrients. Nutrients flow from the leaves
to the roots or to other parts of the
plant that need them. Another impor-
tant difference is that plants lack a
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 343
 “pump.” For this reason, processes such
as osmosis and diffusion are critical.
Flow is important to the function
of any circulatory system. You have
Section 10.4 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Distinguish between opened circulatory
systems and closed circulatory systems.
2. Describe how blood circulates in an
earthworm.
3. What are some unique features of the
circulatory system in a fish?
4. Describe the three-chambered heart
found in amphibians.
5. Birds exhibit remarkable circulatory
and respiratory systems.
a) Describe the structural features
birds have that allow them to trans-
port oxygen to their body cells while
in flight.
b) Explain how the lungs of birds are
adapted for flight.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Research the differences between the
circulatory system of the shark, dolphin,
jellyfish, and eel. How have these dif-
ferent organisms developed specialized
structures for circulation?
6. What are some unique features about
mammals like seals that allow them
to survive in ice-cold waters and also
344 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
learned about atherosclerosis in humans
and how flow is diminished. In plants,
when vascular tissue is blocked by waste
products, flow of liquid is prevented.
hold their breath for prolonged periods
while they travel from one breathing
hole to another?
7. “The bends” are a pain that deep sea
divers experience when they rise from
ocean depths too quickly. Predict why
“the bends” occur, and suggest ways to
ensure that acute pain is not experi-
enced by a diver after a dive.
Making Connections
8. Xenotransplantation is the new area of
medicine that deals with the science of
transplanting animal organs into hu-
mans.
a) Research this growing area of
medicine—specifically research
what obstacles must be overcome
before these types of surgeries will
be successful.
b) What ethical considerations must
also be considered with respect to
xenotransplantation?
9. Global warming is a serious environ-
mental issue. Patterns of bird migra-
tion are based on the season and the
outdoor temperature. What effect does
global warming have on bird
migration?
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 10.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Exercise and Pulse Rate  Concluding and Communicating

You can measure how fast your heart is beating by tak-

ing your pulse. Each time your heart squeezes blood
out into the aortic artery, blood is forced along in a
pulse wave. One place that you can easily find your
pulse is your wrist.
Problem
What is the effect of exercise on pulse rate?
CAUTION: If you have a medical concern that might prevent
you from performing exercise to gather data for this labora-
tory, consult your teacher.
Experimental
LAL1 Design
1. Predict how your pulse rate will be affected by ex-
ercise.
2. Write down the variables that you think would alter
your predictions about pulse rate while exercising.
3. Make a hypothesis for each variable concerning its
effect on pulse rate.
4. Design a procedure to test how pulse rate is affected
by exercise and how this effect can be properly
measured.
5. Remember to include your materials, measuring
instruments and list any safety considerations. If
you have probe technology available for your use,
you may want to use it to gather pulse data.
6. Have a teacher check your procedure before you
proceed with your lab.
7. Show the results of your investigation in a clear and
well-organized manner.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What criteria did you apply to developing your
procedure?
2. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
idence that exercise affects pulse rate.
3. Graph your observational data: “How Exercise
Affects Pulse Rate.”
4. What is the dependent variable? What is the in-
dependent variable? Explain.
5. Account for any experimental errors that could have
affected your conclusion.
Concluding and Communicating
6. Besides your wrist, what are other sites on the body
where one can take a pulse?
7. Should the intensity of the pulse be the same at
each different site? If not, explain why.
8. When one takes a pulse, is one feeling an artery or
a vein?
9. What special properties of blood vessels allow one
to feel a pulse?
Extending
10. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
on the person’s pulse rate six months after begin-
ning the exercise program. What aspect of car-
diac output would you expect to be most affected?
Explain your reasoning.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 345

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 10.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Measuring Blood Pressure  Concluding and Communicating

Blood pressure is an important measurable aspect of artery in a turbulent

the circulatory system is . When the ventricles of the manner. This results
heart contract, pressure is increased throughout all the in a loud tapping
arteries. Arterial blood pressure is directly dependent sound that increases
on the amount of blood pumped by the heart per in intensity as the cuff
minute and the resistance to blood flow through the is deflated. The pres-
arterioles. sure at which one can
The arterial blood pressure is determined using first hear sounds is
a device known as a sphygmomanometer. This device termed the SYSTOLIC
consists of an inflatable cuff connected by rubber hoses blood pressure.
to a hand pump and to a pressure gauge graduated As the pressure
in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). The cuff is wrapped in the cuff is dropping,
around the upper arm and initially inflated to a pres- a point is reached
sure that will shut off flow through the brachial artery. where the artery is
The examiner listens for the sounds of blood flow in silent again (no sounds
FIGURE 10.30 Measuring blood
the brachial artery by placing the stethoscope on the can be heard)— this is
pressure
inside of the elbow below the biceps (approximately termed the DIASTOLIC
one inch above the elbow crease). pressure.
At rest, the blood normally goes through the ar-
teries so that the blood in the central part of the artery Materials
moves faster than the blood in the peripheral part.
Steps to follow in measuring blood pressure.
Under these conditions, the artery is silent when one
a) cuff is inflated to a pressure greater than 120
listens.
mmHg, cutting off blood flow through the brachial
When the sphygmomanometer cuff is inflated to a
pressure above the systolic pressure, the flow of blood  sphygmomanometer  prepared tables for
is stopped and the artery is silent again.  stethoscope recording data
As the pressure in the cuff gradually drops, the  student subject
blood is pushed through the compressed walls of the

Arm is Pressure Pressure Pressure

relaxed. in cuff is in cuff drops. in cuff
120 or over. is 70.

120 120
70

Rubber cuff
is inflated
with air to Sounds stop
above systolic at diastolic
artery pressure. Sounds are pressure.
audible at
systolic pressure.
Artery is closed.

FIGURE 10.31 Steps in measuring blood pressure

346 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

(continued)

TABLE 10.2 Normal Blood Pressure for Men and Women at Different Ages

Systolic Pressure Diastolic Pressure

Age in Years Men Women Men Women

10 103 103 69 70

11 104 104 70 71

12 106 106 71 72

13 108 108 72 73

14 110 110 73 74

15 112 112 75 76

16 118 116 73 72

17 121 116 74 72
18 120 116 74 72

19 122 115 75 71

20-24 123 116 76 72

artery. This stops any audible sounds coming from
the artery since there is no blood flow.
b) the pressure in the cuff is released until a loud con-
tinuous tapping is heard – this occurs at the sys-
tolic pressure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32,
the systolic pressure is 120 mmHg.
c) the pressure in the cuff is decreased slowly until
the tapping can no longer be heard and the artery
is again silent. This represents the point where the
pressure in the cuff is equal to the diastolic pres-
sure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32, the dias-
tolic pressure is 70 mmHg.
Procedure
1. Work in pairs. Those who are to have their blood
pressure measured should be seated quietly for at
least one minute with both shirt sleeves rolled up.
Before attaching the sphygmomanometer, take the
pulse of the person who is having his or her blood
pressure measured. To measure the pulse, you place
your index and middle finger on the radial pulse
and count the number of beats in one minute.
2. Attach the cuff of the sphygmomanometer snugly
around the upper arm.
3. Place the stethoscope directly below the cuff in
the bend of the elbow joint.
4. Close the valve of the bulb by turning it clockwise.
Pump air into the cuff until the pressure gauge goes
past 180 mmHg.
5. Turn the valve of the bulb counterclockwise and
slowly release the air from the cuff. Listen for heart
sounds.
6. When you first hear the heart sounds, note the pres-
sure on the gauge. This is the systolic pressure.
7. Continue to slowly release air and listen until the
clear thumping sound of the pulse becomes strong
and then fades. When you last hear the full heart
beat, note the pressure. This is the diastolic
pressure.
8. Repeat the measurement one more time. Record
the average systolic and diastolic pressure, and
pulse in your notebook in Table 10.3.
9. Have your partner stand up for at least two min-
utes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.
10. Have your partner lie down for at least two min-
utes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 347

(continued)

Observation Table:
TABLE 10.3 Blood Pressure

Systolic Pressure #1 Systolic Pressure #2 Average Systolic Pressure

Position (mmHg) (mmHg) (mmHg)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down

Diastolic Pressure #1 Diastolic Pressure #2 Average Diastolic Pressure

Position (mmHg) (mmHg) (mmHg)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down

Pulse Rate #1 Pulse Rate #2 Average Pulse Rate

Position (beats/min) (beats/min) (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down

Complete Table 10.4 using the data from Table 10.3. For blood pressure, put the
systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. (BP = SP/DP)

TABLE 10.4 Blood Pressure Summary Table

Average Systolic Average Diastolic Average Blood Average Pluse

Position Pressure (mmHg) Pressure (mmHg) Pressure (SP/DP) Rate (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down

Concluding and Communicating Extending

1. Would you expect the blood pressure readings to
be the same in all arteries? Explain.
2. In what position did you record the lowest sys-
tolic pressure? Why do you think this is so?
3. How do the measurements compare to the expected
average for the person’s sex and age?
4. How would exercise affect systolic blood pressure?
Explain your answer.
5. With reference to Table 10.2, why is there a vari-
ation in systolic and diastolic pressure among mem-
bers in different age groups and different genders?
6. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
on the person’s blood pressure six months after be-
ginning the exercise program.

348 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 3 (Section 10.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Fetal Pig Dissection  Analyzing and Interpreting

 Concluding and Communicating

Animals used for scientific research and dissection help Procedure

us to understand our own bodies and how they func-
tion in health and disease. The fetal pig will be used
Part 1 External Anatomy
as a representative mammal. As a fetus, the pig
1. The fetal pig has four main body segments: the
receives nutrients and oxygen from its mother through
head, neck, trunk, and tail. You will also be able to
the umbilical cord. Read the safety and dissection
identify four appendages and an umbilical cord.
directions carefully.
2. Use the string to measure your pig from the tip of
its snout to the base of its tail. Lay the pig flat on
Purpose the dissection tray and stretch the string between
To study the external and internal anatomy of the fetal the nose and the tail. Measure the section of string
pig to gain perspectives on the following: against a ruler and match your measurement in
 the relative positions and sizes of organs Table 10.5 to determine the age of your pig.
 the interrelations between organs and organ sys-
TABLE 10.5 Relationship of Fetal Pig Length to Age in Utero
tems
 the scientific process of dissection and its applica-
LAL1 Length of String (cm) Age of Pig
tions for anatomy and physiology.
0–10 cm 20 days
10–20 cm 30–35 days
CAUTION: 20–30 cm 45–50 days
– read through the entire activity before you begin.
40–50 cm 55 days
– wear protective goggles for the entire dissection.
100 cm 70 days
– wear plastic gloves when dissecting; if your skin comes
in contact with the preservative, rinse your hand under 150 cm 80 days
cold running water. 200 cm 100 days
– know where to find the eye wash station and first aid 300 cm 120 days
kit; check that the eye wash station works and that the
trunk
first aid kit is stocked.
– work near an open window or in a well ventilated area.
– scrub your hands and fingernails using the antibacterial transverse plane
scrub. Wipe your counter clean with paper towels. Ensure
that no bits of dissected pig wash down the sink. neck
– properly clean the dissection tray and dissection tools; dorsal/superior
head
dispose of the fetal pig according to instructions.
tail

Materials cranial/
anterior
caudal/
posterior
 safety goggles  dissecting microscope
 non-latex gloves  magnifying hand lens
 plastic lab apron  blunt probe frontal plane
 preserved fetal pig  dissecting pins
 dissecting tray  antibacterial soap
ventral/inferior
 string  paper towel
 scissors appendages
 scalpel
FIGURE 10.32 Body segments and planes of section in a
 ruler fetal pig.


CHAPTER 10 Circulation 349

(continued)

3. Place the fetal pig on its back (dorsal surface) and
locate the pairs of nipples along the ventral surface.
Both male and female fetal pigs have these nipples.
Notice the umbilical cord.
a) What is the function of the umbilical cord?
b) How many blood vessels do you see within the
umbilical cord?
4. Use the diagrams to determine the sex of your pig.
In females, the urogenital opening is located slightly
ventral to the anus. A small, spiked tissue often
called the genital papilla projects from the uro-
genital opening. See Figure 10.33 (a). In males, the
scrotum containing the testes can be located just
ventral to the anus. The urogenital opening of the
male is found immediately posterior to the umbil-
ical cord. See Figure 10.33 (b). What is the sex of
your pig?
5. Examine the feet of the fetal pig. Indicate the po-
sition and the number of toes.
6. Examine the head of your fetal pig. The flaps of skin
surrounding the ear are called pinnae. The fetal pig
has a snout and nostrils. Examine the chin of
your fetal pig. Do you notice any hair? Does your
fetal pig have eyelashes? Does your fetal pig have
a tongue?
Part 2 Internal Anatomy
Abdominal Cavity and the Organs of Digestion
You will be directed to examine various organs as they
become visible. It is important to follow the direc-
tions carefully and to only remove those organs that
you are specifically asked to remove. Proceed carefully.
One simple technique to ensure that you do not make
any wrong incisions is to make superficial incisions
first and then to follow those with deeper incisions.
7. Exposing the ventral surface: With the pig still on
its dorsal surface, attach one piece of string to each
of the pig’s ankles and another to its opposite wrist.
Pull the strings from an opposing wrist and ankle
under the dissecting pan and tie. Repeat the pro-
cedure for the other wrist and pull again to explose
the ventral surface. (See Figure 10.34)
To effectively expose the inner organs of your
fetal pig, make five incisions.
 The first incision – cutting the ventral surface:
(Hint: because the pig may be rubbery from
being preserved, sharp dissecting scissors are
better than a scalpel for this incision.)
Make a 10-15 cm incision just in front of the
umbilical cord and cut towards the head.
Follow incision 1 in Figure 10.34. Sketch the
incision first using a black marker on the
surface of the fetal pig. This will ensure the
accuracy of your incisions.
 The second incision – cutting towards the pos-
terior surface. Use a scalpel to make an incision
towards the posterior of the pig. Follow
incision 2 in Figure 10.34.
 The third incision – cutting towards the lateral
surface. Use scissors to make lateral incisions
following incision 3 in Figure 10.34.

umbilical umbilical
cord cord urogenital
opening
tail tail
nipples anus nipples anus

genital scrotal sac

papilla
urogenital scrotal
papilla sac

ventral view posterior view ventral view posterior view

female female male male
a) b)

FIGURE 10.33 a) Female pig b) Male pig



350 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

(continued)
3 3
5 5
2 2
4 4
LAL1
FIGURE 10.34 Incisions for dissection of a fetal pig
 The fourth incision – cutting towards the pos-
terior portion of the abdominal cavity. Use a
scalpel to make incisions following incision 4
in Figure 10.34.
 The fifth incision – cutting between the thoracic
and abdominal cavities. Use scissors to make an
incision starting at the midline, and extend the
incision laterally on both sides of the pig. Follow
incision 5 in Figure 10.34. This incision runs
parallel to the diaphragm and separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Hint: you may want to feel for the ribs while
making this incision.
8. Exposing the abdominal cavity: The abdominal cav-
ity is best exposed by pulling apart the flaps at in-
cision 5. Notice the layer of connective tissue called
the peritoneum that holds the abdominal organs
in place. You may need to tease this layer away be-
fore starting your detailed examination of the in-
ternal organs. The posterior portion of the
abdominal cavity is best viewed when the flaps on
incision 4 are pulled apart and secured by pins.
Refer to Figure 10.35 for the digestive organs.
9. Locating the liver and the gallbladder: The liver is
easily seen in the anterior aspect of the abdominal
liver
(lifted
forward
stomach
gallbladder
spleen
small intestine
large intestine
urinary bladder
FIGURE 10.35 The organs of digestion
cavity. The gallbladder is located underneath the
liver. Identify the gallbladder. Look carefully to
see the thin duct that connects the gallbladder to
the small intestine. The liver appears a dark red or
brown colour, because it is engorged with blood.
The liver contains 20% of the total blood supply in
the fetal pig’s body at any given time. Which por-
tion of the small intestine does the gall bladder
connect to?
10. Locating the stomach: Beneath the liver, on the left
side of the fetal pig, is the stomach, which is nor-
mally a hollow organ. The anterior portion of the
stomach is joined to the esophagus. The posterior
junction is attached to the first part of the small
intestine, called the duodenum. With your dissec-
tion tool, try to lift the small intestine. What do you
notice? A thin, transparent film covers the small
intestine. This is called the mesentery. This film or
layer of connective tissue is around other organs.
What is the advantage of having such a
film? Observe the blood vessels running in the
mesentery.
11. Locating the pancreas: The pancreas is located
towards the back wall of the abdominal cavity. It is
a finger-shaped gland that is typically creamy white
in colour. It is best reached by lifting the junction

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 351
(continued)
between the stomach and the small intestine. As
an accessory organ in digestion, what vital sub-
stances does the pancreas provide?
12. Locating the spleen: Look toward the left side of the
fetal pig to see the spleen, found near the outer cur-
vature of the stomach. What is its function?
13. Remove the stomach by cuts at the junctions with
the esophagus and the small intestine. Cut along
the midline of the stomach, rinse the stomach with
water, and examine it under the dissecting micro-
scope. Observe the lining of the stomach.
14. Locating the small and large intestines: Carefully
use your scissors to snip away the mesentery tis-
sue. Unravel the small intestine. Locate the large
intestine and compare its structure and length with
those of the small intestine. How is the small in-
testine different from the large intestine? How long
is your pig’s small intestine?
Thoracic Cavity and the Organs of Respiration
and Circulation
15. Exposing the thoracic cavity: Using dissecting pins,
fold back and pin the flaps of skin that cover the
Ventral View of Heart and Major Blood Vessels
trachea left common
carotid artery
left
brachiocephalic trunk subclavian
artery
superior
vena cava aortic arch
pulmonary
right atrium trunk
left atrium
right
ventricle
inferior
vena cava
right lung
coronary vessels
FIGURE 10.36 Ventral view of heart and major blood vessels
in the fetal pig
352 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the area
between incisions 3 and 5. Refer to Figure 10.36
for the heart and major blood vessels.
16. Locating the heart: The heart is found between the
two lungs and is protected by the rib cage. In the
adult human, gaining access to the heart is very
difficult, and involves the sawing of the sternum
and spreading of the ribs. In the fetal pig, one does
not need much force to access the heart. In fact,
simple scissors are enough for complish this task.
Can you explain this?
The heart is surrounded by a thin and transparent
film called the pericardium, similar to the mesen-
tery of the small intestine. Remove the pericardial
membrane that encases the heart. Why might for-
ceps be the best tool to accomplish this?
17. Locating each of the major vessels of the heart.
 inferior vena cava: runs from the liver and
lower part of the body to the right side of the
heart; empties into the right atrium.
 superior vena cava: runs from the upper body
of the pig to the right side of the heart; empties
into the right atrium.
 pulmonary trunk: starts at the right ventricle;
transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
 aorta: the largest artery in the circulatory sys-
tem; starts at the left ventricle; branches to
transport blood to all major organs. Passes
through the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
 aortic arch: the part of the aorta that arises
from the left ventricle. Two major vessels come
from the aortic arch; the brachiocephalic trunk
splits to send vessels to the right forelimb and
the head, the left subclavian artery supplies
the left forelimb.
18. Discovering the four chambers of the heart. Using
your blunt probe, locate the right atrium.
Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart
here. Separate the inferior and superior venae cavae
from the right atrium using scissors.
Locate the left atrium and notice that several ves-
sels enter it. These are the pulmonary veins from
the lungs. Separate the pulmonary veins from the
heart using scissors.
left Find the aorta coming off the left ventricle and sep-
ventricle
arate it from the heart using scissors.
left lung Find the pulmonary trunk arising from the right
ventricle and separate it from the heart using scis-
sors.
Review the flow of blood through the heart. The
pulmonary circulation begins at the right atrium;
blood flows to the right ventricle, pulmonary trunk

(continued)
and pulmonary arteries and then to the lungs. The
blood returns to the left atrium by way of the pul-
monary veins. The systemic circulation begins at
the left atrium; blood flows to the left ventricle, aorta
and to all systems of the body. Blood returns to the
heart by way of the superior and inferior venae
cavae, which enter the heart at the right atrium.
Remove the heart from the thoracic cavity. You may
need to tease away any connective tissue. Hold the
heart in your hand and orient it as it would appear
in the fetal pig. Note the large vessel that traverses
the ventral surface of the heart. This is the coro-
nary artery and it provides oxygenated blood to
the heart itself.
19. The dorsal surface of the heart. Turn the heart over
and observe the dorsal surface. Refer to Figure
10.37. and observe the entry of the venae cavae
and pulmonary veins into the right and left atria.
superior
vena cava
left atrium
dorsal surface
of heart
left
ventricle
aorta
inferior
vena cava
FIGURE 10.37 Dorsal view of the heart in the fetal pig
20. Dissection of the heart: Make an incision that sep-
arates the left side from the right side of the heart.
Note the inner walls of the heart and their texture.
Look at the thickness of the left and right ventri-
cles. Compare the size of the wall of a ventricle and
an atrium. What do you notice?
21. Locating the lungs: the lungs are closely associated
with the heart. They oxygenate the blood received
from the right ventricle via the pulmonary arteries,
and deliver oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
via the pulmonary veins. The lungs are relatively
large because the bronchial tree is contained within
them. Do you notice any difference in the size of
the two lungs?
20. Make a lateral incision across the heart and explore
the heart chamber. Compare the size of the wall
of a ventricle with that of an atrium. Why does
the left ventricle contain more muscle than the right
ventricle?
21. Locate the spongy lungs on either side of the heart
and the trachea leading into the lungs.
Why do the lungs feel spongy?
22. Place your index finger on the trachea and push
downward. Describe what happens.
What function do the cartilaginous rings of the tra-
chea serve?
Concluding and Communicating
1. Write a lab report on your dissection. Include the
following sections.
Abdominal cavity
Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
abdominal cavity.
Describe the structure and function of each organ.
a) esophagus
b) stomach
c) liver
d) gallbladder
e) small intallestine
f) large intestine
Thoracic cavity
Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
thoracic cavity.
g) Describe the structure of the lungs.
h) Describe the structure of the heart.
i) State the functions of the diaphragm.
2. You have just learned more about various internal
systems through dissecting a fetal pig. There are
other methods of learning about systems. For ex-
ample, there are computer software packages
that allow students to conduct “virtual dissections.”
Using a T-chart, outline the pros and cons of dis-
secting fetal pigs.
Why Dissecting the Pig Is Why Dissecting the Pig Is
Valuable Not Valuable
3. After the dissection, the specimens need to be
disposed of safely. This can be an environmental
hazard, since fetal pigs are bathed in a preserva-
tive. Investigate what preservatives were used on
the fetal pigs you dissected. How might these harm
the environment if the pigs are not disposed of
properly?
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 353
 C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

TABLE 10.6 Structures and their Function in the Mammalian Heart

Structure Function

Superior and inferior venae cavae Bring deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulatory system to the heart
Right atrium Receives deoxygenated blood
Tricuspid valve Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right atrium
Right ventricle Pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulatory system
Pulmonary semilunar valve Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right ventricle from the pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary artery Brings deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Pulmonary veins Bring oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Left atrium Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
Bicuspid or mitial value Prevents the back flow of oxygenated blood into the left atrium
Left ventricle Pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation
Aortic semilunar valve Prevents oxygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta
Aorta Largest artery in the body; accepts blood from the left ventricle during systole

PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava aorta

lungs 7
pulmonary
3 arteries

pulmonary
The right side The left side of 4 veins
of the heart the heart pumps 5
pumps oxygenated right
atrium left
de-oxygenated blood to the
1 atrium
blood to the rest of the
lungs. body.

6 left
2 ventricle

SYSTEMIC inferior
CIRCULATION vena cava right
a) b) ventricle

FIGURE 10.38 A double circulation system.

a) Blood returns from the systemic circulation, through the veins, to
the right side of the heart. The pulmonary circulation pumps the blood
to the lungs to be oxygenated, and then returns it to the left side of
the heart. The blood is then pumped back out of the left side of the
heart, into the systemic circulation and through the arteries of the
body.
354 UNIT 3 Internal Systems
b) The right atrium of the heart (1) is filled with deoxygenated blood
by the superior and inferior vena cava. The right atrium pumps the
blood into (2) the right ventricle, which contracts and sends the blood
through (3) the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. After picking up oxy-
gen in the lungs, the blood is transferred back to the heart, through
(4) the pulmonary veins, and moves into (5) the left atrium. The left
atrium pumps the blood into (6) the left ventricle, which contracts
and pumps the blood out through (7) the aorta, and into the rest of
the body
Key Terms
anemia diastole
aorta dorsal vessel
atherosclerosis electrocardiogram
atria erythrocytes
bypass surgery exercise stress test
cardiac catheterization fibrin
cardiac cycle gill capillaries
compensation hemoglobin
coronary circulation hypertension
Essential Understandings
10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the Components of
Blood
 The circulatory system consists of three main
components: the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
 The circulatory system transports nutrients and oxy-
gen and also carbon dioxide and waste.
 The circulatory system interacts with many other
body systems (for example, respiratory, digestive).
 Blood has two main components: the plasma por-
tion (55%) and the cellular portion (45%) composed
of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
 Red blood cells transport oxygen; white blood cells
fight infection; platelets help in blood clotting.
 Genetic conditions affect the makeup of hemoglobin
and the performance of red blood cells.
10.2 The Structure and Function of the Human Heart and
Blood Vessels
 The heart consists of four chambers: two atria and
two ventricles.
 Coronary arteries supply the heart with oxygen and
nutrients so that it can function properly.
 The human heart is a double pump: the right side
leads to the pulmonary circulation while the left side
leads to the systemic circulation.
 Pulmonary circulation carries blood between the
heart and the lungs. Systemic circulation carries
blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
 The heart beats regularly and this cardiac cycle con-
sists of systole (a period of contraction) and diastole
(a period of relaxation).
Consolidate Your Understanding
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 317 and review
the factors you listed to prevent heart disease. Revise
your list based on what you learned in this chapter.
2. Draw a concept map to describe how the circulatory
system functions.
leucocytes superior and inferior vena
myocardium cava
plasma systemic circuit
platelets systole
pseudohearts ventral vessel
pulmonary circuit ventricles
septum
sinoatrial node
sphygmomanometer
 Arteries carry blood from the heart, and veins carry
blood to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries
and veins.
 Arteries and veins consist of three layers of tissue.
Arteries are more muscular, veins are more elastic.
Veins have valves for unidirectional blood flow.
10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and Disease
 Hypertension: high blood pressure, if prolonged, it
can damage the heart and other blood vessels.
 Angina: chest pains that occur when the heart is de-
prived of oxygen.
 Heart attack: a more severe form of angina where
some of the heart’s muscle cells die.
 Stroke: a blood vessel is damaged or has a blood clot
within it, preventing oxygen from reaching the brain.
 Nitroglycerine: a drug used to treat angina by
dilating the coronary arteries.
10.2 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms
 The earthworm has a closed circulatory system con-
sisting of the dorsal vessel and the ventral vessel,
and five tiny arches called “pseudohearts.”
 The fish has a closed circulatory system consisting
of a two-chambered heart with one atrium and one
ventricle; oxygen is obtained through the gill
capillaries.
 The amphibian has a closed circulatory system con-
sisting of a three-chambered heart with two atria
and one ventricle. Blood that enters the ventricle
is mixed (oxygenated and deoxygenated).
3. Create an analogy that can be used to explain the
relationship between the digestive, circulatory, and
respiratory systems you have studied.
4. Reflect on your learning. Explain why analogies are used
in teaching and learning.
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 355
C H A P T E R 10 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts b) prevent blood from flowing back into the left atrium
c) prevent blood from flowing back into the lungs
1. Which one of the following is not a component of a cir- d) prevent blood from flowing back into the right ven-
culatory system? tricle
a) artery
b) valve 10. A sphygmomanometer gives you a reading of 120/80.
c) vessels The number on top represents the:
d) tongue a) systolic pressure
b) cardiac pressure
2. The circulation involving the heart is called c) diastolic pressure
a) renal d) blood pressure
b) coronary
c) pulmonary 11. Why is your carotid (neck) pulse stronger than your ra-
d) systemic dial (wrist) pulse?

3. A site of exchange of materials between the circulatory 12. Define pulse and pulse pressure.
system and the body cells is the
a) artery 13. Describe the structure, function, and origin of platelets.
b) vein
c) arteriole 14. List some of the risk factors for coronary heart disease.
d) capillary Referring to your list, underline the ones that are pre-
ventable.
4. The backward flow of blood in the veins is prevented by
a) muscles 15. What is the effect of nicotine on the circulatory
b) valves system?
c) the heartbeat
d) epithelial tissue 16. What causes varicose veins?

5. Where is blood pressure the lowest?

a) arteries Applying Inquiry/
b) arterioles Communication Skills
c) capillaries
d) veins
17. You are conducting a taste test to gather data on how
caffeine and decaffeinated beverages affect the heart rate.
6. The liquid portion of blood is called
You have just concocted three new spritzer drinks. You
a) blood
collect the following data about the effect of the con-
b) lymph
sumption of 355 mL of your product on consumers’ heart
c) plasma
rate. You surveyed 100 people who taste-tested your
d) serum
products. The average effects on heart rate are sum-
marized below.
7. What is found at the core of each chain of a hemoglobin
molecule?
a) Oxygen Beverage Before Immediately 20 minutes
b) Iron consuming the after later
c) Carbon dioxide beverage
d) Water spritzer A 70 bpm 75 bpm 85 bpm
spritzer B 70 bpm 70 bpm 70 bpm
8. This heart chamber receives oxygen-poor blood.
a) right atrium spritzer C 70 bpm 70 bpm 78 bpm
b) left atrium
c) right ventricle
a) Which drink do you think is decaffeinated?
d) left ventricle
b) Explain why it is important to take the heart rate
before and after a trial.
9. The function of the pulmonary semilunar valve is to
c) From the data, suggest reasons why spritzer C only
a) prevent blood from flowing back into the right
elicited an increased heart rate sometime after
atrium
consumption.

356 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

18. The concentration of red blood cells and white blood cells 23. The human heart pumps blood at an average rate of
is given below: 92 mL/s. How much blood is pumped in one day?
Red blood cells: 4.6 x 106 per mL Express your answer in L/min.
White blood cells: 6.0 x 103 per mL
In one litre of blood, what is the ratio of white blood cells
to red blood cells?
Making Connections
19. Why do you think athletes are recommended to elevate
24. In recent years, there have been many reports of blood
a wounded area and apply direct pressure to the injury
tainted with infections being transfused into individuals.
with a cold compress?
Biotechnology companies are now looking into fabricat-
ing a synthetic blood product.
20. The heart is the hardest working muscle in your body.
a) Research new developments in the pursuit of a syn-
The heart masses of three different humans are given
thetic blood product.
below.
b) What impacts might such a product have on
Description of Human Newborn Adult Athlete society?
c) What are some ethical considerations that must be
Heart Mass 20 g 300 g 500 g
investigated before such a product could be used for
human transfusion?
a) Calculate how many times greater the heart mass
of an adult is when compared to that of a newborn.
25. A high percentage of the Canadian population fall vic-
b) You are born with all the muscle cells that you will
tim to strokes each year.
have in your entire life. Account for the difference
a) Research the frequency of strokes in the Canadian
between the heart mass of an adult versus an
population.
athlete.
b) Which sector of the population is most likely to be
at risk of having a stroke? Explain.
21. A stress test is a technology that can help detect coro-
c) What impacts do people with strokes have on the
nary artery disease. This involves having an individual
health care system?
walk and/or run on a treadmill while attached to elec-
d) What medical professionals contribute to the care
trodes that monitor the heart rate and rhythm. Below
and maintenance of stroke patients?
are the stress test results of two individuals:

Age Heart Maximum Heart Symptoms 26. Many areas in health care require the handling of blood
rate heart rate and blood products that may harbour serious infections.
before rate 30 min a) What are three common infections that can be found
test during after in the blood?
test test b) What precautions can be taken to properly handle
and dispose of blood and blood products?
Person 48 68 192 82 Slight pain in c) What safety training programs and symbols can help
A the knees in dealing with blood products?
during the test
27. Aspirin is a drug therapy that is now the cornerstone
Person 62 80 118 110 Feeling of chest
of treatment for individuals with many types of heart dis-
B tightness five
ease. For heart patients, there is a saying: “An aspirin
minutes into the
test a day keeps the doctor away.” This statement is based
on the fact that aspirin is an effective blood thinner.
a) Research the mechanism by which aspirin thins the
a) Based on the above information, which person prob-
blood.
ably has heart disease?
b) From the digestive system, recall where aspirin is
b) What other questions would you like to ask this in-
absorbed.
dividual to determine his or her other risk factors?
c) What are the important complications of aspirin
c) How does one’s level of fitness relate to one’s heart
therapy?
rate 30 min after completing exercise?

22. Using your knowledge of the structure of arteries and

veins, what would you expect a serious arterial bleed
to look like? How would a serious venous bleed appear?

CHAPTER 10 Circulation 357

 EXPLORING CAREERS

Preparing for a Career in Biology

As you’ve seen, biology is a fast-grow-
ing and changing area in which to work;
it is full of opportunities. Within biology,
there is a wide range of topics, or fields,
to match with your interests as you
explore career options. Keep in mind
that within all of these, there will be peo-
ple working as technicians, researchers,
teachers, administrators, and so on—in
fact, there will be an array of choices.
Term Meaning
Bachelor of Science This is the degree in science granted by a university.
(B.Sc.) It is called an undergraduate degree because you need
a B.Sc. before you can apply for graduate degree
programs or to professional schools, such as medicine.
It is similar to a high school diploma, since you need
a certain number of credits to complete your B.Sc. and
some of these are required courses.
Many universities offer a variety of three- or four- year
B.Sc. programs, but all start with a common first year
in which students take introductory courses in the three
sciences plus calculus. Each year after that,
students choose courses to specialize in a particular
field or take a variety of science and other courses to
gain more general knowledge.
What they have in common is that al-
most all require at least an undergrad-
uate degree from a university. But how
do you choose the university you wish
to attend? While there are many factors,
the most important is to find out which
universities offer the undergraduate
degree you need in the field that inter-
ests you.
Understanding University
Jargon
Every area of human endeavour has
its own specialized terms. Just think of
the music industry, sports, or even your
biology class. You’ll encounter a lot of
terms as you start considering a uni-
versity education, some familiar, some
new. Whenever you are unsure of what
a term means, ask. A few of the more
common ones are shown to the left.

Master of Science These are graduate degrees taken by a person who

(M.Sc.) wishes to become an expert in a particular field. Usually,
Doctor of Philosophy a student takes a B.Sc., then an M.Sc., then the Ph.D.
(Science) (Ph.D.) Most graduate students receive funding to cover the
cost of their studies by working in their fields as
research or teaching assistants at the university.

Faculty and Department These are major divisions within a university. A faculty
of science, for example, would include several
departments, such as biology, chemistry, and physics.
These departments may be split into more specialized
ones, such as the department of zoology or microbi-
ology. (Note: A large or very distinct faculty within a
university may be called a college or a school. For
example, the University of Guelph contains a College FIGURE 1 University “calendars” are like
of Biological Science. McMaster University contains catalogues. They list all of the courses available
to undergraduate students as well as information
a School of Medicine.)
about the university and degree programs.

358 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Comparing B.Sc. Programs For example, if you are interested
in human biology or medicine, you could
1. Obtain at least two university
take a B.Sc. in biology at any university,
calendars from your guidance
but some universities offer a B.Sc.
department, university students you
(Medical) program. Such a program will
know, or by contacting the univer-
let you specialize further by adding a
sities directly. On-line? Universities
“major,” such as genetics, physics,
maintain Web sites with information
gerontology, biochemistry, microbiology,
from their calendars. They are easy
and so on. (A “major” is when most
to search and provide specific
courses focus on a particular area.)
contacts to email with questions. (An
excellent list of university links is at
2. Using the information from the cal-
www.uwaterloo.ca/canu/index.html.)
endars, answer this question: Which
Locate and compare the following
university offers B.Sc. programs that
information:
 most closely match my field of
a list of faculties
 interest?
the faculty of science (Hint: How
many professors are listed
compared with other faculties Looking Outward
in the university?) Do you enjoy biology, but you aren’t sure
 the department of biology (Hint: which field interests you the most?
This could be called a college or University calendars can help!
school, or could be broken
further into fields within biology.) 3. Read through the course descrip-
 the section on “degree pro- tions. Write down the titles of any
grams” listing B.Sc. options that really grab your attention. Don’t
(Hint: You will find several. worry about what they are or
Remember, first year is essen- whether your list makes “sense.”
tially the same for all, so there’s  Make a separate list for each
time to find out more about university you are considering.
these options and talk to  Look at your lists for any
undergraduate advisors on patterns or trends. They could
campus. Many students make be a good indicator of what
changes as they go through you’d enjoy doing.
their degree program.)  Which lists had the greatest
 the section describing the courses number of “grabbers”? This
offered by this department may mean you should consider
those universities. Keep your
While all Canadian universities offer lists handy as you continue
an excellent B.Sc. degree, each one has preparing for your future.
its particular emphasis. For example, a
university with a School of Medicine will
likely offer a wide choice of human
biology–related B.Sc. degrees. Use this
emphasis to help you decide which
universities might best suit your needs.
At this point, don’t think of a specific
career, but rather of a field that
interests you.

EXPLORING CAREERS 359

 ACHIEVEMENT TASK

Dissection in Science Education

Background Information
Traditionally students in secondary school biology classrooms have dis-
sected frogs, fetal pigs, and other vertebrates and invertebrates to learn
about and compare the different internal systems. Dissection has been gen-
erally accepted as a standard way to learn science, but today there are dif-
fering opinions on whether or not dissection in the classroom is acceptable.
Technology now makes it possible to approach dissection in alternate
ways. Virtual dissection on computer allows students to see, on the com-
puter screen, the same results they would see when performing the
dissection in their school lab. Some teachers believe that the first-hand
experience with the dissection procedure is the best way to learn.

SCENARIO

You are a member of a School Board in Ontario. Your committee is review-

ing a proposal to discontinue dissection in biology courses. You will write
a letter to the School Board Trustees expressing your opinion on the issue.

360 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

Part A: Selection of Speciment
1. Explain why vertebrates, such as the fetal
pig are used for classroom dissection.
2 Research the internal systems of other ver-
tebrates, such as a bird, frog, or fish.
Compare and contrast them with the in-
ternal systems of a pig.
Part B: Technical Skills of
Dissection
3. Describe the technical skills that a biology
student learns from performing a dissec-
tion, and why those skills are important.
4. Fetal pigs, as well as other animals used for
dissection, are preserved in formaldehyde.
Research this chemical and describe the
safety procedures that should be followed
during the dissection, and when the dis-
section is completed.
Part C: Perspectives
5. Brainstorm and then research the cultural,
ethical/moral, social, economic, political,
and environmental perspectives on dis-
section at different levels of education (i.e.,
high school, college/university). Display your
research using a visual graphic organizer.
6. Brainstorm and then research alterna-
tives to using dissection in education
(e.g., computer simulation).
7. Prepare two (2) cost-benefit analyses for (a)
using fetal pigs for dissection in the class-
room and (b) using alternative methods of
dissection.
8. Write a letter outlining your position on
whether or not dissection should be dis-
continued in biology courses. In your letter
you should consider the varied cultural
background of students, the costs involved,
and any relevant safety or environmental
issues.
A C H I E V E M E N T TA S K 361
UNIT 3 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 9. Which of the following is not an accessory organ of the
digestive system?
1. All of the following are examples of structures that in- a) stomach
crease surface area, except b) liver
a) villi d) pancreas
b) alveoli d) gallbladder
c) capillaries
d) valves 10. All of the following are components of the small intes-
tine except the:
2. Venules are to veins as the are to bronchi. a) ileum
a) trachea b) colon
b) bronchioles c) duodenum
c) alveoli d) jejunum
d) cilia
11. What key feature do the alveoli in the lungs share with
3. After the right ventricle, blood flows to the the villi in the small intestines?
a) pulmonary artery
b) right atrium 12. What are the dietary recommendations regarding foods
c) pulmonary vein high in fats? How does eating fatty foods affect cardio-
d) vena cava vascular health?

4. Red blood cells are responsible for which one of the
following:
a) carrying oxygen throughout the body
b) carrying hormones throughout the body
c) fighting infection throughout the body
d) getting rid of unwanted wastes
5. The correct sequence of structures in the respiratory sys-
tem from outside to inside is:
a) nostrils, larynx, trachea, pharynx, bronchioles
b) nostrils, bronchi, bronchioles, trachea, alveoli
c) nostrils, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
d) nostrils, bronchi, larynx, bronchioles, alveoli
13. How are the structures of arteries and arterioles in the
circulatory system similar to bronchi and bronchioles in
the respiratory system?
14. Some infants are born with a small hole in their heart.
This hole can be either between the atria or between the
ventricles. Explain how this situation will affect the in-
fant. How do you think this problem could be corrected?
15. The air that patients who are breathing on a respirator
receive must be filtered and humidified externally. A res-
pirator is a tube that provides air directly into the tra-
chea. Explain why this is so.

6. The esophagus is to the digestive system what 16. Hypoxia is a condition caused by a shortage of oxygen
the is to the respiratory system. in the body tissues. Explain why the bone marrow in
a) epiglottis such a patient would produce more red blood cells.
b) lung
c) cilia 17. The heart and lungs are very close to each other. Suggest
d) trachea reasons why this is beneficial.

7. Consider the three systems that we studied in this unit. 18. A stroke occurs when a blood vessel travelling to the
The following structures are common to the digestive brain is damaged. Often, patients who have had a stroke
and respiratory systems, except the: lose the ability to swallow properly and lose control over
a) pharynx some muscles that control the epiglottis. How might this
b) epiglottis affect their airway?
c) oral cavity
d) nasal cavity 19. You have just had a peanut butter and jam sandwich for
lunch. Identify the various macronutrients in the sand-
8. Which of the following vessels is narrower than an wich and outline where they would be digested.
arteriole?
a) aortic artery 20. Often in the winter the air is more dry, making it diffi-
b) capillary cult to breathe. Also, when exercising, individuals
c) artery increase their ventilations per minute. What recom-
d) vein mendations would you make to an athlete who has
asthma but would like to exercise in the winter months?

362 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

21. A doctor was examining fluids from different parts of the 27. What volume of air would an individual at rest breathe
digestive tract. Based on your knowledge of pH and the in during one minute if he has a tidal volume of 500 mL
different organs in the digestive system, match up the and takes a breathe every 5 s? Express your answer in
pH of the fluid with an answer in column 2. Explain litres per minute.
your reasoning.
28. Jay and Lea are exercising. After 20 min of rigorous
pH Organ exercise, they both decide to take their pulse. They both
take their carotid pulse (at their neck). In a 10-s
2.0 Saliva
period, Jay’s pulse is 27 and Lea’s pulse is 33. Assuming
9.0 Stomach that these pulse rates remained constant during the
20-min exercise period, how many more times is Lea’s
7.2 Duodenum heart beating than Jay’s?

22. Orthostatic hypotentsion is a condition whereby you feel
dizzy if you go from a lying-down to a standing posi-
tion too quickly, for example, when you get out of bed in
the morning. Using your knowledge of blood vessels and
the structural differences between arteries and veins,
account for dizzyness. Why might this be more prob-
lematic in the elderly?
23. The first aid for a severe bleed is to apply direct pres-
sure to the wound. Taking into account safety, you are a
first aider and you notice that a child has fallen off a
swing and has started to bleed. You also notice that the
blood is spurting from the child’s arm.
a) What type of vessel do you think the child has
injured?
b) What safety precautions should you take before help-
ing the child?
c) Why is it standard first aid practice to apply direct
pressure to a bleed?
29. You have been placed on a carbohydrate-reduced diet
and you are only allowed to consume 260 Cal at
lunchtime. Assuming that you will only have crackers
for lunch, and each cracker is 50 kJ, how many can you
have? (Hint: 1 C = 4.18 kJ).
Round your answer to the nearest cracker!!!
30. The heart rate for an average-sized healthy adult is 72
beats per minute. The heart pumps an average of 80 mL
of blood during systole. How much blood does the heart
pump in one minute, in litres?
31. Examine the following data:
Activity Pulse Rate (bpm)
sleeping 56
eating 80
running for the Bus 150

Applying Inquiry/
a) How many times would a person’s heart beat if he
Communication Skills or she slept for 2 hours?
b) How much time would a person have to spend “run-
24. Vomiting can be caused by numerous factors, including ning” in order for his or her heart beat to be equal
motion sickness, food poisoning, and unpleasant smells. to 30 min of sleeping?
a) Vomiting is a mechanism that begins in the brain.
Research how this mechanism works to induce vom- 32. Mountain climbing places an enormous demand on the
iting from the stomach. cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Below you can
b) Often, vomiting can lead to severe dehydration. find the respiratory rate and the heart rate for an indi-
Brainstorm the effects of dehydration on the circu- vidual who is embarking upon a strenuous climb.
latory system.
Day Altitude (m) Respiratory Heart Rate
25. Mrs. Smith is a 45-year-old lady who comes to you be- Rate (beats/min)
cause she has decided to make exercise a new part of (breaths/min)
her daily regimen. When you speak to her, she tells you 2 0 13 52
that she has a history of asthma, diabetes, and angina. 4 1000 14 55
You also note that her BMI is 32 kg/m 2 . From your 6 1500 17 68
knowledge of the digestion, respiration, and circulatory 8 2500 24 92
systems, design an exercise regimen for Mrs. Smith, 10 3000 28 108
taking into account her current illnesses. 12 3500 30 112
14 4000 34 116
26. What is the mass of an individual who is 6 feet tall and
has a BMI of 28.5 kg/m2?

UNIT REVIEW 363

 a) Construct two graphs: one that plots Respiratory 36. Individuals who are selected for space travel must
Rate against Altitude, and the other that plots Heart have a high level of cardiovascular fitness. Some hy-
Rate against Altitude. pothesize that the microgravity environment found in
b) What is the trend between heart rate and respira- space places a large physiological stress on the cardio-
tory rate as altitude increases? vascular system.
c) What do you suspect would happen to the heart rate a) Research the phenomenon of microgravity and de-
and the respiratory rate if the individual stayed at scribe its effects on the circulatory system.
the same altitude for several days? b) Do you think it would be possible for humans to live
d) How many more times does the climber’s heart have in a microgravity environment for an extended pe-
to beat in one minute at 4000 m than at sea level? riod of time? Write a position paper to justify your
views.
c) With the increase in global population, construct a
PMI chart as to whether space habitation a viable
Making Connections
alternative.
33. Osteoporosis is a systemic disease that affects the mass
37. Improvements in fleets of airplanes have enabled indi-
and density of bone. Generally, from the age of approx-
viduals to travel for long periods of time in comfort.
imately 30 to the time of menopause, a woman’s bone
However, some passengers still complain of leg cramp-
density is relatively constant. It begins to decrease
ing and indigestion. Based on your knowledge of the
once the woman becomes menopausal and decreases
blood vessels in the venous system, how do you think
rapidly in the first five to ten years after menopause.
that sitting for long periods of times affects blood in this
a) What technology is used to make the diagnosis of
system?
osteoporosis?
a) Airline companies are designing their meals to be
b) What risk factors place older women at a higher risk
more nutritious. Contact a local airline and ask about
for developing this disease?
the nutrition options available for passengers.
c) There are several dietary and lifestyle changes that
b) What are some special dietary considerations that
can affect bone mineral density. Research the role
airplanes provide for? Why is this consideration im-
of calcium, vitamin D, alcohol, and caffeine on bone
portant to patrons?
density.
d) Design a nutrition and exercise regimen that you
38. Allergies to bee stings and certain foods, especially
would recommend to a woman who already has
peanuts, are fairly common in the general population.
osteoporosis.
Many individuals with such allergies carry around an
Epi-pen, which contains epinephrine.
34. When someone is undergoing surgery, he or she is
a) Research the role of epinephrine in anaphylactic
usually given an anesthetic. However, during surgery it
shock. Why might it be important for a daycare
is very important to monitor a patient’s blood pressure,
worker to be skilled in using an Epi-pen?
heart rate, and temperature.
b) Rescue breathing is something that might have to
a) Research the affects of anesthetics on the cardio-
occur if the airway becomes completely obstructed.
vascular system.
Consult your local Red Cross society to learn more
b) Are there any individuals that may not be able to
about when rescue breathing should be performed.
benefit from this type of treatment?
c) What does the term “Do Not Resuscitate” mean?
c) Many individuals participate in health care team
Contact your local hospital to learn when this is ob-
during a surgery. Brainstorm the role of five of these
served in patient care.
individuals, and summarize in a chart some of the
educational qualifications that these individuals re-
39. Eating disorders in the general population are common,
quire.
especially in adolescent girls. Some say that the popu-
lar media is partly to blame for promoting an unhealthy
35. Pregnancy is associated with many changes in nutrition
body image. A local teen magazine has approached you
and health.
to write an article on what constitutes a healthy body
a) According to the Canada Food Guide to Healthy
image.
Eating, how do the nutritional requirements during
a) Brainstorm what you think a healthy body image
pregnancy differ from those of someone who is
entails.
not pregnant?
b) How has body image changed through time? It might
b) Hypothesize why pregnant women need more iron
be helpful if you look at the views of women through
than non-pregnant women.
the ages (Medieval, Elizabethan, Victorian,
c) Describe the prenatal care that is important to en-
Contemporary).
sure that both the mother and the fetus are healthy
c) There are dolls available on toy store shelves whose
during pregnancy.
body frames are more realistic representations of

364 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

 Canadian women. Do you think that these dolls are
effective in promoting healthy body images among
pre-teen girls who play with them?
d) What are some ways in which a healthy body image
can be promoted to adolescent girls?
40. Your uncle has recently been experiencing chest pain
while going for his morning walk. He also smokes and
has high blood pressure. After consulting with his fam-
ily doctor, he tells you that he is going for an exercise
stress test at the hospital. He is not really aware of what
this test involves. Being an expert biologist, you decide
to help him out.
a) Phone a local community agency, such as the Heart
and Stroke Foundation, and find out more about
this test.
b) Design a pamphlet that would educate people like
your uncle about undergoing such a test.
c) What strain do patients with heart disease place on
Ontario’s health care system?
d) Account for why heart disease is so prevalent in
North American society as compared to fish-eating
communities.
41. Susan has not been feeling well for almost two months
now. She goes to the doctor and complains of aches and
pains, a cough, and difficulty breathing. Although the doc-
tor thinks that this sounds like a simple cold, he orders
blood work to rule out any other problems. Later that
same day, the lab urgently phones the doctor, and reads
the results to him over the phone. They are as follows:
Hemoglobin 127 (g.L–1) (Normal female:
120 160 g.L–1)
Platelets 340 000/mL (Normal:
150 000  400 000 /mL
White Blood Cell Count 58 103/mL (Normal:
4.8 10.8  103/mL)
a) What is the apparent abnormality in the blood from
Susan’s blood test?
b) Based on this information, what important condi-
tion must the doctor now consider?
42. The following is a list of different blood pressures
taken at various points along the circulatory tree of the
same individual.
Vessel 1: 70/40 mm Hg
Vessel 2: 90/60 mm Hg
Vessel 3: 150/105 mm Hg
Which point likely represents the blood pressure at the
aorta? Based on what you have learned in this chapter,
how does blood pressure change as one moves further
away from the heart?
43. The cardiac output is the amount of blood that is pumped
out by the heart per minute. It is the product of the stroke
volume and the heart rate. Refer to the table below
that describes changes in stroke volume and heart rate
during exercise.
Stroke volume Heart rate
(mL) (beats per minute)
At rest 75 80
During maximum exercise 110 195
a) What is the cardiac output at rest?
b) What is the cardiac output during maximum exer-
cise?
c) If a person desired a cardiac output of 10.8L, and
had a heart rate of 120 beats per minute, what
would the stroke volume have to be?
44. Stress is one of the leading contributors to heart disease.
Our society, though more efficient, seems to be more
stressed out!
a) Design a survey to assess the stress level of your
classmates. Ask them specifically to report what fac-
tors make them feel stressed.
b) Analyze the results of the survey and rank which
items cause people the most stress.
c) As a society, what can be implemented in the work-
place to help people maintain healthy stress levels?
d) Why might a company want to invest money in
educating its employees about stress management?
45. Major surgery can often be associated with significant
blood loss requiring transfusion. Sometimes when pa-
tients know that they are scheduled for a major opera-
tion, they opt to bank their blood prior to surgery. Then,
if required, they receive their own blood back during the
operation.
a) Where is blood banking currently being done?
b) How much does it cost to bank your own blood?
c) What are some ways that blood is preserved at a
blood bank?
d) What are the societal and ethical implications of
banking your own blood?
46. Each year, thousands of Canadians learn cardiopul-
monary resuscitation (CPR) through a first aid course.
a) What are some agencies in your local community
that offer such a course?
b) How might knowing CPR help improve the health
of the population?
c) Survey your class to determine the number of peo-
ple who are certified in CPR.
d) How is CPR different when helping an infant, a
young child, or an adult?
UNIT REVIEW 365
 UNIT

Diversity of
4
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
Living Things

I
n ecosystems across the planet, from the lush tropical rain forest to the
park in your own community, the vast diversity of living things is
astounding.
By the end of this unit, To manage, comprehend, and record biodiversity, biologists collect
you will be able to: organisms and study their similarities and differences. Some organisms
are radically different: plants are very different from animals. But some-
 demonstrate an understanding of
the diversity of living organisms times, the differences between organisms are small. The scarab beetles
through applying the concepts of pictured here are just a few of the beetle species found in a remote re-
phylogeny and taxonomy to the gion of Costa Rica. They look very similar in many ways, but they are each
kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
and viruses
 use techniques of sampling and
classification to illustrate
the fundamental principles of
taxonomy
 relate the role of common
characteristics and diversity within
the kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
to the importance of maintaining
biodiversity within natural
ecosystems, and explain the
use of micro-organisms in
biotechnology

A small sample of the scarab beetles found in Costa Rica. They are similar to one another in
some ways, but different in others.

366
subtly different from one another. The vibrant coloration of these beetles
represents only one characteristic that varies among their species. No two
members of a species are identical, and this diversity within a species is
important to the species’ survival.
For centuries, humans have depended on Earth’s biodiversity for food
and other useful products. Today, scientists are producing new genetically
modified organisms. These modifications would be impossible without bac-
teria and viruses to produce the DNA needed for genetic engineering.
In this unit, you will investigate the diversity of living things from each
of the life kingdoms, comparing their cells, anatomy, physiology, and life cy-
cles. You will also use a key to classify organisms from each of the kingdoms.
You will investigate the importance of sexual reproduction in creating vari-
ability within a population and the importance of variability in species sur-
vival. Finally, you will discover the role that viruses and bacteria play in the
field of biotechnology.

BIOLOGY HEADLINES

 Bacteria reawaken after 25 million years
Researchers at California Polytechnic State
University reported reviving bacteria spores from
the gut of a bee stuck in amber. The bee was esti-
mated to be 25 to 30 million years old.
 Vaccine could reduce E. coli outbreaks
Canadian scientists have developed a cattle vac-
cine that could reduce the spread of E. coli 157—
the deadly bacteria that contaminated the water
supply in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000.
 Transgenic salmon pose threat to wild stocks
According to the environmental group Greenpeace,
transgenic salmon pose a threat to North America’s
remaining stocks of wild salmon. They are much
bigger and faster growing than their wild coun-
terparts and, if they escape into the wild, wild
salmon might not be able to compete against them.
Wild salmon may ultimately face extinction.
 Canadian superbugs on the wane
Efforts to convince doctors to prescribe fewer an-
tibiotics in recent years have significantly reduced
the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across
Canada.
 Scientists create first genetically modified monkey
U.S. researchers announced they have created
ANDi, the first genetically modified rhesus mon-
key. The researchers say this monkey could help
accelerate research into human diseases such as
Alzheimer’s. Others wonder if scientists have gone
too far, manipulating the genes of a primate, one
of humankind’s closest relatives.
 Scientists engineer a killer virus—by mistake
An Australian research team accidentally created
a virus that wipes out part of the immune system
of every one of its victims. To try to control mice
infestations, researchers were attempting to mod-
ify a mousepox virus so that it would make infected
mice sterile. However, the researchers’ modifica-
tions made the virus deadly, raising fears that sim-
ilar alterations could be made to human viruses to
make them just as deadly.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learn-
ing by writing a position paper on the role of repro-
ductive technologies in saving endangered species.
See page 486.

367
 C H A P T E R 11

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Classification
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 define the fundamental principles
of taxonomy and phylogeny (11.1,
11.2)
 explain the importance of sexual
reproduction to variability within a
population (11.2)
 demonstrate, through applying
classification techniques and
terminology, the usefulness of
the system of scientific
nomenclature in the field of
taxonomy (11.1, Investigation 1 )
 demonstrate an understanding
of the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(11.2)

FIGURE 11.1 A sample of butterflies found in Peru.

368
O rganisms have diversified over evolutionary time into every part of Earth’s
biosphere. The diverse shapes, sizes, and structural and functional char-
acteristics of the life forms that populate natural ecosystems could be over-
whelming. To organize and catalogue this diversity, biologists apply the
fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life.
Biologists use a common system of classification and terminology to iden-
tify, name, and group organisms into meaningful categories. The modern sys-
tem of classification groups organisms according to their cell structure,
structural characteristics, method of obtaining nutrients, and, more recently,
the degree of genetic similarity. Most biologists today recognize six life king-
doms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Biologists use dichotomous classification keys to classify organisms into the
appropriate group. Phylogeny is the evolutionary grouping of organisms based
CHECKPOINT
on their degree of relatedness. Organisms share common ancestry if they
show similar stages of embryological development and similar anatomical
These animals have been
structures.
classified as mammals by
Sexual reproduction (including the reshuffling of genetic material during biologists. In your notebook,
meiosis) maintains genetic variability. Genetic variability among individuals make a chart listing the
provides a greater diversity of genotypes that can survive environmental reasons why you agree or
changes. Biologists apply the concepts of taxonomy and phylogeny to the king- disagree with this classifi-
doms of life to organize and understand the connection between biodiversity, cation.
genetic variability, and species’ survival.
Agree Disagree

Discovering Biology
Observing the Variety of Life
 Carefully observe the cats in
Figure 11.2 and select two cats
to compare.
 Record the similarities and dif-
ferences you observe in a Venn
diagram.
 Why do you think these closely
related organisms have de-
veloped differing characteris-
tics?

FIGURE 11.3 Mammals

FIGURE 11.2 Five purebred cats

CHAPTER 11 Classification 369

 11.1 Taxonomy:
Organizing the Diversity of Life
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 define the fundamental principles of taxonomy

 explain how the system of scientific nomenclature is useful to the field of taxonomy

The Biosphere: The biosphere, with all its living

The Envelope of Life organisms, makes up only about one
part in 10 billion of Earth’s mass. The
Look out the window or take a walk in
biosphere is distributed through a layer
a park. There may be hills or open fields,
of soil, water, and air. This layer is esti-
rocks, soil or pavement under your feet.
mated to be 16 kilometres thick around
Wherever you are, you are in the
the outside of the Earth, stretching over
biosphere. The biosphere is that part of
one-half billion square kilometres
the Earth inhabited by living organisms.
of Earth’s surface. Yet, as many as
It is found wherever there is life: under
10 million different kinds of living
the surface of the Earth, on its surface,
organisms exist in this thin layer
or in the atmosphere above it. It is like
enveloping the planet (Figure 11.5).
an envelope that encircles the core of
Earth (Figure 11.4).

FIGURE 11.4 This photo of

the planet was taken about
68 000 nautical miles from
Earth.

Coral fungus

Paramecium

Trillium

Muskox
FIGURE 11.5 There is an amazing variety of organisms on Earth.

370 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

A Catalogue of Life organisms were discovered. As the num-
ber of known organisms increased, the
The numbers of different kinds of organ-
need for a more effective classification sys-
isms in Earth’s biosphere are unknown.
tem was required.
The first listing of all the known living
things was made in Greece by Aristotle
Naming Organisms In the middle of the
2300 years ago. He identified about 1000
17th century, a member of the English
different kinds of organisms. Today, biol-
clergy, John Ray, set out to systemati-
ogists estimate 30 million to 100 million
cally catalogue all the organisms in the
kinds of organisms exist in the biosphere.
world. He was the first to use the word
Of the many kinds of organisms, biologists
species to describe a kind of organism.
have described only 1.75 million, just a
A species, according to Ray, was made
tiny fraction. Many of these organisms look
up of organisms that were similar in
so similar that it may be difficult to de-
shape and structure, and that repro-
termine whether certain populations be-
duced with one another (Figure 11.6).
long to the same species, or to two closely
The offspring, in turn, have to be able
related species.
to reproduce. By the time Ray had com-
If each of the estimated 30 million
pleted his life’s study, his list had grown
kinds of organisms was described on
to include 19 000 species of birds, fishes,
its own page in the Encyclopedia of
and four-footed animals.
Life, and if each volume was 500 pages,
this reference work would have 60 000
volumes.

Early Attempts at Classification To under-

stand the diversity of life, a system of bi-
ological classification that names and
groups organisms into meaningful FIGURE 11.6 Two separate species. These two owls look
categories is needed. When Aristotle very similar, but the northern spotted owl a) cannot breed with
the barred owl b), so they are two different species.
conducted his study of animals in the
fourth century B . C . , he grouped them
a) b)
according to habitat. There were land-
dwellers, water-dwellers, and air-dwellers.
St. Augustine, in the third century A.D.,
classified animals as useful, harmful, or
superfluous. In the Middle Ages, herbal-
ists classified plants according to what they
produced: fruit, vegetables, or wood. These
systems of classification worked well for
people of the time. Limited numbers of or-
ganisms were known and people often
spent time observing locally found species.
However, in the 1400s and 1500s,
European explorers set off on voyages
around the world and returned with ex-
tensive collections of plants and animals
never seen before on the European conti-
nent. In 1665, with the discovery of the
microscope, many varieties of micro-

CHAPTER 11 Classification 371

 FIGURE 11.7 The Linnean
system of classification.
Kingdoms contain many
different types of organisms.
Each taxon contains progres-
sively fewer types of
organisms. The taxon
“species” is the narrowest
category, containing only
one type of organism.
INFOBIT
Linnaeus was actually called
Carl von Linné. Carolus
Linnaeus is the Latinized form
of his name.
372 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
KINGDOM
(Animalia)
PHYLUM
(Chordata)
CLASS
(Mammalia)
ORDER
(Carnivora)
FAMILY
(Felidae)
GENUS
(Felis)
SPECIES
(sylvestris)
The Linnean System of organisms in Latin, which was the lan-
Classification guage of scholars in Europe at the time.
The first part of the name referred to
A species may be known by several dif-
the genus (plural: genera) of the organ-
ferent names. For example, the North
ism, which is a relatively small group of
American cougar is also known as the
related species to which the species
panther or the mountain lion.
belongs. All the varieties of species in the
The system of naming and classify-
same genus have many common charac-
ing organisms was simplified by the 18th-
teristics. The second part of the name is
century Swedish naturalist Carolus
the species name and usually describes
Linnaeus. Linnaeus is often considered
an important characteristic of the
to be the father of modern taxonomy be-
organism. For example, Felis sylvestris
cause his system, known as binomial
is the scientific name for the domestic cat.
nomenclature, is still in use today. He
Felis is the genus to which the species
grouped organisms according to their
belongs, and sylvestris identifies the
structural similarities.
species.
Using this system, scientists through-
Canis familiaris is the scientific
out the world refer to the same organisms
name for dog. Quercus rubra is the name
by the same names. Linnaeus named the
for the red oak tree. The generic name
is always capitalized and the species
name is not. Rather than repeating a
generic name when it is used several
times in a discussion, biologists often
spell it out only once and use only the
initial letter thereafter. For example,
E. coli is the abbreviated form for
Escherichia coli.
Classifying Living Things
All biological classification systems are
designed to express relationships among
organisms. Even in recent times, many
systems of classification have been used.
In India, plants and animals used to be
classified according to their taste, ease
of capture, and the type of edible parts
each organism possessed.
The groups to which Linnaeus
assigned organisms are called taxa
(singular: taxon) and the science of nam-
ing organisms and assigning them to
these groups is called taxonomy.
Phylum/Division
Class
Order Order
Genus Genus
1 2 3 1 2 3
Species Species
The taxon “species” is the smallest
group, and it contains only a single
species. The organisms in a species
are the most like one another. As men-
tioned earlier, organisms within a
species can interbreed. The species in
the taxon “genus,” the next grouping,
are related. All the species are quite sim-
ilar to one another (Figure 11.7).
Broadening the classification further,
similar genera (the plural of genus) are
grouped into a family. (The names of
animal families end in the suffix –idae,
plant families end in -aceae. Thus,
Formicidae is the family that contains
all ant genera.) The family Hominidae
contains humans, chimpanzees, and
gorillas. Family names are based on the
name of a member in the genus.
Formicidae is based on the genus
Formica, and Hominidae is based on the
genus Homo. Similar families, in turn, WORDORIGIN
are grouped into an order, similar
orders into a class, similar classes into Taxonomy from the Greek word
tasso, to arrange and nomos,
a phylum, and similar phyla (plural of law or art.
phylum) into a kingdom (Figure 11.8).
Kingdom
Phylum/Division Phylum/Division
Class Class
Order Order FIGURE 11.8 Taxonomic
levels. The modern classifica-
tion system is like a large box,
which contains smaller boxes,
Family Family Family which in turn contain even
smaller boxes, and so on.
A kingdom contains phyla,
which contain classes, which
Genus Genus in turn contain orders, which
contain families, which con-
tain genera, which contain
species. In the plant and fungi
kingdoms, phyla are known
as divisions.
CHAPTER 11 Classification 373
WEBLINK
Another taxon called a domain
is becoming widely used.
Research why scientists have
created domains, and what
these domains are. Draw a dia-
gram relating domains to the
six kingdoms. Begin your re-
search at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
WORD ORIGIN
Protista from the Greek word
protista meaning the very first.
374 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
How Many Kingdoms?
Linnaeus created his taxa in the 18th
century based on the accumulated
knowledge of his time. His system sep-
arated living things into two kingdoms:
plant and animal. However, as the dis-
covery of more types of living things
grew and microscopes became common
tools to observe even smaller organisms,
his two-kingdom system proved inade-
quate. By the mid-1800s, a third king-
dom, called Protista, was added. All
one-celled organisms that were clearly
neither plants nor animals were placed
in this category. Moulds and yeasts were
originally included in the plant kingdom,
but are now considered very different
from plants. Unlike plants that produce
their own food, moulds depend on other
organisms for their food. Moulds and
yeasts are placed in the kingdom called
Fungi.
Further study of single-celled
organisms showed that bacteria were
also distinct enough to have their own
kingdom. This kingdom was called
Monera. Until recently, the five-kingdom
system was widely accepted. However,
as scientists studied bacteria further,
they found that one group of bacteria
was genetically very different from other
bacteria. This has led to the splitting of
the kingdom Monera into two new king-
doms: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
The six-kingdom system of classifying
organisms is now widely used, but sci-
entists continue to debate whether this
six-kingdom classification system is the
most accurate.
Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria
consist of a group of ancient bacteria
that live in harsh habitats of extreme
saltiness, low oxygen concentration, high
temperature, or extreme acidity. They
are often found inside the vents of vol-
canoes and are believed to be among the
first life forms on Earth. They are
prokaryotes, meaning they do not have
cell nuclei and other organelles sur-
rounded by membranes.
It was not until the gene mapping of
representative prokaryotes in 1996 that
it became apparent that these bacteria
vary genetically from the bacteria of the
kingom Eubacteria.
Kingdom Eubacteria Biologists estimate
that up to 4 000 000 Eubacteria species
may exist. As of 1998, only 4000 species
have been discovered and classified.
Eubacteria species have been found
everywhere in the world and in the
strangest of habitats. The task of dis-
covering and classifying them has only
begun. These organisms are often called
“true bacteria” and, like the
Archaebacteria, they are also prokary-
otes. Due to their diverse genetic
makeup and metabolism, members of
the Eubacteria do not fit well into a clear
phylogenetic pattern.
Kingdom Protista Members of the king-
dom Protista are mostly single-celled and
are eukaryotes. They have a nucleus
and other organelles surrounded by
membranes. Some protists also have
chloroplasts. It is believed that all pro-
tists evolved from prokaryotic bacteria.
Like the kingdoms Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria, the kingdom Protista
contains very diverse species. Protists
include all the eukaryotes that are not
plants, fungi, or animals.
Kingdom Fungi Fungi are eukaryotes and
build cell walls similar to plants.
However, unlike plant cells, these walls
are not made of cellulose. Fungi are also
unable to carry out photosynthesis.
Examples of fungi include moulds,
yeasts, and mushrooms.
Kingdom Plantae Members of the king-
dom Plantae are multicellular. They
have cell walls containing cellulose, and
also have chloroplasts. Examples of
plants include mosses, ferns, and seed
plants.
Kingdom Animalia Members of the king-
dom Animalia are multicellular, het-
erotrophic, and have cell membranes
without cell walls. Their cells are often
organized into tissues, organs, and organ
systems. Animals are divided into in-
vertebrates and vertebrates. Vertebrates
are animals with an internal backbone, Archaebacterium Eubacteria Protist
whereas invertebrates lack an internal
skeletal structure.

Dichotomous
Classification Keys
Dichotomous classification keys are
used to help place organisms into the
appropriate classification group.
Fungi Plant Animal
Classification keys include two choices
for each characteristic. No two keys for FIGURE 11.9 Representative species of the six kingdoms.
the same set of items will necessarily be
the same.
Figure 11.10 provides a structure Investigation 1
for developing a classification system to Refer to page 384,
sort a group of organisms. Investigation 1

Specimen

Does your specimen have... ?

Yes No
(subgroup #1) (subgroup #2)

Does your specimen have... ? Does your specimen have... ?

Yes No Yes No FIGURE 11.10 How a di-

(subgroup #3) (subgroup #4) (subgroup #5) (subgroup #6) chotomous classification key
works.

CHAPTER 11 Classification 375

 Discovering Biology What’s the Difference?

Housefly Robin Mosquito Mallard

Flying fish Flying squirrel Bat Dragonfly

FIGURE 11.11

All the organisms in Figure 11.11 can fly. However, when they are studied more care-
fully, they have many different characteristics that allow them to be classified into
groups. Your task is to classify these animals. One grouping may include three
organisms, another only two, and so on.
Once you have developed your key, compare it with those of your classmates.

Section 11.1 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. List, in order, from the most inclusive
to the least, the seven groups into
which organisms are classified.
2. Define the following and give examples:
a) binomial nomenclature
b) taxon
c) species
3. Explain why Linnaeus’ system of bi-
nomial nomenclature is still used today.
4. Outline at least two classification sys-
tems used in the past. Explain why the
thinking on how to sort organisms has
changed over time.
5. A single-celled organism could be
placed in the kingdoms Eubacteria,
Archaebacteria, or Protista. What char-
acteristic would be the most important
for determining in which kingdom this
organism should be placed?
6. Trillium grandiflorum is the scientific
name for Ontario’s provincial flower.
Explain what each part of the name
represents.
7. Two groups of organisms are in dif-
ferent genera but are of the same
family. What does this information tell
you about the two groups?
8. Suppose every living organism on
Earth is known and classified. Do you
think the study of taxonomy will end?
Explain.
9. An organism has one common name
in Canada and a different common
name in the United States. How might
these different names lead to confu-
sion? How has the modern system of
classification overcome this problem?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
10. You are told that species A and B be-
long to the same kingdom but to dif-
ferent phyla; and species C and D
belong to the same phylum but to dif-
ferent classes. What conclusions can
you make about species A, B, C, and
D? Explain your answer in terms of
common characteristics shared be-
tween the groups.

376 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Evolution
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 define the fundamental principles of phylogeny

 explain the importance of sexual reproduction to variability within a population

 demonstrate an understanding of the connection between biodiversity and species

survival

The Principles of Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species is re-
ferred to as its phylogeny. Phylogeny looks
at the ancestor-descendant relationships
among organisms, and phylogenies are
determined on the basis of developmen-
tal, structural, and molecular traits.
First, organisms likely share com- a) b) c) d) e)
mon ancestry if they show similar stages
of embryological development. It has FIGURE 11.12 Different embryos, same gill slits. The blue patches mark the gill
been observed that the early stages of slits on each of the embryos of five different animals, a) sea lamprey, b) a turtle,
embryo development are similar in c) a chicken, d) a domestic cat, e) a human.
closely related species (Figure 11.12).
For example, all vertebrate embryos go
through a stage in which they have gills
similar to those of fish. This provides in-
direct evidence that vertebrates, such as
frogs and snakes, may have had a fish-
like common ancestor.
Second, organisms likely share
common ancestry if they have similar
anatomical structures, regardless of
function. Structures of different organ-
isms that are similar in form are
homologous (Figure 11.13). For exam-
ple, the wing of a bat and a whale’s flip-
per are both homologous structures whale cat bat gorilla
because their skeletal structures are
similar. It does not matter that they look
FIGURE 11.13 Homologous structures. These animals all descended from a com-
different in the fully developed adult mon ancestor. As a result, even though each animal uses its forelimbs for different
animal, or that they are used for differ- functions, the bone structures of each are similar. The homologous bones are
ent purposes. colour-coded for comparison.
Third, organisms likely share com-
mon ancestry if they are genetically sim-
ilar. Like the sizes and shapes of their tures of proteins that often function as
body parts, the molecules of organisms enzymes regulating chemical reactions
are inherited characteristics that also in cells. Protein structures are in turn
demonstrate evolutionary changes over controlled by the genetic makeup of cells.
time. The molecular characteristics of As genes change, so too do the molecules
organisms are controlled by the struc- of cells.

CHAPTER 11 Classification 377

 Groups of organisms based on the
principles of phylogeny can be repre-
sea sented by a phylogenetic tree.
Present
dogs raccoons bears lions seals walrus weasels The phylogenetic trees in Figure
11.14 illustrate the evolutionary rela-
tionships among major groups of or-
ganisms. The branch points on each of
10
the trees represent common ancestors.
Each time a branch divides into a
smaller branch, it shows the emergence
20 of a new group of organisms.
Millions of years ago

30

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom

40 Plantae Fungi Animalia
flowering
plants
Kingdom
vertebrates Protista
50
evergreens
mushrooms
60
ancestral Kingdom amoebas
carnivores Archaebacteria
b)
Kingdom
Eubacteria
ferns
gram- flagellates
positive
methane-
producers mosses
purple
bacteria
salt-lovers
yeast

cyanobacteria sponges

hot acid- choanoflagellates

lovers foraminifera
diatoms

dinoflagellates
FIGURE 11.14 Phylogenetic
trees. These trees show the
evolutionary relationships
between kingdoms a) and
certain families of carnivores b).

a)
universal
ancestor

378 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Biodiversity and Natural Discovering Biology
Selection
Almost all the species that ever lived over Diversity and the Beaks of Birds
life’s 3.9 billion years of existence are Observe the bills of each bird in Figure 11.15. Discuss how the struc-
extinct and yet it is believed that any- ture of each beak is adapted to each bird’s way of life.
where from three million to 10 million
exist today. Why do some species die off
and new species appear? Charles
Darwin was aware that not all animals
of one kind were identical. He knew that
animal breeders selected animals with
certain characteristics and bred those
animals to create offspring with those
same characteristics. This process is
known as artificial selection. Darwin
also observed finches, turtles, and other Spoonbill Crossbill
reptiles while living on the Galapagos
Islands. This led Darwin to propose a
new theory to explain why some species
die out and others appear. In Darwin’s
theory of natural selection, he proposed
that organisms that reproduce are se-
lected not by the breeder, but by the en- Eagle
vironment. In the process of natural
selection, organisms with characteris-
tics unsuited to the environment would
either die or be unsuccessful finding
mates to reproduce. Individuals with
characteristics well suited in some way
to environmental conditions would sur-
vive longer, have better chances of find-
ing mates, and produce more offspring
Pelican Robin
likely to have similarly well-suited fea-
tures. It is believed that the many species FIGURE 11.15
existing today are descended from just
a few ancestral species. As these ances-
tors adapted to different environments,
the number of offspring that will sur-
this great diversity of species resulted.
vive to adulthood.
Individual organisms adapt to changing
3. Some offspring, because of their in-
conditions, resulting in the evolution of
dividual differences, are better able
the species over time.
to adapt to the conditions of the en-
The theory of natural selection
vironment than others.
proposed by Darwin includes four
4. The better-adapted organisms pass
assumptions.
on their characteristics to their off-
1. All members of a species display a spring and, as a result, the popula-
variety of characteristics in their tion changes.
appearance and behaviour. and
many are inherited. If none of the individuals in a species
2. The number of offspring produced can adapt to changing conditions, even-
by individuals in a species exceeds tually, the species becomes extinct.

CHAPTER 11 Classification 379

 Reproduction, Genetic the offspring are identical to the parent.
Diversity, and Species There is no genetic variation, except for
possible chromosome mutations. Sexual
Survival
reproduction, on the other hand, pro-
Asexual reproduction allows individuals vides for a great deal of variation in
to reproduce without the need for a the offspring because two parents are
mate. Why then have some organisms involved. Each parent produces gametes
developed the alternative method of sex- (either eggs or sperm) through meiosis.
ual reproduction? In asexual repro- Meiosis creates genetic diversity in
duction, which involves only one parent, two ways. In the early phase of meiosis,
homologous chromosomes link to form
CROSSING OVER
tetrads. When they link, they exchange
parts of chromosomes. So parts of ma-
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids. ternal chromosomes become parts of pa-
duplicated ternal chromosomes. This process can
duplicated paternal also be reversed. (Figure 11.16). This
maternal chromosome
chromosome exchange is called crossing over. The
reshuffling of genes on chromosomes
adds to genetic diversity.
The second way of producing
tetrad
genetic diversity is through random
assortment of homologous chromo-
somes. One member of each chromosome
pair is inherited from the father, and
the other from the mother. But all the ma-
ternal chromosomes do not stay together.
sister The chromosomes align randomly at the
chromatids metaphase plate. Therefore a gamete
non-sister could have either a maternal or pater-
chromatids nal member of any given chromosome
(Figure 11.17). Most gametes have a
FIGURE 11.16 Crossing
over. Genetic material gets
exchanged between homolo-
RANDOM ASSORTMENT
gous chromosomes. This
exchange is the first source
Random alignment of METAPHASE I METAPHASE II TELOPHASE II
of genetic variation. maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.

Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...

FIGURE 11.17 Random

assortment. Whether a ga-
mete gets a maternal or pa-
ternal chromosome depends ... but they could have
on how the homologous lined up this way, yielding
chromosomes line up at the a different outcome.
metaphase plate.

380 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

mixture of maternal and paternal chro- of these pests have always been resistant
mosomes. This random assortment to poison. These individuals survive and
explains how traits from a mother and pass on their poison resistance to their
father can appear in the offspring. offspring. As the poison-resistant indi-
The number of combinations of ma- viduals multiply, the poison soon becomes
ternal and paternal chromosomes de- ineffective on that population as a whole.
pends on the number of chromosome
pairs a species has. In a species with
only three chromosome pairs, the num-
ber of possible combinations is 23 or 8.
Humans have 23 chromosome pairs and Discovering Biology One Species or Many?
so the number of genetic combinations
In this activity, you will look at variability as it relates to species.
is 223 or 8 388 608. When random as- In the 1830s, Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands, a
sortment and crossing over are com- small group of islands off the coast of South America. He noticed
bined, the odds of having two humans that there were a large number of finches on the islands. They looked
with the same genetic makeup is about very similar, but their beaks varied in size. Are these birds mem-
1 in 14 trillion. bers of the same species or are they several different species?
Each individual produces gametes. For any given trait, there is a considerable amount of variation
In sexual reproduction, gametes from between individuals in a species. This variation normally produces
two separate individuals fuse to form a a bell-shaped curve when graphed. In 1939, biologist David Lack
new, genetically different, offspring. measured the beak widths of the ground finches on the Galapagos.
Some of his data are plotted in Figure 11.18. Analyze the data in
Figure 11.18. What does the graph tell you about the variability in
The Importance of the beak width? What can you conclude about the finches?
Genetic Variation
Genetic variation among individuals is
important in an unstable environment.
For example, under one set of conditions Number of birds
with particular
a certain genetic combination, or geno- beak widths
type, may be favoured while
another meets with limited success. As
conditions change, however, the second
genotype may be favoured while the first 50
cannot survive. As a result, with a
genetically variable population, the normal expected
40 bell curve
interaction of genotype and environment
results in a greater chance for survival
for at least some members. 30
The greater the amount of variation
among individuals of a population, the 20
greater the chance that some individu-
als will survive if the environment
changes. 10
Environmental changes aren’t just
changes in the climate. They can be, for
example, toxins in the environment,
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
changes in food supply, changes in preda-
Beak width (mm)
tors, new diseases, or new predators.
Variability can help species survive. For
example, rats and mice are common
FIGURE 11.18
pests. Rat and mice poisons are often
used to exterminate them. However, some

CHAPTER 11 Classification 381

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Biodiversity and  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Aquaculture
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Fish farms mainly in New Brunswick’s Bay of Fundy
and off the B.C. coast produce more than 72 000
tonnes of salmon a year. The federal government
is a strong supporter of fish farming and recently
made available $75 million for research and de-
velopment. Government estimates suggest that by
the year 2025, the world will need 55 million tonnes
more seafood than wild stocks can provide. To meet
that demand, fish farming as an industry will have
to grow by 350 percent.
But is the advance of fish farming practices com-
ing at the expense of stocks of wild salmon? Why is
the wild species still facing extinction? What impact
does the farming have on wild populations?
Tests are under way to selectively breed for big-
ger and faster growing salmon as well as to genet-
ically modify the fish against common parasitic
diseases. Researchers in the federal department of
fisheries have now developed 20 new transgenic
breeds of salmon that grow seven times faster than
wild salmon.

FIGURE 11.19 These pens contain hundreds of farmed salmon.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Research to find out the positive and negative impacts 4. In groups, have a round table discussion about fish farm-
that fish farming may have on wild populations. ing. Comment on (a) the world’s need for adequate
2. What other factors may be affecting the survival of the seafood supply; (b) the imprtance of sustainability of wild
wild salmon population? salmon stocks; and (c) preservation of wild fish habitats.
3. What are the costs and benefits of fish farming and com-
mercial fishing to meet the short- and long-term food
needs of society?

382 CH
U N AI TP T4E R Diversity
1 The Periodic
of LivingTable
Things
 The peppered moth (Biston bitu-
laria) provides a very well known ex-
ample of how genetic variability helps a
species survive. In England, some in-
dividual moths are lighter coloured than
others. Normally, the lighter-coloured
moths are more common because they
are camouflaged against lichen-covered
tree trunks. The darker forms of the
moth are more easily spotted by preda-
tors and eaten. During the Industrial
Revolution, pollution increased, and the
lighter form of the moth became more
visible against sooty, polluted environ-
ments (Figure 11.20). The lighter form
was less well adapted to its environ-
ment, and was more heavily preyed
upon. Thus the darker form of the moth
became more common. If all the moths
had been light coloured, it would have FIGURE 11.20 Light and dark forms of the
been harder for the species to have sur- peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Notice how one
form is camouflaged and one stands out. If
vived the changing conditions. Many
conditions change however, the other form may
more moths would have been eaten, stand out more and be more vulnerable to
increasing the chances of extinction. predators.

Section 11.2 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Define the following terms:
phylogeny
natural selection
species
2. How is a phylogenetic tree constructed?
Illustrate with an example.
3. Explain how the theory of natural se-
lection allows for the development of
new species from the existing species
over time.
4. Do you think that a butterfly’s wing and
a bat’s wing are homologous struc-
tures? Explain your reasoning.
5. Sexually reproducing organisms are
more likely to adapt to changing envi-
ronments than asexually reproducing
organisms. Explain.
6. Describe the relationship between bio-
diversity and species survival.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. Your teacher has scattered 600
coloured toothpicks over a five-metre-
square patch of grass. There are equal
numbers of yellow, red, green, and blue
toothpicks. You are given 30 seconds to
pick up as many of the toothpicks as
possible. Predict which colour of tooth-
pick you would pick up most of and pro-
pose how this information might help to
explain the process of natural selection.
8. Why is natural selection considered to
be a theory and not a law of science?
Making Connections
9. In many species of birds, populations
living in high latitudes lay more eggs
per clutch than populations living
closer to the equator. Explain why you
think this is so.
10. Disasters such as earthquakes, floods,
and fires may reduce the size of a pop-
ulation drastically, killing off weak and
vulnerable individuals. Often, the re-
sult is that the surviving population has
a genetic makeup that differs from the
original population. Explain.

CHAPTER 11 Classification 383

 Inquiry Skills
Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 11.1)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Using a Dichotomous Key  Concluding and Communicating

Problem head under the shell by bending its neck sideways,

could you classify the turtle using the key? Explain.
In this activity, you will use a dichotomous key to
classify turtles commonly found in Canada into their 8. Suggest a change to the dichotomous key so that
correct families. it can accommodate the classification of this addi-
tional example from the side-necked family.
9. What does this tell you about the usefulness of di-
Materials chotomous classification keys?
 pencil and paper

Procedure
1. Create a table like the one shown below.
Turtle diagram # Turtle family
#1
#1 #2
2. Carefully study one of the turtle diagrams in Figure
11.21. LAL1
3. Read the first set of choices in the dichotomous key
1a and 1b and decide which characteristic the tur-
tle has.
#3 #4
4. Following the numbered items in the key, name the
family to which the turtle belongs.

Analyzing and Interpreting

1. What characteristics do all the turtles have in com-
mon? In what ways are they different? #5 FIGURE 11.21 Selected turtles
2. What kinds of characteristics are used in this di-
chotomous key to classify turtles? Would be-
Dichotomous Key to Turtle Selected Families
havioural traits of turtles be an acceptable
alternative? Explain. 1a. Shell has distinct ridges Leatherback turtles
along the length of the (Family Dermochelyidae)
3. Make a hypothesis about the adaptive value of each
shell
of the characteristics for turtles referred to in this
dichotomous key. 1b. Shell has no longitudinal Go to 2
ridges
2a. Shell has no distinct Mud turtles
Concluding and Communicating colour markings (Family Kinosternidae)
4. Explain how the dichotomous key is organized. 2b. Shell has distinct colour Go to 3
markings
5. To what family does each turtle belong?
3a. Beak is hooked Snapping turtles
6. Why is classification of organisms a useful skill in (Family Chelidridae)
the study of living things?
3b. Beak not strongly hooked Go to 4

Extending 4a. Forelimbs like paddles Sea turtles

7. All of these turtles protect themselves from preda- (Family Cheloniidae)
tors by retracting their heads straight back under 4b. Forelimbs with claws Box, pond, and marsh
the shell. If you were shown a turtle with no dis- turtles
tinct markings on its shell but which retracted its (Family Emydidae)

384 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
Animalia Eubacteria
Archaebacteria eukaryotes
artificial selection family
binomial nomenclature Fungi
class genus
classification key homologous structures
crossing over kingdom
Essential Understandings
11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life
 Binomial nomenclature is a naming system that as-
signs every known organism a Latin name con-
sisting of two parts: a genus name and a species
name.
 Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms.
All living things are classified according to an es-
tablished classification system developed by
Linneaus. His system groups organisms by struc-
tural characteristics.
 Each species belongs to one genus, family, order,
class, phylum, and kingdom. Related species are
grouped in a genus, related genera in a family,
and so on.
 The broadest taxon is the kingdom. The number
of kingdoms has increased as more organisms have
been discovered and similarities and differences be-
tween organisms have been more closely studied.
 A dichotomous key is a tool used to identify and
classify organisms.
Consolidate Your Understanding
 Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 369 and review
the Agree/Disagree chart. Revise your chart based on
what you learned in this chapter.
 Create a concept map that includes the following terms:
taxonomy, phylogeny, classification, taxa. Add more terms
as necessary.
 Revisit the Discovering Biology activity on page 367.
Create a dichotomous key to classify these cat breeds.
natural selection Protista
order random assortment
phylogenetic tree sexual reproduction
phylogeny species
phylum taxonomy
Plantae
prokaryotes
11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Evolution
 The theory of evolution is the basis of the modern
system of taxonomy.
 The theory of natural selection explains why new
species evolve from old ones over time.
 Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or
group of species. It explains the similarities and dif-
ferences among different taxonomic groups.
 Genetic diversity in a species is produced by sexual
reproduction. The process of meiosis produces ge-
netic diversity through random assortment and
crossing over.
 The survival of a species depends on the genetic di-
versity of its individuals. Because all individuals are
slightly different, some may have traits that allow
them to survive when the environment changes.
 Construct a concept map outlining the evolution of
classification. Include the following terms: classify,
taxonomists, two-kingdom system, three-kingdom sys-
tem, five-kingdom system, and six-kingdom system. Use
additional terms as you require them.
 Reflect on your learning. At the end of the Unit you will
be completing an Achievement Task. As you study the
Unit content, note the skills and knowledge you are ac-
quiring that will be useful to you in completing this task.
CHAPTER 11 Classification 385
C H A P T E R 11 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts
13. Agree or disagree with the following statements and de-
1. Homologous structures are fend your point of view for each:
a) similar in function a) In a dry habitat, organisms with a scaly skin will
b) similar in structure survive and tend to leave more offspring.
c) similar in function, but developed from different an- b) According to the theory of evolution, the giraffe
cestral structures developed a long neck because it needed one, and
d) developed from a common ancestral structure, such a neck was passed on to its offspring.
whether or not they have the same function today c) Early horses had to run fast to escape predators,
thus they developed larger muscles and longer legs.
2. Any group of organisms treated as a unit in a classifi-
cation system is a
a) species Applying Inquiry/
b) genus Communication Skills
c) taxon
d) phylum
14. Use a field guide and a microscope to identify protists
found in a pond or fish tank. Prepare a presentation to
3. Before a biologist can classify a newly discovered or-
the class on your findings.
ganism, he or she must make a careful study of its
a) behaviour
15. Collect a variety of leaves, insects, or fungi. Use a field
b) size
guide to identify them. Prepare a Bristol board display
c) structure
of your collection, including the classification key that
d) adaptability
you used to sort the specimens.
4. Which category contains the greatest number of differ-
16. a) Suppose that you are given a beaker containing a
ent kinds of organisms?
collection of several hundred various organisms and
a) Genus
you are given a class period at school to sort them.
b) Family
Describe the steps you would use to begin to sort
c) Phylum
them into groups. Imagine after examining 10 spec-
d) Class
imens randomly chosen from the beaker that you
discovered they all belonged to the class Insecta.
5. Which of these categories of classification contains or-
What might you conclude from this about the con-
ganisms that are most closely related?
tents of the entire jar? Explain your answer.
a) Family
b) What could make this conclusion invalid? What
b) Class
further steps would you take to test the validity of
c) Order
your conclusion?
d) Genus
17. Survey others in your class as to the name of their
6. Explain why the biosphere is often referred to as the “en-
favourite singer or group. Develop a classification sys-
velope of life” around the world.
tem to create musical subgroups based on your list.
7. Describe two examples of classification systems other
18. Along with others in your class, assemble a collection of
than the six-kingdom model.
assorted nuts and bolts from home. Develop a classifi-
cation system that sorts them into groups.
8. What did Carolus Linnaeus use to classify organisms?
Explain why.
19. Suppose someone presented you with a completely
unfamiliar organism and asked you what kingdom it
9. Explain what is meant by binomial nomenclature.
belonged to. Create a dichotomous key that would allow
you to place the organism into the correct kingdom.
10. What is the cause-and-effect relationship between the
extinction of a species and the process of evolution?
20. Use the dichotomous key in Figure 11.23 to identify each
of the insects in Figure 11.22. Write the name of each of
11. How are homologous structures between organisms of
the insects A–H in your notebook.
different species often used as an indication of species
relatedness?

12. How are fungi different from plants?

386 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

A B C Making Connections

21. You are a professor of taxonomy at a local university.

D E
F G
Your research is not considered a high priority and your
research funding has been threatened. You are alarmed
because it is estimated that only about 10 percent of the
species currently living today have been named. Write a
letter to the governing body of the university arguing
why your funding should be maintained.
wing covers 22. Explain why the following statement would have an
impact on the long-term survival of a species: “An adap-
tation of a species to an environmental condition is
significant because certain members of the species will
find an environment where such an adaptation is not
harmful.”
H
23. Agree or disagree with the following statement and write
an essay to defend your point of view: “Insecticides are
no longer as successful in killing off house flies as they
were in the past because flies susceptible to the insecti-
cides have been killed off.”

FIGURE 11.22 Common insects

I N S E C T S

With wings Without wings

With one pair of With two pairs Tip of abdomen Tip of abdomen
wings or with a of equally sized with 2 or 3 with no
second pair wings appendages appendages
greatly reduced directed
backwards

End of Abdomen Forewings as Forewings Abdomen Abdomen Legs have Legs slender
abdomen with without hard covers not hard, appendages appendages large hooks with no hooks
2 or 3 projecting meeting in membranous thick and rigid delicate and (louse) (water strider)
projecting filaments straight line with wing veins in the form of flexible
filaments (housefly) down centre of evident pincers (silverfish)
(mayfly) back (stonefly) (earwig)
(beetle)

FIGURE 11.23 Dichotomous key for selected insects

CHAPTER 11 Classification 387

 CHAPTER 12

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Archaebacteria,
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe selected anatomical and
Eubacteria, and Viruses
physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from
each life kingdom and a represen-
tative virus (12.1, 12.2)
 compare and contrast the life
cycles of representative organisms
from each life kingdom and a
representative virus (12.1, 12.2)
 classify representative organisms
in the kingdom Archaebacteria and
kingdom Eubacteria (12.1,
Investigation 1)
 demonstrate an understanding of
the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(12.1)
 explain the relevance of current
studies of viruses and bacteria to
the field of biotechnology (12.3)

FIGURE 12.1 Electron micrograph of the HIV viruses as they attack a human
white blood cell.

388
I n this chapter you will explore the vast world of micro-organisms. Bacteria
are the oldest and most abundant living organisms on Earth, and differ lit-
tle from their fossil ancestors. All bacteria share basic structures but they
show incredible diversity in cell shape and nutritional patterns. Archaebacteria
are the most ancient bacteria, and thrive in extreme environments. Bacteria
affect humans in various ways: they cause disease, spoil foods, and can be
resistant to antibiotics. They also fix nitrogen for plants, decompose organic
matter, manage hazardous waste, aid animal digestion, and help create the
dairy products we consume.
Viruses are non-cellular. They grow and develop in the cells of their
hosts and depend on these cells for their life functions. For example, AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that claims thousands of
lives worldwide each year. It is caused by the HIV, or human immunodefi-
ciency virus. The HIV virus attaches to specific cells in the immune system
of the host (Figure 12.1), hijacks the cells, kills them, multiplies, and destroys
the host’s ability to battle infection. An HIV infection averages 10 years be-
fore the person develops AIDS. During most of this time, the infected per-
son exhibits moderate symptoms of the illness, such as swollen lymph nodes
and fever, but eventually the virus can cripple the immune system and kill
the person with the disease. Can we disrupt the reproductive cycle of the HIV
virus? Clinical trials of the drug AZT suggest researchers may have discov-
ered a way to counteract the effects of the virus on body cells.
Every day, breakthroughs in biotechnology advance the genetic engineer-
ing of bacteria and viruses to produce drugs for the biopharmaceutical in-
dustry, create organisms that manage oil spills, destroy pathogens, and correct
genetic disorders.

Discovering Biology CHECKPOINT

Many bacteria have an im-

Predicting the Growth of Bacteria portant impact on other liv-
ing things. Pair up with
Imagine a flask containing nutrients and a single bacterium is placed by a
another student in your
warm window. Within about 20 minutes, the bacterium divides. After another
class and construct a con-
20 minutes, both offspring cells divide. The bacterial cells continue to divide
cept map to show the roles
in number every 20 minutes.
of bacteria in the living
world.
 Predict how many cells there would be at the end of one hour, three hours,
Roles of
seven hours. How many bacteria would there be at the end of a full day? bacteria
 Hypothesize why we never find such large masses of bacteria in real life.
Positive Negative
Effects Effects

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 389

 12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of organisms from the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
 classify organisms from each of the kingdoms

 explain the importance of sexual reproduction to organisms in these kindgoms

 explain how genetic variation affects the survival of bacterial populations

The Beginnings of Life came about proved to be quite a mys-

tery to biologists.
If you could travel back in time about
Recent discoveries of deep-sea vents
3.9 billion years to walk along the shore
on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean have
of an ancient ocean searching for life,
supported the idea that primitive cells
you would find nothing alive. At that
may have evolved in the ancient seas in
time all that existed in the world was an
conditions similar to those found around
“organic soup” of simple molecules that
these vents. These vents spew out hot
often stuck together as droplets, some of
water containing methane and other or-
which might have been visible to your
ganic molecules. Many of the organisms
naked eye much like bubbles of oil in
that live near the vents thrive at tem-
salad dressing. Over millions of years,
peratures above boiling and resemble
the oceans, which covered the surface
the simple structures thought to inhabit
of Earth, eventually teemed with these
Earth in its primitive state. These
clusters of molecules that formed, ex-
organisms are microscopic and they
panded in size, and divided in a cycle
belong to two distinct groups of micro-
that very closely resembled reproduction
scopic organisms: eubacteria and
in living things.
archaebacteria.
Characteristics such as an ability
to multiply gave tremendous advantages
to some molecular clusters over others.
Until recently, just how these abilities
Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria are the oldest organisms living
on Earth and they are by far the most
abundant. For example, 10 mL of soil
can contain 1 × 1010 bacteria. As a group
they are very diverse, but they all share
certain characteristics.

1. All bacteria are single-celled.

2. All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their
DNA is not surrounded by a
membrane.
3. Cell organelles in bacteria are not
surrounded by membranes.
4. The DNA of bacteria is made of a
FIGURE 12.2 Material pours forth from a hot-
water vent on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.
single chromosome.
The fluid pouring from the vent is rich enough in 5. All bacteria reproduce asexually by
nutrients to support the survival of microbes. binary fission.

390 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Prokaryotes have no nucleus and no or-
ganelles surrounded by membranes. For
the first two billion years of the existence
of life on Earth, it is thought that all
organisms were prokaryotic. As you will
see, prokaryotes are extremely diverse
and live almost everywhere in the bio-
sphere. Because of this, they are now
placed in one of two kingdoms:
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. But be-
fore discussing these different kingdoms,
we will look at the characteristics that
both of them share. The term bacteria
is used to describe the organisms in both
kingdoms.
Structure of Bacteria
genetic material
cytoplasm
cell wall
cell membrane
flagellum
FIGURE 12.3 The structure of a typical bac-
terium. Note the flagella.
As a group, bacteria are the small- INFOBIT
est organisms. They are usually 1–10 µm.
A typical eukaryotic cell is about 10 times The world’s largest bacterium
larger. The structure of a bacterium is is called Epulopiscium
fishelsoni and is 0.5 mm long.
quite simple (Figure 12.3). It has a cell It is found in the gut of
wall that provides support and protec- surgeonfish, and is so large
tion for the contents of the cell. Beneath it can be seen with the naked
the cell wall lies the cell membrane that eye.
controls the passage of materials into and
out of the cell. The cytoplasm contains
ribosomes, responsible for the formation
of proteins, and DNA, the genetic infor- Investigation
mation of the cell. The DNA forms a Refer to page 413,
single chromosome. There is roughly Investigation 1
1/1000th the amount of DNA than in a
typical eukaryotic cell. Instead of form-
ing a strand, the DNA forms a ring.
Some bacteria have whiplike flag-
ella (singular: flagellum) that stem from
the cell wall and cell membrane. They
act like propellors moving in reverse,
drawing the organism forward.
However, beyond these basic struc-
tures, bacteria show incredible diversity.
Bacteria are not usually grouped by phy- FIGURE 12.4 Shapes of
logenetic relationships. They are usually bacteria
classified by their shape,
reaction to being stained,
nutrition, and respiration.
Cell Shape
Bacteria can be classified
by shape (Figure 12.4). A
spherical cell is called a
a) cocci
coccus (pural: cocci), a rod-
shaped cell is called a
bacillus (plural: bacilli), and
a spiral-shaped cell is called
a spirillum (plural: spirilli).
Cocci that live as separate
cells are called monococci. If
cocci live in pairs they are
called diplococci. If cocci live b) bacilli
in linear chains they are
called streptococci. If they
live in grapelike clusters, they
are called staphlococci.
Bacilli also exist as single
cells, pairs (diplobacilli), or
chains (streptobacilli). Spiral
bacteria exist only as single
cells. c) spirilli
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 391

Investigation
Refer to page 414,
Investigation 2
. large group of gram-negative bacteria.
WORD ORIGIN
Heterotroph from the Greek
words heteros meaning
“other” and trophe meaning
“nourishment.”
Dr. Gram’s Discovery
In 1884, the Dutch doctor Hans
Christian Gram accidentally devel-
oped the most important staining
392 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Gram Stain
Bacteria are also classified by their reac-
tion to a dye made of crystal violet and io-
dine called gram stain (Figure 12.5). Cells
that retain the crystal violet appear pur-
ple (gram-positive), and cells that don’t
appear light pink (gram-negative). Gram-
positive bacteria have a different cell wall
structure than gram-negative bacteria and
the stain shows this difference. Gram-
positive bacteria are very common and
are generally not as pathogenic as gram-
negative bacteria, such as the bacteria
that cause typhoid, gonorrhea, meningi-
tis, and pneumonia. Proteobacteria are a
Nutrition
Nutrition means obtaining energy and a
source of carbon to produce the organic
compounds needed for cellular
metabolism. There is a large variety of
nutritional patterns among bacteria. Table
12.1 outlines the four types. Most eu-
bacteria are heterotrophs and obtain
their energy by breaking down organic
molecules from their environment. They
TABLE 12.1 Nutritional Patterns of Bacteria
Mode of nutrition Energy source
photoautotroph light
chemoautotroph inorganic chemicals
photoheterotroph light
chemoheterotroph organic compounds
technique used in microbiology. At
the time, Gram was using two stains,
crystal violet and iodine, to show de-
tails of human tissue more clearly.
The mixture of the two stains was so
thick that he had to rinse the slide
with alcohol to clear it for viewing
under the microscope. To his surprise,
the human tissue lost the crystal
violet colour, but some of the bacterial
cells that were present on the slide
FIGURE 12.5 Gram-negative and gram-positive
bacteria
get the carbon needed to make other
molecules from organic molecules as well.
Some eubacteria are autotrophs and can
synthesize their own organic compounds,
such as glucose, from carbon dioxide.
There are two types of autotrophic
bacteria: photoautotrophs use sunlight
as their energy source, while
chemoautotrophs use energy obtained
from chemical reactions.
Carbon source
CO2
CO2
organic compounds
organic compounds
did not lose the colour.
Further experimentation with
bacterial cells demonstrated that cer-
tain bacteria retain the crystal violet
stain and appear purple. These bac-
teria are now called gram-positive
bacteria. Other bacteria do not retain
the stain and appear light pink under
the microscope and are now called
gram-negative bacteria.
 One important group of photoau-
totrophs is the cyanobacteria, also
known as blue-green bacteria. These or-
ganisms are photosynthetic, which
means that, like plants, they can use
sunlight and carbon dioxide to make
their own food. Unlike plants, however,
cyanobacteria lack true chloroplasts and
their photosynthetic pigments are in a
series of folded membranes found
throughout the cytoplasm. Cyanobacteria
contain two photosynthetic pigments:
chlorophyll a, which appears green, and
phycocyanin, which appears blue. Their
blue-green colour is due to these two
pigments.
Cyanobacteria are common in fresh-
water lakes and ponds. When their
population increases rapidly, it is known
as a bloom (Figure 12.6). Cyanobacterial
blooms often mean that the water is
polluted. If water becomes contaminated
with nitrates and phosphates from
agricultural runoff, these compounds act
as fertilizers and allow the cyanobacte-
ria in lakes to multiply rapidly.
Cyanobacteria can also be found in
salt water, in soil, in snow, in volcanoes,
and on rocks. They can live as single
cells or cluster together in colonies to
form mats or plates. A few species live
symbiotically with fungi, forming mixed
organisms called lichens.
Heterotrophic bacteria live every-
where: in soil, air, food, and water. Most
bacteria are chemoheterotrophs. Some
are parasites, absorbing nutrients from
living organisms, and others are
saprobes, decomposing dead organic
matter.
Respiration
Recall that all bacteria differ from eu-
karyotic organisms in that they lack
membrane-surrounded organelles, such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula,
nuclei, and chloroplasts. However, most
of the chemical reactions that take place
in the organelles of eukaryotic cells also
occur in bacteria. Many of these reactions
take place on the inner surface of the cell
FIGURE 12.6 A bloom of cyanobacteria in a
lake is often an indicator of pollution.
membrane so that gases can pass into
and out of the cell easily. For example,
in aerobic bacteria, cellular respiration
occurs on the inner folds of the cell
membrane. In bacteria that carry out
photosynthesis, membranes containing
the photosynthetic pigments are found
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
All living things must carry out cel-
lular respiration to receive a supply of
energy for life’s functions. Bacteria differ
in whether or not they require oxygen.
If cellular respiration involves oxygen to
produce energy from food that is broken
down, bacteria are termed aerobes. If
oxygen is absolutely necessary for their
survival, they are called obligate aerobes.
Those bacteria that can carry out cellular
respiration in an oxygen-free environ-
ment are termed anaerobes. If the
presence of oxygen kills these organisms,
they are called obligate anaerobes. An
example of an obligate anaerobe is the
soil bacterium Clostridium botulinum,
which produces toxins that can cause an
extreme form of food poisoning called
botulism. A third group of bacteria can
survive with or without oxygen and they
are called facultative anaerobes.
Heterotrophs can be either aerobic or
anaerobic.
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 393

Discovering Biology Testing Milk for Bacteria
Milk is an excellent growth medium for bacteria and so milk can
become contaminated with bacteria very easily. In this exercise,
you will examine different milk samples from different sources
and determine their quality in terms of bacterial presence.
1. Obtain four samples of milk of various ages or from different
sources (for example, from a fresh, unopened milk carton; from
milk cartons opened and refrigerated one, two, three, or more
days days ago; powdered milk; canned milk).
2. Fill separate test tubes one-third full with each of the milk
samples.
3. Add 1 mL of methylene blue solution to each test tube.
4. Keep the tubes in a warm place.
When aerobic bacteria are actively growing in milk, they consume
oxygen. Methylene blue turns colourless in the absence of
oxygen.
 Observe each test tube over four days and record your ob-
servations each day.
 Determine the relationship between the methylene blue and
the presence of bacteria.
 Decide which milk sample has the most bacteria.
 What do you conclude about the source of milk and the de-
gree of bacterial contamination?
Reproduction in Bacteria
All bacteria reproduce asexually and di-
vide by the process of binary fission
(Figure 12.7). In binary fission, the par-
ent cell divides into two offspring cells
that are completely identical. Because
division takes place in each individual
cell, there is no exchange of genetic ma-
terial and so the process is asexual. Due
to their rather simple method of repro-
WORD ORIGIN duction, most bacteria can divide every
15 to 20 minutes as long as there is suf-
Conjugation from the Latin ficient food, warmth, and space. For ex-
words iugum meaning “yoke” ample, under the right conditions, a
and con-, a prefix meaning
“together.”
single E.coli bacterium can produce
between 10 and 100 million bacteria in
12 hours. If conditions had always been
ideal for bacterial survival, and their num-
bers left unchecked, the surface of Earth
would have been overtaken by a mas-
sive mat of bacteria over one kilometre
thick. Needless to say, conditions of food,
394 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
temperature, and space are seldom ideal;
the numbers of bacteria are quite limited
and normally exist in a balance with other
organisms in the biosphere.
This fast reproduction rate has an
effect on the mutation rate of bacteria.
In a typical E. coli, the chance of a mu-
tation happening is about 1  10–7 per
cell division. However, since 2  1010
bacteria can be reproduced daily under
ideal conditions, 2000 mutants could be
produced each day (2  1010 / 1  10–7).
So, even though individual mutations are
rare, they can have a great effect on the
genetic diversity of a bacterial popula-
tion because bacteria can reproduce so
quickly. This diversity affects the evolu-
tion of the bacterial population. If a
mutation helps an individual bacterium
survive in its environment, that muta-
tion will spread quickly through future
generations.
In addition to the chromosome, a
bacterium has another, smaller ring of
DNA called a plasmid. Plasmids contain
far fewer genes than bacterial chromo-
somes, anywhere from a few to several
dozen. Plasmids are not necessary to the
survival of the cell under normal con-
ditions. They are usually replicated along
with the chromosomal DNA during bi-
nary fission.
Conjugation As long as the conditions
for survival are ideal, most bacteria re-
produce through binary fission. When
conditions begin to fail, either through
decrease of food or space, or cooler tem-
peratures, some bacteria take part in a
type of sexual reproduction called
conjugation. During conjugation, two
bacterial cells connect to each other by
long protein bridges (Figure 12.8). The
plasmid of one cell is transferred to the
other cell. When the process is com-
pleted, the bacterium that received the
genetic material from the other cell now
has a different genetic makeup. Having
an altered gene structure increases the
chance that a bacterium might possess
a gene combination that enables the
organism to adapt to worsening
 BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA

cell wall

two
daughter
chromosome
cells

cell membrane
parent
bacterial
cell

Bacterial cell starts The chromosome The cell pinches in The cell wall and
with a singular, replicates and the between the membrane join
circular chromosome daughter chromosomes attachment points together in the
attached to its plasma attach to different of the two middle, resulting in
membrane. sites on the plasma chromosomes. two new cells.
membrane.

FIGURE 12.7 Asexual reproduction in a bacterium

environmental conditions. So some in- some bacteria. In Shigella, a bacterium

dividuals might survive these changing
conditions. As a result, the species has a
greater chance of avoiding extinction.
An example of conjugation conferring
an advantage is in providing antibiotic
resistance. In the 1950s, doctors noticed
that antibiotics were not working on
FIGURE 12.8 Conjugation is a one-way
process. One cell donates a plasmid, another
receives it.
that causes intestinal dysentery, antibi-
otics no longer killed cerain strains.
These strains had become resistant to
the antibiotic. However, antibiotics still
killed other strains of the bacteria. Years
later, scientists discovered that specific
genes are responsible for antibiotic re-
sistance. These genes are not on the bac-
terial chromosome, but on certain types
of plasmids called R plasmids. These
plasmids code for the production of en-
zymes that destroy specific types of an-
tibiotics such as ampicillin or tetracyline.
When a population of bacteria is ex-
posed to one of these antibiotics, the
antibiotic will kill all the bacteria that do
not have the R plasmid, leaving only
those bacteria that have the R plasmid
to resist the antibiotic. These bacteria
survive and reproduce in such large
numbers that antibiotic-resistant popu-
lation of bacteria are produced. These
bacteria can also pass on the R plasmid
to other non-resistant bacteria through
conjugation.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 395

INFOBIT
Bacteria found in the digestive
tract are still referred to as
“intestinal flora.” This labelling
of bacteria as plants is a
holdover from when bacteria
were grouped under the plant
kingdom.
WEBLINK
Research more about the
structural characteristics of
Archaebacteria. Create a chart
that shows which of these
characteristics are different
from Eubacteria and which
are the same. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
396 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
This creates a constant competition
between the pathogenic bacteria and the
developers of antibiotics. As antibiotic
resistance spreads through the bacterial
population, antibiotic developers have
to create a new antibiotic for which the
bacteria have no resistance.
Endospore Formation When growth con-
ditions become extremely unfavourable,
many gram-positive bacteria form struc-
tures called spores. One type of spore,
called an endospore, is formed when a
bacterium produces a thick wall that sur-
rounds its DNA and cytoplasm (Figure
12.9). The endospore can remain dor-
mant for months until favourable growth
conditions return. Members of the
endospore-forming group include the
many species of Bacillus and Clostridium.
(The toxins produced by Clostridium
botulinum are among the most poisonous
ever discovered.)
The Kingdoms
Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria
So far, bacteria have been discussed as
a single group. But there are two distinct
groups of bacteria, and their differences
are great enough for them to be classi-
fied as two separate kingdoms: the king-
dom Archaebacteria and the kingdom
Eubacteria.
Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria
are considered to be the oldest group of
organisms on Earth. Scientists hypothe-
size that all life kingdoms are descended
from the ancestors of this group. They
are known for the extremely diverse
environments in which they live, often
places inhospitable to other organisms.
Many of these environments are quite
hot, very acidic, extremely salty, and
resemble conditions thought to exist
billions of years ago on Earth. Not sur-
prisingly then, these bacterialike
organisms closely resemble the primi-
tive clusters of molecules thought to be
found in the ancient seas.
FIGURE 12.9 Endospore formation. Once
bacteria have formed endospores, they can
remain dormant for long periods.
A typical archaebacterium has a cell
wall, and a cell membrane that offers
further protection to the cell’s organelles.
However, both the cell wall and cell
membrane are chemically different from
those of eubacteria. Also, when biolo-
gists mapped the genetic blueprint of
archaebacteria, more than half of their
1700 genes were different from those of
eubacteria. Because the genotypes of
archaebacteria and eubacteria are so dif-
ferent, they have been separated into a
different kingdom.
Archaebacteria are divided into
several phyla based on their habitats.
The members of one phylum live in
oxygen-free places such as the gut of
animals and produce methane gas. They
are called anaerobic methanogens.
Methanogens release all of the methane
gas found in the Earth’s atmosphere,
including flatulence by humans and other
mammals. Approximately one-third of
total methane production comes from
methanogens in the guts of herbivores
such as cows. Much of the rest of the
methane gas comes from methanogens
found at the bottom of marshes and
swamps. One methanogen lives on the
ocean bottom near deep-sea vents and
thrives in temperatures above boiling.

FIGURE 12.10 Masses of heat-loving archae-
bacteria, shown here around the edge of a hot
spring, are tolerant of hot and highly acidic
environments.
A second group, the halophiles, are
“salt-loving” organisms that inhabit salt
lakes such as the Dead Sea. The third
group, the thermophiles, inhabit hot,
acidic environments such as hot springs
(Figure 12.10).
Kingdom Eubacteria This kingdom is far
more successful than the archaebacte-
ria, accounting for most of the prokary-
ote on Earth. Comparisons of the mRNA
of different Eubacteria species have
allowed scientists to separate them into
six phylogenetic groups: Spirochaetes,
Chlamydias, gram-positive bacteria,
Cyanobacteria, and Proteobacteria. Each
group contains a wide variety of species
with different nutritional patterns, gas-
exchange mechanisms, and reactions to
gram stain.
Bacteria in Ecosystems
Nitrogen Fixation Ecosystems are com-
munities of organisms living together in
a given area. The survival of organisms
living in these ecosystems depends, in
part, on the availability of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is essential for the manufacture
of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen
makes up 78 percent of Earth’s atmo-
sphere; however, very little of nitrogen in
its atmospheric form can be used.
atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 )
denitrifying
bacteria
plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root nitrates
nodules of legumes (NO3-)
decomposers (aerobic
and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi)
nitrifying
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
bacteria in the soil ammonification nitrification
ammonium (NH4+) nitrites
(NO2- )
nitrifying bacteria
FIGURE 12.11 Bacteria play a pivotal role in the nitrogen cycle, releasing various
nitrogen compounds into the soil.
Nitrogen must be converted to or “fixed”
into a useful form (Figure 12.11).
The greatest amount of nitrogen
fixation is caused by nitrogen-fixing bac-
teria that are either free living in the soil
or inhabit the roots of legumes, such as
alfalfa, soybeans, peas, and clover.
Bacteria in the roots of these plants
remove free nitrogen from the air and
convert it to nitrates, which are stored in
small growths called nodules for use by
the plant to form amino acids and pro-
teins. A common symbiotic nitrogen fixer
is Rhizobium. Some species of nitrogen-
fixing bacteria live freely in the soil. These
bacteria add nitrates to soil that plants
absorb. Animals that feed on plants
consume these plant proteins and
metabolize them to obtain nitrogen and
amino acids.
Carbon/Oxygen Cycle Prokaryotes play
an important role in recycling. Suppose
dead organisms and the wastes of living
organisms accumulated without decay
over an extended period of time. Before
too long, the living organisms would be
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 397
INFOBIT
Just one gram of the exotoxin
that causes botulism could kill
a million people.
WORD ORIGIN
Pathogenic from the Greek
words pathos meaning
“suffering” and geno meaning
“begetting.”
overwhelmed by the dead, and the nec-
essary cycling of elements would cease.
Fortunately, dead organisms and the
wastes of living organisms become food
for decomposing bacteria. These bacte-
ria break down organic matter into
forms suitable for growth and repro-
duction. The bacteria release carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.
Bacteria and Disease
Only a small percentage of prokaryotes
are pathogenic, or disease causing.
Pathogenic bacteria produce deadly sub-
stances (toxins) in the human body that
cause disease symptoms. For example,
toxins released by the bacterium
Streptococcus pneumoniae may result
in the symptoms of pneumonia. Rats
harboured fleas that contained highly in-
fectious bacteria that caused the plague
or Black Death, which ravaged Asia and
Europe in the 14th century. Tuberculosis
and leprosy are also caused by bacteria.
Some bacteria produce toxins that
enter the bloodstream and attack the
nervous system. One of these causes
tetanus, and another causes botulism, a
deadly form of food poisoning. These
bacteria are anaerobic and survive as
spores until they are introduced into a
favourable environment such as a host
organism.
For the host, the consequences of an
infection depend on the invasiveness and
toxigenicity of the pathogen. Invasiveness
relates to the ability of the pathogen to
multiply within the body of the host.
Toxigenicity is the ability of the pathogen
to produce toxins harmful to the tissues
of the host. Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
the pathogen that causes diphtheria, has
low invasiveness and multiplies only in
the throat; but its toxigenicity is so great
that the entire body is affected. By con-
trast, Bacillus anthracis, which causes
anthrax, has low toxigenicity but high
invasiveness because it multiplies in the
bloodstream.
There are two types of toxins:
endotoxins and exotoxins. Endotoxins
are released when certain gram-nega-
tive bacteria split. Endotoxins are
seldom fatal and normally cause fever,
vomiting, and diarrhea. Species of bac-
teria that produce endotoxins include
Salmonella and Echerichia.
Exotoxins are released by living,
multiplying bacteria that travel through-
out the host’s body. They are highly toxic
and often fatal, but do not produce fever.
Many pathogenic bacteria produce
exotoxins. Some examples of exotoxin-
induced diseases are tetanus from
Clostridium tetani, and botulism from
Clostridium botulinum.
Putting Bacteria to Work
Waste Management Canada has over
5000 hazardous waste sites that contain
used oil, battery acid, PCBs, heavy met-
als, detergents, pesticides, old paint,
plastics, radioactive wastes, and more.
A goal of long-term waste management
is to remove these substances as po-
tential threats to the environment. While
they are deadly to many organisms,
some are food to bacteria. Many species
of bacteria can eliminate or neutralize a
variety of toxic compounds in the envi-
ronment and are even used to clean dan-
gerous chemical spills.
Sewage Treatment Every day, the world
population produces over five billion
kilograms of solid organic waste.
Fortunately, bacteria decompose the
waste and recycle the organic matter.
Some human populations are so dense
that organic wastes begin to accumulate
because bacteria can only work at a cer-
tain pace to recycle wastes. In response
to this situation, humans have developed
technology to improve how efficiently
bacteria digest wastes. Now most human
fecal matter is processed in one of
several ways: in sewage sludge reactors
(Figure 12.12), in septic tanks, or spread
on soil as fertilizer.
Many homes in rural areas have
septic tanks. A septic tank is usually an
underground tank that contains billions

398 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

of anaerobic bacteria, which degrade
sewage slowly. Aerobic waste treatment
facilities break down sewage more
rapidly because they rely on aerobic bac-
teria. By supplying plenty of oxygen,
these bacteria are encouraged to carry
out their chemical reactions as quickly
as possible.

Dairy Foods Over the last 30 years, ef-

forts by food scientists to identify and in-
vestigate lactic acid bacteria, Bacterium
lactis, have revealed their many uses in
the production of dairy foods. These uses
FIGURE 12.12 A sewage treatment plant
include acid production, texture devel-
opment, flavour generation, preserva-
tion, and the synthesis of B-vitamins. For
human beings, lactic acid bacteria pro-
vide resistance to intestinal pathogens, Genetically engineered lactic acid bac-
stimulate the immune system, and help teria are now being studied to develop
to maintain a healthy balance of micro- highly effective digestive enzymes and
organisms in the digestive system. vaccines.

Section 12.1 Review

Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/
1. Define the following terms: prokaryote,
Communications Skills
anaerobe, toxin, heterotroph. 6. You have been asked to classify an un-
2. List several ways bacteria can be clas- known bacterium according to its
sified and provide examples. method of cellular respiration. Create
a dichotomous key that will allow you
3. Explain the relationship between the
to classify this organism.
terms prokaryote, bacteria, eubacte-
ria, and archaebacteria.
4. If you were given two organisms and Making Connections
told one was a eubacterium and one
7. Explain ways in which bacteria are im-
was an archaebacterium, outline the
portant to the environment.
relevant information you would need
to know about each organism in order 8. Suppose bacteria lost the ability to fix
to classify them. nitrogen. Explain how would this af-
fect the environment and the economy.
5. Describe how bacteria change their
genetic properties and how these
changes spread so quickly through the
population.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 399


WORD ORIGIN
Virus from the Latin word virus
meaning a poisonous slime of
plant or animal origin.
FIGURE 12.13 A T4 phage
on the surface of a cell.
Phages are viruses that infect
only bacteria. They are also
known as bacteriophages.
400 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
12.2 Viruses
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of a virus
 compare and contrast the reproduction of prokaryotes and viruses
Classifying Viruses
Sizes Shapes
Viruses are often presented in classifi-
cation systems as being closely related
to prokaryotes since, like prokaryotes,
viral genetic material is not surrounded
cowpox and smallpox
by a membrane. However, many biolo- viruses
gists do not classify viruses as belong- 250 nm
ing to any kingdom because they are not
cells, the basic units of life. Some biolo-
gists question whether viruses are alive
influenza virus
at all because they do not metabolize
100 nm
energy or perform cellular respiration.
In fact, viruses must live as parasites
within the cells of a host organism.
Viruses grow and develop in the cells of bacteriophage
specific hosts and depend on these cells 65 x 95 nm
for respiration, nutrition, and all other
functions of life to enable them to re-
tobacco mosaic
produce. When viruses enter the host’s virus
cells, they “take over” by altering the 300 x 15 nm
host cells’ genetic makeup. A virus is
classified as a non-cellular particle made
yellow fever virus
up of protein-covered genetic material 22 nm
that can invade living cells.
poliomyelitis virus
protein coat 20 nm
of head
viral DNA
foot-and-mouth
virus
tail 10 nm
Escherichia coli
tail fibres
2000 – 2500 nm
e
bran
mem
a
sm
pla
viral DNA being FIGURE 12.14 The protein coat of a virus gives
injected into it a characteristic shape. Notice how small
bacterium viruses are as compared to an E. coli bacterium.
 Scientists studied viruses long before
they could see viruses. In 1892, a
Russian botanist, Dimitri Ivanovsky,
tried to find out what was killing his
The Discovery of tobacco plants. Ivanovsky noticed his
tobacco plants were losing their tex-
Viruses
ture and thought that the cause was
FIGURE 12.15 Tobacco leaves (left) infected with the tobacco mosaic virus (right).
due to bacteria. To verify his hy-
pothesis, Ivanovsky poured an extract
of infected leaves through a fine fil-
ter. At the time, this filtration proce-
dure was a standard way to isolate
bacteria. To Ivanovsky’s surprise, the
filter was free of any bacteria and the
filtered extract still caused the deadly
tobacco mosaic disease in his plants.
Therefore, the cause of the disease
was not bacterial. Clearly, the dis-
ease-causing agent was smaller than
a bacterium.
The disease-causing agent was
later named a virus. This virus was
identified in 1935 as the tobacco mo-
saic virus. Because viruses are so
much smaller than prokaryotic cells,
they weren’t actually seen. Viruses
have become well understood only
within the last 50 years, largely
through the development of the elec-
tron microscope, which had a large
enough magnification to allow viruses
to be seen.

Viruses have characteristic shapes cell is directed by DNA-coded instructions.

(Figure 12.14) but they all have two
components: genetic material and a pro-
tein covering called a capsid. They
cannot invade all cell types, only specific
ones. For example, plant viruses only at-
tack plant cells, and animal viruses only
attack animal cells. Some viruses will
only invade the cells of a certain species
of organism. A virus’s genetic material
can either be DNA or RNA, depending
on the type of virus.
The Reproductive Cycle
of Viruses
A cell’s DNA can be compared to a
computer program, and the cell to a com-
puter. A computer performs tasks by a
coded set of instructions in a program; a
As long as the program remains intact,
the computer will function without error.
Similarly, as long as the DNA code of a
cell remains unaltered, the activities of a
cell function normally.
Suppose a new program is loaded
into the computer that instructs the
computer to stop what it is doing and
make copies of the new program instead.
This new program cannot make copies
of itself if it is in a CD lying on the desk
outside the computer. The new program
must be installed in the computer before
it can function. A virus acts in a similar
way. As mentioned previously, viruses
must invade a living host cell to repro-
duce. There are two ways that viruses
can reproduce, depending on the type of
virus.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 401

 The Lytic Cycle The bacteriophage T4 1. Initially, the bacteriophage attaches
that invades E. coli (Figure 12.16) uses itself to the cell wall surface of the
the lytic cycle to reproduce. It is called E. coli bacterium. Proteins in the tail
the lytic cycle because it always ends of the virus fit the structure of the
with the lysis (breaking open) of the host bacterium wall and this results in
cell. The lytic cycle involves the follow- specific virus-host cell infections.
ing steps. 2. The bacteriophage tail releases an
enzyme that dissolves the wall of the
bacterium. Once an opening in the
wall is created, the virus tail con-
tracts, and the viral DNA is injected
into the cell.
1. Virus attacks 3. Inside the host cell, the viral DNA
bacterium and
injects its DNA takes over the cell’s activity and
into the host. the host cell’s DNA is destroyed. The
host cell is now under the control of
the viral DNA, which instructs the
cell to make copies of the viral DNA
and capsid.
4. Copies of the viral DNA and capsid
2. Viral DNA uses are assembled into new viruses.
host’s enzymes
to make more The cytoplasm in the host cell re-
viral DNA (by leases a digestive enzyme that
replication) and breaks down the outer shell of the
more coat
proteins (by bacterium, and the cell breaks open
transcription). releasing hundreds of new viruses.
This last step is called cell lysis.
5. After lysis, the new viruses infect
other cells.

3. The new viral You might think that if all viruses re-
components produced by the lytic cycle, they would
are assembled
into 100 or so end up killing all the cells of the host or
clones of the an entire bacterial colony. Bacteria are
original invader. not defenceless against phage infections.
Some bacteria have enzymes called
restriction enzymes that recognize “for-
eign” DNA. When a phage injects its
DNA into the bacterium, the restriction
4. Viruses produce
enzymes recognize that it is foreign DNA.
lytic enzyme The restriction enzymes act like scissors,
that causes host cutting up the phage’s DNA, making it
cell to lyse,
releasing the
useless. There are many different kinds
viruses. of restriction enzymes. But, like the
competition between bacteria and
WEBLINK developers of antibiotics, there is a com-
petition between bacteria and phages.
Bacteria with effective restriction
enzymes survive and reproduce. But any
To explore the lytic and phages that develop resistance to the
lysogenic cycles further, go to
FIGURE 12.16 The lytic cycle of a T4 bacterio- restriction enzymes also have a
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
phage. reproductive advantage.

402 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

The Lysogenic Cycle Not all viruses cause
rapid destruction of the host cell. Some lysogenic phage DNA
viruses enter a host cell but do not take phage
bacterial DNA
over the host’s activity by destroying the
host DNA. Instead, the viral DNA com-
bines with and becomes part of the host
DNA in a way that does not interfere
with the host cell activity (Figure 12.17).
When the host cell copies its own DNA, Phage injects its
DNA into bacterium.
the viral DNA is copied as well. The viral
DNA can be copied in this manner
through several generations of host cell
reproduction. The introduction of viral
DNA into the host genetic structure in
Lysogenic
this way is called lysogeny. Once the Phage’s DNA Cycle
DNA is incorporated, the viral DNA be- incorporated into
comes inactive. At some time in the life bacterium’s DNA. Phage’s DNA may replicate
along with the bacterial DNA
of the host cell, perhaps by way of an for many generations.
environmental stimulus, the viral DNA
in an infected host cell may become ac-
tive. The viral DNA then instructs the
host cell to manufacture new viruses
using the lytic cycle.

TABLE 12.2 Comparison of Lytic and Lysogenic

Cycles

Lytic cycle Lysogenic

cycle
Fate of host Takes over Becomes part
DNA after host DNA of host DNA
infection of
the virus
Changing conditions phage
Incubation Release of Release of cause phage to enter protein
time in host new viruses new viruses lytic cycle.
cell after one after several
generation of generations of
host activity host activity
Onset of Immediate Delayed
viral disease
symptoms Many copies of phage’s
protein coat, and genetic
material are produced.

RNA Viruses
Many viruses, such as the tobacco mo-
saic virus, have RNA rather than DNA
as their genetic material. In normal Phages are assembled
cell processes, molecules of DNA direct and are released when the
all cell activities. They do this by di- bacterium’s cell wall lyses.
recting the process of protein synthesis.
Some proteins function as enzymes
to control chemical reactions, other FIGURE 12.17 The lysogenic phage Lambda in-
proteins provide structural characteristics fecting a bacterium.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 403


INFOBIT
Facts about the influenza virus:
• The influenza virus changes
every year.
• These changes cause
seasonal flu epidemics.
• These changes mean that the
flu vaccine must be altered
every year.
WEBLINK
Recently, the Ebola virus has
emerged as a highly infectious
virus that is almost always fatal
to humans. Find out what type
of virus the Ebola virus is, and
what kind of life cycle it has.
Research where the Ebola
virus first emerged, what its
symptoms are, and what is
being done to prevent its
spread. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
404 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
to a particular cell (for example, skin,
muscle, bone). The genetic information
coded in DNA is read by the messenger
RNA (mRNA). The mRNA moves to the
ribosomes and directs the synthesis of
proteins. RNA viruses contain RNA,
which can act as mRNA once in the cell,
or can provide instructions to manufac-
ture its own mRNA. The mRNA can
manufacture viral proteins and so by-
pass the host DNA. All RNA viruses are
lytic since there is no way for the viral
RNA to become part of the host’s DNA
structure.
Retroviruses
Retroviruses also contain RNA as their
genetic material. When a virus infects a
cell, it produces a copy of viral DNA from
the viral RNA code. As mentioned above,
normal genetic information transfer is
from DNA to RNA. Because these viruses
reverse the direction of genetic infor-
mation transfer, they are called
retroviruses (“retro-” means backward).
The human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) that causes acquired immuno-
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans.
The virus enters a human white blood
cell and subsequently directs the cell to
make DNA from the viral RNA. The new
DNA becomes part of the hereditary ap-
paratus of the infected human cell. The
host cell does not burst, but it changes
permanently in shape, metabolism, and
growth. Because the host cell does not
burst, the cycle of infection is lysogenic.
The first animal retrovirus was iso-
lated in 1910 and was shown to cause
muscle tumours in chickens. In the late
1960s, Howard Temin at the University
of Wisconsin discovered that the Kaposi
sarcoma virus carries an enzyme for the
manufacture of DNA, using viral RNA as
the genetic template. Shortly thereafter,
Temin and David Baltimore indepen-
dently isolated the enzyme, which was
named “reverse transcriptase” because
it transcribes DNA from RNA rather than
RNA from DNA. The DNA copy of the
viral RNA can then use cellular struc-
tures to make more viral RNA. Viruses
that use reverse transcriptase are retro-
viruses.
Viral Diseases
Like their hosts, viruses show tremen-
dous diversity and do not always
replicate in either a lytic or lysogenic
cycle. For example, the human influenza
virus does not lyse its host cell, but
leaves the cell by pushing out through
the cell membrane. As a result, the in-
fluenza virus is covered with a section
of the cell membrane from the host
human cell. Now disguised as a normal
human cell, the influenza virus can
spread through the body undetected and
infect other cells. When a person is
infected with the influenza virus, the
infected person very rapidly develops
influenza (flu) symptoms and becomes
ill.
Influenza is spread via respiratory
secretions (coughing and sneezing). The
incubation period is from one to four
days, and infected persons are conta-
gious for about one week.
Most viruses cause some kind of dis-
ease in their hosts. Some common ani-
mal diseases caused by viruses are
chickenpox/shingles, hepatitis (A, B, and
C), measles, warts, distemper, mumps,
yellow fever, infectious mononucleosis,
equine encephalitis, and rabies.
FIGURE 12.18 Fruit and leaves from a peach
tree infected with a calico virus.
 Most plant viruses tend to be RNA
viruses. Plant viruses can stunt plant
growth and cause low crop yields.
Viruses can be spread from plant to
plant by insects carrying the virus, or by
farmers and gardeners using tools such
as pruning shears that are infected with
Section 12.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Explain why it is difficult to classify
viruses.
2. Draw diagrams to compare the lytic
and lysogenic cycles of a bacteriophage.
3. Compare the life cycle of a eubacterium
with the reproductive cycle of a virus.
4. Make a chart to compare how RNA
viruses are similar to and different
from DNA viruses.
5. Make a chart to compare and contrast
RNA viruses and retroviruses with re-
spect to:
a) viral genetic material
b) fate of host genetic material after
viral infection
c) incubation time in host cell
d) onset of viral disease symptoms.
12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the relevance of current studies of viruses and bacteria to the field of
biotechnology
Foundations of
Biotechnology
Biotechnology can be defined as ma-
nipulating living organisms or their com-
ponents to provide products or to serve
useful purposes. As such, biotechnology
has been used by society since the
the virus. Some examples of plant viral
diseases are strawberry ringspot, bean
leaf roll, tobacco mosaic, clover yellow
vein, potato mottle, apple chlorotic, to-
bacco ringspot, alfalfa mosaic, onion yel-
low dwarf, wheat mosaic, and turnip
mosaic.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Describe the early evidence that sug-
gested viruses were much smaller
than bacteria.
7. Scientists believe that viruses could not
have existed prior to other organisms
appearing on Earth. What evidence
supports this hypothesis? Explain.
8. Use appropriate library resources and
Internet sites to research the cause,
symptoms, and treatment of measles
and mumps.
Making Connections
9. Scientists create new vaccines every
year to combat new strains of flu.
Create a PMI chart to show the eco-
nomic and societal effects of develop-
ing new flu vaccines.
beginning of recorded history. We use
yeast to make bread rise and bacteria to
make some cheeses. We have bred farm
animals to produce more milk and meat,
and have bred crop plants to produce
higher yields. This breeding takes time,
often years.
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 405
 In the past three decades a set of
laboratory techniques has increased the
pace of biotechnology. Now the DNA of
plants, animals, and other organisms
can be manipulated in the laboratory.
Thus a narrower and more specific
definition of biotechnology is any com-
mercial application of living organisms
or their products that involves the direct
manipulation of their DNA molecules.

animal cell containing gene bacterium

of interest

1. Plasmid DNA and

DNA containing gene
of interest are isolated.

2. Gene is inserted into

plasmid. plasmid bacterial
chromosome
gene of
interest
DNA of
chromosome recombinant DNA
(plasmid)

3. Plasmid is inserted
into bacterium.

recombinant
bacterium

4. Large amounts of the gene

of interest are created
through cloning. Copies of gene
are isolated and
Product created transferred to
by gene is isolated. other organisms.

Human growth 5. various applications Gene for pest

hormone treats resistance is
growth problems. inserted
into plants.

FIGURE 12.19 An overview of genetic engineering. Bacteria play a central role in biotechnology.

406 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Genetic Engineering
Biologists can now alter the DNA of an
organism directly. The techniques they
use to make these alterations are col-
lectively known as genetic engineering.
Suppose you wanted to take a gene from
one organism and insert it into another
organism. In order to do this, you need
certain tools and techniques to do the
following steps.
1. Cut out a section of DNA from the
first organism.
2. Combine this DNA with the DNA
from another organism.
3. Insert the combined DNA into an-
other organism.
Bacteria and viruses are often used
to perform these steps. Figure 12.19
gives an overview of the steps in genetic
engineering. Bacteria are considered the
workhorses of biotechnology, and with-
out them, genetic engineering would be
extremely difficult.
Bacteria and
Recombinant DNA
The process of genetic engineering starts
with cutting out a section of DNA from
the cell of an organism such as an ani-
Eco Rl restriction enzyme Eco Rl
bacterial chromosome
DNA containing gene of interest
1. Both sets of DNA
cut with the
same restriction
enzyme.
plasmid
FIGURE 12.20 Recombination of genes. This process happens in-vitro, outside the cell. Restriction
enzymes cut both the plasmid DNA and the DNA to be inserted in the same nucleotide sequence on
their DNA.
mal cell. Scientists use restriction en-
zymes to do this. These enzymes act as
chemical scissors. There are many types
of restriction enzymes and each type rec-
ognizes a specific nucleotide sequence
in DNA. Once an enzyme recognizes its
sequence, it cuts the DNA at that point
(Figure 12.20). Some well-known re-
striction enzymes are EcoR1, BAM1, and
HaeIII.
Bacteria contain plasmids. These
plasmids are particularly useful in
biotechnology because they provide a
site for genetic recombination. Plasmids
are removed from the bacteria and cut
with the same restriction enzyme used
to cut the DNA from the animal cell. The
action of the restriction enzyme creates
“sticky ends” at the cut ends (Figure
12.20). These ends are complemen-
tary, so the animal DNA “fits” into the
plasmid. (The process of inserting one
set of genetic material into another is
called gene splicing.) The plasmid is
now considered to be recombinant DNA
because it has DNA from two organisms.
This plasmid is also known as a cloning
vector.
The production of the cloning
vector happens in-vitro; in other words,
outside of the cell. But to be useful, the
2. Sticky ends are created. 3. Complementary ends join together
to form recombinant DNA.
4. Recombinant
plasmid
sticky ends inserted into
Eco Rl DNA bacterium.
recombination
5. Cloning
begins.
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 407
 recombinant DNA has to be put back
into a cell. To do this, the recombinant
plasmids are placed in a solution con-
taining bacteria. Some of the bacteria
take up the plasmids. Those bacteria that
take up the recombinant plasmids are
then isolated and placed in a growing
medium. These bacteria keep dividing
and the plasmids are reproduced along
with the bacteria. In essence, these
bacteria are all clones. So genetic engi-
neering takes advantage of bacteria’s
ability to multiply rapidly to get large
amounts of the recombinant DNA.
Genetic engineering requires rela-
tively large amounts of recombinant
DNA, and genetic cloning via bacterial
reproduction is a way of producing large
amounts.
Applications of
Genetic Cloning
Once you have large amounts of recom-
binant DNA through genetic cloning, this
recombinant DNA can be used in differ-
ent ways. It can be used to do basic
research on the DNA itself. It can also
be used to create products. For example,
one application of the recombinant DNA
TABLE 12.3 Selected Approved Biopharmaceuticals.
Biopharmaceutical Approved (year)
Trastuzumab 1998
Recombinant interferon beta 1-B 1993
DNase 1993
Proleukin, IL-2 1992
Recombinant antihaemopheliac factor 1992
Adenosine deaminase 1990
recombivax HB 1986
Somatrem 1985
recombinant human insulin 1982
408 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
is the production of human growth hor-
mone. The growth-hormone gene is in-
serted into the bacterial plasmid and
reintroduced into other bacteria.
Because they now have the gene, the
bacteria produce the hormone. So the
bacteria act as bioreactors, producing
large amounts of the hormone, which
can then be extracted and purified for
medical use. Insulin is also made this
way. These types of drugs are known as
biopharmaceuticals. Table 12.3 shows
medicines currently made by genetically-
engineered bacteria.
Another application is to take the
large amounts of recombinant DNA pro-
duced by genetic cloning and isolate the
recombinant DNA. This DNA can then
be inserted into cells of other organisms
growing in culture. If the DNA is incor-
porated into the cells of a different
species, the organism that receives the
DNA is a transgenic organism. These
foreign genes produce new traits in the
transgenic organism. For example, bac-
teria can be genetically engineered to eat
oil and used to clean up oil spills.
Scientists have now produced transgenic
plants and animals (Figure 12.21).
Used for
one type of breast cancer
management of one type of multiple sclerosis
one type of cystic fibrosis
kidney cancer
Hemophaelia A
immunodeficiency in children
Hepatitis B prevention vaccine
human growth hormone deficiency
diabetes
 Discovering Biology
Modelling Gene Splicing

Imagine that your group has recently been hired by a local televi-
sion to edit a film to show several scenes of “students helping other
students” at lockers outside your home room. Many students go
to their lockers, get their books, and walk straight into class. Other
students take the time to talk with others, offer assistance in some
way to help them along, and then enter their class. You would like
to put together a short tape of students helping students, one right
after the other.

Materials
several lengths of 35-mm camera film
scissors
tape
1. Take a long piece of film and tape it into a loop.
2. Take another length of film and cut a “scene” from it.
3. Cut open the loop and, using tape, splice the new scene into it.

 Compare and contrast the process of splicing scenes together

using film and tape with the process of splicing a new gene
sequence into an existing plasmid or chromosome, using re-
FIGURE 12.21 A transgenic plant. This plant striction enzymes.
was grown from cells that had a firefly gene in-
 Identify what materials you used to correspond to which parts
serted into them. Most of the plant’s cells have
the firefly gene. When the gene is activated, the of the gene-splicing sequence.
plant glows.

silk. Unfortunately, milking the spi- been trademarked as BioSteel. The

Biotechnology at
Work
Spider silk is one of the strongest ma-
terials in the world. It can absorb large
amounts of energy without breaking
or losing its shape. The nearly crys-
talline proteins make spider silk
stronger and more elastic than high-
tensile steel or Kevlar, the high-tech
plastic used in bulletproof vests.
For many years, scientists have
sought a way to mass-produce spider
ders themselves is out of the question
because they are carnivores. Spiders
will eat each other if kept in groups.
Countless attempts to produce artifi-
cial spider silk in a lab have also
failed.
Now a biotechnology company in
Montreal has genetically engineered
transgenic goats. The goats’ cells con-
tain the silk-producing gene from the
orb-weaver spider, so that the milk
of female goats will contain the
spider-silk protein. After the goats
mature in special high-security farms,
the company’s staff will milk the fe-
males. Back at the lab, the milk will
be purified and the silk protein ex-
tracted. This new silk product has
company is now designing an artifi-
cial spinneret, to spin BioSteel into
long threads.
Scientists hope a litre of milk will
produce two to fifteen grams of
spider silk. The company wants to
produce as much as five tonnes of silk
per year.
When commercial production does
begin, BioSteel could be used to
manufacture artificial ligaments, fish-
ing line, bulletproof vests, artificial
body parts, and surgical sutures. One
day it may even be used to repair
bones, cover domed stadiums, and
shield spacecraft from meteorites.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 409

 Viruses and Genetic normal allele
Engineering of a gene
Bacterial plasmids aren’t the only cloning 1. Allele spliced into
vectors. Viruses can also be used as viral DNA.
cloning vectors in much the same way.
Viruses tend to be used instead of recombinant
plasmids if the DNA strand to be DNA
manipulated is quite long. Using a virus
as a cloning vector takes advantage of a
virus’s reproductive cycle. The end re-
sult of the lytic cycle is many more copies
of the virus’s DNA, which is the goal of
any cloning vector.
The most common virus used is the
virus
lambda phage, which infects E. coli. To
clone a section of DNA, it is spliced
into the phage’s DNA and the recombi- 2. Virus infects human stem
nant DNA is inserted back into the cell and recombinant DNA is
phage’s protein coat. The phage is then inserted into a chromosome.
placed in a test tube of E. coli bacteria. chromosomes
The phage infects the bacteria and,
through the lytic cycle, replicates its
recombinant DNA many times over.
Another possible use of viruses in
biotechnology is in gene therapy to
correct genetic disorders. If a genetic dis-
order is caused by a single gene, it might
be possible to replace the defective gene
with a normal allele of that gene. For the
allele to be incorporated permanently
stem cell nucleus
into the patient, the gene would have to
be inserted into cells that multiply
throughout the patient’s life so that the 3. Stem cells are injected
back into bone
new allele will be permanently expressed.
marrow of
(Stem cells in bone marrow are ideal
patient.
cells.) Viruses would provide a way of de-
livering the normal allele to the cell.
But to do this, the virus would have to
be “disarmed” so that it did not have any
disease-causing properties of its own.
The process is outlined in Figure 12.22.
Currently, this process is mostly in the
research stage, though there has been bone
some success treating patients with a dis- marrow
ease called adenosine deaminase (ADA).

FIGURE 12.22 Genetically engineered viruses

can be used to insert a normal allele into a
human chromosome.

410 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Section 12.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Can the term biotechnology be defined
in more than one way? Explain.
2. Explain what is meant by the term ge-
netic engineering.
3. Give reasons why bacteria are impor-
tant to biotechnology.
4. Explain, with the use of a diagram,
how genetic recombination occurs.
5. A scientist uses the restriction enzyme
ecoR1 to isolate a section of DNA from
a plant cell. She then extracts a
plasmid from a bacterium and uses
the restriction enzyme bam1 on the
plasmid. When she mixes the two
pieces of DNA together, will she obtain
recombinant DNA? Explain.
Making Connections
6. List three applications of genetic en-
gineering.
7. In a paragraph, describe the advan-
tages and disadvantages of using
generic engineering in industry. sev-
eral possible drawbacks of genetic en-
gineering to society and to the
environment.
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 411
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Viruses: Research versus Risk  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal

B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Medical research relating to viruses is something weaker than the original virus. The goals of research
we think about in relation to finding cures for can- will likely be scrutinized even more closely as the
cer and other diseases. However, research can technology continues to evolve.
also have unexpected results. Scientists in Australia,
for example, accidently created a deadly virus while
researching a vaccine to make mice infertile. They
inserted a gene into a mousepox virus that creates
large amounts of interleukin-4. Interleukin-4 is one
of a group of proteins that play a role in activating
the immune system. The addition of the interleukin
gene to the virus’s DNA was intended to stimulate
production of antibodies against mouse eggs. The
role of the virus was to transport the gene into the
mice. However, instead of boosting antibody pro-
duction, the altered virus suppressed “cell mediated
response,” wiping out the part of the immune sys-
tem that combats viral infection.
Although this new modified mousepox virus
does not affect humans, it is related to the smallpox
virus. There could be the potential for using this
same technology to create another modified virus
that could be harmful to society. Although some peo-
ple believe that continuation of this research does
pose a threat, others cite evidence that in the vast FIGURE 12.23 Researchers working on human viruses in a
majority of cases modified viruses are actually high-containment laboratory.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue described in this case study.
2. Research the role of the following in marshalling the im-
mune response: a) antigen, b) antibodies, c) the roles
of the following cells: macrophages, T-cells (helper and
killer), and memory cells.
3. List the stakeholders who are affected by the results of
this research.
4. Research the ethical, political, social, and environmen-
tal impacts that face researchers in virology.
5. Create a concept map to summarize your research.
6. Propose two controls you would recommend to regulate
this research.
7. Plan a debate to address the risk of experimentation with
viruses such as the mousepox virus. Do you feel the risk
of experimentation with viruses is justified?

412 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 12.1)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Observing Bacteria  Concluding and Communicating

Problem on the bacteria. Describe what you observe. Make

a drawing of what you see.
How are examples of bacteria similar to and different 5. Repeat Steps 1–4 for the next two slides.
from one another?
Part B: Live Samples
Materials Here is the simplest way to investigate non-pathogenic
 bacteria. Prepare a wet mount microscope slide in
prepared microscope slides of bacteria
 which samples thought to contain bacteria are placed
compound light microscope
 in a drop of water on a microscope slide.
microscope slides
 1. Transfer a small drop of yogurt to the centre of your
cover slips
 slide. Add a drop of water.
lens paper
 eye dropper 2. Examine the slide under high power. Draw a dia-
 yogurt gram of what you observe.
 decaying beans 3. Examine the slide under oil immersion. Draw a di-
 immersion oil agram of what you observe.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 after preparing a wet mount
CAUTION: slide from water containing decaying beans.
– It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Analyzing and Interpreting
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach. 1. Describe how your observations of the prepared
slides under low power differ from your observa-
– Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic tions under high power.
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
2. Explain what greater detail is now visible.
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap 3. Compare your observations under high power with
and water if contact occurs. your observations under oil immersion.

– Be sure to wash your hands thoroughly with soapy water

when you have finished. Concluding and Communicating
4. Is there a relationship between the characteristics
of bacteria observed in each of the samples (i.e.,
Procedure yogurt solution and decaying beans)? Explain.
Part A: Prepared Slides 5. Speculate on the role of bacteria found in each
1. Place a prepared slide on the microscope stage. sample.
2. Use the low-power objective to focus on the bac-
teria. Describe what you see. Extending
3. Switch the lens to the high-power objective. What 6. Design a simple dichotomous key to classify the
greater detail is now visible? different types of bacteria observed in Parts A
4. Swing the high-power objective out of place. Put a and B.
drop of immersion oil directly onto the microscope 7. Prepare a concept map to illustrate the similarities
slide. Swing the oil immersion objective lens into and differences in appearance of the different kinds
the drop of oil. Focus the oil immersion objective of bacteria.

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 413

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 12.1)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Preparing and Observing Stained Bacteria  Concluding and Communicating

Problem Part C: Staining the Bacteria

6. Cover the film of yogurt with a drop of methylene
In this activity, you will prepare a sample of stained blue stain.
bacteria. 7. Leave the stain on the slide for 2 min.
8. Gently rinse the excess stain in a beaker of water.
Materials 9. Place a cover slip over the slide.
 compound light microscope
 microscope slides
 cover slips Part D: Observing the Bacteria
 lens paper 10. Use the low-power objective to focus on the stained
 eye dropper bacteria.
 yogurt
 methylene blue 11. Swing the high-power objective into place. If nec-
 immersion oil essary, refocus with the fine adjustment.
12. Swing the high power objective out of place. Put
CAUTION: LAL1 one drop of immersion oil directly onto the stained
bacteria. Swing the oil immersion lens into posi-
– It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced tion into the drop of oil.
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present. 13. Draw and describe what you see.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach. 14. Compare these findings using oil immersion with
your findings under high-power magnification.
– Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from Analyzing and Interpreting
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap 1. Compare your results with the unstained yogurt
and water if contact occurs. cells you observed in the previous investigation.
Based on your observations, describe what you saw
Procedure under low-power magnification. What greater de-
tail is seen with high-power magnification?
Part A: Preparing Stained Bacteria 2. Estimate the size of these cells.
1. Heat a clean microscope slide gently by passing it
several times above the flame of a Bunsen burner.
Concluding and Communicating
2. When the slide is cool, place a small drop of di-
3. Different colours of dyes bring out the details of dif-
lute yogurt solution on the slide. Spread it thinly
ferent parts of a cell. What part of the bacterial cell
over an area the size of a dime.
does methylene blue stain?
3. Dry the slide in the air to form a thin film.
4. Design an experiment using certain dyes to stain
different parts of a bacterial cell.
Part B: Fixing the Bacteria
4. Quickly pass the slide three or four times through Extending
the Bunsen burner flame with the film side up to 5. Why do scientists stain bacteria?
“fix” the bacteria. This will make the bacteria stick 6. How does a gram stain differ from a simple stain?
to the microscope slide.
5. Let the slide cool to room temperature.

414 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

aerobe cloning vector gram stain plasmid spirilli

anaerobe cocci halophile prokaryote thermophile
autotroph conjugation heterotroph recombinant DNA transgenic
bacilli DNA lysis restriction enxymes virus
bacteria endospore lysogeny retrovirus
binary fission facultative methanogen RNA
biotechnology genetic engineering obligate saprobe

Essential Understandings

12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
 Archaebacteria and eubacteria are prokaryotic
organisms. They are generally much smaller and
simpler in cell structure than eukaryotic organsims.
 The classification of prokaryotes depends on such
factors as cell shape, nutrition, respiration, and re-
action to gram stain.
 Prokaryotes can be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
Most are heterotrophic.
 Bacteria usually reproduce asexually through binary
fission. Bacteria can increase their genetic variability
by undergoing conjugation.
 Bacteria affect humans in a variety of ways. Some
cause disease. Many bacteria have important roles.
Some bacteria maintain soil fertility by decompos-
ing organic waste. Certain species fix nitrogen.
 Bacteria are separated into the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria on the basis of
genetic and chemical differences rather than visi-
ble structural differences.
 Archaebacteria are found in harsh habitats, which
are highly acidic, extremely salty, or extremely hot.
 Eubacteria are found in diverse habitats. They are
more widespread than archaebacteria.
12.2 Viruses
 Viruses are not classified under the kingdoms of life.
They are non-cellular particles that consist of
genetic material inside a protein coat.
 All viruses are parasitic and require a host cell’s ge-
netic material to generate new virus particles.
 Viruses replicate either through the lytic cycle or the
lysogenic cycle.
 Viruses contain either DNA or RNA. Retroviruses
are RNA viruses that incorporate their genetic in-
formation into the host’s DNA.
12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology
 Recombinant DNA is created by splicing DNA
from an organism into either the DNA of a bacte-
rial plasmid or into the DNA of a virus. This gene
splicing happens in vitro.
 Recombinant DNA is replicated by one of two meth-
ods. A recombinant plasmid can be inserted into a
bacterium, which then clones itself through binary
fission. Recombinant DNA can also be inserted into
a phage, which then replicates its DNA in a bac-
terium through the lytic cycle.
 Scientists can use the large amounts of recombinant
DNA to conduct research into the DNA itself or to
engineer transgenic organisms.
 Bacteria can act as bioreactors to produce products
coded for by recombinant DNA in their plasmids.
 Viruses play a role in gene therapy by providing a
means of introducing healthy genes into the DNA.

Consolidate Your Understanding

 Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 389 and review
the concept map you constructed on the roles of bacte-
ria. Review your web based on what you learned in this
chapter.
 Construct a concept map describing prokaryotes. Include
the following terms in your map: bacilli, binary fission,
aerobes heterotroph autotroph, cocci, conjugation, aer-
obe, anaerobe, gram stain, spirilli. Add additional terms
as you need them.
 Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
in genetic engineering.
 In the Case Study debate, what criteria did your class
apply to carrying out the debate? If you were to plan
another debate, what additional or different criteria
might you choose?

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 415

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 11. Develop a concept map to illustrate the different meth-
ods of gas exchange in bacteria.
1. Endospores
a) are produced by viruses 12. Draw diagrams of the three most common shapes of bac-
b) are reproductive structures teria. Label each diagram.
c) are very delicate and can easily be killed
d) are resting structures 13. What are the methods of reproduction in bacteria. What
factors affect the bacteria’s use of one or the other?
2. A virus particle is active only in direct association with
a) organic material 14. Explain the advantages to bacteria of having the ability
b) a living cell to form endospores.
c) inorganic material
d) other viruses 15. Create a chart that names the groups found in the
kingdom Archaebacteria and the habitat in which each
3. In the relationship between bacteriophages and bacte- lives.
ria, the bacterium
a) destroys the bacteriophage 16. Describe the role of bacteria in ecosystems. You may
b) uses the bacteriophage DNA to reproduce itself wish to draw diagrams to help your explanation.
c) is killed upon entrance of the bacteriophage
d) provides a host for the bacteriophage 17. Suppose that all the bacteria that act as decomposers dis-
appeared from Earth. What would the consequences be?
4. An obligate anaerobe would
a) grow equally well with or without free oxygen 18. What characteristics to all viruses in common?
b) grow well with free oxygen but better without it
c) die without oxygen 19. List the ways that viruses differ from one another.
d) grow only in the absence of free oxygen
20. Draw and label a diagram of a virus.
5. A bacteriophage that invades a bacterium and remains
inactive through several generations of the cell is called 21. Why would it be incorrect to say that viruses represent
a) a lytic bacteriophage the most primitive form of life in the biosphere?
b) a temperate bacteriophage
c) a lysogenic bacteriophage 22. Describe what happens to the host cell’s DNA during the
d) a bacterium lytic cycle of a bacteriophage and during the lysogenic
cycle of a bacteriophage.
6. Explain the difference between the following terms
a) prokaryote, eukaryote 23. Explain how reverse transcriptase enzyme works in a cell.
b) photoautotroph, photoheterotroph
c) chemoautotroph, chemopheterotroph 24. Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and dif-
d) gram-positive, gram-negative ferences between plant and animal viruses.
e) virus, retrovirus
25. Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
7. What evolutionary advantage to you think might result in genetic engineering.
from eukaryotes having organelles surrounded by mem-
branes? 26. In your own words define the term recombinant DNA.

8. Why are archaebacteria considered the oldest organisms 27. Summarize how viruses are used in genetic engineering.
on Earth?

9. Analyze the different nutritional patterns in bacteria. Applying Inquiry/

How are cyanobacteria both similar to and different from Communication Skills
plants.
28. This is the general photosynthetic equation
10. Which method of nutrition that is most common in
light
bacteria?
2 H2X + CO2 → H2O +CH2O + 2X

416 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 How do anaerobic bacteria convert CO 2 in the air to 33. Pasteurization in a method of eliminating bacteria
organic compounds in the absence of light? Identify a from food. Use the Internet and other sources to research
bacterium capable of this feat. What can be substituted the method of pasteurization, which micro-organisms it
for X? eliminates.

29. When you consume food, the proteins in the food are 34. Speculate what the consequences would be to the
broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small in- economy, and to the environment if all bacteria on Earth
testine. Suppose you swallowed some viruses. Predict became extinct. Give specific examples to support your
what would happen to the viruses. speculation.

30. The graph in Figure 12.24. shows the growth of two 35. Smallpox, a disfiguring and often fatal viral disease, has
groups of bacteria. One group was infected with a bac- been completely irradicated. There have been no re-
teriophage and the other group was not. ported cases for decades. However, the samples of the
virus exist in labs. Should these samples be destroyed?
Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons to society
6 destroying the virus. Decide on the best course of action
and justify your decision.
uninfected group
5
Number of living bacterial cells

36. Compare and contrast the nature of a bacterial infection

to a host organism in terms of invasiveness and toxi-
4
genicity.
(millions)

3 37. Explain how bacterial activity affects the makeup of gases

in the atmosphere.
2
infected group 38. Explain why certain viruses, such as the influenza virus,
1 are difficult to treat.

39. Some scientists claim that the recent outbreaks of dis-

0
eases such as haemorrhagic fever from tropical coun-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
tries is largely due to human activities such as
Time (h) deforestation and rapid world travel. Do you agree? Write
brief summary of your point of view.
FIGURE 12.24
40. Recent outbreaks of foot and mouth disease have affected
the livestock and dairy industries in Europe, but as of
Analyze the graph. What effect did the bacteriophage April, 2001 the virus that causes the disease has not been
have on the bacteria? Explain your answer. found in Canada. Research the reproductive cycle of the
virus, how the virus is spread, the kinds of animals it in-
31. There may be a relationship between temperature and fects, the symptoms of the disease, and the methods used
the growth rate of bacteria. Propose a hypothesis and to prevent its spread. Create a pamphlet to increase
make predictions based on your hypothesis. Develop an the general public’s awareness of the disease. Include
experimental procedure to test this hypothesis. What information on the threat the virus poses to Canadian
variables will you control and what variable will you agriculture.
manipulate?
41. Many people have reservations about genetic engineer-
ing. Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons of
genetic engineering. Do you feel that genetic engineer-
Making Connections
ing’s benefits outweigh the risks? Support your opinion.
32. Discuss the role of bacteria in each of the following tech-
nological applications:
a) waste management
b) sewage treatment
c) genetic engineering
d) food processing

CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 417

 CHAPTER 13

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Protists, Fungi, and
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 compare and contrast the structure
Plants
and function of different types of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
(13.1)
 describe selected anatomical and
physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from
each life kingdom and a
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)
 compare and contrast the life
cycles of representative organisms
from each life kingdom and a
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)
 classify representative organisms
from each of the kingdoms
(Investigation 1)

[CATCH: D186 photo of an insect devoured by

a fungus. See photo reference attached.1/3-1/2
page]
Caption: Figure xx.

FIGURE 13.1 Killer fungus. This insect was destroyed by a fungus. There are many weird
and interesting types of fungi, beyond the mushrooms you eat in a salad.

418
I n this chapter you will explore the world of eukaryotic protists, fungi, and
plants. Protists present a challenge to taxonomists. There are animallike,
plantlike, and funguslike protists, and how to divide the protist kingdom and
the plant, fungus, and animal kingdoms has been an ongoing debate among
taxonomists. For example, some taxonomists group algae in the plant king-
dom because they contain chlorophyll. Others consider plants to be multi-
cellular, land-based photosynthetic organisms and place all algae, single- and
multi-celled, in the protist kingdom. This book also places algae in the pro-
tist kingdom.
Grouping fungi with plants in this chapter has been done because his-
torically, fungi were once thought to be a lower form of plants. In reality, they
are very dissimilar and their roles in ecosystems differ significantly. Plants,
like algae in the kingdom Protista and cyanobacteria in the kingdom
Eubacteria, use sunlight to form complex organic molecules from simple ma-
terials in the environment. Fungi decompose the organic matter of dead plants
and animals, releasing simple molecules back to the environment. Plants and
fungi thus participate in complementary ways in recycling the materials of
life.
Two major groups of plants arose from an ancient form of algae. One
group, the bryophytes, are very primitive and lack true roots, stems, and
leaves. A second group, the tracheophytes, are comprised of modern-day
plants with vascular tissues and are found with spore- and seed-producing
varieties.

Discovering Biology CHECKPOINT

A century ago, taxonomists

How Much Humus in Soil? hypothesized that fungi
were a lower form of plants.
Humus is the dark-coloured portion of soil consisting of organic matter. The
Think of a mushroom and
organic matter is the result of fungal decay of dead plant and animal bodies
a geranium plant. Pair up
and waste. To determine the percentage of humus in a sample of soil:
with another student in
your class and brainstorm
1. Obtain a small amount of dried soil from a garden. Weigh the sample. traits that the two organ-
2. Place the dried soil sample in a crucible. isms have in common.
Then brainstorm traits that
3. Heat the crucible strongly for 20 minutes so as to burn away any are different between the
humus content present two organisms. In what
sense might it have been
4. When cool, weigh the sample.
thought that fungi, such as
5. Calculate the humus content as a percentage of the total mass. mushrooms, were a lower
form of a plant? Create a
Venn diagram to show the
similiarities and differences
between plants and fungi.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 419

 13.1 The Protists
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 compare the structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

 describe the general characteristics of protists

 compare the life cycle of a protist to the life cycle of a prokaryote

 classify organisms from the major groups of protists

Organisms in the kingdom Protista first Comparing Prokaryotes

bacteria (E. coli)
2 µm long
FIGURE 13.2 Prokaryote
versus eukaryote. This protist,
a eukaryote, is far larger
than bacteria, which are
prokaryotes.
appeared about 1.5 billion years ago.
For the first two billion years of life in
the biosphere, prokaryotes were the only
organisms. The protists were very dif-
ferent in several important ways from
the prokaryotes. The most striking
difference is that protists are eukaryotic
organisms.
protist (paramecium)
75 µm long
TABLE 13.1 Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Organelles/Cell parts Cytoplasm contains a watery
suspension of ions, enzymes,
macromolecules, and ribosomes,
floating freely inside the cell
membrane.
and Eukaryotes
Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have
their DNA in a nucleus that has a mem-
brane. Eukaryotes also have organelles
that are surrounded by membranes (for
example, chloroplasts and mitochon-
dria). Do such differences mean that
eukaryotes are more advanced or more
successful than prokaryotes? Many bi-
ologists believe eukaryotes are not of a
“higher order” than prokaryotes. All
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
living today resulted from millions of
years of natural selection and each
organism is well adapted to its environ-
ment, having characteristics that enable
it to live successfully in its particular
environment. The differences are sum-
marized in Table 13.1.
Eukaryotes
Cytoplasm has suspended membrane-
surrounded organelles (for example,
nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria,
vacuoles) and ribosomes.

Genetic Material Genetic material (DNA) is A “true” nucleus surrounded by a

concentrated in a region called the membrane contains DNA. A nucleolus
nucleoid, but no membrane contains RNA.
separates this region from the rest
of the cell.

Metabolism Chemical reactions to support the
work of the cell are carried out
throughout the cytoplasm in a
suspension of water, ions, large
molecules, and enzymes.
Chemical reactions are carried out in
specialized membrane-surrounded
organelles (for example, respiration in
mitochondria, photosynthesis in
chloroplasts).

420 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 There are other structural differ-
ences between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. First, eukaryotic cells are
usually about 10 times larger than
prokaryotic cells (Figure 13.2).
Eukaryotic cells have many chromo-
somes in long strands, unlike prokary-
otic cells that have a single chromosome
in a ring. With more chromosomes, eu-
karyotic cells have many more genes.
The kingdom Protista contains about
115 000 species, and they are extremely FIGURE 13.3 Giardia, a zooflagellate, can
cause digestive problems in humans. This illness
diverse in their cell structures, patterns
is commonly known as “beaver fever” since it
of nutrition, metabolic needs, reproduc- can be picked up by drinking polluted lake water.
tion, and habitats. In fact, the kingdom
Protista can almost be described as a gambiensis. The carrier for sleeping sick- INFOBIT
grab bag of organisms that do not fit into ness is the tsetse fly. Humans can con-
the other kingdoms. The one thing they tract the disease if bitten by an infected Termites are one of the few
have in common is that they are all eu- fly. Once inside, the zooflagellate multi- organisms that eat wood.
Termites cannot digest wood
karyotes. The phlyogeny within this plies in the bloodstream, destroys red
without the help of a
kingdom is very complex and makes it blood cells, and attacks other tissues. zooflagellate Trichonympha,
difficult for taxonomists to classify them. Symptoms include fever, chills, and a a wood-digesting protist,
Currently, there is more than one skin rash. When the zooflagellate attacks which lives by the thousands
accepted way to separate protists into the nervous system, the infected person in the gut of each termite.
Trichonympha produces an
groups. For a general discussion of loses consciousness and may never
enzyme called cellulase, which
protists, this book groups them by recover. The disease is often fatal. Other breaks the cellulose bonds in
nutritional patterns into animallike, species of Trypanosoma cause similar wood, releasing the nutrients
funguslike, and plantlike protists, even diseases in cattle and other livestock. from the wood into the gut of
though this does not follow any phylo- the termite.
genetic pattern. Amoebas Amoebas are single-celled pro-
tozoans with no set body shape. They
create temporary projections of cyto-
Animallike Protists
plasm called pseudopods to move and
Some protists formerly classified under feed. They feed on small organisms by
the animal kingdom were often called endocytosis, engulfing organisms with
protozoans. These protists are animal- their pseudopods (Figure 13.4). Particles
like because they eat or ingest material of food are sealed off in food vacuoles
from their surroundings. within the cytoplasm. Organic material
is then digested and absorbed.
Zooflagellates These protists possess one
or more flagella (singular: flagellum)—
long whiplike structures that are used to
move the organism through the water.
Those organisms with flagella are called
zooflagellates. Some zooflagellates are
heterotrophic and feed on other protists.
Other species live as internal parasites
on animals, including humans. Some
protozoan parasites are human
pathogens (Figure 13.3).
Sleeping sickness, one of the most
serious diseases of Africa, is caused by
the parasitic zooflagellate Trypanosoma FIGURE 13.4 An amoeba engulfing a euglena via endocytosis.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 421

WEBLINK
There are several different
ways of classifying protists.
Research the different
taxonomic systems, and create
charts or diagrams that show
the different groupings.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Contractile
vacuole
micronucleus
macronucleus
food vacuoles
422 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Some amoebas are parasitic. For ex-
ample, amoebic dysentery is a disease
caused by a species of Entamoeba com-
monly found in tropical regions. If a
person drinks infected water, the para-
sitic amoebas enter the digestive system
and feed on the intestinal walls, often
causing bleeding. These parasitic amoe-
bas form protective cysts to avoid being
digested themselves, and are passed out
of the body in the feces. In countries with
poor sanitation, Entamoeba can pass
into the water supply and create major
public health problems.
Ciliates Many protozoans are covered
with hairlike projections, or cilia, and
are called ciliates. The cilia move back
and forth like oars to move the organ-
ism through the water. Unlike amoebas,
ciliates have a rigid outer covering called
a pellicle that maintains their shape. All
of these organisms are aquatic and het-
erotrophic. They inhabit both salt and
fresh water. A freshwater ciliate called
Paramecium is one of the most common
species in this group. The beating of the
cilia also sweeps food into its oral
groove (Figure 13.5). When food reaches
cilia
oral groove
cell mouth
anal pore
FIGURE 13.5 Paramecium, a ciliate
the end of the oral groove, the mem-
brane pinches off, surrounds the food,
and a food vacuole is formed. The food
vacuole breaks free, travels around the
cytoplasm of the cell, and joins up with
a lysosome. The lysosome contains
digestive enzymes that break down the
food. After digestion, the usable prod-
ucts are absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Any undigested food is discharged
through an opening called the anal pore.
Paramecia, like other ciliates, have
two types of nuclei—a large macronu-
cleus and one or more smaller
micronuclei. Reproduction in parame-
cia, like other protists, occurs by binary
fission. The micronuclei divide by
mitosis and the macronucleus simply
pinches apart to produce two daughter
macronuclei. This form of reproduction,
involving each individual cell, is
asexual. Paramecia use sexual repro-
duction in the form of conjugation (Figure
13.6). Two paramecia line up against
each other and join at their oral grooves.
The macronucleus in each cell disinte-
grates and the remaining micronucleus
undergoes meiosis. The reorganization
of the genetic material through meiosis
and the mutual exchange of micronuclei
by the two conjugating cells may result
in organisms better able to survive when
conditions change.
Sporozoans Sporozoans are protists that
produce spores during their asexual
phase of reproduction. They are
non-motile and parasitic, obtaining their
nutrients from the bodies of their hosts.
The best-known sporozoans are from
the genus Plasmodium. They cause a dis-
ease called malaria. These organisms
spend part of their life cycle within
human red blood cells (Figure 13.7).
When a female Anopheles mosquito
infected with Plasmodium bites a
human, the mosquito transmits
Plasmodium into the human circulatory
system. The parasites enter the blood
and find their way to the liver, change
their form, multiply, and re-enter the
bloodstream, infecting blood cells along
 meiosis mitosis

macronucleus
micronucleus 1n

2n
FIGURE 13.6 In conjugation, two individual paramecia swap DNA to
create new micro- and macronuclei that have new combinations of DNA.

the way. When the red blood cells (filled
with parasites) burst, large amounts of
toxins fill the bloodstream. These toxins
cause alternating chills and fever, which
are the symptoms of malaria. If an un-
infected mosquito bites the victim, the
mosquito ingests some of the parasitic
Plasmodium cells along with the blood.
The infecting cells reproduce sexually in
the gut of the mosquito and move to the
salivary glands. These mosquitoes can
then transmit malaria when they bite
humans. Malaria is a very serious dis-
ease worldwide. Some types of malaria
can be fatal.

Spores infect
liver cells. liver cells

Plasmodium undergoes
several developmental Cells burst
stages in the mosquito. and release
Plasmodium
cells.

Mosquito bites human, injecting Plasmodium

Plasmodium spores. cells

Plasmodium cells
red blood cells infect red blood cells.

Anopheles mosquito draws up blood and Red blood cells burst and Plasmodium cells enter
Plasmodium cells from blood of infected person. bloodstream. Some infect other red blood cells.
FIGURE 13.7 Life cycle of Plasmodium

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 423

 Discovering Biology
How Do Protists Respond to Changes in their Environment?
Protists respond to unfavourable conditions in various ways. As single-celled
organisms, they lack complex nervous responses but do exhibit noticeable
behaviours to ensure survival.

1. Bring a small sample of pond or stream water to class.

2. Place a drop of the sample on a concave slide using an eye dropper.
3. Tease apart a square of cotton gauze and place a few strands of the gauze
over the water sample and place a coverslip on top.
4. Use a microscope to examine the pond water under low and then medium
power magnification.
 What happens to the protists as they bump into the cotton fibres? Record
how the various types of protist react to the gauze.
 Draw diagrams of each type of protist in your sample and classify the or-
ganisms using a pond-organism study guide.

Funguslike Protists ticellular mass. Eventually, a fruiting

a)
b)
FIGURE 13.8 Slime moulds
a) in plasmodial stage, and
b) forming fruiting bodies.
body forms and releases spores.
All funguslike protists are heterotrophic
As their name suggests, water
and most are decomposers that feed
moulds live in water, though there are a
on dead plants and animals by endocy-
few species in this group that live on
tosis. They tend to live in cool, damp
land. If you have seen a whitish, cottony
habitats. There are three major phyla of
mould growing on dead fish, it was
funguslike protists: acellular slime
probably a water mould. Water moulds
moulds, cellular slime moulds, and
are all aquatic and feed on the remains
water moulds.
of dead plants and animals. Although
Acellular slime moulds are single-
most of the land species are helpful
celled protists that have many nuclei.
decomposers of dead matter, a few are
During most of its life, an acellular slime
serious plant parasites that attack crops
mould is a plasmodium, a wall-less
such as avocados, grapes, and potatoes.
mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei that
Phytophthora infestans, for example,
have divided over and over by mitosis.
was the cause of the Irish potato famine
This huge mass of cytoplasm streams
in the mid-1800s.
very slowly over an object using an
extended network of strands called
pseudopodia. If food runs out, the slime Plantlike Protists
mould forms reproductive structures There are 24 000 species of protists that
called fruiting bodies, which produce contain chlorophyll and carry out pho-
spores by meiosis. The spores scatter tosynthesis, and so they resemble plants.
and germinate into flagellated cells.
These cells fuse to produce diploid amoe- Euglenoids A diverse group of species,
boid cells (Figure 13.8). euglenoids have been classified by bi-
Cellular slime moulds live in fresh ologists at one time or another both as
water, in damp soil, or in decaying mat- plants and as animals. They are unicel-
ter such as rotting logs. In the feeding lular flagellates, but many members of
stage of their life cycle, they move about the group photosynthesize, as do the
as amoebalike cells. When food is scarce, algae.
they come together to form a large mul-

424 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things


FIGURE 13.9 Euglena. The flagella are not
clearly visible in the photograph on the left.
The freshwater organism, Euglena,
(Figure 13.9) propels itself through
the water by means of its flagellum.
Euglena obtains its nourishment in
more than one way. In sunlight it is fully
autotrophic, using its chloroplasts to
produce sugars through photosynthe-
sis. In the dark, the organism begins to
lose its chlorophyll and feeds as a
heterotroph on dead organic material
in the water.
Algae Algae are protists that resemble
plants because they have chloroplasts
that contain the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll. Some algae are single-celled,
others live in colonies, and other species
are multicellular, reaching enormous
size. There are six main groups of algae,
but here the discussion centres on three
groups.
One group of algae, called diatoms,
take on a golden coloration due to yel-
low-brown pigments contained within
glasslike shells made of silica. Their
outer covering is made of two halves that
fit together like the lid and bottom of a
shoebox, and each species has a char-
acteristic shape (Figure 13.10). Diatoms
flagellum
second
flagellum
eyespot
contractile
chloroplast vacuole
food storage bodies
nucleus
pellicle
are tremendously abundant in the
oceans and are the key food source in
marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Dinoflagellates are single-celled
algae that have two flagella (Figure
13.11). Most are photosynthetic, though
some species are heterotrophs. They are
extremely abundant in both marine and
freshwater environments. Each species
has a characteristic shape. The beating
of their flagella causes them to move in
a spinning motion. An interesting char- FIGURE 13.10 Each species
acteristic of dinoflagellates is they tend of diatom has a characteristic
shape.
to be luminescent: when the surround-
ing water is agitated, they give off light.
Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually by
mitosis.
Dinoflagellates grow rapidly when
nutrients in the water increase or ocean
temperatures rise. This rapid population
growth is called a bloom. When the di-
noflagellate Gonyaulax polyhedron
blooms, it’s called a “red tide” because
the pigment phycoerythrin that colours
the algae also turns the water red. These
dinoflagellates produce toxins. As shell-
fish and fish feed on them, the toxins
concentrate in the bodies of the
organisms. The toxicity moves through
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 425
 FIGURE 13.11 Dinoflagellates
the food chain as other animals, such as
humans, consume the toxic shellfish and
fishes. There may be enough of these
toxins in the fish and shellfish to cause
serious illness or even death in humans.
Green algae can be single-celled, as
in Chlamydomonas, or colonial, as in
Volvox. Each cell has two flagella, which
move the cell around. They live in fresh
water. Ancient green algae are thought
to have given rise to the first plants be-
cause they have cellulose in their cell
walls and because their chloroplasts are
very similar to those of plants. Also, the
bi-flagellated cells of green algae look
like the gametes of multicellular algae
and primitive plants.
FIGURE 13.13 This giant
kelp is brown algae.
A giant kelp can grow to
100 m and has the fastest
growth rate of any organism.
426 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
FIGURE 13.12 Red tide
Other groups of algae are large, mul-
ticellular, and are commonly known as
seaweeds (Figure 13.13). Multicellular
algae differ from plants in that the zy-
gote, or newly reproduced cell of an alga,
is on its own as an unprotected single
cell. A plant zygote, on the other hand,
grows from a multicellular embryo that
is protected by other parental cells. Also
they differ from plants in that they do
not have tissues or organs.
Algae are extremely important to life
on Earth. Algae perform 50% to 75% of
all photosynthesis on Earth, and so pro-
vide most of the world’s free oxygen.
Some types of algae are eaten as is, but
algae are mostly used in the manufac-
ture of food products.
The Plant–Protist Divide
Some algae can be classified either as
plants or as protists. Whether they fall
into one kingdom or the other depends
on how plants are defined. If plants
are defined as multicelluar eukaryokes
that perform photosynthesis, then mul-
ticellular algae fit the description, and
can be considered plants. But multicel-
lular algae are quite different from plants
in many ways. The vast majority of
plants have adaptations for living on
land, such as rigid cell walls and spe-
cialized organs for support (roots and
stems), and for photosynthesis (leaves).
Since multicellular algae are all marine,
they do not have these adaptations and
so are considered protists at this time.
 Section 13.1 Review
Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/
1. Compare and contrast a prokaryotic
Communication Skills
cell and a eukaryotic cell.
2. Explain how the cell parts of a prokary-
ote are similar to and different from a
eukaryote.
3. Compare the life cycle of an organism
from the Kingdom Protista to the life
cycle of an organism from the Kingdom
Eubacteria.
4. Organisms in the Kingdom Protista are
defined by what they are not. Explain.
5. Explain how Paramecium carries out
reproduction. How is its reproduction FIGURE 13.14
similar to and different from the re-
production of a typical eubacteria?
6. Explain why Euglena is difficult to clas-
sify.
7. Why are algae not classified as plants
even though they contain chlorophyll? 9. Classify each of these two
8. What are slime moulds? Why are they organisms in Figure 13.14. To which
classified as protists? kingdom does each belong? Explain
your decision.

13.2 The Fungi

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the general characteristics of fungi

 classify organisms from the three major groups of fungi

 describe the life cycle of a typical fungus

Most people are familiar with mush-
rooms at the market but what about
moulds? A commonly recognized mould
forms on over-ripe oranges. Moulds and
mushrooms are both fungi.
Characteristics of Fungi
The kingdom Fungi contains het-
erotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
saprobes, absorbing their food from
decaying matter. Therefore, they are
decomposers. They release digestive
enzymes into their immediate environ-
ment. These enzymes break down the
dead organic matter. Fungi then absorb
the digested food through the cell wall.
This method of nutrition is different from
slime moulds, which take up their food
by simple endocytosis.
The bodies of most fungi consist of
threadlike filaments called hyphae. As

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 427


Discovering Biology Do All Moulds Look Alike?
In this activity you will look at the structure of moulds. Your teacher
will give you two samples of mouldy food in sealed plastic bags.
One bag contains mouldy bread and the other bag contains mouldy
fruit. Observe the moulds in the plastic bags using a hand lens.
 How are the moulds similar and different?
 Draw a diagram of your observations.
CAUTION: Do not open the sealed bags at any time. Return the sealed bags
to your teacher when finished the activity and wash your hands in
soapy water.
the hyphae grow, they branch, forming
a tangled mass of filaments called a
mycelium that is well adapted to absorb
nourishment from its food source. In a
forest, for example, the almost invisi-
ble mycelia of fungi obtain nutrients
from fallen trees, thus decomposing the
trees. Most hyphae have cell walls. A
substance called chitin strengthens the
cell walls of fungi instead of cellulose
found in plants.
Reproduction
Investigation
Most species in the kingdom Fungi
Refer to page 445,
Investigation 1 reproduce both asexually and sexually
by means of spores. Spores are single
reproductive cells that have a haploid
number of chromosomes. The
100 000 species of fungi are grouped
into divisions based on their pattern of
sexual reproduction. (Phyla are called
divisions in the kingdom Fungi.) Fungi
with spores in a caselike structure, called
a sporangium, are placed in the divi-
sion Zygomycota. Fungi with spores in
a saclike structure, called an ascus,
are placed in division Ascomycota. Fungi
with spores that form in a clublike struc-
ture, called a basidium, are placed in
the division Basidiomycota.
428 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Caselike Fungi
(Division Zygomycota)
Most fungi in the division Zygomycota
are terrestrial saprobes. One common
mould is bread mould, or Rhizopus
(Figure 13.15). Its tangled mass of
mycelium grows and produces several
types of hyphae. Threadlike hyphae that
extend over the surface of the food are
called stolons. As the hyphae make con-
tact with the food, they extend into the
food source, such as bread, like roots of
a plant. These hyphae are called
rhizoids. Rhizoids support further
growth of the mould by absorbing water
and sugars from the bread. After a few
days, black caselike structures appear
among the hyphae on the surface of the
bread. These caselike structures are
called sporangia and grow at the tips
of reproductive hyphae. Each spo-
rangium has the ability to produce sev-
eral thousands of spores. When each
sporangium breaks open, air currents
carry the spores and, if conditions are
ideal and another food source is avail-
able, those spores germinate and begin
to grow on the new food source. Hyphae
branch out and form a new mycelium.
This form of reproduction is asexual and
takes place when growing conditions are
most favourable.
Under less favourable conditions,
Rhizopus reproduces sexually by devel-
oping two genetically different types of
hyphae. The two types of hyphae are
represented as plus and minus. When
plus and minus hyphae make contact
FIGURE 13.15 Bread mould
with each other in a conjugation process,
their nuclei join together to produce a
zygospore. The zygospore remains
dormant until the growing conditions
improve, at which time the zygospores
germinate and form a new mycelial
mass.
Saclike Fungi
(Division Ascomycota)
Fungi in this division are characterized
by their formation of a sac structure used
in reproduction. They include mildews,
some moulds, and some yeasts. Sac
fungi produce two kinds of spores.
Spores produced as a result of sexual re-
production are called ascospores. They
are produced in an ascus or sac. Spores
produced asexually are called conidia.
Conidia are formed in chains at the tips
of specialized reproductive hyphae.
FIGURE 13.16 A truffle is an ascomycete that
forms fruiting bodies underground. They are
considered a delicacy and sell for hundreds of
dollars.
Powdery mildews are parasitic
ascocarps that infect cereal grains, lilacs,
roses, and many other plants. They
can be a serious problem to grape
growers.
Yeasts Yeasts are unicellular. Some
are grouped with the ascomycetes be-
cause they form an ascus in one stage
of their life cycle. Each yeast cell is oval-
shaped and surrounded by a cell wall.
The cytoplasm contains a large vacuole
and a nucleus. Under ideal conditions,
yeasts reproduce very rapidly by
budding (Figure 13.17). A bud begins
as a small bulge that pushes out from
the cell. As the bud grows larger, the nu-
cleus divides by mitosis. One nucleus
moves into the bud and the other re-
mains in the original cell. Often, the bud-
ding cell remains attached to the original
cell and the reproductive process repeats
itself over and over and a long chain WORDORIGIN
forms. Under poor conditions, yeasts re-
produce sexually by forming ascospores. Ascospore from the Greek
In the ascospore stage, yeasts can re- words askos meaning “a skin”
or “a leather container” and
main dormant for extended periods of
sporos meaning “a seed.”
time until conditions for growth improve.
Yeasts can tolerate conditions lack-
ing in oxygen and carry out anaerobic
respiration, or fermentation. In this
Investigation
process, sugar molecules are broken Refer to page 446,
down by enzymes in the yeast cells, re- Investigation 2
leasing energy for use by the yeast cells.
Carbon dioxide and alcohol are released
as by-products. This fermentation
FIGURE 13.17 A budding yeast cell.
ability of yeasts is used to advantage
by the baking industry. Baker’s yeast is
added to the dough. As the yeast cells
feed on the sugar molecules in the
dough, carbon dioxide is given off, which
causes the dough to rise. Wine makers
use other strains of yeasts that generate
high volumes of alcohol in fermentation.
Not all yeasts, however, are useful to hu-
mans. Some yeasts cause infections of
the skin, lungs, and kidneys. Many are
parasitic and cause disease. In trees,
yeasts cause Dutch elm disease, chest-
nut blight, and apple scab.
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 429
cap Clublike Fungi called basidia. Each basidium contains
(Division Basidiomycota) several thousand spores. The spores are
haploid. When they are blown by the
The fungi that are grouped into the
wind onto suitable ground they germi-
divison Basidiomycota include mush-
nate through cell division. The new
rooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, and
mycelium that grows from a spore is also
bracket fungi and some yeasts. Many
fruiting
spore haploid. When two mycelia are of com-
members of this phylum are saprobes,
body plementary mating types, shown as
and others are parasites.
red and blue in Figure 13.19, they fuse.
hyphae Under damp conditions in soil or in
After fusing the resulting mycelium is
rotting wood, the mycelial mass of
dikaryotic, meaning each cell has two
hyphae form knobs that absorb water
nuclei. All the daughter cells also have
and grow quite large. Pushing up
two nuclei. When conditions are right,
through the soil or perched on rotting
a reproductive structure, the fruiting
logs, these knobs become spore-bearing
body, forms. Initially, the mushroom is
structures called fruiting bodies (Figure
made of dikaryotic cells. Eventually, the
13.18). The umbrellalike cap of each
nuclei of the cells on the gills fuse to form
species of mushroom has a characteris-
diploid cells. Meiosis happens shortly
tic shape and is used as the basis of its
after in these cells, creating haploid
FIGURE 13.18 Structure of a classification. The cap contains many
mushroom. Hyphae form an spores. These spores drop out from the
gills, or thin sheets, that radiate out like
underground network called a gills and are blown away in the wind.
spokes on a wheel. Each gill bears
mycelium and a reproductive
structure above ground called thousands of clublike reproductive cells
a fruiting body.

6. meiosis

5. fusion of nuclei
(fertilization) d hap
l oi loi
d
dip

1. spore formation

gills spore from another

mushroom

4. mushroom 2. germination
formation
dik
aryo
tic

FIGURE 13.19 Life 3. fusion

cycle of a mushroom,
a Basidiomycete.

430 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 FIGURE 13.20 Parasitic club fungi can cause
large crop losses.
Parasitic rusts and smuts make up
another important group of fungi. Smuts
cause damage to grain crops such as
corn, oats, wheat, rye, and barley (Figure
13.20). Parasitic fungi are difficult to
control because they have complex
reproductive cycles that often include
more than one host. For example, the
wheat rust fungus infects the common
barberry bush as well as the wheat plant.
Bracket fungi can exist as saprobes
on the wood of dead trees, or as para-
sites on the wood of living trees. The
mycelium of a bracket fungus penetrates
and breaks down the woody tissue of its
host and, as it grows, the fungus itself
takes on a woody texture. Over the years
of its life, the bracket fungus adds addi-
tional layers of hyphae and appears like
a shelf extending out from the woody
bark of a tree (Figure 13.21).
FIGURE 13.21 Bracket fungus
FIGURE 13.22 A puffball releasing spores
Puffballs (Figure 13.21) are round WEBLINK
or pear-shaped fungi. Often white, they
resemble mushrooms, except that they Research the life cycles of a
release their spores only when the fruit- slime mould, a zygomycete,
and an ascomycete. Draw
ing body dries up and splits open. diagrams of each and describe
how they are similar and
how they are different.
“Imperfect” Fungi Begin your research at
There are some species that have no www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
known sexual phases and so cannot be
classified into divisions. These species
are known as imperfect fungi. Many of
these species cause diseases in plants
and animals, including humans.
You have probably seen the green
mould, Penicillium growing on oranges.
Penicillium was considered an imperfect
fungi, but has recently been classified as
an ascomycete. In 1928, a Scottish bac-
teriologist named Sir Alexander Fleming
made history when he observed
Penicillium growing on a Petri dish
containing a culture of Staphylococcus
bacteria. Surprisingly, he discovered that
the bacteria only grew on the dish in
places where the green mould did not
grow. In other words, something about
the Penicillium mould prevented the
growth of the Staphylococcus bacterium.
Over the next few years, Fleming
experimented with Penicillium and
eventually isolated a chemical substance
produced by the fungus. This chemical
inhibited the growth of bacteria and
became known as penicillin. It was the
first antibiotic to come into medical use
to fight infectious diseases caused by
bacteria.
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 431
 FIGURE 13.23 Penicillium is inhibiting the
growth of Streptococcus, shown by the clear
area surrounding the Penicillium.
An antibiotic is a substance
produced by a fungus or other micro-or-
ganism that inhibits the growth of mi-
crobes. Antibiotics are not all alike in
their chemical properties and the way
they attack bacteria. Some antibiotics,
such as penicillin, prevent the formation
of cell walls in reproducing bacteria
(Figure 13.23). Other antibiotics prevent
the formation of bacterial cell
membranes.
The common mould Trichophyton
rubrum causes a contagious fungal in-
fection called athlete’s foot that occurs
most often between the toes and on the
soles of the feet. This fungus thrives in
warm, damp places, such as the floors
of showers, swimming pools, and
gymnasiums. The symptoms of athlete’s
foot are reddened, cracked, and peeling
antibiotics to patients with relatively
mild bacterial infections. The effec-
tiveness of certain antibiotics, such
as penicillin, has declined as the
Penicillin Makes a number of resistant bacteria to these
Comeback drugs has increased. Highly resistant
bacteria evolved in response to peni-
cillin until the antibiotic could no
In recent years the medical profes- longer effectively control their growth.
sion has expressed concern about Doctors prescribed other antibiotics,
the over-prescription of common such as erythromycin, to replace
432 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
FIGURE 13.24 In athlete’s foot, the mycelium
of Trichophyton invades the top layer of skin,
causing sores.
skin, accompanied by itching or burn-
ing and stinging sensations (Figure
13.24). Keeping the feet dry and cool
prevents athlete’s foot, especially during
warm weather that encourages fungal
growth.
Fungal Associations
Certain fungi associate with other or-
ganisms for the mutual benefit of both
partners.
Lichens are symbiotic associations
of a fungus with either an alga or a
cyanobacterium (Figure 13.26). In this
partnership, the alga provides nourish-
ment to the fungus through photosyn-
thesis. The fungus provides the alga with
water, essential minerals, and protection
from dryness in its barren and often
rocky habitat.
penicillin. As bacteria developed re-
sistance to these other drugs, the
pressure on them to resist penicillin
decreased, and recently, Canadian
doctors have again had success using
penicillin. This illustrates the dynamic
nature of the evolution of organisms
in response to the shifting environ-
mental conditions that affect their
growth and survival.
 fungal
hyphae
algal cell

dense
hyphae
algal
layer
loose
hyphae
dense
hyphae
FIGURE 13.25 Lichens don’t need soil to grow.
rock
They can grow on bare rock. They are the light
green patches on the rocks.

Other fungi associate with the roots lichen WORDORIGIN

of plants. These associations are known
as mycorrhizae. The fungus mycelium
forms a thick web over the surface of a
plant’s roots. Sometimes the hyphae ac-
tually penetrate the surface of the root’s
cells. The fungal mycelium absorbs
water and minerals from the soil, which
it passes to the root. The plant provides
the fungus with amino acids and sugars.
Mycorrhizae are essential to the
health of plants and most plants have
them. Plants with active mycorrhizae
tend to be a deeper green and can bet-
ter resist droughts and temperature
extremes than plants of the same species
that lack mycorrhizae on their roots.
Mycorrhizae from the Greek
words mukes meaning “mush-
room” or “fungus” and rhiza
meaning “root.”
FIGURE 13.26 The structure of a lichen
INFOBIT
Still other fungi associate with in-
Scientists have recently
sects. Some leaf-cutting ants cultivate a discovered a fungus
particular species of fungus, providing associated with white pine
it with leaves on which it feeds. The ants trees that has a unique method
also remove competing fungi. The fun- of supplying nitrogen to the
trees. Instead of absorbing
gus grows and then serves as food for
dead organic matter, this
the ants. fungus paralyzes and then kills
soil insects.

Section 13.2 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. What nutritional pattern do all fungi
have in common?
2. Draw a diagram of a typical fungus.
Label relevant structures.
3. Create a chart that lists examples, gen-
eral characteristics, and type of repro-
duction (sexual, asexual) for each group
of fungi.
4. Name the characteristic used to clas-
sify fungi into various phyla. Describe
how this characteristic differs between
the phyla.
5. Fungal interactions can be beneficial
or harmful. Give examples of both
types of interactions, and indicate the
relationship.
Making Connections
6. Create a chart showing the economic,
environmental, or health impacts of
five different fungi.
7. If all fungi on Earth were to disappear,
what immediate and long-term results
would you predict? Explain.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 433

 13.3 The Plants
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the general characteristics of plants

 describe the life cycles of various plant groups

 classify organisms from the various plant groups

The earliest plants appeared in the bio- General Characteristics

sphere around half a billion years ago.
By broad definition plants are eukary-
Until that time, the land surface of Earth
otic, multicellular organisms that carry
was nothing more than a mass of
out photosynthesis. Their cells have cell
barren rock. The earliest land plants are
walls containing cellulose. They are
thought to have evolved from simpler
mostly land-dwelling. More precisely
algal-like ancestors that lived in the
defined, plants develop from embryos
oceans. Even though primitive plants
protected by tissues of the parent plant.
were tiny, their metabolic activities
This is one of the reasons why algae are
helped to convert bare rock into soil that
not classified as plants.
could support the needs of their suc-
Plants include mosses, ferns,
ceeding offspring. During the millions of
conifers, and flowering plants (Figure
years leading up to the present, more
13.27). Plants are adapted primarily for
and more plant species evolved. Today,
life on land (though a few are aquatic)
the biosphere is full of animals, fungi,
and thrive in a wide variety of environ-
protists, and bacteria living in widely dif-
ments. For example, mosses grow in
ferent environments. But the most visi-
moist environments, whereas cacti are
ble kingdom by far is the plant kingdom.
well adapted for life in harsh deserts.

flowering
mosses ferns conifers plants

flowers

seeds

vascular
tissue
a) Mosses b) Ferns
multicellularity
green algae
(ancestors)

FIGURE 13.27 Four main varieties of plants.

Mosses are multicellular; ferns have vascular
tissue; conifers have seeds produced in cones;
flowering plants have seeds produced in
flowers.

c) Conifers d) Flowering plants

434 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Plant Life Cycles sporophyte dominance (2n)

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
mosses ferns gymnosperms angiosperms

sporophyte
generation
1n
meiosis

multicellular
egg
diploid
adults sperm
fertilization
2n

gametophyte
generation
mitosis and zygote
development

haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
gametophyte dominance (n)
mi
tos

sis FIGURE 13.29 The generational dominance varies among plant divisions.
is
to

multicellular
mi

gametophyte
spores
1n meiosis fertilization
2n
multicelluar
sporophyte
mitosis
FIGURE 13.28 Human life cycle compared to
plant life cycle.
Life cycles vary among the different plant
groups but they share certain charac-
teristics. Plants go through an alterna-
tion of generations. One generation is
haploid (1n) and the other is diploid (2n).
These are called the gametophyte and
sporophyte generations. This is very dif-
ferent from the animal life cycle.
Animals, such as humans, are diploid
throughout their entire lives (Figure
13.28). The only cells that are haploid
are the gametes (eggs and sperm), pro-
duced through meiosis. At conception,
gametes
these haploid cells from two individuals
fuse to create a new, diploid zygote. capsule
Through mitosis, a new diploid indi-
vidual is produced.
A plant produces haploid reproduc-
zygote
tive cells called spores. Unlike animal ga- sporophyte
metes, spores do not have to fuse with stalk
another cell. A spore will undergo cell di-
vision to grow into a new plant. However,
this generation is haploid. These haploid
plants eventually produce gametes,
which fuse to produce a diploid zygote.
The zygote then grows into a diploid
sporophyte plant. These generations can
look quite different from one another. In
the more primitive plants, the gameto-
phyte generation dominates, but in the gametophyte
seed-producing plants the sporophyte
generation dominates (Figure 13.29).
Non-Vascular Plants
The term bryophyte includes mosses,
rhizoids
liverworts, and hornworts. Until re-
cently they were all included in one di-
vision (the botanical term for phylum),
FIGURE 13.30 In the moss
but each is now placed in its own divi- Mnium, the sporophyte
sion. (See Table 13.3 on page 444). grows on the gametophyte.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 435

 These plants lack true roots, stems, and
leaves and they do not have specialized
tissues to transport materials through-
out the plant body. They usually grow in
dense mats in moist environments and
are only a few centimetres tall. Most
bryophytes live on the soil but some
grow on bare rock, dead trees, and even
a) Mosses on buildings. They first appeared about
400 million years ago.
Liverworts can reproduce asexually
by vegetative reproduction. A small seg-
ment of the plant either branches off or
breaks off the original and grows into an
identical new plant (Figure 13.32).
Bryophytes also reproduce sexu-
ally (Figure 13.33). In order for sexual
reproduction to occur in non-vascular
plants, sperm have to swim from the
male reproductive organ to the female
reproductive organ. So water, even in
minute amounts, must be present in
order for fertilization to occur. This is
another important reason why
bryophytes grow in wet environments.
Like fungi, bryophytes produce
spores rather than seeds. A plant that is
the result of fertilization releases the
spores. Wind or water can carry the
spores to a suitable environment where
they develop into mature plants.

The Importance of
b) Liverworts
Bryophytes
FIGURE 13.31 Some
bryophytes Sphagnum moss, or peat moss, grows in
open, wet environments such as bogs.
gemma cup
Most bogs are found in boreal regions.
As the moss begins to decay, it accumu-
lates and compresses older layers of moss.
Because of the constant wetness and lower
oxygen levels in the bog, the moss layers
FIGURE 13.32 Vegetative reproduction in a only partially decay. These layers are
liverwort. Plantlets form within the gemmae known as peat and may reach depths
cups. Eventually the plantlets break off, develop of over 10 metres. Dried peat has been
rhizoids, and grow into complete new plants.
used for hundreds of years as a fuel. In
N

spores N N
N
spores germinate
and grow into ...

2N sperm antheridium

N
parent male
gametophyte 2N archegonium N gemeto-
phyte female
gemeto-
developing 2N phyte
sporophyte egg
in archegonium zygote
N

FIGURE 13.33 Life cycle of a bryophyte

436 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things


FIGURE 13.34 Commercial harvest of a peat
bog in Quebec.
parts of Finland and Russia it is still burned
for heat. In Ireland, power stations use peat
to generate electricity.
Peat moss is also used around the
world as a soil additive. As a result of
extensive harvesting, peat bogs in some
countries are disappearing at an alarm-
ing rate. In Canada, only a very small
percentage of peat bogs are harvested.
The peat industry is carefully managed
to cause minimal damage to bogs.
Canada is the third-largest producer of
peat moss in the world next to Russia
and Germany. The main areas of
commercial peat harvesting are in
southern Quebec (Figure 13.34) and
northeastern New Brunswick.
With the worldwide harvesting of
bogs, these complex ecosystems are
disappearing. Peat bog removal also
affects the carbon cycle. Bogs store vast
amounts of Earth’s carbon dioxide.
The removal of bogs has reduced ground
FIGURE 13.35 Spore-producing vascular plants
a) Ferns b) Horsetails
storage for carbon dioxide. As a conse-
quence, more carbon dioxide remains in
Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to the
greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe
the increasing level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is the main cause of
global warming.
The Vascular Plants
Tracheophytes are a diverse group of
plants that include most modern-day
plants. They first appeared on Earth
about 360 million years ago. They are
well adapted to life on land due to the
presence of conducting tissues called
xylem and phloem, which transport ma-
terials throughout the plant. Because of
this feature, tracheophytes are known as
the vascular plants. The evolution of
conducting tissues allowed plants to
grow much taller than the bryophytes.
The vascular plants are divided into two
groups: the spore-producing plants and
the seed-producing plants.
Spore-producing
Vascular Plants
The club mosses and horsetails (Figure INFOBIT
13.35) contain the smallest and most prim-
One type of horsetail is known
itive members of the tracheophytes. They
as the “scouring rush”
are descendants of ancient plants that because it was used in the
made up most of Earth’s forests hundreds 1700s to clean pots and pans.
of millions of years ago. Today, they mostly Because the stem contains
grow in marshes and on the edges of the sandlike substance, silica,
scouring rush stems can be
streams. One Central American variety of
used to scour dishes or pots.
horsetail grows to 10 m high.
c) Club mosses
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 437
 As mentioned previously, tracheo-
phytes were the dominant form of plants
on Earth during the Carboniferous
Period (about 360 to 290 million years
ago). The fossilized remains of this group
of plants form the coal deposits. Humans
have been using coal for centuries as a
fuel source.
Ferns are closely related to club
mosses and horsetails but are much
more widespread. They have also been
on Earth for about 400 million years.
Over 12 000 species of fern can be found
from the arctic to the tropical rain
forests. They are found mostly in shady
and wet environments.
The leaves of ferns are called
fronds. Ferns have underground stems
called rhizomes. Ferns produce spores
in sporangia, tiny containers found on
the underside of the fronds (Figure
13.36). Like bryophytes, ferns need
water to complete their life cycle because
N
2N
sporangium
mature sorus
sporophyte
archegonium
2N developing
sporophyte
2N
embryo
gametophyte
FIGURE 13.36 The life cycle of a typical fern. The young sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.
438 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
sperm have to swim to the archegonia
to fertilize the eggs.
Seed-producing
Vascular Plants
The seed producers are the most
successful plants on Earth. They have
highly specialized organs, namely leaves,
stems, and roots that have allowed them
to adapt to a wide variety of environ-
ments. The two main groups of seed-
producing plants produce either cones
or flowers. In both groups, sexual
reproduction occurs by the process of
pollination, or the transfer of pollen
from where it was formed to a receptive
surface. Because of pollination, seed-
producing plants don’t need water to
complete their life cycle. Seeds can
survive in dry environments and provide
an efficient way of dispersing offspring.
N
spores
N
gametophyte
rhizoid
N
N
antheridium
sperm
 FIGURE 13.37 Welwitschia, a gnetae, has long, straplike leaves. Ginkgo leaves are fan-
shaped and are dropped in the fall. Cycads are not ferns. Their leaves are long needles.

a) Welwitschia b) Ginkgo c) Cycad fern

Gymnosperms ized reproductive structures called cones. INFOBIT

Gymnosperms have two types of cones:
In addition to conifers, there are three
male and female (Figure 13.38). Male Gingko trees are often used in
groups of gymnosperms: gnetae, ginkgos, landscaping because they are
cones, called pollen cones, produce pollen
and cycads (Figure 13.37). Cycads flour- resistant to fungi and pollution
grains. Female cones, called seed cones,
ished in the Triassic Period, 225 million and their leaves turn gold in
produce ovules. The male cones release the fall. But ginkgos have a
years ago, but now only a few species
pollen grains, which are carried in the drawback. Mature trees are
remain in subtropical and tropical areas.
wind and some of them drift into the fe- either male or female. Female
Ginkgoes were far more common during trees bear fruit that smells like
male cones. Once inside, the pollen grain
the Jurassic Period 170 million years ago. rotting garbage!
produces sperm cells by mitosis. These
Now only one species survives, Ginkgo
sperm cells leave the pollen grain and fer-
biloba. Today, conifers are the most nu-
tilize the ovules in the seed cone. After fer-
merous group of gymnosperms. The
tilization, zygotes grow into seeds on the
leaves of conifers are elongated into what
surfaces of the cone’s scales. Once the cone
are commonly called needles.
has matured, and if it lands on good soil,
The most striking characteristic of
the seeds can develop into new plants.
gymnosperms is that they have special-

male cone pollen

(contains sperm)

female cone
egg

mature growth embryo

tree seedling inside seed

FIGURE 13.38 The life cycle of a gymnosperm. FIGURE 13.39 Softwoods from conifers are
Pine trees have two types of cones. The male used extensively in construction.
cone is far smaller than the female cone.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 439

 The Importance of softwood and is the second-largest pro-
Gymnosperms ducer next to the United States. British
Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta
The wood from conifers is referred to
are the main producers, with B.C.
as softwood. Approximately 50% of
providing over half of the softwood pro-
TABLE 13.2 Canadian Ontario’s forests consist of conifers.
duced. Ontario supplies about 10%. In
Softwoods and Their Uses. Canada supplies about 20% of the world’s
1996, Canadian softwood exports to 87
countries generated over $12 billion in
Conifer Region where found Commercial uses
revenue. The main importers of our soft-
Eastern spruce across Canada framing lumber, plywood, shipping crates, wood are the United States, Japan, and
(black, white pulp the European Union. Canada uses about
spruce) 4% of the world’s supply of softwood;
White pine Manitoba to window and door frames, doors, cabinets, our southern neighbour uses about one-
Maritimes toys, carvings, caskets third of the world’s supply! But per
Balsam fir across Canada construction lumber, framing lumber, capita, Canada is the biggest consumer.
plywood, particle board, shipping crates, pulp Softwoods are grouped commer-
cially into four categories: Spruce-Pine-
Eastern Ontario to Maritimes framing lumber, roofing, plywood, pulp
Hemlock Fir, Hemlock-Fir, Douglas Fir, and
Western Red Cedar. Table 13.2 indicates
Douglas fir southern B.C. construction lumber, plywood, railway ties,
some uses of members of each of these
doors (the most versatile of all wood)
groups along with the region in Canada
Western B.C. shingles, doors, fencing and fence posts, where the tree grows.
red cedar decks, siding, pulp

Angiosperms
Angiosperms are the flowering plants.
They are the most widespread of all land
anther
plants, with about 250 000 species
pollen worldwide. All angiosperms reproduce
sexually by means of flowers, through
tube cell
mature the process of pollination. Angiosperm
sporophyte sperm cells seeds are contained in a protective wall
microspores
that develops into a fruit.
pollen
GAMETOPHYTE germination
GENERATION
(n) stigma Angiosperm Life Cycle
carpel The angiosperms are the most success-
ovary ful group of plants on Earth. Using
pollen
seed tube flowers as their reproductive struc-
germination tures frees them from requiring a wa-
and growth
megaspore tery environment like the mosses and
ferns do. The ovules of angiosperms are
egg more protected than those of gym-
SPOROPHYTE fertilization nosperms and their well-protected seeds,
GENERATION
(2n) dispersed through a variety of
ingenious methods, also contribute to
the success of the angiosperms.
In order for the angiosperms to
seed reproduce, an ovum inside the pistil, the
zygote

embryo FIGURE 13.40 The life cycle of an angiosperm

440 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

female part of the flower, must be fer- stamen carpel
tilized by a sperm cell, contained in a stigma
anther
pollen grain. Once fertilized, the zygote
style
develops into an embryo contained in
filament
a seed. Seeds are enclosed in a fruit. The
seeds must be released from the fruit ovary
and find suitable soil in which to
germinate into a new plant. The
angiosperm life cycle is summarized in petals
Figure 13.40. sepals
receptacle

pedicel

bud flower

FIGURE 13.42 Flower parts

Pollination Angiosperms have developed

an amazing variety of methods to trans-
fer pollen from one flower to another. In
self-pollination, pollen from the same
plant fertilizes an egg cell. More com-
monly, pollen is transferred from one
plant to another of the same species
(cross-pollination) by wind, water, or
FIGURE 13.41 The typical angiosperm flower
animals (Figure 13.43). Pollen produced
contains both male and female reproductive
structures. in the anthers is transferred to the
stigma of another plant by one of these
methods. Flowers are adapted to a
specific method of pollination.
The Flower The group is defined by the
distinct reproductive structure: the
flower. The outermost part of a flower is
made of the sepals and petals (Figure
13.41). The mature flower contains both
female and male parts. A stamen is
the male reproductive part of the flower.
Pollen grains, each containing sperm
cells, are produced by the anther (Figure
13.42). The female reproductive struc-
ture is called the carpel. At the base of
the carpel is the ovary, which produces
an egg inside an ovule.
Pollen is released and carried to
other flowers of the same species by var-
ious means. When a pollen grain lands
on the stigma, the carpel opening, it
travels down the pollen tube and one FIGURE 13.43 Animal pollinators. Bees (top)
of the sperm inside the pollen grain and other insects transport pollen from flower to
flower. Hummingbirds (bottom) also pollinate the
fertilizes the egg in the ovary. flowers they visit.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 441


FIGURE 13.44 Bee in a
scotch broom. This species of
orchid has a specialized
flower. When a bee lands on
the flower, the curved anther
“dabs” pollen onto the back
of the bee.
INFOBIT
A fruit is defined as a fertilized
ovary of an angiosperm. Many
people are not aware that by
this definition, tomatoes, corn,
peas, and cucumbers are all
fruits.
For example, insect-pollinated flowers,
are usually brightly coloured, and pro-
duce sweet nectar to attract insects.
Many flowers have also developed a
specialized “landing area” or platform
designed so that visiting insects,
unknowingly, can pick up pollen effi-
ciently (Figure 13.44).
Fertilization The process of fertilization
is summarized in Figure 13.45. The
pollen grain germinates when it lands on
a stigma. A pollen tube grows down into
the ovary. One of two nuclei in the pollen
grain, called the generative nucleus,
divides into two sperm nuclei. One sperm
nucleus fuses with the ovum to produce
a zygote. The other sperm nucleus fuses
with the two polar nuclei of the ovule to
become endosperm tissue. As in gym-
nosperms, the endosperm stores
nutrients for the developing seed. After
fertilization, the ovule develops into a
seed and the ovary into a fruit. The
ovary enlarges, and its wall thickens to
form the fruit. The other flower parts die.
In fleshy fruits, the ovary wall thick-
ens into a soft pulp that has a high sugar
content. Not all fruits are fleshy. Dry
fruits, including nuts such as almonds
and cashews, are often mistaken for
seeds. While seeds mature within the
ovary, the ovary walls themselves be-
come modified to form the fruit (Figure
13.46). Fruits that develop from a sin-
gle ovary in a single flower are called
simple fruits. Tomatoes, plums, and
pears are examples of simple fruits.
Fruits that develop from many ovaries
in a single flower are called aggregate
fruits. Raspberries are an example.

pollen grain tube cell

sperm cells
stigma
pollen tube
sperm cells

style

fusion of one sperm

micropyle cell with nuclei of central
cell to form endosperm
ovary (3n)
fusion of one
ovule egg sperm cell with
with female (n) egg to form zygote
gametophyte (2n)
pollination pollen tube double
growth fertilization

FIGURE 13.45 Fertilization in angiosperms. Two fertilizations take place. One

fertilization creates a triploid cell, which forms the endosperm to nourish the young
embryo when it germinates. The other fertilization creates the zygote.

442 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 carpels

receptacle

a Apricot b Pea c Strawberry

(one carpel, one seed) (one carpel, many seeds) (many carpels, many seeds,
one receptacle)

FIGURE 13.46 The flesh of an apricot a) and a pea pod b) are mature ovaries and
so are fruits. A strawberry c) is actually a receptacle. The “seeds” on the surface
are actually minute carpels, each containing its own seed and fruit.

Seed Dispersal There are many ways in

which seeds find their way to suitable
soil in which to germinate. Some seeds,
such as those of the milkweed (Figure
13.47), are blown by the wind. Coconut
seeds are often carried on water. The
cocklebur seeds have tiny hooks that
allow them to attach to animal fur. As
you know, the fruits that humans eat are
also eaten by birds and other animals.
The seeds of these fruits are often car-
ried away, undigested, in the digestive
tract of the animal. They may find suit-
able soil in which to germinate after the FIGURE 13.47 The seeds of some plants, such
animal eliminates the seeds with its as this milkweed, have shapes or structures that
undigested wastes. enhance dispersal by the wind.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 443

INFOBIT

In 1941, George DeMestral, on

a walk in the woods in his
native Switzerland, decided to
look more closely at the burrs
collected on his clothing and
his dog. Under the microscope
he observed the intricate, tiny
hooks on the burrs. He realized
that he could use nature’s
invention to serve a variety of
uses that the zipper could not
serve. After many years of
trying to develop a suitable
fabric containing the many
tiny hooks, Velcro was finally
patented in 1955. Velcro is used
in clothing, shoes, medical a) b)
supplies, luggage, aircraft, and
sports equipment. FIGURE 13.48 Some seeds are enclosed in tasty fruit a) that entices animals, who
eat the fruit and disperse the seeds. Other seeds are enclosed in burrs b) that attach to
passing animals who disperse the seeds over wide distances.

TABLE 13.3 Summary of

Division Common name Number of species
plant Classification. Note that
botanists refer to phyla as Non-vascular plants Bryophyta mosses 12 000
divisions in the plant
kingdom. Hepatophyta liverworts 6500
Anthocerophyta hornworts 100
Vascular plants
Spore-producing plants Lycophyta club mosses 1000
Sphenophyta horsetails 15
Pterophyta ferns 12 000
Seed-producing plants
Gymnosperms Coniferophyta conifers 550
Cycadophyta cycads 100
Ginkophyta ginkgo 1
Gnetophyta gnetae 70
Angiosperms Anthophyta flowering plants 250 000

Section 13.3 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Explain the difference between cross-
pollination and self-pollination.
2. In angiosperms, the fertilization is
called double fertilization. Explain why
this term is appropriate
3. Why do bryophytes (non-vascular
plants) survive best in moist, shady
habitats?
4. Explain why a cucumber, which is
commonly thought of as a vegetable, is
actually a fruit.
5. What characteristic would you expect
wind-pollinated flowers to have that is
different from bee-pollinated flowers?
6. Using diagrams, compare the life cycle
of a moss to that of an angiosperm.
Indicate similarities and differences.

444 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 13.2) 


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Growing Moulds 
Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating

Problem Part B: Examining Mould

In this activity, you will be growing and classifying
moulds. Procedure
1. Examine the bread mould under the binocular
Materials microscope through the covered Petri dish. Draw
your observations and label the hyphae, stolons,
 slice of bread (prefer-  hand lens
rhizoids, sporangiophores, sporangia, and spores.
ably home-baked  prepared slide of
without preserva- Rhizopus 2. Obtain a prepared slide of Rhizopus. Observe its
tives)  monocular micro- structures under low power on a compound
 milk scope microscope. Repeat your observations under
 Petri dish  compound micro- medium and high power. Draw a diagram of what
 paper towels scope you observed.
 scissors  marking pen
 eye dropper
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Why do you think that the section of bread was
CAUTION: Wear goggles and when you are finished, rinse dampened with milk?
your Petri dish in a dilute solution of bleach. Wash your hands 2. Did your mould resemble the Rhizopus on the slide?
with soapy water when finished the activity. Explain why or why not.
3. Classify the moulds that grew on your bread.
4. How are the bread moulds different from edible
Part A: Culturing Mould mushrooms?

Procedure Concluding and Communicating

1. Cut several thicknesses of paper towel to fit the bot- 5. What type of mould(s) grew on your bread? Explain
tom of a Petri dish. why you classified them as you did.
2. Moisten the towels and place them in the bottom 6. Moulds are often the main cause of many allergies.
of the Petri dish. Research which part of the mould causes allergies.
3. Place a section of bread (without the crust) over the 7. Can fruit mould grow on bread? Explain.
paper towels.
4. Dampen the section of bread with a few drops of
milk.
Extending
8. Design an experiment to test the effect of each of
5. Place the cover over the Petri dish and seal with
the following variables on the growth of bread
masking tape.
mould: heat, light, moisture.
6. Set the petri dish aside at room temperature or
9. Design an experiment to grow edible mushrooms
slightly warmer for 4-5 days.
on a portable substrate (e.g., a log).
7. Without removing the cover to the Petri dish,
examine the bread mould daily with a hand lens.
When a white fuzzy growth appears on the
surface of the bread with black dots sprinkled
throughout, you can start Part B.

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 445


Investigation 2 (Section 13.2)
Improving the Growth of Yeast
Problem
Suppose you are a research scientist for a biotechnol-
ogy company. A large bakery has hired your com-
pany to help them improve the ways they grow yeast.
Yeast cells are used to make baked goods rise, giving
more volume and a lighter texture. Each scientist has
decided to investigate a variable that will enhance
the growth of the yeast.
The following steps outline a standard procedure
for growing yeast.
1. Measure 1.0 g of yeast on the triple beam balance.
2. Measure 0.25 g of sugar.
3. Pour sugar and yeast into a 150-mm test tube.
4. Add 5.0 mL of distilled water to the test tube.
Ensure that all yeast is in the solution.
5. Place the test tube in a warm water bath (incubate
at 37°C) for 10 minutes.
6. After 10 minutes remove the test tube from the
warm water bath and measure the height of the
foam produced using a ruler. This will indicate how
much growth has occurred. Note other character-
istics of the foam, such as density, as a confirma-
tion of the results.
Materials
 5. Describe from your observations the best condition
yeast
 for maximum yeast growth.
triple beam balance
 sugar
 150-mm test tube
 large beaker
 other items as needed
446 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
Experimental Design
1. The following variables may affect the growth of
yeast: pH, temperature, oxygen, water, amount of
sugar, and salt concentration. Choose one vari-
able you believe will enhance the growth of yeast.
2. Use the standard procedure for the growth of yeast.
Design an experiment to test the effect of the
chosen variable on yeast growth. Ensure your
experimental design is complete.
3. Carry out your experiment, following all relevant
safety requirements.
4. Collect and record your data appropriately.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Compile the information from your own and your
classmates’ (colleagues’) work. Analyze that infor-
mation to agree on the final recommendations to
the bakery.
2. Explain, using your knowledge of fermentation, the
use of sugar in this investigation.
3. What factors influenced the rate of CO2 production?
4. Which factor maximized the growth of yeast?
Concluding and Communicating
6. Identify any experimental error that could have af-
fected your results.
7. If you repeated this procedure, what changes would
you focus on and why?
8. Draw a specific conclusion regarding your variable.
Prepare a report on your data and conclusion to
present to colleagues who have investigated other
variables.
C H A P T E R 13 S U M M A RY

Key Terms

alternation of generations diatom hyphae rhizoid

anal pore dinoflagellate lichen slime mould
angiosperm endocytosis lysosome sporangium
anther endosperm macronucleus spore
ascospore eukaryote micronucleus sporophyte
ascus fermentation mycelium sporozoan
basidium flagella mycorrhizae stigma
bryophyte food vacuole oral groove vascular plant
budding fruit ovule water mould
cap fruiting body pellicle zygospore
cilia gametophyte plasmodium
cones gills pollination
conidium gymnosperm pseudopod

Essential Understandings

13.1 The Protists
 The kingdom Protista contains only eukaryotic or-
ganisms. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded
by a membrane, and organelles, also surrounded
by membranes.
 The protist kingdom is extremely diverse. Most
are unicellular. Some resemble animals by ingest-
ing food particles. Some resemble plants
by having chlorophyll. Some resemble fungi by
absorbing molecules from their surroundings. Some
are parasitic.
 Amoebas move by means of pseudopods, flagellates
by means of flagella, and ciliates by means of cilia.
Sporozoans are non-motile.
 It is thought that plants evolved from the green
algae.
13.2 The Fungi
 Most of the kingdom Fungi are multicellular
eukaryotes. All lack chlorophyll and absorb nutri-
ents from their environment.
 Most fungi consist of a tangled mass of hyphae that
form a mycelium. The fungi can reproduce asexu-
ally as well as sexually.
 Lichens are an alga and a fungus living together in
a symbiotic association. Mycorrhizae are associa-
tions of fungi with the roots of plants.
13.3 The Plants
 All members of the plant kingdom are multicellular
and have cell walls made of cellulose. They are al-
most all land plants, though some are aquatic.
 The plant life cycle involves an alternation between
the gametophyte and sporophyte generations.
 The bryophytes lack vascular tissues.
 Vascular plants are divided into two groups, the
spore-producing tracheophytes and the seed-
producing plants.
 The seed-producing plants are the most successful
group of plants. They include the gymnosperms and
the angiosperms.

 Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures:  Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants and an-
the caselike Zygomycota, the saclike Ascomycota, giosperms are flowering plants.
and the clublike Basidiomycota.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Look back at the Checkpoint on page 419 and revisit the 3. Review the skills you have used so far in completing the
Venn diagram you made before beginning this chapter. Investigations in this Unit. Complete a chart to summa-
Draw a revised diagram if you would change or add rize the skills you have developed.
information based on what you have learned.
2. Starting with the word “protists,” create a concept
map that shows how species in the kindgom Protista re-
semble species in the plant and fungi kingdoms.
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 447
CHAPTER 13 REVIEW

Understanding Concepts 15. Describe the structure of a mushroom.

1. Small, hair-like projections used for locomotion by 16. In what sense might lichens be called “pioneer
paramecia are organisms?”
a) pseudopodia
b) cilia 17. You are shown an organism that looks somewhat like a
c) flagella mushroom. Describe at least three characteristics that
d) mycorrhizae would enable you to classify the organism as a plant or
as a fungus.
2. Eukaryotic cells
a) have genetic material but no nucleus 18. What are the characteristics of bryophytes?
b) are more primitive than prokaryotic cells
c) carry out chemical reactions throughout the 19. What are the characteristics of tracheophytes?
cytoplasm in a suspension of water
d) evolved from prokaryotic cells 20. Describe how a fruit is formed.

3. The kingdom Protista contains 21. Researchers have found that some plants have the
a) the unicellular prokaryotes ability to produce juvenile insect hormone. This sub-
b) the unicellular eukaryotes stance helps to regulate the timing of insect development.
c) only animal-like eukaryotes By producing large amounts of the hormone, plants
d) the Fungi are able to prevent insect predators from going through
metamorphosis (i.e., changing from a larva to an adult
4. In which division in the kingdom Fungi are mush- insect). How might this be of survival benefit to these
rooms found? plants?
a) Zygomycota
b) Ascomycota 22. What characteristic do all species in the protist, fungi,
c) Basidiomycota and plant kingdoms have in common?
d) Imperfect fungi
23. Compare endospores in bacteria with spores in protists.
5. The male portion of a flower is the
a) sepal 24. Do you think malaria could be transmitted through blood
b) carpel transfusions? Explain your answer.
c) stamen
d) stigma
Applying Inquiry/
6. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand Communication Skills
the different types of protists.
25. Table 13.4 provides examples of different types of fruits.
7. Name three methods of locomotion used by some species
Obtain samples from each of the categories, investigate
of protists and describe these methods.
their similarities and differences, and provide descrip-
tions that distinguish one type of fruit from another.
8. Draw a labelled diagram to describe the life cycle of
the malarial parasite, Plasmodium vivax.
26. Predict where you might find mould spores in your home.
Design an investigation to see if your predictions are
9. How do euglenoids resemble plant and animal cells?
valid.
10. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand
27. Create a dichotomous key to classify an unknown or-
the different types of fungi.
ganism into the protist, fungi, or plant kingdom.
11. Why are slime moulds classified as protists and not fungi?
28. A paramecium can reproduce asexually about 700 times
before dying. However, if it reproduces sexually through
12. Describe the hyphae that make up the bread mould
conjugation in addition to asexually, it can reproduce
Rhizopus.
many more times. Develop a hypothesis for this
observation.
13. Describe the conjugation process in the case-like
Zygomycota.
29. Figure 13.49 shows the effects of mycorrhizae on plant
growth. For each species, one tree grew with
14. How are saclike fungi different from the club fungi?

448 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Type of Fruit Examples Description Canada who visit their former homeland have an ex-
tremely high risk of contracting the disease because they
legume pea, bean have lost their immunity. Explain why these immigrants
achene sunflower, buttercup, dandelion to Canada are more at risk upon revisiting their former
grain corn, wheat, rye, oats homeland than when they resided there originally.

samara maple, elm 31. Explain why it is unwise to assume that it is safe to drink
nut acorn, walnut, cashew, chestnut the water from lakes in our provincial parks. Include a
pome apple, pear specific protist in your answer. Do additional research
in this protist and prepare a public information pam-
drupe peach, cherry phlet on the problem for provincial park visitors.
berry grape, tomato, blueberry
pepo cucumber, squash, melon, pumpkin 32. Biodiesel fuels are becoming an alternative to existing
energy sources for combustion engines. Developed
hesperidium orange, lemon, grapefruit over the last decade, they blend soybean oils with algae,
aggregate strawberry, raspberry resulting in fuels with high lubricating, clean burning
multiple pineapple, fig and high energy-releasing properties. Explain why the
addition of algae to the plant oils might enhance the en-
TABLE 13.4 ergy-releasing properties of the fuel.

33. Describe what environmental conditions might cause

without mycorrhizae harmful protists, such as Gonyaulax polyhedron, to mul-
with mycorrhizae tiply rapidly in large numbers, creating a “red tide.” How
6 can it be explained that deadly toxins from a microscopic
protist can often have fatal effects on humans, fish,
and other organisms?
5
34. Explain what natural benefit in nature a fungus like
4 Penicillium might have due to its ability to produce a
chemical inhibiting the growth of Staphlococcus bacte-
height (m)

3 ria. How has this ability been utilized in medical

practice?

2 35. Some species of vascular plants are considered endan-

gered. Comment on Canadian and provincial habitat
1 protection efforts and land-use policies as they relate
to populations and communities of vascular plants.
0
pine hemlock beech poplar 36. Some people enjoy eating wild mushrooms and go into
the countryside to hand-pick them. Unfortunately, many
Tree species
people become seriously ill or even die from misidenti-
fying, and then eating, poisonous ones. Do you think
picking wild fungi should be made illegal? Create a
FIGURE 13.49 PMI chart on this proposition and, based on your chart,
back up your opinion.
mycorrhizae and one without mycorrhizae. Analyze the
graph. How does the growth of the two plants in each 37. Blooms of toxic protists are on the rise worldwide. These
species compare? Make a generalization about the have serious effects: large numbers of fish die as a
growth of plants that have mycorrhizae. result, and shellfish become contaminated. Humans can
become seriously ill or die if they eat the contaminated
shellfish, and fisheries have to be shut down, resulting
in losses for the fishing industry. A rapid increase in
Making Connections coastal development, and the pollution created by
these developments is thought to be behind these blooms.
30. It has recently been reported that the incidence of malaria What should be done to decrease the incidence of toxic
in Canada has increased significantly over the last blooms? Should coastal development be stopped? Decide
decade. One of the main reasons for the resurgence of on a course of action to address this problem.
this tropical disease is the belief that immigrants to

CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 449

 CHAPTER 14

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Animal Kingdom
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
 describe selected anatomical and
physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from
each life kingdom and a
representative virus (14.1–14.5)
 compare and contrast the life
cycles of representative animals
from each life kingdom and a
representative virus (14.1–14.5)
 classify representative organisms
from each of the life kingdoms
(Investigation 2)
 use appropriate sampling
procedures to collect various
organisms in a marsh, pond, or
other ecosystem, and classify
them following the principles of
taxonomy (Investigation 2)

FIGURE 14.1 Both invertebrates and vertebrates teem in the natural ecosystem created by a
coral reef, including the corals themselves. Human activity and climate change threaten the
biodiversity of coral reefs. If these rapid environmental changes continue, coral reefs and the
species that depend on them for survival will continue to disappear at an alarming rate.

450
T hink of an animal. Do you think of a furry, four-legged creature, some-
thing that rustles through brush or roams across savannah? Or do you
picture a creature with buds, tentacles, spines, suckers, something that creeps
across the ocean floor or feeds in the human intestine? Although all animals,
including humans, share certain features, they have evolved a vast diversity
of anatomical and physiological characteristics, and their life cycles vary
widely.
Biologists classify animals into one of two categories: vertebrates (includ-
ing mammals, birds and reptiles), and invertebrates (including insects, worms,
and corals). Vertebrates make up only a small fraction of animal species. Coral
reef, like the one pictured here, teems with animal life. Sponges, corals, jel-
lyfish, clams, starfish, crabs and squid, all invertebrates, thrive there, along
with vertebrates. In terrestrial environments, invertebrates like flatworms,
leeches, snails, spiders, and insects—the most numerous of all animal species—
flourish along with terrestrial vertebrates.
Researchers have cloned sheep and cows and have genetically modified
flies, mice, and more for purposes such as improving our agricultural industry
and accelerating research into human disease.

Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
Pumping Capacity of a Fish
All living things must exchange gases to remain alive. Fish exchange car- Complete a gathering grid
bon dioxide and oxygen with their watery environment using their gills. A to list what you know about
typical goldfish measuring 6 cm long can pump about 31 L of water at 20°C the differences between
across its gills a day. How long would it take for this goldfish to pass all the fish, amphibians, reptiles,
water in a 20-gallon aquarium (1 L = 0.26 gal) through its gills? Predict what birds, and mammals.
would happen if the water temperature were to drop to 10°C. Explain your Copy the following
reasoning. gathering grid into your
notebook:
Amphibians

Mammals
Reptiles
Birds
Fish

Body
covering
Method of
locomotion
Habitat
Skeleton

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 451

 14.1 Simple Animals
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the anatomy of sponges and cnidarians

 describe the life cycles of sponges and cnidarians

What is an animal? They vary from • The presence of a coelom, or inter-

microscopic organisms that live in water, nal body cavity, and other structural
to the largest land animal, the elephant. and physiological modifications.
However, some characteristics are com-
mon to all animals. Most biologists today believe animals are
descended from colonial flagellated pro-
• They are heterotrophic, multicellu-
tists. Like other colonial protists, the
lar eukaryotes. They cannot make
ancestor of animals had cells that were
their own food so they must ingest
nearly identical to each other and not
other organisms.
particularly specialized in their form or
• Their cells lack cell walls and have
function (Figure 14.2). Some colonies
only cell membranes surrounding
may have developed cells with differ-
the cell contents.
ent functions for feeding and locomotion.
• They have two types of tissue that
Because these varieties lived more
are only found in animals: nervous
efficiently than other varieties, they had
tissue and muscle tissue.
a selective advantage over those that
• Most animals reproduce sexually.
did not specialize. They grew larger and
The diploid stage of the life cycle is
eventually evolved into organisms that
dominant.
we know as animals.

Body Plan
The organization of an animal’s internal
structures and the way the structures
function define an animal’s body plan.
Although body plans provide clues to the cells
evolutionary relationships of different
animals, they are used more to cluster
animals into a common classification
scheme based on structural similarities.
Biologists examine the features of an an-
imal’s body plan in order to organize the stalk
smaller taxa such as phyla and classes.
These features include:
• The type of body symmetry. Does the
body look asymmetrical or does it
show bilateral or radial symmetry?
• The degree of cell organization
within the body. Do cells exist FIGURE 14.2 The earliest animals are thought
independently or form functional to be related to this choanoflagellate, a colonial
groups, such as tissues or organs? protist.

452 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

The Simplest Animals
(Phylum Porifera)
Some living sponges resemble the an-
cestral colonial protist. Sponges belong
to the phylum Porifera and vary widely
in shape and size depending on their
habitat. Biologists have identified about
5000 species of sponges, all aquatic and
mostly marine. As sessile organisms,
sponges stay fixed in one place (Figure
14.3).
FIGURE 14.3 The shapes, colours, and sizes
of sponges vary depending on their aquatic
environment. Smaller sponges (top) live in
shallow marine waters with strong tidal action.
Larger sponges with branching structures
(bottom) live in deep, quiet waters and may
grow to be over a metre in height.
Sponges have a simple, asymmet-
rical body plan made up of a loose
collection of cells (Figure 14.4). They
have no mouth, no digestive cavity, no
muscles, and no nervous system. Within
the animal kingdom, only sponges, the
simplest multi-cellular organism, have
an asymmetrical body plan and lack def-
inite cell layers.
Sponges absorb water through nu- INFOBIT
merous tiny pores that cover the body
and expel water through larger openings Today, most households use
synthetic sponges to wash,
called oscula. As water travels through
bathe, and clean, but some
canals within the sponge, the sponge ab- specialty stores sell natural
sorbs oxygen and releases waste through sponges. Natural sponges hold
gas exchange and filters out small or- more water and wear better
than synthetic sponges. The
ganisms.
ones sold grow only in warm
Sponges have three main types of
shallow seas. Loofah
cells, each with a special function. “sponges,” are not sponges at
Flattened epithelial cells cover the inner all, but the dried fibrous interior
and outer surfaces of the body. Some of a tropical gourd.
epithelial cells surround pores and
control their size to regulate the flow of
water. Collar cells maintain the flow of
water through the sponge by beating a
flagellum that extends into the inner
canal. The collar that surrounds the flag-
ellum filters micro-organisms that the
cell ingests. Some food passes to a third
type of cell, the amoeboid cell. As amoe-
boid cells move between epithelial cells
and collar cells, they digest and distribute
nutrients, produce reproductive cells, and
develop an internal skeleton. The skele-
ton of the sponge, composed of spicules
formed from calcium carbonate (chalk)
or silica (glass), supports the body.
osculum
epithelial cell
collar cells
central cavity
spicule
jellylike
inner layer
amoeboid cell
pore cells
pore
FIGURE 14.4 Because sponges lack true
organs, differentiated cells such as the epithelial,
collar, and amoeboid cells, perform specialized
functions at the cell or tissue level.
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 453
 Sponges reproduce both sexually oral
and asexually. In most species, a single
sponge is hermaphroditic, producing
both eggs and sperm. Water currents
carry sperm from one individual to
another to fertilize eggs. Sponges also
reproduce asexually by budding.

The Two-Layered Animals

(Phylum Cnidaria)
Cnidarians show the first major evolu-
tionary changes from the poriferans:
they have symmetrical bodies with cells
organized into tissues. Cnidarians
include hydrozoans (class Hydrozoa),
jellyfish (class Scyphozoa), and sea
anemones, sea fans, and corals (class
Anthozoa). About 10 000 cnidarian
species, both solitary and colonial,
survive today. They range in size from
microscopic animals to jellyfish that can
grow to be 2.5 m wide. All cnidarians
show radial symmetry. An organism
with radial symmetry has body parts
that repeat around one main axis point
(Figure 14.5).
Cnidarians have two layers of cells,
an outer layer, or ectoderm, and an
inner layer, or gastrodermis (Figure
14.7). A jellylike layer called the
mesoglea sits between the ectoderm and
aboral
FIGURE 14.5 Radial symmetry
the endoderm. The mesoglea of jellyfish
is like thick jelly, giving the animal its
common name. Some ectodermal cells
have muscle fibres that contract to
move the animal. Other ectodermal cells
have a nerve net that allows the cnidar-
ian to respond to environmental stimuli.
All cnidarians have stinging struc-
tures called nematocysts in specialized
ectodermal cells called cnidocytes.
Cnidocytes, found on armlike structures
called tentacles, release toxic substances
through the nematocysts to paralyze
prey. The nematocysts are what deliver
the sting that some jellyfish inflict on
swimmers.

Discovering Biology Observing Hydra

1. Obtain a few living hydra and place them into a watch glass
containing pond water.
2. Observe the hydra using a dissecting or stereomicroscope.
Use an indirect or cool source of light. Examine them for a
few minutes. Do not disturb the watch glass.
 Is the hydra mainly motile or sessile?
 Are any of their cells far away from direct contact with
water?
 Why is the hydra able to function without a circulatory
system?
 Does the hydra have a mouth? An anus?
 Can you observe a right-hand or left-hand side of a hydra?
Explain.
3. Touch the tentacles with the tip of a dissecting needle. Describe
FIGURE 14.6 The tentacles of jellyfish extend
what happens. Does the whole body or only the tentacle
down from the outer edge of a cuplike body. The
respond? tentacles of some larger species can grow to be
25 m long.

454 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 The tentacles of cnidarians extend release them into the water. Once
from the mouth region and carry prey fertilized, the egg develops into a
to the mouth. The mouth leads to a sac free-swimming larva called a planula.
called the gastrovascular cavity, which The planula eventually settles to the bot-
functions in digestion, circulation, and tom and develops into a new polyp. The
gas exchange. The same opening func- medusa stage dominates the life cycle of
tions as both mouth and anus. Food scyphozoans. Anthozoans lack the
passes in one direction and waste passes medusa stage. The life-cycle stages and
out in the other. modes of reproduction vary between the
The life cycle of most cnidarians three cnidarian classes.
consists of two stages (Figure 14.7). In
the first stage, the polyp looks like a
cylinder and sits on an underwater sur-
face with its tentacles extended into medusae
the water. Polyps are asexual and
reproduce by budding. They usually
dominate the life cycle of hydrozoans. In
the second stage, the medusa, floats like
a bell or an umbrella, usually with its
mouth and tentacles facing downward.
2N
Medusae produce eggs and sperm and

Medusa

gastrovascular mesoglea
cavity N
gastrodermis N
epidermis young
egg
medusa
mouth
2N sperm

zygote

tentacle budding
polyp
2N
Polyp

mouth

tentacle free-swimming
larva
sessile
epidermis
2N polyp
mesoglea 2N

gastrodermis

gastrovascular
cavity
FIGURE 14.7 Cnidarians develop into two
different stages with different body structures:
the flowerlike polyp and the bell-shaped
medusa.
FIGURE 14.8 In many cnidarians, the polyp
and medusa stage both enter the life cycle. In
jellyfish, a fertilized egg develops into a planula
that develops into a polyp. The polyp buds into
other polyps and the polyps bud into medusae.
The mature medusae produce and fertilize
new eggs.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 455

INFOBIT
Some divers and snorkelers
carry meat tenderizer in
their first-aid kits to treat
Portuguese- man-of-war stings.
Meat tenderizer contains the
enzyme protease, which helps
break down the protein toxin
that causes the painful sting.
456 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Portuguese man-of-war is a
hydrozoan colony made up of many
specialized polyps (Figure 14.9). One
polyp forms a gas-filled float. Some
polyps have elongated tentacles to cap-
ture prey. Some specialize in digesting
FIGURE 14.9 The Portuguese man-of-war is a
free-floating hydrozoan whose medusae and
polyps combine to form colonies.
Section 14.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Explain the evolutionary relationship
between protists and sponges.
2. Draw a diagram showing the typical
structure of a sponge. Label the
diagram.
3. Explain how being a hermaphrodite
would be an advantage for sessile
organisms.
4. Describe the structure and symmetry
of cnidarians.
5. How do the structures that cnidarians
use for locomotion compare with the
flagella and cilia of other organisms?
6. Describe the two life-cycle stages of
cnidarians and explain how each is in-
volved in a typical life cycle.
prey, and yet others specialize in
producing eggs and sperm.
Some sea anemones can move
slowly on a base they attach to a surface
underwater, while most corals are ses-
sile colonial organisms (Figure 14.10).
FIGURE 14.10 Sea anemones (top) have no
protective covering. Most coral polyps (bottom)
generate a protective skeleton of calcium
carbonate that produces distinctive patterns in
different coral species.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7. Investigate the body plan of a sponge
to determine how its structures make
it well adapted to life in its environ-
ment.
Making Connections
8. Since the early 1980s, marine parks
and reserves have been established
around the world to protect the coral
reefs and the animals and plants that
thrive on them. Access appropriate li-
brary and electronic tools to research
the causes of reef destruction and de-
velop an action plan to conserve their
existence.
14.2 Wormlike Animals
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the anatomy of flatworms, roundworms, and segmented worms

Body Plan Most animal species have a fluid-

filled body cavity between the body wall
Certain evolutionary changes altered the
and the digestive tract. When this cavity
body plan of simple animals, allowing
is lined with a tissue called mesoderm,
them to move through their environment
the cavity is called a coelom. The solid
more efficiently and diversify. Most
body plan of animals without a coelom
animals that move exhibit bilateral
allows nutrients and oxygen to diffuse
symmetry (Figure 14.11). In a bilater-
into all body cells and wastes to diffuse
ally symmetrical animal, an imaginary
out. But because of this, their bodies
line drawn down the middle of the body
must be relatively thin and flat. Having
from the anterior, or front end, of the an-
a body cavity provides several advan-
imal to the posterior, or back end, divides
tages. Internal organs are suspended in
the animal into two sides that mirror each
the cavity and are cushioned by the fluid
other. The dorsal refers to the upper sur-
in the space so that they are not twisted
face, or back, of the animal. The ventral
out of shape by muscle movements in the
refers to the animal’s underside, usually
body wall. The body cavity also provides
the side with a mouth.
more room for internal organs to expand.
Most bilaterally symmetrical animals
For example, ovaries expand as they
move through their environment with
develop eggs. Having mesoderm-lined
their anterior end forward. Sense organs
coelom makes it possible for the diges-
and nerve cells usually concentrate at
tive tract to develop specialized regions
the anterior end of a bilaterally sym-
and also allows for the formation of blood
metrical animal, a development known
vessels, which are formed from meso-
as cephalization. As the animal moves,
derm. Having a body cavity also allows
this anterior sensory structure acts as a
animals to become larger.
control centre that allows the
animal to respond quickly to
stimuli. Although some
cnidarians can move slowly
through their environment,
their radially symmetrical dorsal
anterior posterior
bodies have no front end that
first encounters the environ-
ment. Evolution favoured
bilaterally symmetrical ani-
mals with cephalization that
could sense their environment
ventral
as they moved through it. As
a result, most of the world’s
living species today are
bilaterally symmetrical. The
development of the coelom
can be traced through the FIGURE 14.11 In bilateral symmetry, the two halves of an animal are mirror images of
groups of wormlike animals. one another.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 457


FIGURE 14.12 A branched
gastrovascular cavity in
the planarian, a freshwater
plathelminth, increases
surface area for digestion.
INFOBIT
The bigger the host, the bigger
the tapeworm. The tapeworm
Echinococcus multiloculoarus
lives in coyotes and grows
between 1.2 to 3.7 mm. The
tapeworm Polygonoporus lives
in sperm whales and can
grow to be 30 m.
458 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
The Flatworms head sense light. Projections at the side
(Phylum Platyhelminthes) of the head sense touch and help the an-
imal position itself in water currents.
Platyhelminths show bilateral symmetry.
Because they have few internal organs,
Class Trematoda The parasitic flatworms
all cells that transport oxygen to internal
of the class Trematoda, often called
tissues or excrete liquid wastes need to
flukes, live part of their lives in mam-
be near the surface of the animal to
mals and feed on their tissues and
better exchange gas and wastes with the
fluids (Figure 14.14). The outer cell layer
environment. The flat body plan of platy-
often produces a thick cuticle that
helminths brings more of these cells to
covers the small body, provides shape,
the surface and gives the phylum its com-
and protects the animal. Usually a
mon name of flatworm. The flattened
sucker around the mouth on the ventral
shape also prevents the presence of a
surface of the animal attaches the fluke
fluid-filled coelom.
to its host. The cuticle and the sucker
In most flatworms the mouth opens
represent adaptations of the flatworm
into a dead-end sac, or gastrovascular
body plan to a parasitic existence. In the
cavity, with branches (Figure 14.12). The
trematode digestive cavity, two posterior
branches increase the surface area of the
branches connect a large anterior pouch
digestive sac so the animal can absorb
to the mouth.
digested nutrients more efficiently.
Undigested waste leaves the cavity
through the mouth.
Class Turbellaria The most common
platyhelminths belong to the class
Turbellaria. The planarians, a freshwa-
ter species, grow between 1 and 2 cm
long. To feed, the planarian extends a
muscular tube, or pharynx, from its
mouth on its ventral surface. The phar-
ynx connects the mouth to the digestive
sac. Like all flatworms, planarians have FIGURE 14.14 The blood fluke Schistosoma
mansoni feeds off snails and also infects the
a nervous system, an anterior collection human intestine, causing a serious disease.
of nerve cells that coordinate information
from the sense organs and direct the an-
imal’s responses to environmental stim-
ulae. Two eye spots on the planarian’s
Class Cestoda Most cestodes have a flat
slender body composed of many short
sections. For this reason, they are com-
monly called tapeworms. All tapeworms
are parasitic and lack body extensions for
locomotion. Suckers and hooks on the
scolex, or head, attach the tapeworm to
the inside of the host’s intestine (Figure
14.15). Like the parasitic flukes, tape-
worms have a thick cuticle that protects
them from digestion by the host’s
enzymes. Tapeworms absorb food
FIGURE 14.13 Marine flatworms belong to the directly through their body wall. Their
class Turbellaria. Most turbellarians inhabit fresh- lack of both mouth and digestive sac
water environments but few live in moist terres-
trial habitats.
are adaptations to a parasitic existence.
 Discovering Biology Collecting Nematodes

Nematodes may be the most common animal on Earth. To

collect nematodes from a soil sample from a marsh or stream bed,
slip a small piece of rubber tubing over the end of a funnel and
clamp the opening shut with a clothespin. Place the soil sample
into the funnel. Pour in enough water so that some water stands
free on the surface. The nematodes will sink into the funnel’s neck.
Wait 5 min before unclamping the clothespin to release your
“catch” into a container.
Observe the organisms under a microscope. Draw diagrams
of what you see. What characteristics of the organisms identifies
them as nematodes?

FIGURE 14.15 When humans eat raw or
improperly cooked beef, any tapeworms that
infect the animal can transfer into the human
host. With their scolex, or head, the tapeworms
attach to the inside of the host’s intestine.
The Roundworms
(Phylum Nematoda)
Nematodes are also called roundworms.
Most live as scavengers in soil and the
bottoms of lakes and ponds. Several live
as parasites in most plants and animals.
Like parasitic flatworms and flukes,
nematodes produce a cuticle that covers
their body. Nematodes evolved a diges-
tive system that improved efficiency.
Unlike flatworms, which have one
digestive opening where food comes in
FIGURE 14.16 Although biologists have named
about 10 000 nematode species, as many as
500 000 species may exist. Some parasitic
nematodes grow to be about 1 m long, but
most nematodes are microscopic.
and waste goes out, nematodes
developed a separate mouth and anus.
In this body plan, food moves through
the digestive system in one direction
only. Nearly all complex animals have
this type of gut. The nematode’s thin
body wall and round shape minimize
outer surface area. Because these
features reduce energy requirements,
nematodes lack both a circulatory and
a respiratory system. They also have a
fluid-filled body cavity (Figure 14.17)
The Segmented Worms
(Phylum Annelida)
Annelids, including earthworms, form
a diverse group of 15 000 species of
worms that live in marine, freshwater,
and terrestrial environments. They
developed segmented bodies and a
coelom. These changes in their body
plan have given them evolutionary
advantages over other worms. Most of
the segments are identical and have the
same structures. The repeating body seg-
ments allow annelids to increase in size
without losing the capacity to transport
molecules and relay messages, so an-
nelids grow larger than non-segmented
worms. Segmentation also improves
locomotion as different muscles evolved
to control each body segment. Finer
muscle control allows annelids to move
their bodies in more complex ways than
non-segmented worms.
WEBLINK
Research the phylum Rotifera.
Find out about their body plan,
cell layers, and symmetry.
Draw a diagram of a typical
rotiferan and describe how it
is similar and different from
the animal phyla you have
studied so far. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
INFOBIT
The Trichinella worm, a
nematode that forms a cyst in
the muscles of pigs, can infect
humans if they eat inadequately
cooked meat from an infected
pig. The adult female worm
burrows into the host’s small
intestine, lays eggs, and the
offspring infect the host’s
muscles causing severe muscle
pain, muscle deterioration, and
body fatigue. This disease is
known as trichinosis.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 459

 digestive
cavity

digestive mesoderm
ectoderm cavity ectoderm endoderm endoderm digestive
mesoderm cavity
endoderm ectoderm
mesoderm body cavity body cavity
(pseudocoelom) (coelom)

a) acoelomate (flatworm) b) pseudocoelomate (roundworm) c) coelomate (annelid)

FIGURE 14.17 The development of the coelom. Flatworms a), are called acoelomates
because they lack a body cavity. Roundworms b) are pseudocoelomates because even
though they do have a body cavity, it is not lined with mesoderm as in the annelid
worm, c) a true coelomate.

WORD ORIGIN
Parapodia from the Greek
words para meaning “beside”
and podia, meaning “little
feet.”
A true coelom (Figure 14.17), a fluid- sandworms and tubeworms. The body
filled body cavity completely lined with wall of most body segments extends out-
mesoderm, separates the body wall from ward as a series of outgrowths, called
the digestive tract and protects the parapodia. These parapodia contain
delicate internal organs from the outside many blood vessels and function in gas
environment. The coelom also acts as a exchange and locomotion. Stiff setae,
hydrostatic skeleton. Circular and longi- or bristles, extend from each parapodium
tudinal muscles in the body wall squeeze and help the animal grip the surface as
against the incompressible coelom fluid, it moves (Figure 14.18).
allowing the worm to elongate or contract,
something flatworms cannot do.
Since annelids grow larger and weigh
more than platyhelminths and nema-
todes, they need a circulatory system to
help molecules diffuse for gas exchange.
In contrast, nematodes and flatworms
exchange gas through simple diffusion.
The thin body wall of annelids provides
a surface for gas exchange but restricts
annelids to moist environments. Annelids
lack a rigid, external protective covering
and in dry air they lose body fluids
rapidly through their thin body wall.

Classes Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Hirudinia FIGURE 14.18 Most polychaetes live in marine
More than half of all annelid worms environments. The bristle worm has many stiff
form the class Polychaeta, including setae extending from each parapodium.

460 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Polychaetes have separate male and
female sexes. They release sperm and
eggs into the water and the fertilized
eggs form ciliated larvae that mature
into segmented adults. Oligochaetes,
commonly called earthworms (Figure
14.19), are hermaphroditic. Each
oligochaete has both male and female
reproductive organs. When two individ-
FIGURE 14.19 Many of the 3000 known
species of oligochaetes live in terrestrial
habitats. Oligochaetes are hermaphroditic.
Section 14.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Explain how the body plan of a flat-
worm demonstrates the principles of
cephalization.
2. Explain how the body plans of animals
evolved to carry out the process of gas
exchange more efficiently as animals
have changed their lifestyle.
3. Compare and contrast the character-
istics of flatworms and roundworms.
4. What adjustments are necessary in the
body plan of an animal for a parasitic
way of life?
5. Why is having a third layer of cells and
a primitive coelom in animals impor-
tant?
6. Why is it important for a motile animal
to sense its environment?
7. What is the relationship between a cen-
tral nervous system and an anterior
uals copulate, they exchange sperm to INFOBIT
fertilize each other’s eggs. Each adult
lays its eggs in a cocoon outside its body. Some surgeons use leeches in
It sheds its cocoon and, once developed, plastic and reconstructive skin
surgery. One company in the
miniature worms emerge.
United Kingdom breeds
Hirudineans, or leeches (Figure leeches and sends them to
14.20), are external parasites of other doctors around the world to
animals. They secrete an anti-clotting use on their patients.
agent that keeps the blood flowing. For
hundreds of years, doctors used leeches
to let blood, and they are still used today
to reduce swelling in damaged tissues or
remove pools of blood.
FIIGURE 14.20 Most leeches live in freshwater.
A parasitic leech cuts into its host with the
three-toothed jaws on its mouth and its body
swells as it takes in blood.
collection of nerve cells? How are the
two an advantage to an animal?
8. How has the process of gas exchange
in annelids been made efficient enough
to ensure their survival?
9. Why do you often see more earth-
worms after it rains?
10. Compare the body plan of a segmented
worm with that of a roundworm.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
11. Investigate the body plan of a repre-
sentative flatworm to determine
adaptations for survival in an aquatic
habitat.
Making Connections
12. Research the examples of the harmful
effects of roundworms in society.
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 461
 14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing
Complexity
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the anatomy of mollusks and echinoderms

 describe the life cycle of mollusks and echinoderms

Animals with a Shell Scientists believe mollusks are

(Phylum Mollusca)
Mollusks number in excess of 100 000
species and include snails, slugs, clams,
squids, and octopuses. Most are marine
and live freely. Some swim, some creep
slowly, and some prefer terrestrial habi-
tats. Mollusks range in size from snails
as small as 1 mm to giant squids more
than 18 m long.
descended from an annelidlike ances-
tor. Mollusks have a moist, muscular body
without a skeleton. Their body plan
includes three main components: the
foot, the mantle, and a fleshy visceral
mass (Figure 14.21). The foot is muscu-
lar and is used for locomotion and
feeding. The mantle is a thin layer of
tissue that covers the gills and secretes
the shell in shelled species. The shell is
made of calcium carbonate. The visceral
mass contains the internal organs.

shell

foot

visceral mass

mantle cavity

clam
(bivalve)

snail
(gastropod)

squid
(cephalopod)

FIGURE 14.21 The body plan of all mollusks includes a foot, a mantle, and a visceral
mass. Members of the three mollusk classes have different forms of the foot and shell
for different functions.

462 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Class Bivalva Bivalves, including clams,
oysters, scallops, mussels, and other shell-
fish, developed a two-part shell that
extends over the top and sides of the body
(Figure 14.22). A flexible hinge connects
the two shells. Bivalves are sessile and
have no head. Having an anterior end
with a sensory structure benefits animals
that move. Since bivalves stay fixed in one
place, they have no need for an anterior
end, and have “lost their heads,” so to
speak, through evolution. The mollusk foot
is flattened in bivalves. Clams use the flat-
tened foot to burrow into sand and mud.
Mussels have a reduced foot that secretes
a set of threads that holds the animal to
rocks. Scallops lack a foot and clap their
shells together to move through the water.
Bivalves use their large mucus-covered
gills to capture food from the water and
for gas exchange.
FIGURE 14.22 The giant clam is a sessile
bivalve.
Class Gastropoda The most diverse group
of mollusks, gastropods, include a rich
variety of snails (Figure 14.23), whelks,
limpets, slugs, and abalones. Most gas-
tropods use their large foot to move
slowly across a terrestrial or underwater
surface. To feed, gastropods scrape algae
from rocks with a radula, a flexible
stretch of tissue lined with spines. Most
gastropods exchange gas through their
gills and their moist skin. In some species,
a shell encloses the gills within a cavity.
In other species, such as sea slugs, the
gills remain exposed. Land snails and
slugs are the only terrestrial mollusks and
they breathe through a simple lung.
INFOBIT
The zebra mussel, Dreissena
polymorpha, has invaded the
waters of the Great Lakes and
the eastern United States.
The mussel originated in the
Caspian Sea region of Asia, but
a transoceanic vessel that took
on fresh water in a European
port discharged this ballast into
Lake St. Clair, near Detroit and
introduced the species to
FIGURE 14.23 The mollusk class Gastropoda North America. Zebra mussels
numbers about 35 000 species. Many feed on native species, clog
gastropods have shells that vary widely in waterways, and contaminate
shape and colour. The queen conch has the water fowl that feed on
an extremely heavy shell. them, causing reproductive
problems in the birds.
Class Cephalopoda Cephalopods include
squids, octopuses, and the nautilus (Figure
14.24). Cephalopod evolution has favoured
the reduction and modification of the shell
to improve movement. The shell of the
squid is reduced to an internal rod that
runs the length of the animal’s body. This
rod changes the shape of the mantle
and allows the squid to eject water from
the cavity to move more rapidly through
the water. The mobility of large squids
makes them important ocean predators.
Squids have complex eyes and can see
their prey at great distances in the water.
The cephalopod brain, especially that of
an octopus, is well-developed and
resembles the brains of more complex
animals.
FIGURE 14.24 Only one shelled cephalopod, the nautilus, survives today.
Experiments indicate that octopuses have tremendous memories and are able
to learn.
a) Nautilus b) Octopus
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 463
INFOBIT
Sea lilies and sea biscuits are
both echinoderms. Sea hares
and sea slugs are gastropod
mollusks. The sea mouse is a
marine annelid worm. The sea
cow is a mammal, the sea
robin is a spiny fish, and the
term sea dog refers to an
experienced sailor. But a sea
scallop is, actually, a scallop.
WEBLINK
Echinoderms have a water
vascular system, which
connects to tube feet. Using
the Internet and other sources,
research their functions and
draw and label diagrams
showing their structures.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
464 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Radially Symmetrical
Marine Animals
(Phylum Echinodermata)
Echinoderms include sea stars (class
Asteroidea), sea urchins and sand
dollars (class Echinoidea), and sea
cucumbers (class Holothuroidea). About
7000 species of echinoderms, all marine,
FIGURE 14.25 Sea stars have the ability to
generate lost parts. A new individual may form
from a single arm. (Sea stars are also called
starfish.)
Section 14.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. How is the method of feeding in
bivalves similar to the way sponges
gather food?
2. Describe the main features of a mol-
lusk. How do these features vary from
one class of mollusks to another?
3. What characteristics are common to all
echinoderms?
4. Explain why it was thought that the an-
cestors of echinoderms were bilater-
ally symmetrical animals.
5. Describe the ways that echinoderms
are structurally different from mollusks.
exist today. The echinoderm body plan
reflects an evolutionary shift. As adults,
echinoderms are radially symmetrical
but, as larvae, their bodies show bilat-
eral symmetry. The shift in body plan
from bilateral to radial symmetry
suggests that the ancestors of modern
echinoderms probably began as bilater-
ally symmetrical animals but reverted,
through evolution, to the more primitive
radial body plan. Recall that cephaliza-
tion offers a sensory advantage to
bilaterally symmetrical animals mov-
ing through their environment. Since
echinoderms move extremely slowly
along the ocean floor, bilateral symme-
try and cephalization hold no advantage,
so echinoderms revert to radial
symmetry as adults (Figure 14.25).
Almost all echinoderms have an
endoskeleton, or internal skeleton, that
supports and protects the animal.
Calcium plates form the endoskeleton
and extend within the body wall. Spiny
projections on the plates protrude
through the skin. Sea stars have small
soft gills that extend from the body
cavity for gas exchange. Sea cucumbers,
in contrast, have an internal system of
canals called a respiratory tree that helps
distribute gases to all the cells. All echin-
oderms reproduce sexually.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Investigate the body plan of a snail to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
7. Explain how the feeding behaviour of
leeches has been put to good use by
the medical profession.
14.4 Joint-Legged Animals
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the anatomy of anthropods

 describe the life cycle of anthropods

Animals with an Exoskeleton adaptations that altered and improved

(Phylum Arthropoda)
In terms of numbers of individuals and
numbers of species, the arthropods dom-
inate animal life on Earth. Biologists
have identified about 1 170 000 species,
most of them insects, and estimate that
up to 9 000 000 arthropod species still
exist undiscovered. All arthropods have
a segmented body, a feature that
suggests arthropods evolved from the
segmented annelid worms. The
segments, however, have become more
specialized and, in the higher arthropods,
almost every segment differs in structure
and function. Arthropods also developed
an exoskeleton, jointed legs, and
a hemocoel, or blood cavity, further
the annelid body plan and enabled the
arthropods to proliferate.
Arthropods have developed a thick-
ened external covering, the exoskeleton,
built mostly from a strong, waterproof car-
bohydrate molecule called chitin. This hard
layer protects the animal, and resists dessi-
cation, or drying out, in non-aquatic
environments. The development of the
exoskeleton allowed many arthropods to
move from aquatic environments onto the
land. The rigidity of the exoskeleton, how-
ever, prevented efficient locomotion.
Arthropods evolved appendages and
groups of muscles to move these
appendages. Over time, the appendages
evolved joints. These adaptations increased
arthropod mobility.

cephalothorax abdomen

brain
green
gland carapace
stomach gonad (testis
first antenna heart or ovary) intestine

ventral
second antenna mandible nerve cord

claw
gill
digestive swimmerets
gland
walking leg

FIGURE 14.26 Segments of the exoskeleton became modified in different arthropod

groups. Specialized regions, modified, jointed appendages, and groups of muscles
improved arthropod function and motility.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 465


INFOBIT
A spider’s silk has a tensile
strength five times greater than
that of steel of equivalent
weight. If a rope as thick as a
pencil were made of spider’s
silk it would be strong enough
to resist the force from four jet
engines.
Investigation
Refer to page 478,
Investigation 1
466 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
The rigid exoskeleton altered the
arthropod body plan in other ways.
Arthropods no longer needed the coelom
to provide body shape and so the coelom
shrank. Though the exoskeleton
provided shape, it also reduced the
arthropod’s ability for gas exchange. Gills
that took in oxygen and released carbon
dioxide evolved in aquatic arthropods,
such as crustaceans. Many other arthro-
pods, especially those that lived on land,
developed tubes called tracheae to carry
oxygen to body tissues.
The rigidity of the exoskeleton also
hindered growth. As the arthropod’s size
increased, the exoskeleton failed to ex-
pand. Arthropods adapted by moulting.
As their body grows, they shed their ex-
oskeleton periodically and replace it with
a larger one.
The arthropod circulatory system
has a hemocoel, or blood cavity, a fea-
ture not seen in annelid worms. Over
time, blood replaced the body fluid of
annelids, travelled through vessels, emp-
tied into the hemocoel, and bathed the
internal organs directly in an arrange-
ment called an open circulatory system.
Arthropods also developed specialized
sensory receptors, such as eyes and
antennae.
Class Arachnida Members of the class
Arachnida include scorpions, spiders,
mites, and ticks. They abound in ter-
restrial environments. The body of an
arachnid has two main parts. The head
has fuses to the body segments with legs
to form the cephalothorax. Posterior
body segments that contain most of the
internal organs compose the abdomen.
Most arachnids have six pairs of
appendages, each pair modified for a dif-
ferent function. Arachnids use the first
pair to feed, the second pair to sense
their environment, and the remaining
four pairs to walk. To reproduce, the
male arachnid inserts his sperm into a
small sac in the female called the
seminal receptacle where the sperm
fertilize the eggs. In the simple life cycle
of most arachnids, miniature adults
FIGURE 14.27 Many spiders build webs with
their silk, but some use their long threads to
mate or protect their young.
hatch from eggs and live independently
from the time they hatch.
Spiders carry out gas exchange
through book lungs, highly folded mem-
branes in the abdomen that increase
surface area and improve oxygen
uptake. Silk glands in the spiders’
abdomens produce protein threads used
to spin webs (Figure 14.27).
Class Crustacea Crustacean species num-
ber about 40 000 and include shrimp,
lobsters, crayfish, and crabs. Three
regions divide the crustacean body: the
head, thorax, and abdomen (Figure
14.26). The exoskeleton forms a thick
carapace that covers the head and many
of the other segments. Crustaceans have
paired appendages attached to each
body segment. The first two pairs of
appendages, the antennae, are followed
by the mandibles. The mandibles crush
food and feed it to the mouth. Behind
the mandibles, a pair of maxillae bring
food forward and a pair of maxillipeds
sense the environment and search for
food. Behind the maxillipeds, large claw-
like chelipeds grab food and protect the
animal from predators. Four pairs of
walking legs follow the chelipeds (Figure
14.28). On the abdomen, six pairs of
swimmerets help the crustacean swim.
At the posterior end of the abdomen, a
 FIGURE 14.28 Using their groups of muscles
and jointed appendages, some crabs move
very fast. Lobsters and crayfish use powerful
abdominal muscles, the part that people eat,
to move.
pair of flattened appendages called
uropods lie on the tail, or telson. They
act as paddles to move the animal back-
wards.
Crustaceans have a series of gills that
are connected to the walking legs. They
are protected by the carapace. The gills
are feathered to increase the surface area
for gas exchange. Gases in the water dif-
fuse into and out of the gills and travel
through the circulatory system to the
body tissues. Because of their large size,
crustaceans need more than just diffu-
sion alone to get enough oxygen. To
increase diffusion through the blood ves-
sels of the gills, the swimmerets on the
telson beat and sweep water forward,
under the carapace, and over the gills.
Crustacean sexes are separate and
males and females come together to cop-
ulate. In some species, fertilized eggs stick
to the female’s body for protection.
Class Insecta Insects are the most
numerous of all animal species. There
are about 1.5 million species (Figure
14.29). Some live freely while others
are internal parasites in animals. Insect
bodies, like those of crustaceans,
consist of three main regions: the head,
thorax, and abdomen. On the head, a
FIGURE 14.29 A small sampling of insects.
Insects live in almost all aquatic and terrestrial
environments. Almost every species of plant or
animal serves as a food source for insects.
single pair of antennae sense the envi- INFOBIT
ronment. On the thorax, three pairs of
walking legs move the insect. Insects Many insects metamorphose in
carry out gas exchange through air sacs days but the larvae of the
cicada species Magicicada
and tubes called tracheae that extend septendecim live underground
from external openings to tissues for 17 years before they finally
throughout the body. The adults of most emerge as mature adults.
flying insects have two pairs of stiff mem-
branous wings attached to the thorax.
Flies, however, have only one pair of
wings. In beetles, the front wings form
hardened wing covers.
Like other arthropods, insects have
separate sexes that produce sperm and
eggs. Some insects look like miniature
adults when they hatch from fertilized
eggs and undergo simple development
as they mature and grow into adults.
Winged insects undergo more complex
development. Their body structure
changes radically in the process of
metamorphosis as a wormlike larva ma-
tures through each instar, or early stage
of development, into an adult.
Metamorphosis often includes not only a
change in shape but also a change in diet.
The shift in diet minimizes the competi-
tion for food between larvae and adults
and increases the species’ chances for
survival.
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 467
 Discovering Biology Collecting Insects

To collect insects from soil samples, carpet the bottom of a glass jar with news-
paper. Insert a funnel, neck downward, into the mouth and loosely fill the funnel
with collected soil. Place a bright incandescent desk lamp directly over the soil.
To avoid the light and heat, the insects will tunnel deeper into the soil until they
fall out of the funnel onto the newspaper.

Examine any organisms you find in your sample with a hand lens or dis-
secting microscope. What features do these organisms have that classify them as
insects? What non-insect life did you find?

Classes Diplopoda and Chilopoda Diplopods

are more commonly known as milli-
pedes. The name “millipede” suggests a
thousand feet but members of this class
have only about a hundred pairs of legs.
The number of segments in the body
varies from about 10 to over 100 (Figure
14.30). Each segment has two pairs of
legs. (Diplopoda means “double footed.”)
Chilopods are commonly called cen-
tipedes, which literally means “hundred
feet.” Like diplopods, chilopods have FIGURE 14.30 Millipedes range in length from
about 10 to 100 pairs of legs but each about 2 mm to about 30 cm. All herbivores, they
centipede body segment has only one eat organic matter in leaves and rotting logs.
pair of legs. Centipedes are carnivores.

Section 14.4 Review

Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/
1. Describe the main characteristics of
Communication Skills
arthropods. 6. Use the following terms to create a con-
2. List the five classes that make up the cept map: adult, cocoon, exoskeleton,
phylum Arthropoda. metamorphosis, larva, moult, instar,
wings.
3. Which adaptations of arthropods are
very useful for living on land?
4. Explain how each of the following is Making Connections
carried out in a chosen representative
7. Discuss different ways that arthropods
arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
are important to society. Discuss ways
locomotion, reproduction, sensory
in which they can be harmful.
control.
5. How has the development of an
exoskeleton in arthropods caused an
alteration in the body plan and affected
its ability to grow?

468 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the general features of various chordate groups

 describe the life cycles of various chordate groups

 use sampling procedures to collect organisms and classify them

The Chordates and have a ventral heart. The body of all

(Phylum Chordata) chordates extends past the anus into a
tail. Certain features, such as gill slits,
Chordates share a number of key char-
notochord, and tail occur only in early
acteristics. All have, at some point in
stages of embryo development of some
their life, a dorsal hollow nerve cord,
chordates and indicate ancestral evolu-
a dorsal supporting rod called a
tionary relationships. Biologists studying
notochord, and gill slits near their
chordate embryos suggest that chordates
throats. All are bilaterally symmetrical
evolved from marine animals.

chordates
vertebrates
tetrapods
amniotes
Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)

Amphibia (frogs and salamanders)

Reptilia (reptiles)

a mmals)
Cephalochordata (lancelets)

Osteichthyes (bony fish)

Uro c h o r d a t a ( t u n i c a t e s )

ds)
Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)

b ir
s(
e
Av

a (m
a li
m
m
Ma

hair

amniotic egg

legs

lungs or lung derivatives

jaws, teeth, two sets FIGURE 14.31 This phylogenetic tree represents a
of paired appendages hypothesis of the evolutionary ancestor-descendant
relationships between different vertebrate groups.
vertebrae Biologists separate members into groups based on the
appearance of shared evolutionary characteristics, such as
ancestral chordate hair in mammals.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 469


INFOBIT
Several species of shark
inhabit Canadian waters.
One of the more bizarre
species is the Greenland shark,
found off the coast of Baffin
Island. These slow-moving,
seven-metre-long creatures
are almost blind due to
parasites that attach
themselves to the sharks’
eyes.
Vertebrates make up the largest
group of chordates (Figure 14.31). In ver-
tebrates, the embryonic notochord
develops into a backbone made of carti-
lage or bone. The backbone supports the
body, protects the delicate nerve cord and
brain, and serves as an attachment for
muscles. The development of the internal
skeleton provided support and allowed
vertebrates to grow bigger and move in
more complex ways than arthropods.
Vertebrates have two pairs of
appendages. Both pairs attach to the
vertebral column. The development of
these appendages allowed vertebrates
to move faster. They also evolved an
anterior skull with a large brain. A large
coelom houses the internal organs. A
ventral heart pumps blood through a
well-developed circulatory system that
delivers oxygen to tissues. In aquatic ver-
tebrates, gas exchange occurs in the gills,
while in terrestrial
vertebrates, the pro-
cess occurs in the
lungs. Skin covers
the body and consists
of at least two layers.
The skin often forms
accessory structures,
such as glands,
scales, feathers, hair,
nails, claws, horns,
and hoofs. To simplify
discussion, verte-
brates are subdivided
into seven classes:
jawless fishes, carti-
laginous fishes, bony
fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
mostly scavengers. The lamprey lacks
jaws and paired fins. Its circular mouth
is modified to attach to the body of an-
other fish to feed on its blood and tissue
(Figure 14.32). The lamprey also lacks
paired appendages. Instead, lampreys
undulate their bodies to move. Water
passes over multiple gill slits for gas
exchange.
Class Chondrichthyes Chondrichthyans,
or cartilaginous fish, live in marine habi-
tats and include sharks, rays, and skates.
They have an endoskeleton made of car-
tilage rather than bone. Sharks have two
sets of paired fins, a pair of anterior
pectoral fins and a pair of posterior
pelvic fins. A dorsal fin along the mid-
line of the body stabilizes the fish as it
moves. Sharks swim with their tail and
pelvic fins (Figure 14.33), but skates and
rays undulate their greatly enlarged pec-
toral fins to propel themselves. In sharks,
swimming forward moves water over
paired gills. Sperm develop in the male
in two long anterior testes in the body
cavity, while the female produces eggs
in two large ovaries. During copulation,
the male transfers sperm into a receiv-
ing chamber, called the cloaca, in the
female. Most sharks are ovoviviparous,
which means females retain fertilized,
shelled eggs internally and give birth
to live young.

Superclass Agnatha
Few species of jaw-
less fishes, or
agnathans, survive
today. They are lam-
FIGURE 14.32 Lampreys cut through the skin of preys and hagfish.
fish with their sharp tongue and feed on the blood Lampreys live as FIGURE 14.33 Most sharks are predators,
and tissue of the host. In recent years, lampreys external parasites on but a few strain protists from the water. Most
have invaded the Great Lakes and killed large skates and rays live on the ocean floor and eat
fish, and hagfish are
numbers of trout. mollusks and other invertebrates.

470 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

Class Osteichthyes There are more than
30 000 species of osteichthyans, or bony
fish (Figure 14.34). Like the sharks, bony
fish start their development with a skele-
ton made of cartilage, but as young
fish mature into adults, the cartilage gets
replaced by bone. Flat, smooth, thin, and
lightweight scales cover most species
and protect the body. The four or five
pairs of gills are in a chamber covered
by a flat bony plate called the
operculum. As the operculum flaps up
and down, it acts as a pump. Water is
drawn in through the mouth, into the
gill chamber, and out over the gills for
gas exchange. Sharks do not pump
water over their gills. This adaptation
allows bony fish to breathe even when
not moving.
In most bony fishes, large sacs called
swim bladders help suspend the fish in
the water. A fish can adjust the amount
of gas in its swim bladder to control its
depth in the water. Lungfishes use the
swim bladder as a lung for gas ex-
change. Most fish reproduce by external
fertilization of large numbers of eggs
shed by the female.
FIGURE 14.35 Most species of frogs and toads
live in tropical and warm regions. Salamanders
live in cool, moist environments as well as more
temperate regions.
swamps covered most of Earth, and fos- INFOBIT
sil evidence indicates that amphibians
were the first vertebrate animals to leave The tropical marine fish
the swamps, live on land, and develop Anthias squamipinnis lives in
groups among coral reefs.
into the first four-footed animals. The life Each group consists of one
cycle of modern amphibians reflects this male and an average of eight
evolutionary link. Modern amphibians females. Males compete to
spend the early part of their lives in maintain their groups but if
water but develop into air-breathing the male of the group
disappears, one of the females
terrestrial adults who live most of their will change sex and develop
lives in a moist habitat. The amphibian male characteristics such as
egg must remain moist. In a dry envi- brighter colour, longer fin
ronment, the egg loses water rapidly spines, and larger size.
through the delicate coating that
surrounds it. The fertilized egg develops
into a larva that lives in water until it
metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult.

FIGURE 14.34 Bony fishes come in diverse

sizes and shapes.

Class Amphibia Amphibian species num-

ber about 4000 and include frogs, toads,
and salamanders. Most amphibians live
FIGURE 14.36 Frogs spend most of their
in freshwater at some time in their lives.
lives on land but their fertilized eggs hatch and
Three hundred million years ago, develop into tadpoles in water.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 471


Frogs Fight Infection
Dr. Michael Zasloff, a geneticist,
wondered in 1986 why the micro-
organisms that teemed in his frog
tanks never infected the wounds of his
frogs. After careful study, Dr. Zasloff
isolated an anti-microbe defence
INFOBIT
Researchers today are
focussing on the rapid global
decline of amphibian species,
especially frogs. Some blame
acid rain, insecticides, crop
fertilizers, climate change,
and human encroachment on
wetland habitat. Biologists
are monitoring amphibian
populations to learn what is
causing the decline and to
determine the effects of the
decline on other organisms
and their habitats.
472 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
molecule in the frogs and found and
sequenced the gene responsible for
the microbial resistance. He called the
molecule magainin from the Hebrew
word for “shield.” Magainins disrupt
the cell membranes of micro-organ-
isms but they don’t have the same
effect on the cells of the amphibian.
Each frog species develops its own
magainin and because of the way
magainins disrupt microbe cells, the
bacteria do not develop resistance to
them. Dr. Zasloff’s discovery drove
The frog has a three-chambered
heart. One chamber receives oxygenated
blood from gas-exchange organs, a
second chamber receives deoxygenated
blood from body tissues, and both cham-
bers pump blood into a common third
chamber. The third chamber delivers a
combination of oxygenated and deoxy-
genated blood to body tissues. The lack
of fully oxygenated blood in the body
tissues limits sustained muscle activity
in the frog. Methods for gas exchange in
frogs varies with species. Some diffuse
gas through their lungs, through the lin-
ing of their mouth, or through their skin.
Adult frogs always seek fresh water in
which to lay their eggs.
Class Reptilia Reptilian species number
about 7000 and include crocodiles,
alligators, turtles, tortoises, lizards, and
snakes (Figures 14.37–14.39). Although
amphibians began the transition from
water to land, reptiles developed struc-
tural and physiological adaptations to
thrive in the terrestrial environment and
expand into arid regions. Unlike am-
phibians, reptiles need no water to
reproduce. They have developed an egg
with a shell that is waterproof. They fer-
tilize their eggs internally and lay them
in dry places. Reptiles also developed a
tough skin that restricts water loss,
and kidneys that can excrete highly
concentrated urine to conserve water.
him to apply the molecules to combat
microbes that infect organs and moist
surfaces of humans, such as the gut,
the mouth, and the respiratory tract.
After more than a decade of research,
marketing, and clinical tests with
Magainin Pharmaceuticals—a drug
company founded on Dr. Zasloff’s dis-
covery—drugs such as Locilex, devel-
oped from the frog molecules, may
soon enter the battle against micro-
organisms that infect humans.
FIGURE 14.37 Most lizards walk on four
limbs and the largest, the Komodo dragons of
Indonesia, grow as long as 3 m.
Although the reptile’s scaly skin reduces
water loss, it prevents gas exchange.
Reptiles must carry out gas exchange
through lungs much larger than those of
amphibians. A reptile expands and con-
tracts its ribs to force air into and out of
its lungs. The reptile heart is more de-
veloped than the amphibian with a par-
tially separated third chamber to
improve the separation of oxygenated
blood. Because of this separation, the
reptile heart delivers higher concentra-
tions of oxygenated blood to muscle
tissues than the three-chambered
amphibian heart, allowing reptiles to
sustain higher levels of muscle activity
than amphibians.
TABLE 14.1 Habitat and Feeding Behaviour of the Major Reptile Groups
Reptile Habitat
Turtles mostly aquatic: lakes and ponds,
few in oceans
Tortoises terrestrial
Lizards mostly terrestrial
Snakes mostly terrestrial
Crocodiles aquatic in warm, temperate
environments, but build nests on land
FIGURE 14.38 Sea turtles spend their entire
lives in the ocean except when they come
ashore to lay their eggs.
Different reptile groups have diver-
sified into a wide range of habitats and
developed different modes of feeding
(Table 14.1).
One group of reptiles includes tur-
tles and tortoises. They have an armour
of dorsal and ventral bony plates that
form a shell within which they can draw
their head and limbs. Another group of
reptiles includes lizards and snakes.
Snakes probably evolved from lizards
that burrowed. Because of this lifestyle,
snakes lost both pairs of limbs. They also
have modified ventral scales to assist
movement. Other reptilian classes in-
clude crocodiles, caimans, and alligators.
Crocodiles and alligators, the largest rep-
tiles, range in length from 3 to 7 m.
Feeding behaviour
mostly herbivores
mostly herbivores
mostly insectivores
carnivores
carnivores
FIGURE 14.39 Several species have developed
poison glands and inject venom into their prey
through their teeth. This eyelash viper has large
swellings on either side of its head. These are
poison glands.
Class Aves Living species of avians, or
birds, number about 8700, more than
any other vertebrate group except fishes.
Birds share a number of features with
reptiles: they have horny scales on their
legs, they lay large-yolked eggs enclosed
in firm shells, and their young do not
metamorphose.
Unlike fish, amphibians, and
reptiles, birds are endotherms. They
generate their own body heat and they
maintain a high, relatively constant body
temperature regardless of their sur-
roundings. This allows them to sustain
rapid movement for long periods.
(Ectotherms absorb heat from their sur-
roundings and cannot move rapidly for
long periods.)
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 473
 barb
barbules
shaft
lung
down
feather
contour
feather
shaft
FIGURE 14.40 Down feathers have a different structure from FIGURE 14.41 The air sacs empty into the lungs and make the
contour feathers. Down feathers create lots of air spaces to trap bird lungs extremely efficient at gas exchange.
warm air.
The hind limbs of birds are used for
walking or perching, and the forelimbs
are modified into wings for flight.
Birds have feathers, which evolved
from scales. They serve two functions.
They keep the bird from losing body heat
and they help it to fly. Long contour
feathers on the wing and tail provide lift
and stability during flight. Smaller con-
tour feathers cover the rest of the body
(Figure 14.40). Down feathers under-
neath the contour feathers provide
insulation.
The light but strong bones of birds
are hollow, with internal supports for
strength. The breast bone forms a large
keel-like structure to which the breast
muscles attach. The breast muscles pull
the wings down to provide upward lift
during flight.
Because sustained flying requires
huge amounts of energy, birds need a
highly efficient gas-exchange mechanism.
Bird lungs are connected to air sacs,
474 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
trachea
air duct
air sac
which look like large clusters of grapes
(Figure 14.41). These allow gas exchange
when the bird exhales as well as when
it inhales. When the bird inhales, air
travels to the lungs where gas exchange
happens. But most of the air goes into
the air sacs. When the bird exhales, air
from the air sacs passes through the
lungs and gas exchange happens again.
Air sacs also make the bird more
buoyant, which makes flying easier. A
four-chambered heart distributes gases
and nutrients efficiently to the body.
Most birds lay their eggs in nests. A
protective shell surrounds the eggs and
prevents the embryos from drying out.
In most species the body heat of the
adult incubates the eggs. Bird eggs hatch
quickly relative to their developmental
requirements. Offspring of many species
often hatch at an early stage of their de-
velopment and their parents feed them
for some time.
 FIGURE 14.42 Mammals likely evolved from
ancestors of reptiles that grew hair. Today,
extensive hair or fur covers, insulates, and
protects most mammals.
Class Mammalia There are about 4500
mammal species, including the humans,
Homo sapiens. All share common key
developments, most notably a body cov-
ering of hair, a four-chambered heart that
allows sustained levels of rapid move-
ment, and glands that produce milk to
feed the young. Hair covers the body for
protection and insulation (Figure 14.42).
Mammals also have specialized teeth,
such as molars and canines, which allow
them to eat a wider variety of foods
(Figure 14.43).
Like birds, mammals are endother-
mic. Four chambers divide the mam-
malian heart and completely separate
oxygenated from deoxygenated blood.
This separation allows mammals to de-
liver high concentrations of oxygen to
muscle tissues to sustain high levels of
extended muscle activity.
FIGURE 14.45 The platypus, a semi-aquatic
monotreme with a ducklike bill and webbed feet,
lives in long winding burrows the female digs in
the banks of rivers or streams.
FIGURE 14.43 The shape and size of a FIGURE 14.44 Female mammals
mammal’s teeth offer clues to its diet and the developed mammary glands that
way it chews its food. produce milk to nourish their young.
During reproduction, sperm fertilize Investigation
eggs within the body of the female and Refer to page 479,
the embryos develop within the uterus. Investigation 2
Mammary glands in female mammals
produce milk to nourish young, a feeding
behaviour unique to mammals (Figure
14.44).
Biologists divide mammals into three
main groups: monotremes, marsupials,
and placentals. The most primitive, the
monotremes, lay eggs. Only two species
of monotremes, the platypus (Figure
14.45) and the spiny anteater, survive
today. The marsupials, or pouched mam-
mals, include the kangaroo, opossum,
and koala. Marsupial young are born at
a very early stage of development and
complete their growth in their mother’s
pouch. Placental females incubate their
young in the uterus. This allows the
young of placentals to develop more be-
fore birth than the young of marsupials.
FIGURE 14.46 Kangaroos are one of many
marsupial mammals that abound in Australia.
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 475

Genetically Modified
Monkey
Researchers have developed the
world’s first genetically modified (GM)
monkey from an egg modified to
include a simple jellyfish gene. The
monkey is called ANDi. Read back-
ward, ANDi stands for inserted DNA.
The gene technology produces a flu-
orescent marker gene in cells that
researchers can see under a special
microscope. Researchers hope to use
the technology to introduce a disease
gene to a GM monkey like ANDi, track
the response of the monkey’s cells,
and develop a vaccine for the disease.
Because the genetic make-up of pri-
mates closely resembles our own, the
outcomes of disease study on GM
monkeys would relate more closely to
humans than studies on GM mice.
There are those who feel that
using biotechnology for these pur-
poses causes animals to suffer need-
lessly. Others caution that society
must use this technology in ethically
responsible ways.
As ANDi raises hopes of acceler-
ating cures for human diseases, these
ethical and moral issues will result in
the further regulation and monitor-
ing of biotechnology used in medi-
cal research.

Biologists place the nearly 4000

species of placental mammals into 16
classes based on the modified structures
and functions of body plan features such
as teeth, limbs, and mode of feeding.
Terrestrial mammals diversified into
most land habitats but some species, in-
FIGURE 14.47 Most cluding whales, dolphins, seals, and sea
orangutans have a distinctive
lions, returned to a marine mode of life.
red-orange hair colour and
spend much of their time in Mammals range in size from the pigmy
trees. They are placental shrew, less than 5 cm long, to the giant
mammals. blue whale, about 30 m long.

Section 14.5 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. List the three basic characteristics that
are present in all chordates. What
other features do chordates possess?
2. Describe how representative animals
in the phylum Chordata carry out
gas exchange, locomotion, feeding,
and circulation.
3. Describe the body plan of representa-
tive vertebrates.
4. Explain why reptiles are better adapted
to life on land than amphibians.
5. Describe adaptations of birds to a life
of flight.
6. Name three different kinds of
mammals. How has each adapted to
its existence?
7. Discuss how the circulatory system has
changed in representative chordate
classes and how this has impacted on
their lifestyle.
8. Analyze Figure 14.31 on page 469 that
shows the phylogenetic tree for chor-
dates. Explain in your own words the
relationship between words on the
diagram such as “teeth” and the groups
of organisms below (earlier periods)
and above (later periods).
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
9. Investigate the body plan of a snake to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
10. Many representative chordates have,
for various reasons, become extinct.
List several examples and suggest rea-
sons for their demise. How would their
extinction affect other animals?

476 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Cloning and the Cattle  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Industry
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Starbuck II is a product of genetic engineering. He What will the role of cloning be in the future of
is a clone of Starbuck, a prize Holstein bull that died the cattle industry? The current success rate with
in 1998. Through artificial inseminations, the orig- cloning is poor. Out of all current cloning attempts,
inal Starbuck sired over 200 000 calves in 50 coun- only two percent produce healthy offspring. Dolly
tries. His female offspring are better producers of was created after 276 failed attempts. Starbuck II
high-protein milk than other cows, and are able to was created after after 65 attempts. Research in
produce milk over a longer period of time. Starbuck cloning the clones of mice has an even poorer suc-
II was created by the Quebec company that owned cess rate, and cloning has proved to be impossible
Starbuck, in hopes that he would be as valuable com- beyond the six generation of clone.
mercially as the original.
Starbuck II is the first mammal
in Canada created from the tissue
cells of a mature animal. In 1996,
Dolly the sheep, was the first mam-
mal in the world to be cloned using
this procedure. Dolly’s arrival
started a more public debate about
cloning and the ethical questions it
posed to society. With the ability to
selectively clone certain animals for
their best characteristics, could this
mean that humans may someday
selectively clone other humans for
characteristics like intelligence,
strength, or attractiveness? This po-
tential use of cloning, as well as the
cloning process itself continues to
challenge the ethical and moral val-
ues of society. FIGURE 14.48 These cows are Holsteins, a breed of dairy cattle.

Analyze the Issue

1. Brainstorm different perspectives on the cloning of
cattle.
2. Identify the different social attitudes to cloning farm
animals, impacted by economic, technological,
environmental, and ethical considerations.
3. Research arguments to support each of the identified
perspectives.
4. Identify three possible long-term consequences to bio-
diversity in cloning farm animals like Starbuck. Explain.
5. After completing your research, do you think contin-
ued investment in cloning of cattle is merited? Justify
your decision.
6. You are working on behalf of a cattle association in
Ontario. You have been asked to provide a cost-benefit
analysis on cloning. What perspectives are reflected
among members? Prepare a paper for presentation to a
biotechnology company, explaining the members’
different points of view.

477 CHAPTER 1 The Periodic Table C H A PThe

T E ROrigins
1 4 The Animal
of the Kingdom
periodic law 477

Investigation 1 (Section 14.4)
Study of a Crayfish Body Plan
The segmented appendages of the crayfish seem to
have evolved from a common type, but have become
greatly modified to carry on several different functions.
The trilobite, an extinct ancestral arthropod, has paired
appendages similar to the swimmerets of the crus-
taceans on every segment of its body. For this reason
the swimmeret is considered the basic type of crus-
tacean appendage.
Appendages that are similar in origin and struc-
ture, but which have a different function, are referred
to as homologous structures. (When they occur in re-
peated segments, it is called serial homology.)
Problem LAL1
How does the body plan of a crustacean demonstrate
the principles of serial homology and segmentation?
Materials
 preserved crayfish
 dissecting tray
 hand lens
 dissecting probe
 scissors
 white glue
 stiff white cardboard, 8 1/2 x 11
CAUTION: Wear safety glasses and gloves as the
preservative can be an irritant or allergen.
Procedure
1. Put the preserved crayfish, dorsal side up, in the
dissecting tray. Examine the hard chitinous
exoskeleton and note that the body is divided into
two distinct regions, the cephalothorax and the
abdomen. The abdomen ends in a reduced
abdominal segment called the telson. Note that the
cephalothorax is covered by a single piece of the
exoskeleton called the carapace.
2. Locate the cervical groove that marks the division
between the head and thorax.
3. There are 13 segments in the cephalothorax. These
segments are more easily located on the ventral
surface. How many segments are there in the
abdomen?
478 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording


Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating
4. The carapace extends anteriorly and forms a bony
beak, the rostrum. Locate the stalked compound
eyes that lie beneath the rostrum. Examine the eyes
with a hand lens and note the many lenses or
facets that compose a compound eye. What shape
are they?
5. The most anterior appendages are the branched
antennules. Locate the antennae attached just pos-
terior to the antennules. Examine the antennules
and antennae with your hand lens. Describe their
structure.
6. Turn the specimen over and examine the mouth
and other appendages on the head. Locate the
mandibles, or true jaws, which lie just posterior
to the antennae. Examine the first pair of maxillae,
which are just posterior to the mandibles, and the
second pair of maxillae, which lie posterior to the
first. How do the mouth parts of the crayfish move?
7. The thorax bears eight pairs of appendages: three
pair of maxillipeds and five pairs of legs. Locate
and examine the first maxillipeds, which are pos-
terior to the second maxillae, then the second max-
illipeds, posterior to the first, and the third
maxillipeds, posterior to the second. How do the
first maxillipeds differ from the second and third
maxillipeds? How do the second maxillipeds dif-
fer from the third maxillipeds? How do the third
maxillipeds differ from a walking leg?
8. The next pair of appendages are the most obvious
structures on the thorax. These are the chelipeds.
Are they alike? Note the well-developed pincers that
are formed on the chelipeds.
9. The next four pairs of legs are called the walking
legs. Examine them carefully. In what ways do they
differ from one another?
10. The abdominal appendages of the crayfish are
called swimmerets. The first pair of swimmerets in
the female are reduced in size. In the male the first
two pairs are modified for transferring sperm. What
is the sex of your specimen?
11. The sixth pair of swimmerets is greatly modified to
form the uropods, which, together with the tel-
son, form the powerful tail fin used in backward
swimming.
12. Locate the anal opening on the ventral side of the
telson.
(continued)

Concluding and Communicating

13. Label the following on a diagram: rostrum, anten-
nule, antenna, compound eye, cephalothorax,
cervical groove, cheliped, uropod, telson, walking
leg.
14. Carefully dissect out all of the 19 appendages along
just one side of your specimen. Arrange them in
order as they would appear, and glue them to a
sheet of cardboard for display. Provide labels and
a function for each appendage.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Draw and complete a chart with the following col-
umn headings: Body Region, Appendages, Number
of Parts, Function.
2. How does the body plan of a crayfish demonstrate
the principles of segmentation and serial
homology?
3. How is a crayfish, encased in an exoskeleton, able
to grow?
Extending
4. With reference to segmentation and specialization,
how are these arthropods successful in their
environment?
5. Land arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders) don’t have
gills. How do they exchange gases?

Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 14.5)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Stream Study  Concluding and Communicating

Problem the site. Observe and record any information needed

before returning these organisms to their original
How can environmental awareness be heightened locations.
through the study of biodiversity in a stream or river
ecosystem?
Procedure
Materials Part A: Before the Field Trip
1. Formulate a hypothesis on the numbers and
 concave microscope  nets (sieve and/or
diversity of aquatic organisms in relation to the
slides plankton nets) location of the stream being studied.
 plastic cover slips  small plastic
 lens paper 2. State your prediction for organisms to be collected.
containers
 eyedropper  aquatic life 3. Provide a rationale for your hypothesis.
 hand lens identification guide 4. Research appropriate procedures for collecting
 dissecting microscope  clipboard water and soil samples from different locations in
 compound microscope  hip waders and around the body of water.
 paper towels  waterproof boots
 white plastic dishpan,  compass
or enamel pans  first aid kit
 kitchen strainer Part B: During the Field Trip
1. Locate and identify the aquatic habitat to be stud-
CAUTION: If you have any allergies, such as hay fever, ied on a map provided by your teacher or make a
notify your teacher. Do not touch any unfamiliar objects sketch on a piece of notepaper. Indicate on your
or plant life. map where you are doing your pond study.
2. Choose a safe, shallow, stony-bottomed section of
Note: Respect the outdoor environment. Do not remove the stream.
organisms including animals, plants, or fungus from

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 479

 3. Observe your chosen site for signs of animal life.
You may see squirrels, birds, insects, snakes or
worms. Look for evidence of other animal life such
as burrows, tracks, animal droppings, beaver tree
shavings, and so on. Record your observations in
a table.
TABLE 14.1 Stream Bank Observations
Animals or animal evidence observed Location
4. For collecting organisms on the stream surface,
approach the stream quietly with proper water-
proof clothing. Wade into the stream and secure a
good foothold with a sieve or fish net in hand.
5. Run the net across the surface of the water. Any
insects, floating plants and surface dwellers could
be caught. Transfer any materials into a shallow
dishpan.
6. Observe the kinds of organisms collected and record
them. LAL1
7. To collect organisms from the stream bottom, care-
fully kick the stream bed immediately upstream of
the net for exactly one minute to dislodge aquatic
animals. They will drift into the net with the
current.
8. Empty your catch into a white-bottomed tray or
basin containing cold, clear stream water.
9. Collect any aquatic specimens that you find in small
plastic containers. Properly label each sample with
the location and date collected.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 to collect a second sample
at the same location. Record all findings in
Table 2.
11. Prepare wet mount slides from your samples to
observe under the compound microscope over the
next several days. Each sampled organism should
be further categorized and recorded as follows: de-
scription, method of locomotion, labelled drawing,
location where sample were taken from, as in
Table 2.
12. When you are finished, gently return the animals
to their stream habitat.
TABLE 14.2 Samples from Stream
Location Type or Name of Organism from:
Sample 1
Stream surface
Stream bottom
480 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
13. Check the area to ensure it’s clean without any
litter.
Analyzing and Evaluating
1. Brainstorm a list of characteristics needed to clas-
sify various aquatic organisms (e.g., autotrophs or
heterotrophs) found in the water samples and sur-
rounding soil.
2. Describe the physical land features of the stream
and the bank.
3. State any other environmental factors associated
with the stream (e.g., temperature, speed of water
current).
Concluding and Communicating
4. Use the dichotomous classification key provided by
your teacher and keys from other sources to help
classify the organisms.
5. If you needed to compare polluted and non-polluted
sections of a stream for diversity of animal life, why
would it be important for the same student to do
the sampling and to use the same sampling tech-
nique each time?
6. Identify other possible sources of error in this sam-
pling technique that might influence the number of
aquatic organisms in the sample. Explain how these
errors could be eliminated.
7. Explain why many aquatic organisms cling to the
undersides of rocks and stones in a stream.
8. Describe how these organisms are camouflaged
in their environment.
Extending
9. Environmental stresses such as habitat destruction,
pollution, climate change, and displacement by in-
troduced species affect biodiversity. Research the
interdependence between the environment and the
diversity of living things and illustrate this rela-
tionship by creating a poster display of one specific
example of an environmental stress and its direct
impact on biodiversity.
Sample 2 Other Comments
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

abdomen cloaca invertebrates ovary sessile

air sac coelom larva parapodia setae
antenna digestive sac mammary gland pectoral fin shell
bilateral symmetry dorsal fin mandible pelvic fin simple development
bivalve ectoderm mantle pharynx skull
body plan ectotherm marsupial placental mammal swim bladder
book lung endoderm medusa planula testes
bony plate endotherm mesoderm polyp three-chambered
budding exoskeleton metamorphosis radial symmetry heart
carapace feather monotreme radula trachea
cephalization foot moulting scales vertebrates
cephalothorax hermaphrodite nerve chord scolex visceral mass
chitin instar notochord seminal receptacle

Essential Understandings

14.1 Simple Animals
 Sponges have an asymmetrical body plan, are
always sessile, and lack cell layers.
 Sponges can reproduce either asexually or sexually.
 Cnidarians exhibit radial symmetry and have cells
that are organized into tissues.
 Their life cycle has two phases: medusa and polyp.
14.2 Wormlike Animals
 Flatworms are the simplest animals to show bilat-
eral symmetry and cephalization.
 They have tissues organized into organs and
systems.
 Nematodes show bilateral symmetry and are the
simplest animals with a complete digestive system
with two openings.
 Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical and have
bodies that are divided into segments.
 They have a body plan with a true coelom sepa-
rating internal organs from the outer covering.
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing Complexity
 Mollusks are bilaterally symmetrical and have three
distinct tissue layers.
 They have a muscular foot for movement, a soft
body that houses the internal organs, and a cover-
ing called a mantle.
 Echinoderms have a calcified internal skeleton, and
are bilaterally symmetrical as larvae and radially
symmetrical as adults.
 Locomotion and gas exchange are controlled by a
water vascular system.
14.4 Joint-legged Animals
 Arthropods are the most diverse organisms on
Earth.
 They have jointed appendages, well-developed
nervous systems, and an exoskeleton made of chitin.
 Arthropods include spiders, insects, and crustaceans.
14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons
 At an early stage in their development all vertebrates
have a hollow nerve chord and paired gill slits.
 A subgroup of chordates have a spinal column
consisting of vertebrae.
 Vertebrates include jawless fish, cartilaginous
fish, body fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Look back at the Checkpoint on page 451 and revisit
the gathering grid you completed.
2. Draw a concept map starting with the word “symmetry.”
3. Review the careers that relate to this area of biology.
Select one career and do further research on the
academic requirements and specific skills needed for pur-
suing this career path in your post-secondary education.
4. Summarize how cloning farm animal species affects their
biodiversity.

CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 481

C H A P T E R 14 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts
1. “Dorsal” relates to
a) the forward or head end of an animal
b) the back or upper surface of the animal
c) the lower side or belly of the animal
d) the tail end or the end away from the head of an
animal
11. Name and describe a representative animal from each
of the classes of the phylum Platyhelminthes.
12. Explain the differences in body plan related to free
living and parasitic worms.
13. Describe the general characteristics of members in the
phylum Annelida.

2. In annelids, the successive units that contain similar 14. What are some of the similarities and differences
structures are known as between echinoderms and mollusks?
a) sediments
b) segments 15. Which group from question 14 do you think is more com-
c) sinuses plex? Explain your reasoning.
d) appendages
16. Explain how each of the following is carried out in a
3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the class chosen representative arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
Chondrichthyes? locomotion, reproduction, sensory control.
a) cartilage skeleton
b) gill slits near the throat 17. Outline the advantages and disadvantages to an animal
c) live in fresh water in having an exoskeleton.
d) are ovoviviparous
18. Describe how representative animals in the phylum
4. Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes are considered Chordata carry out gas exchange, locomotion, feeding,
to be more complex than those of the phylum Cnidaria and circulation.
because they have
a) flattened bodies and two main layers of cells in the 19. One reason for mollusks’ survival over millions of
body years is their ability to live in conditions with low oxy-
b) segmented body with a circulatory system gen. Few animals can do this. Explain why this ability
c) two main layers of cells in the body and the body is has contributed to their success over the ages.
covered by a shell
d) radial symmetry and stinging cells 20. Draw the life cycle of a cnidarian and the life cycle of a
fern. Create a chart showing how these two life cycles
5. Radial symmetry is to sea stars as bilateral symmetry is are similar and how they are different.
to
a) hydrazoans 21. Sharks were probably the first vertebrates to give birth
b) jellyfish to live young instead of laying eggs. How might this
c) bony fish method of reproduction give their offspring a better
d) sand dollars chance of survival over egg-laying species?

6. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry.
7. Make a list of the different phyla of invertebrates ex-
plored in this chapter. Indicate what type of symmetry
is demonstrated by each phylum.
22. Reptiles were the first vertebrates to reproduce with the
help of amniotic eggs. These eggs contain a membrane
that forms a fluid-filled sac around the embryo. How
might this adaptation be to the advantage of reptiles that
lay their eggs on land?

8. Explain why it is believed that animals evolved from a 23. List characteristics of birds that distinguish them from
colonial protist. reptiles.

9. Explain how feeding and gas exchange are carried out
in a sponge.
10. Describe the structure and functions of cnidarians with
respect to feeding, gas exchange, and reproduction.
24. One advantage to living in air is that it is not much good
at conducting heat. As a result, birds can maintain a
large temperature difference between themselves and
their surroundings. How does this ability increase their
chances of survival?

482 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

25. What group of mammals is most similar to birds? Explain
your reasoning.
26. Look at the feathers in Figure 14.40 on page 474.
Describe how they are similar and different.
27. How does the structure of a down feather help it to
perform its function?
28. The Irish elk was the largest known member of the deer
family and was abundant about 20 000 years ago dur-
ing the last ice age. Like all deer, its antlers were formed
from bone and, despite their enormous size of over three
metres, they were grown and shed every year. Speculate
reasons for why this species became extinct based on
the above information.
29. Barnacles were extensively studied by Charles Darwin
in the 1850s on his travels in the southern hemisphere.
They were originally thought to be mollusks because they
are protected by hard plates that make up a shell.
However, closer study shows that they have tiny jointed
appendages, a feature not found in mollusks. In what
group of animals are barnacles correctly placed based
on the above information? Explain your reasoning.
30. Years ago, biologists loosely described animal species as
being “primitive” or “advanced,” suggesting that some
have made a better job of evolving than others. Many
scientists consider the use of these terms to be mis-
leading. Which point of view do you support? Defend
your point of view using evidence from examples of
different phyla in the animal kingdom.
31. Humans have a high opinion of themselves. It has been
said that we are the most highly evolved and specialized
animal. In what ways is this true or not true?
32. List the features that all animals have in common.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
33. Birds and mammals make up the largest number of
animals on display in zoos. Choose an animal that is not
native to North America that is kept in zoos. Use the
Internet and other sources to research the problems of
caring for this species in captivity.
34. Prepare a poster showing the animal you researched
in question 33 to illustrate the problems of maintaining
this animal’s health outside its native habitat.
35. Obtain samples of natural and synthetic sponges. Use a
hand lens to examine the surface and pores of each. How
do natural and synthetic sponges compare?
36. While walking in the woods, you discover a small, four-
legged, cold-blooded vertebrate. What characteristics
would you look at in order to classify it as a reptile or
an amphibian? Explain.
37. Animal A has hair and lays eggs. Animal B has hair and
bears live young, which then develop in a pouch on the
mother’s body. Animal C has hair and bears live young
but has no pouch. Classify these animals into their cor-
rect orders. Give reasons for your classification.
38. Create a dichotomous classification key that would allow
you to classify an animal into its correct phylum.
Making Connections
39. Imagine that you are a doctor. Recently a number of your
patients have been infected with Trichinella, a round-
worm. Describe an action that you would suggest to your
patients to reduce the risk of further development of this
problem in the community.
40. The completion of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the 1950s
accidentally introduced lampreys into the Great Lakes
by providing them with a way to bypass natural barri-
ers. Research the environmental effects that lampreys
have had on the Great Lakes ecosystem. Create a chart
listing species of fish that previously inhabited the Great
Lakes before the arrival of the lampreys and the major
fish species that are found there now.
41. Mammals other than humans have a huge effect on so-
ciety. Create a chart listing 10 different mammals,
whether they have a positive or negative effect, and what
that effect is.
42. Around the world, zoos are popular attractions. However,
some people think that it is cruel to keep wild animals
in captivity. Create a PMI chart on zoos. Look into their
economic impact, their treatment of animals, their
efforts at conservation, and their role in education. Decide
whether zoos should continue or whether they should
be abolished.
43. List the positive and negative effects that insects have
on agriculture and forestry.
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 483
 EXPLORING CAREERS

Investigating Careers in Biology

The diversity of living things is as- Finding More Career Options

tounding. Almost everywhere scientists
Within any field, there are yet more spe-
look for life on this planet, they find it.
cializations. For example, within “insect
There are species able to survive under
taxonomy” there would be people
the most extreme—and unlikely—con-
specializing in beetles or aquatic insects,
ditions. Some species are found in only
and so on. How does this breakdown
one place, while others seem able to live
into specialties affect your career inves-
almost anywhere.
tigation? First, it can help you identify
The diversity of careers involving the
possible careers of interest that you
study of living things is just as astound-
might not have considered. For exam-
ing. How can you find out about them?
ple, what could a person do in the
A good starting point is to think of bi-
subfield “taxonomy of aquatic insects”?
ology as divided into specialized areas
Taxonomists classify living things. To do
of study, called fields (a specialization
this, they need to be able to identify a
within a field may be called a subfield).
particular organism and know how it is
For example, the study of insects, or en-
related to others.
tomology, is a field within biology. The
diagram shows how this field, in turn,
1. For each of the following situations,
splits into many subfields. Thinking of
how might an aquatic insect tax-
biology this way breaks an immense
onomist be involved?
subject into manageable topics. At the
same time, it more accurately portrays  A tropical disease specialist
the world of work within biology,
identifies a person’s sickness as
because careers in biology are typically
due to a rare parasite. Only one
in one or two subfields.
species of mosquito is known to
be a carrier of this parasite.
plant protection
There are several ponds where
entomology mosquitoes are found near this
community. Some of these
urban forensic conservation medical
entomology entomology entomology
ponds may be of concern to
entomology
public safety.
 A new canal system will soon
connect two bodies of water that
insect have never been connected
ecology ENTOMOLOGY parasitology
before. Each body of water has
distinct insect populations. The
government intends to monitor
what happens when the canal
population insect is finished.
insect horticulture
biology taxonomy 
physiology Aquatic ecologists use the
integrated pest presence of certain insects to
management indicate the quality of a fresh-
FIGURE 1 water environment. A local

484 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

 fishery is reporting fewer fish in  In the future, a decision by the
their nets and suspect lower Supreme Court makes it possible
water quality is to blame. for an individual or company
to “own” chemical agents
2. Look at these situations again. For produced by newly discovered
each, list other subfields of biology beneficial insect species.
that might be involved. Think of as
many as you can. Then, consider This would cause a demand
careers within those subfields. Your for people with
backgrounds in insect phy
ideas about what you could do with siology to work
for investment companies
an interest in biology will become analyzing the
potential of newly discov
wider and wider. ered species.

Seeing the Future  The federal government

Another aspect of good career investiga- announces an investment of
tion is considering which careers are $40 million per year for five
likely to be around in the future. While years to clean up the most
it’s impossible to accurately predict the polluted areas in the Great
future of any one career, you can make Lakes.
a reasonable prediction of what may
happen within a field or subfield. For in aquatic
example, the growing public awareness ed fo r pe ople with a background
There would be a
ne area such as
of the importance of maintaining ad di tion al tr aining in a related
o had
insect ecology wh d the long-term
biodiversity is likely to result in more al impa ct, fr es hwater ecology, an
environment
careers in the fields of insect ecology, s on living things.
physiology, taxonomy, and conservation. effects of toxin
Here are some possible changes in
our economy, environment, and society.
Beside each is a sample prediction about 3. Pick a career area within biology
how these changes might affect a career that interests you. Make your own
in insect ecology. predictions in each of the above sit-
uations. If you can, ask someone
 The economy is growing and working in this area for his or her
one of the signs is that people opinion as well.
are choosing to buy more ex-
pensive, imported fresh fruit.
Looking Outward
It pays to be aware of the world around
you as you think about your own future.
career
cou ld be more ecologist
s who Watch news broadcasts and documen-
There or in s e c t ct
nities f o prote taries on television. Read a national
opportu od ind ustry t newspaper or magazine as often as you
the fo food fr
om
work in ported can. Get into the habit of asking
trans revent
stored
or
w ell a s to p yourself how each change might affect
pests,
as pecies
insect - in d igenous s people and their careers. You may spot
non
read of
the sp t s. an opportunity you hadn’t imagined.
ipmen
with sh

Exploring Careers 485

 ACHIEVEMENT TASK
Saving Endangered Species
Background Information
Until recently, the word “extinction” meant that
a species had disappeared forever. Now that
idea might be changing as scientists develop a
wider range of options to help endangered
species survive. For example, biotechnology
companies are developing new assisted repro-
duction techniques, such as a cross-species
nuclear-transfer. This technology could help to
rescue endangered species and perhaps even
reverse extinctions.
In this technique, a female from a non-
endangered species acts as a surrogate mother.
Cells from an endangered species are inserted
into the surrogate’s eggs. The eggs have their
nuclei removed before the cells are inserted.
Once the cells are in the eggs, a small electric
current is applied to the eggs and the eggs start
to divide. One of the resulting embryos is then
implanted into the surrogate mother.
FIGURE 1 The Bengal tiger is one of many endangered
species that could benefit from advances in reproductive
technologies.
486 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things
The San Diego Zoo has collected a bank of
frozen DNA that includes living cells from 5400
animals. These cells span more than 400 ani-
mal species and subspecies. This DNA could act
as a source of cells for cross-species nuclear
transfer.
Biologists around the world are collaborat-
ing to find ways to save vanishing species.
The Toronto Zoo, for example, participates with
other zoos worldwide in international breeding
and conservation programs. In North America,
Species Survival Plans (SSPs) are captive breed-
ing programs for endangered species. The
Toronto Zoo is involved in 17 SSPs that direct
breeding and management of endangered
species, as well as research into species’
habitat and nutrition. Most SSPs use more
traditional reproductive technologies such as
artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilization.
With reproductive technologies under test-
ing and development, and programs to promote
the breeding and conservation of endangered
species, the word “extinction” may become
endangered as well.
SCENARIO
You are preparing a position paper about the
role of reproductive technologies in saving
endangered species. Your essay must include
information on the risks and benefits of using
reproductive technologies and should include
consideration of the following: habitat, genetic
variability, social, ethical, and economic impact.

Part A: Research Biotechnology
1. Research the different reproductive tech-
nologies described. Summarize your
information in a comparison chart. For each
process, research the steps involved, the
success rate, how widespread its use, its
drawbacks, and its cost.
2. What impact do reproductive technologies
have on the fundamental principles of tax-
onomy and phylogeny?
3. Explain how meiosis and variability are af-
fected by the application of reproductive
technologies.
Part B: Impact on Current
Scientific Knowledge
4. What new controls on population size would
have to be considered for animal popula-
tions if species were no longer endangered?
5. How would each reproductive technology
affect classification techniques that are cur-
rently used? Identify the taxonomic level(s)
that would be most affected. Explain why.
6. Assuming new species could result from the
use of reproductive technologies, propose
a new classification system that would in-
clude them. Use a diagram to present your
thinking.
Part C: Preparing a Risk/Benefit
Analysis
7. Prepare a risk/benefit analysis on the im-
plications of reproductive technologies on
the biodiversity of endangered species
based on your research.
8. Propose new biodiversity issues that might
arise if reproductive technologies like
cloning become widely accepted and car-
ried out for all endangered species.
Part D: Summary Sheet
9. In a one-page summary, outline the most
critical factors affecting biodiversity in using
biotechnology to save endangered species.
A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k 487
UNIT 4 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts

1. Two fish classified in the same class must also be grouped c) a vascular system
in the same d) seeds
a) phylum
b) family 9. The portion of the flower that receives the pollen is the
c) order a) style
d) genus b) stigma
c) ovary
2. In the six-kingdom system of classification, eukaryotic d) anther
organisms that absorb their nutrients as decomposers
are members of the kingdom 10. Which of the following is often characteristic of bilateral
a) Protista symmetry?
b) Eubacteria a) cephalization
c) Fungi b) none have a mesoderm
d) Plantae c) a lack of true tissues
d) a non-motile lifestyle
3. Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic are
classified in the kingdom 11. Explain why it is necessary to classify organisms.
a) Archaebacteria
b) Plantae 12. What is the basis of classification systems?
c) Protista
d) Animalia 13. In your own words, define “binomial nomenclature.”

4. E. coli bacteria are shaped like tiny, straight sausages. 14. Explain why the system of binomial nomenclature is a
They are good way to name organism.
a) spirillae
b) bacillae 15. What is the smallest level of taxon? Which is the largest
c) cocci level of taxon?
d) spirochetae
16. Describe the difference between a species and a genus.
5. Bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia are called 17. Suppose every living organism on Earth is known and
a) nitrogen ammoniafiers fully classified as of today. Do you think the study of tax-
b) nitrogen autotrophs onomy will end? Explain.
c) nitrogen heterotrophs
d) nitrogen fixers 18. Explain how the modern classification system takes evo-
lutionary relationships into consideration.
6. Which of the following is a difference between plants
and fungi? 19. Explain the connection between taxonomy and the prin-
a) Plants have diploid and haploid stages in their life ciples of phylogeny.
cycle, and fungi only have haploid stages.
b) Fungi are heterotrophic and plants are autotrophic. 20. List the features that bacteria have in common.
c) Fungi have cell walls.
d) Fungi produce spores. 21. List the ways that bacteria can differ from one another.

7. The diploid generation of a plant life cycle always 22. Bacteria feed in a variety of ways. Classify bacteria by
a) is larger and more conspicuous than the haploid their feeding habits.
stage
b) produces eggs and sperm 23. Explain why conjugation is important to prokaryotes.
c) is called the gametophyte
d) produces spores 24. Substantiate the claim that bacteria survive in an
extraordinary range of habitats with examples and
8. Angiosperms are different from all other plants because descriptions of their niches.
only they have
a) a sporophyte stage 25. Compare and contrast archaebacteria with eubacteria.
b) cones

488 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

26. Explain why it was necessary to place archaebacteria
and eubacteria into different kingdoms.
27. Explain why sexual reproduction in bacteria provides
resistance to certain antibiotics.
28. In your own words, define the term biotechnology.
29. Explain what is meant by the term genetic engineering.
30. Why is it difficult to classify organisms as protists?
31. Draw a life cycle of a protist.
32. Draw the life cycle of a mushroom and identify the
stages.
33. State the function of the following.
spore ovary
frond pollen grain
cone fruit
34. What environmental condition is necessary for fertiliza-
tion in mosses to occur?
35. Explain alternation of generations using terms such as
haploid, diploid, gametophyte, sporophyte, spore, ga-
metes, egg, meiosis.
36. What reasons can you suggest to explain why flower-
ing plants exceed any other group of plants in terms of
numbers of species?
37. Explain why you do not usually find ferns growing in dry
places, even though they contain vascular tissues.
38. Compare and contrast the roles of protists and bacteria
as decomposers.
39. In your own works, define what is meant by the term
“animal.”
40. What characteristics do taxonomists use to group ani-
mals into phyla?
41. What do the following terms mean?
bilateral and radial symmetry
ectoderm and endoderm
vertebrate and invertebrate
42. Name two members of the class Aganatha.
43. Explain how a bony fish adjusts its buoyancy to main-
tain its level in the water.
44. Is multicellularity unique to animals? If not, in what other
kingdoms would you find multicellular organisms?
45. How is body symmetry in animals suited to the organ-
ism’s lifestyle? Use examples to justify your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
46. Create a dichotomous key to classify the following ani-
mals into their correct classes.
salmon snake
frog shark
bear pigeon
47. Add additional animals to the ones represented above
and test your classification key with these animals.
48. If one of the diagrams provided was that of a whale, what
class of animals would you have concluded that it belongs
to based on your classification key? What does this tell you
about the usefulness of dichotomous classification keys?
49. Suggest changes to your classification system so that it
can be made to accommodate the correct classification
of whales.
50. Scientist Stephen J. Gould has suggested that “break-
ing of the enormous eukaryotic branch into four
kingdoms and the compression of the two prokaryotic
branches into one kingdom of Bacteria seems fully
justified.” What are the implications of his view to
organizing the astonishing diversity of organisms?
51. Research the term “stromatolite.” What is it and where
would you find it today? There are fossilized forms in
Canada that are extremely old, about two billion years
old. What is their biological significance? Prepare a brief
report on stromatolites.
52. A research biologist studied a population of tadpoles in
a small pond. She looked down at the grey, muddy bot-
tom and estimated about 500 tadpoles. Most were dark,
but there were 75 albinos among them. The next morn-
ing she found tracks of a raccoon at the edge of the pond.
Table 1 shows the counts of each type of tadpole over
five days.
TABLE 1 Tadpole Counts over Five Days
Day Number of albino tadpoles Number of regular tadpoles
1 75 425
2 49 422
3 27 415
4 9 408
5 7 393
Unit Review 489
Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of dark 61. What to the following have in common: peat moss,
tadpoles the raccoon had consumed over the four days. club moss, Spanish moss, reindeer moss, Irish moss?

53. Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of
albino tadpoles that had been predated.
54. Using the data in Table 1, plot a graph to show the trends
in the total tadpole population, the albino population, and
the dark tadpole population over the study period.
55. Analyze the graph you created in question 54. What does
it tell you about the raccoon’s predation pattern?
56. What does the data tell you about the variability within
the tadpole population?
62. Find a book or field guide that summarizes the local flora
in your area. Identify local mosses, ferns, gymnosperms,
and flowering plants. Create a local map to show where
they could be found and conduct a field trip to find them.
63. Research the current literature on the various systems for
classifying organisms: a five-kingdom, six-kingdom, eight-
kingdom, and a three-domain system. Explain why such
a variety of systems have been proposed. Account for the
similarities and differences by constructing a comparison
chart that shows the major groups, and explain the
rationale for grouping organisms in this manner.

57. Predict the composition of the tadpole population in

the pond next summer.
Making Connections
Table 2 shows the results of a survey of a stream polluted by
64. An error in cell division can result in organisms with
sewage waste. Samples were taken at 10-m intervals above
three (3n) and four (4n) sets of chromosomes, a condi-
and below sewage outflow into the stream. Water samples
tion called polyploidy. It is very common in plants and
were taken to count the numbers of bacteria and algae and
contributes to genetic variation in the plant kingdom.
determine the oxygen and nitrate content of the water.
Research and report on polyploidy in ornamental and
TABLE 2 Survey of Polluted Stream crop plants and comment on economic as well as
genetic benefits.
Sample site Bacteria Oxygen Algae Nitrate
in relation (millions/L) Content (thousands (mg/L) 65. Organizing or classifying living things is done by a va-
to pollution (mL O2/ /L) riety of groups, organizations, and government agencies
source 100 mL) for pleasure, profit, or understanding. Garden centres,
10 m above 1 10 6 1 greenhouses, zoos, museums, seed banks, sperm banks,
and other facilities use a system of classification to iden-
10 m below 10 3 3 2
tify and group organisms into meaningful categories.
20 m below 15 2 0 4 Prepare a presentation using audiovisual means on the
30 m below 16 1 3 7 role of a facility in studying organism, their sources of
40 m below 14 2 6 9 revenues, contribution to society and scientific research.
50 m below 11 4 12 10
66. Comment on the significance of bacterial activities in our
60 m below 8 5 15 8 environment.
70 m below 6 6 18 6
TABLE 3 Diseases Caused by Bacteria
80 m below 5 7 15 4
90 m below 4 8 12 3
Species Disease
100 m below 3 9 10 2
Corynebacterium diphtheriae diphtheria
110 m below 2 10 8 1
Salmonella typhi typhoid fever
Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia
58. Using the data from the table, plot graphs showing
a) the levels of bacteria and oxygen Clostridium botulinum botulism
b) algae and nitrate concentrations. Borrelia burgdorferi Lyme disease
Vibrio cholerae cholera
59. What happens to the sewage waste on entering the
stream? How is the oxygen concentration affected? Clostridium tetani tetanus
Streptococcus tonsilae toxic strep throat
60. Explain the relationship between the presence of algae
Chlamydia trachomatis chlamydia
in the water samples relative to the concentration of
nitrates.

490 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

67. Table 3 lists several examples of pathogenic bacteria and Cases of
the infectious disease that they cause. For each disease, malaria
research the major symptoms and how each pathogen (millions)
is spread. Create a table in your notebook to show your
findings. 30

68. Identify commonly used antibiotics that you or your 20 Africa

family might take. Discuss the concept of antibiotic re-
10
sistance and the effect the use of antibiotics in medicine Asia
has had on the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistant 1 North America
strains.

TABLE 4 Reported Cases of Whooping Cough 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

Year Cases of whooping cough
1990 4570
1991 2719
1992 4083
1993 6586
1994 4617
69. Table 4 shows the number of reported cases of the
viral disease whooping cough as reported in Health
News, August 1995. There is a vaccine for whooping
cough but the disease resists being eradicated. Why do
you think this disease continues to occur?
70. List three applications of genetic engineering. Explain
how each is useful to society.
71. Crops genetically modified to be resistant to insect pests
are being promoted as a solution to low food yields in
developing countries. A member of the British royal fam-
ily recently spoke out of the “immorality of playing God
by moving genes between species that could never breed
naturally.” Construct a PMI chart listing ideas in support
of the proposed solution, ideas against, and interesting
questions or issues that need further investigation.
72. The graph in Figure 1 shows the incidence of the dis-
ease malaria in Africa, Asia and North America since
1985 as reported by the World Health Organization. Why
do you think there is such a difference in the reported
cases in Africa relative to the other continents? What do
you think might be the reasons for the recent decline
in Africa over the last decade? In 1995 most Asian coun-
tries put in place a limited ban on the use of DDT. Predict
what effect this decision might have on the future inci-
dence of malaria in that region over the next several
years. Why is the incidence of malaria in North America
to date consistently low in relation to other parts of the
world?
Year
FIGURE 1 Reported cases of malaria in Africa, Asia, and North
America.
73. The mining of peat bogs, logging of forests, or draining
of wetlands for urban growth has economic effects.
Tourism and recreation provide benefits to communities
as well. What measures does Canadian society need to
undertake to balance these competing interests?
74. Botanists estimate that there are between 4200 and 5800
species of vascular plants in Canada. What would
account for the range in their estimates?
75. What are some benefits to society of having such a
diversity of vascular plants?
76. Describe, in general terms, the positive and negative
effects that protists, fungi, and plants have on the
Canadian economy.
77. Research and report on, in detail, the effect protists,
fungi, and plants have on the management of waste, the
pesticide industry in Canada, or the treatment of
municipal water supplies.
78. Sea urchins are collected from wild populations and their
eggs are exported to Japan where they are considered
a delicacy. Sea urchins will probably be exterminated if
their overfishing is not reduced. Should we look to aqua-
culture as an alternative to harvesting them from the
wild? Should we stop over-harvesting altogether? Who
decides? Explain your answers.

Unit Review 491

 UNIT
5
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 describe the major processes and
mechanisms by which plants grow,
develop, and supply various
products, including energy and
nutrition, needed by other
organisms
 demonstrate an understanding,
based in part on your own
investigations, of the connections
among the factors that affect the
growth of plants, the uses of
plants, and the ways in which
plants adapt to their environment
 evaluate how the energy and
nutritional needs of a population
influence the development and use
of plant science and technology
492
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and
Functions
T
he number of products on the market today that come from plants is
truly remarkable. Timber, paper, textiles, industrial lubricants, plas-
tics, cosmetics, perfume, rubber, fuel, paint, and medicine are just a
few of the products available. To meet the demand, plant-related industries
rely more and more heavily on science and technology. Crops are sprayed
with pesticides and herbicides to protect them from insects and weeds. Produce
is exposed to radiation to increase its shelf life. Fruits and vegetables are
genetically modified to make them bigger and hardier. As these and other
technologies become more widespread, the list of new plant-related products
will continue to grow.
The benefits that plant-related products bring to the world are many.
However, there are risks as well as benefits associated with these new prod-
ucts. The effects of their cultivation, processing, and manufacture raise many
questions. Is deforestation contributing to global warming? Are pesticides
Canola field. To meet the demand, growers increasingly rely on plant science and technology
to help them to produce high yields.
poisoning the planet? Then there are the smaller questions that you have to
face personally, every day. Is the genetically modified tomato you just bit into
safe for you to eat? Is the cosmetic you just put on your face made from non-
renewable petroleum or from a renewable plant material? These are questions
that can directly or indirectly affect your health or the health of the planet.
As you start your study of plants, you will examine the role plants play
in maintaining biodiversity. Next, you will learn how science and technol-
ogy are revolutionizing the way we grow, harvest, and process plants. After
looking at how plants are used in agriculture, industry, and medicine, you
will investigate the structure and function of the components that comprise
the plant: the root, stem, and leaf. Finally, you will study how nutrients
such as nitrogen affect plant growth.

BIOLOGY HEADLINES

 Genetically Modified Super Weeds 1938. Hopes are high for this versatile plant that
has over 25 000 uses. Fuel, textiles, paper prod-
In the first case of its kind, some weeds in Canada
ucts, paint, and ink are just a few of the products
have become resistant to herbicides. The plants
that have been made from hemp.
picked up genes from genetically modified canola
plants. (Canola is a plant grown for the oil in its
seeds.) The canola plants were modified to be re-  Study Indicates GM Crops Not As Harmful As Once
sistant to herbicides. This allowed farmers to spray Feared
their fields with herbicides, which kill the weeds
The results of a 10-year British study indicate that
but not the canola. At least that’s the way it is sup-
genetically modified (GM) crops do not “invade”
posed to work. Unfortunately, in this case the weeds
and interbreed with native or non-GM plants. One
cross-pollinated with the canola and the weeds be-
of the concerns about GM crops is they might
came resistant to herbicides.
interbreed with native or non-GM plants, thus
transferring their genetically engineered trait
 New Study Says Wonder Herb Does Not Work into the wild plant population, possibly causing
harm to the environment. Another worry is that
One of the most popular herbal supplements on
the GM plants could spread uncontrollably in the
the market today, echinacea, has little effect on the
wild. The study, published in the scientific journal,
common cold, according to a recently published
Nature, showed that for GM potatoes, sugar beets,
study. Echinacea was no better at preventing colds
canola, and maize, neither of these concerns is
than a placebo in a study of 289 people. This
justified.
contradicts other studies in which the herb was
PREVIEW
shown to be effective. ACHIEVEMENT TASK

At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learn-

 Hemp Returns
More than 60 years ago, the Canadian government
outlawed hemp (Cannibis sativa) farming due to
the rise of illegal cannibis use. But in 1998, the
federal government legalized the farming of 0.3%
THC hemp. (THC is the active chemical in
Cannibis.) Within months, farmers across Canada
were planting hemp seeds for the first time since
ing by preparing a research funding proposal. Your pro-
posal will be presented at a World Health summit
focusing on the topic of genetically-modified rice and its
use in developing countries. You will research the sci-
ence and the issues surrounding genetically-modified
foods and evaluate the safety, economic, and environ-
mental impacts of genetically-modified rice. Your pre-
sentation will also include a summary of key points and
a bibliography of your information sources.

493
 CHAPTER 15

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Uses of Plants
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 illustrate the process of succession
and the role of plants in the
maintenance of diversity and the
survival of organisms (15.1)
 describe and explain some of the
food and industrial processes that
depend on plants (15.2, 15.3)
 describe and explain some of the
uses of plant extracts in food and
therapeutic products (15.2, 15.4)
 compile information about the
chemical products derived from
plants and, either by hand or
computer, display the information in
a variety of formats, including
diagrams, flow charts, tables,
graphs, and scatter plots (15.3, 15.4)
 identify various factors that result
in trade-offs in the development of
food technologies (15.2)
 describe and explain ways in which
society supports and influences
plant science and technology (15.2)
 express opinions supported by your
own research about the case for
funding certain projects in plant
science or technology rather than
others (15.2)
 describe how a technology related
to plants functions, and evaluate it
on the basis of identified criteria
such as safety, cost, availability,
and impact on everyday life and
the environment (15.2)

FIGURE 15.1 A few of the thousands of products derived from plants

494
H ave you thanked a plant today? If not, you probably should. Plant sci-
ence and technology are helping humans in many ways. For example,
many of the medicinal drugs taken today are derived from plants. Plant-
produced chemicals are used in industry to manufacture a wide variety of
products. With advances in technology, humans continue to create new syn-
thetic products and many of the raw materials used to manufacture these
products are derived from plants or plant extracts. In this chapter, you will
learn about some of the traditional, current, and future uses of plants and
plant products.
Agriculture is an industry largely devoted to producing plants for you to
eat. Society supports and influences agriculture in many different ways.
One way is by funding research into plant technologies. Over the last 20 years,
there have been dramatic changes in technologies used in agriculture.
Genetically engineered plants continue to have economic, environmental, and
social impacts in our world. These are just a few of the kinds of issues you
will examine in this chapter.

Discovering Biology
What’s the Source?
Look at each of the synthetic items in Figure 15.1.
 Identify the material or materials in it that are derived from plants.
 Name a specific plant source for as many of these materials as you can.

CHECKPOINT

Brainstorm what you know

about products made from
plants. Use a web, like the
following example, as a
starting point.

Industrial Agricultural

Plant
Products

Medicinal

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 495

 15.1 Plants in Nature
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the role of plants in the maintenance of diversity and survival of organisms

 describe the process of succession

INFOBIT
A single tree in the Peruvian
rain forest can provide habitat
for more than 17 000 species of
beetle.
Plants have two main roles in eco-
systems. The most important role is to
capture solar energy and convert it into
a usable form of energy. Plant leaves and
stems have energy-capturing machinery
in the form of chloroplasts. They convert
solar energy into chemical energy, sugar.
Plants are in turn consumed by other
organisms and the energy in plants is
passed on to the consumers. Without
plants filling this vital energy-producing
role, most other organisms could not exist.
Plants also provide habitats for other
organisms. The greater the diversity of
plants in an area, the more types of
habitat exist for other organisms. For
example, a lawn has just one or two
plant species. Only a few invertebrates
can live on or below the grass. The
garden beside the lawn, however, may
contain many different plant species:
some tall, others short, and perhaps a
few shrubs and trees. This plant diver-
sity can provide habitat and food for a
greater variety of insects, as well as
birds, and some small mammals.
Plant diversity is not the same
around the world. Plant diversity in any
given region is determined by the cli-
mate in that region. For example, the
high arctic has far fewer plant species
than the tropical rain forests. Earth is

FIGURE 15.2 Tropical rain forest in Costa Rica

496 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions


Mahogany Makes a
Comeback
The hull and deck of the tall ship in
Figure 15.3 are made from ma-
hogany, a highly-prized tropical hard-
wood used since the 1500s to build
ships, buildings, and quality furni-
ture. The wood is strong, beautiful,
easy to work with, and highly water-
resistant. Mahogany has been
brought from Central America and
the Caribbean to Europe and North
America for hundreds of years.
Because of demand for the wood, the
mahogany forests have been greatly
depleted, accompanied by a decline
in the diversity of other plants and
animals. In the Central American
country of Belize, efforts are being
made to re-establish the mahogany FIGURE 15.3 A tall ship made of
forests. This is being done for eco- mahogany
nomic as well as ecological reasons.
The wood is still highly sought after
and so can provide income to people, helps maintain biodiversity in the
and by replacing mahogany trees, it country’s rain forests.

divided into biomes, each having a char-
acteristic climate, and vegetation that is
adapted to living in that environment
(Table 15.1). The greater the diversity of
plants in a biome, the more habitat they
provide for other organisms.
Tropical rain forests, such as in
Figure 15.2, are found around the globe
in equatorial regions, and they hold
the largest variety of plant species on
Earth. It is estimated that 40 000 to
50 000 different plant species live in the
Amazon rain forest alone. In Costa Rica,
about 300 different tree species can be
found in one hectare of rain forest. This
roughly equals the number of tree
species found in all of Canada! The
diversity of animal life in the rain forest
is a direct result of the rich plant life.
TABLE 15.1 The Major Land Biomes
Terrestrial biome Climate Characteristic vegetation
tundra very cold, long harsh winters, mainly mosses, lichens, grasses,
short summers, little rain small shrubs and trees
(10–20 cm/y)
boreal coniferous cold winters and short coniferous trees such as pine,
forest summers, little rain fir, and spruce
(30–50 cm/y)
temperate mild winters, cool summers, hardwood trees such as oak,
deciduous forest ample rain (200–400 cm/y) maple, and beech
grasslands hot summers, cold winters, variety of grasses, few trees
moderate rain (30–80 cm/y)
desert daily extremes of hot and cold, some have no plant life; others
minimal rain (less than 25 cm/y) have cacti, sedges
tropical rain warm year-round, high rainfall largest variety of plant life of any
forest (200–400 cm/y) biome, deciduous evergreen
trees

Ecological Succession
In any given area, whether in the far
north or at the equator, plant diversity
can change over time. Ecological
succession is the process whereby a
community of plants in an area gradu-
ally changes over time. Along with each
change in the plant life during succes-
sion, the animal community changes
with it. The disturbances that promote
succession are often in the form of fires
and severe storms. Ecologists used to
believe that succession was a predictable
sequence of changes that resulted in a
stable, unchanging plant community
known as a climax community. Many
communities, however, do not follow a
predictable sequence of changes. For ex-
ample, some grassland communities, if
left undisturbed, remain as grassland
whereas others become forests over
time. Communities routinely change and
seldom remain stable indefinitely.
However, the concept of climax com-
munity remains contentious.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 497

 Primary Succession Thousands of years
ago, most of Canada was covered with
glaciers. In some areas, the ice was thou-
sands of metres deep. The last glacier
retreated from Ontario about 10 000
years ago, leaving behind a barren,
rocky landscape. Now vast forests stand
on many of the areas that were once
covered by the glaciers. Most of south-
ern Ontario’s forests were cleared for
agricultural land in the 1800s. The pro-
cess of changing from bare rock to an
area with a dominant form of vegetation
is called primary succession. Primary
succession only occurs in an area where
no previous community existed. The
barren, rocky land left behind by the
retreating glacier develops into a mature
forest over thousands of years. Figure
15.5 illustrates primary succession in
northern Ontario.
Lichens (Figure 15.4) are the first
organisms to grow in a barren land-
scape. Lichens can grow directly on
rocks without the presence of soil. They
are called pioneer species because they
are the first organisms to grow in the
area. Soil develops gradually as organic
matter accumulates from the decom-
posed remains of lichens. Mosses, which
require minimal soil, start to grow and
gradually replace the lichens. Mosses se-
crete an acid that accelerates the break-
down of rock into smaller particles.
Organic matter, from dead and decaying
plants, contributes to the build-up of
humus, an important component of soil.
At this stage, there is little plant diver-
sity. Because plants provide food and
habitat for animals, low plant diversity
means low animal diversity. Generally,
FIGURE 15.4 Lichens are
the first plants to appear in
primary succession.
498 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
in the pioneer stage of succession, in-
sects will be the only animal life present.
In time, with the gradual forma-
tion of more soil, vascular plants replace
the mosses. Hardy grasses and weeds,
which do not need much soil, are
the first to grow. As the plant commu-
nity changes so does the animal
community. Animals such as mice and
other small rodents, insects such as
grasshoppers, and birds such as spar-
rows, can be found in the grass stage of
succession. As even more soil is formed,
the grasses are gradually replaced by
larger plants such as shrubs.
With each change in the plant life in
succession, the soil and other environ-
mental conditions in the area also
change. For example, once the seeds of
shrubs germinate and grow in an area
where previously only grasses grew, the
mature shrubs block the light reaching
the grasses. The area has been altered
so that the grasses can no longer sur-
vive. The shrubs create too much shade
for grasses to grow. The presence of
shrubs, in turn, creates ideal growth
conditions for seedlings of certain trees.
The trees will eventually take over and
eliminate the shrubs by blocking out the
sunlight that the shrubs need. The ani-
mals that were found in the previous
stages of succession move on and are
replaced by forest dwellers such as
squirrels. Subject to the influence of
periodic disturbances, a long-standing
community such as a forest may develop
over a lengthy time period.
Each land biome is characterized by
a dominant form of plant life, which is
primarily determined by the climate.
In succession in northern Ontario, the
resulting dominant plant life is usually
a coniferous forest (Figure 15.6a). In
southern Ontario, which has a more
moderate climate, the deciduous forest
(Figure 15.6b) dominates. In the tundra,
lichens and mosses may be the domi-
nant plants in some regions, while
shrubs may dominate in others (Figure
15.6c).
 Coniferous trees dominate.

Deciduous trees crowd out shrubs and grasses.

Shrubs appear.

Soil forms; grasses grow.

Mosses grow.

Lichens cover rocks.

Bare rock

FIGURE 15.5 The stages of succession in a boreal forest biome. These stages overlap one
another as succession progresses.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 499

FIGURE 15.6 Three Ontario biomes

a) Coniferous forest b) Deciduous forest c) Tundra

Discovering Biology Looking into the Future

Observe the playing field in Figure 15.7. List the plant types that might be grow-
ing there. Suppose the playing field is abandoned: no one plays on it and no one
cuts, feeds, or weeds the grass.

■ Predict the plants you might find after 10 years.

■ Predict which plant types might be growing there after 100 years.

FIGURE 15.7 A playing field in southern Ontario

Secondary Succession When an existing mation of a mature forest in about a

natural community, such as a forest, is
disturbed by a natural or human-made
disaster, secondary succession occurs.
For example, secondary succession com-
monly occurs after a forest fire. After all
the surface plant life has been destroyed
by fire, new plants start to grow in a rel-
atively short time because soil is present.
Secondary succession can lead to the for-
hundred years.
Secondary succession may occur in
a vacant city lot. If grass is not cut,
weeds soon take over, followed by
shrubs, and then trees. It also may occur
after farmland is abandoned. A corn-
field, for example, if left unattended over
a long period of time, may revert back
to the forest that it originally was.

500 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

TABLE 15.2 Differences between Primary Succession and Secondary Succession
Primary Succession
Occurs in areas where no previous plant
life existed
Begins with pioneer, spore-producing plants
Occurs gradually over thousands of years
Succession and Biodiversity
Each stage of succession changes the en-
vironment. The types of plants growing
in an area determine soil moisture and
composition, the amount of light reach-
ing the ground, and the humidity near
the ground. The plants provide habitat
for animals, fungi, and micro-organisms.
The number and types of plants, in turn,
determine the number and types of other
organisms that live in the area.
In a coniferous forest, there may be
only a few species of trees with slightly
more shrubs and herb species. After a for-
est fire or the harvesting of a section of
forest, biodiversity generally increases
during the resulting secondary succession.
Plant species that could not live in the
shade of the forest, such as grasses and
goldenrods, thrive in the open “disturbed”
area created after the trees are removed.
While some animal species may decline
due to the lack of trees, a variety of new
animal species will move into this area
because of the increased food supply of
grasses and other small plants.
As the shrub stage of succession
develops, new animals arrive to feed on
these new plant species. For example,
the white-tailed deer population in
Canada has increased as a result of the
succession occurring after the logging of
sections of mature forests. Deer feed on
the woody stems and shrubs found in
the shrub stage of succession.
There is a more abundant food sup-
ply for the deer in this area than in the
nearby mature forest. The rabbit and
grouse populations also increase during
this stage of a succession.
Secondary Succession
Occurs in areas where plant life was disrupted
or destroyed
Usually begins with vascular seed-producing
plants
Occurs more rapidly (within several hundred
years)
FIGURE 15.8 Deer feeding on shrubs. Deer do
not thrive in a coniferous forest.
After commercial logging, however,
the natural secondary succession that
follows may be altered by timber man-
agement authorities because the species
of trees that arise naturally may not be
the ones the forest company wants to
harvest. In some cases, herbicides are
applied to an area that has been logged
to control which plant types grow, to
reduce the succession time, and to
improve the growth prospects for the
more commercially desirable trees. In
such cases, the normal course of succes-
sion, and the resulting increase in
biodiversity, is disrupted through human
intervention.
The creation of nature and forest
preserves is a way to maintain biodi-
versity. Most countries have set aside
portions of natural areas to help pre-
serve plant and animal life. One of the
goals of Canada’s forest managers, as
adopted in 1996 and approved by the
Standards Council of Canada, is to
ensure that both plant and animal
diversity is maintained.
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 501
 Section 15.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. In your own words, describe the role
of plants in the maintenance of diver-
sity in ecosystems.
2. Define the term ecological succession.
3. Explain the differences between pri-
mary and secondary succession.
4. In a flow chart, illustrate the stages of
succession in a boreal forest.
5. Explain the effect of secondary suc-
cession on biodiversity.
6. Grey squirrels are common in south-
ern Ontario. However, they are not
found at all in the tundra of northern
Ontario. Explain this observation in
terms of the squirrels’ habitat.
Making Connections
7. Research careers in forestry. What
kinds of decisions are people who work
in forest management making each day
about the environment?
8. What kinds of information does a
forester need to consider in manag-
ing forests to ensure sustainable yields?

15.2 Plants in Agriculture

Key Understandings

When you have completed this section you, will be able to:
 describe how certain food technologies work

 identify factors that cause trade-offs in the development of food technologies

 describe how society supports and influences plant technology

 express opinions about plant research funding

 describe and evaluate technologies related to plants

Humans have been cultivating plants for
thousands of years. In fact, there is ev-
idence that a type of corn was grown
in Mexico over 7000 years ago (Figure
15.9). Every major variety of plant used
for food has been grown for over 2000
years. Angiosperms, known as the seed
producers, have been and continue to
be the major group of plants used for
food. Of the 250 000 known species of
angiosperms, only about 30 species pro-
vide most of the world’s plant food sup-
ply. The world’s ever-increasing
population is dependent on how well
land available for food production is
managed. In fact, only about three per-
cent of Earth’s surface is suitable for food
production.
In Canada, less than two percent
of the population supplies the rest of the
country with its food. Farmers must
grow increasingly large quantities of high
quality crops at reasonable prices, while
at the same time they must be sensitive
to environmental concerns, such as
preserving soil quality and minimizing
agricultural pollution. Farmers, like
others in society, have turned to science
and technology for help.

502 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions


FIGURE 15.9 This drawing of wild corn is
based on archaeological samples.
Food Plants
Everything we eat comes directly or
indirectly from plants. Fruits and
vegetables obviously come from plants,
and meat and dairy products come from
animals that feed on grain or grass.
The edible parts of plants can be
grouped into three broad categories:
parts that grow underground, such as
potatoes and carrots; parts that grow
above ground, such as lettuce; and,
lastly, the seeds and fruits of plants. This
last category is the most significant as a
food source because seeds are high in
carbohydrates and protein. The cereals,
or grains, provide most of the food sup-
ply for the world. This group includes
rice, wheat, corn, oats, and barley.
Legumes, a group of specialized fruit-
producing plants, are also a major
source of food. They are the second most
important group of food-producing
plants after the cereals. Included in this
important group of plants are many
types of peas and beans, including soy-
beans, peanuts, and lentils (Figure
15.11).
FIGURE 15.10 Wheat field. Canada produces
roughly 25 billion tonnes of wheat each year.
Fifteen percent of Canada’s 293 000 farms are
wheat farms, and wheat contributes $2.5 billion
to Canada’s gross domestic product.
Plants can sometimes be eaten just INFOBIT
as they grow, but many plants or parts
of plants are processed into a variety Chili peppers owe their unique
of different food products. For example, taste to a chemical called
wheat seeds are ground to make flour, capsaicin. Humans taste
chemicals by means of
which is used to make bread. Soybeans specialized nerve endings in
are processed to make tofu, soy sauce, the taste buds. Capsaicin,
vegetable protein (used in vegetarian hot however, does not stimulate
dogs and burgers), and soy “milk.” taste buds; it stimulates pain
Edible oils come mainly from the receptors on the tongue and in
the mouth! This may explain
soybean, canola seed, corn seed, and why many people cannot
olive fruit. A key ingredient of chocolate, tolerate too much of the spice.
a fat, is produced from the seeds of the
cacao plant. Spices are derived from
sources such as the pepper fruit, cin-
namon bark, mustard seed, and ginger
root. Herbs such as parsley, sage, and
thyme leaves and garlic root are culti-
vated and used to add to the taste of
foods. The world’s supply of sugar comes
from two main sources: the cane plant
stem and the root of the sugar beet.
Although most people think that honey
comes from bees, the bees actually
Investigation
process plant nectar from flowers to
Refer to page 523,
create the honey that is processed for Investigation 1
human use.
FIGURE 15.11 Soybeans are
processed into many different
food products.
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 503
 Old Crop,
New Food

The amaranths, a group of grains,

were grown in Mexico during the
time of the Aztecs. At that time,
they were a major food source.
Amaranth, also known as “pig-
weed” and “African spinach,” has
recently been grown experimen-
tally in Canada and the U.S. with
a view to making it an important
food crop again. It produces
protein-rich seeds, which are used
by a few food manufacturers to
make multigrain cereals and flour.
Its vitamin-rich leaves are used as FIGURE 15.12 Amaranths in flower
animal feed and they can be eaten
by humans, for example, like let-
tuce in a salad.

Discovering Biology Squash Varieties

Look at the drawings in Figure 15.13.
All these very different looking fruits
come from the genus Cucurbita.
However, none of these fruits are found
in the wild forms of Cucurbita.
■ How do you think these varieties
were created?
■ With a partner, brainstorm the pro-
cess of creating different varieties of
a plant.

FIGURE 15.13

504 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Increasing Plant
Productivity
As the population increases, farmers are
under pressure to produce as much food goat grasses
as they can. In addition, they have to
produce it as cheaply as possible so that
once the food reaches the market, it’s
affordable to consumers. Farmers and
plant scientists use a variety of tech-
nologies to increase crop yields.

Selective Breeding Variation is common

within a species. In humans, this
variation is obvious. People differ in
height, weight, hair and skin colour,
complexion, and body shape. Humans
also show variation in athletic ability,
resistance to disease, and many other
characteristics. The same is true of
plants. Growers select individual plants
with desirable traits such as high yield
or drought resistance and use these
seeds to plant the next year’s crop. Over
time, all members of the local plant
population begin to show the same
desirable traits. This process is called
selective breeding, and humans have
used it for centuries in the breeding of
both plants and animals.
Wheat has been greatly altered modern bread wheat
through selective breeding. The wild grass
ancestors of modern wheat had fewer de-
FIGURE 15.14 Goat grasses are the wild ancestors of modern bread wheat.
sirable traits than modern wheat. The The traits of modern bread wheat are the product of both selective breeding and
seeds were smaller and there were fewer hybridization.
of them. They had rough, barbed coats;
and they fell off the plant easily. By se-
lecting seeds for the next season’s crop Hybridization As you have learned, grow-
from plants that produced large, numer- ers selectively breed individual plants to
ous, smooth, and firmly attached seeds, create a new plant variety. Plant vari-
wheat has been gradually modified into eties of the same species or very similar
a better crop (Figure 15.14). For exam- species can each have different desir-
ple, ancient wheat was susceptible to able characteristics. For example, one
diseases such as wheat rust, a fungus. variety of wheat may be frost-resistant,
By selecting individual plants that and another may be disease-resistant.
showed greater resistance to wheat rust Plant breeders use hybridization to
than others, crop losses due to this dis- combine the two varieties. They cross-
ease have gradually been reduced. pollinate two varieties, and the “daughter”
FIGURE 15.15 The drawback
Similarly, selective breeding has been plants grown from the resulting seeds of hybrids is that farmers
used with hundreds of plant species to show both desired characteristics. The must purchase seed from a
improve disease resistance and increase hybrid plants are both disease- and seed company each season.
crop yields. frost-resistant.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 505


FIGURE 15.16 A cutting.
This cutting is growing roots
from the base of the stem.
506 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Cloning Techniques Some plants are
capable of reproducing asexually to
create genetically identical copies of
themselves. In some species, entire new
plants can be grown from a single leaf
of a parent plant.
This ability of plants is put to use by
farmers and horticulturalists. Sometimes
an individual plant has such good
characteristics that farmers or horticul-
turalists want to make exact copies of it,
so they reproduce the plant asexually.
The resulting plants are clones, or
genetically identical copies, of the parent
plant. The simplest cloning method is to
take cuttings. A grower cuts off a piece
of the plant that includes a stem. A clump
of tissue called a callus develops at the
cut end, from which a root forms (Figure
15.16). When the cutting that has devel-
oped roots is planted, it grows into a new
plant, genetically identical to the one the
cutting came from. The new plant is a
clone of the parent plant.
Another widely used method to re-
produce crops and ornamental plants with
desired characteristics is grafting.
Grafting can only work if the plants have
a tissue called cambium (Cambium is dis-
cussed in section 16.2.) Not all plant types
have it. A bud from a plant with certain
desired characteristics is attached, or
grafted, to the rooted stem or root of an-
other plant, which has other desired
features. The shoot is called the scion, and
FIGURE 15.17 The grafting process. The stock and scion have been aligned so that the
cambium of each fuse together.
the root is called the stock. At the graft
site, the cambium of the stock fuses with
the cambium of the scion (Figure 15.17).
The grafted plant grows as one
“new” plant. By grafting, a grower can
turn one good tree into thousands of ge-
netically identical copies. Many varieties
of apples, plums, grapes, and peaches
are produced by grafting.
The first plant in Canada in which
the technique of grafting was used was
the Macintosh apple tree. In 1811, in
Dundas County in eastern Ontario, an
unusual apple tree was discovered that
produced an abundant crop of large, red,
tasty fruit. This tree, named after its dis-
coverer, John Macintosh, was an obvi-
ous choice for artificial selection.
Thousands of its seeds were saved and
planted, but the offspring were always
a disappointment. These seedlings pro-
duced mostly inferior apples; none were
as good as the parent tree’s apples.
In 1835, the newly developed tech-
nique of grafting was used to attach
scions from the Macintosh tree to other
root stocks. Because all the tissues, in-
cluding the fruit, above the graft are
genetically identical to the Macintosh
tree, the resulting trees produced the
desired Macintosh apples. All Macintosh
apples sold today come from grafts of
that original tree.
Modern technology has sped up the
process of cloning plants. Whole plants
can now be grown in test tubes from tiny
pieces of tissue or even single cells. The
test tubes contain a growth medium con-
taining nutrients and hormones to help
the cells grow and differentiate into
seedlings. These seedlings can then be
transferred to soil. A single plant can be
cloned into thousands of copies by sub-
dividing the cultured tissue as it grows.
Control of
Agricultural Pests
In addition to increasing yields through
plant breeding techniques, yields can be
increased by removing weeds that com-
pete with plant crops, as well as by re-
moving insects and other organisms that
feed on the plants. There are different
methods of doing this.
Chemical Control Agricultural pesticides
are chemicals that kill organisms that
eat, infect, or compete with crops.
Insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill
fungi, and herbicides kill certain plants.
Most food crops could not be grown
successfully without the use of these
chemicals. But pesticides are expensive.
Canadian farmers spend more than
$750 million a year on pesticides. Even
with extensive use of pesticides, it is es-
timated that over one-third of the world’s
crops are still destroyed by pests.
Unfortunately, most chemical pesticides
kill a variety of organisms in addition to
the intended target organism. This can
have a negative affect on local biodiver-
sity. These toxic chemicals can remain
in the environment and can harm
animals and humans. A well-known
example of a toxic chemical is DDT,
which is a very effective pesticide and
was widely used for many years. It was
discovered that this chemical did not
break down and so remained in the
environment. It was harmful to many
animals. In particular, it interfered with
reproduction in the peregrine falcon and
pushed the species to the verge of
extinction. DDT was banned in Canada
in 1969, but it is still used in developing
FIGURE 15.18 Cloning of carrots. Leaves,
stems, and roots are starting to form from a
small amount of tissue that was placed in the
Petri dish.
countries because it is inexpensive yet
very effective.
Biological Control Using natural para-
sites or predators to control or eliminate
agricultural pests is called biological
control. This also includes the use of
plants selected to keep agricultural pests
away from crops. Knowing that certain
plants produce chemicals that have a
bad taste or are toxic to insects, farm-
ers grow these plants in fields alongside
their crops. Insects are less likely to
destroy a crop if there are plants nearby
that they avoid.
Natural parasites of insect pests are
used by farmers to reduce the need for
chemical pesticides. Alfalfa is an eco-
nomically important crop grown widely
in Canada and the U.S. mainly as ani-
mal feed. It was brought to North
America from the Middle East and Asia.
Not long after alfalfa became a common
crop in North America, an insect called
the alfalfa weevil started to eat the
alfalfa plants. The alfalfa weevil is par-
ticularly harmful, since both the larvae
and the adults feed on alfalfa. Since the
plant is a perennial, the weevil has a
yearly food supply. The insect is also
difficult to control with pesticides.
To battle the alfalfa weevil, a wasp FIGURE 15.19 Alfalfa
was introduced into alfalfa fields. The weevils
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 507
WEBLINK
Today, farmers use a system
known as integrated pest
management (IPM) to combat
insect and fungal pests.
Research how IPM works and
what sort of biology knowledge
farmers need. Prepare a
brief written report on IPM.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
508 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
wasp lays its eggs in the weevil larva,
killing it as the wasp larvae feed and
develop. The weevil population was
controlled by the wasps. Farmers also
allow weeds to grow in the fields with
the alfalfa because they provide nectar
for the adult wasps. By encouraging a
natural parasite population to become
established, alfalfa farmers have
dramatically reduced the need for
chemical pesticides to control the alfalfa
weevil. This has reduced the cost of
producing alfalfa.
Biological controls don’t always
have their intended effect. A thorough
understanding of the complex relation-
ships between the organisms involved
in the biological control of pests is es-
sential. In 1935, the cane or giant toad,
native to Central and South America,
was introduced to sugar-cane fields in
Australia to control a parasitic beetle.
The toads ate some beetles, but also ate
bees and other beneficial insects. The
toads eat just about anything they can
get into their mouths. They also have
no predators in Australia. The cane
toads have now spread to vast areas of
Australia. So far, no effective way of
getting rid of them has been found.
Food Irradiation A technology used to
preserve food is food irradiation. Fruits,
vegetables, and grains are examples of
foods that are subjected to measured
FIGURE 15.20 Onions and potatoes are
irradiated to stop them from sprouting.
doses of radiation in order to kill harm-
ful insects, fungi, and bacteria.
Irradiation also slows the ripening of
certain fruits and vegetables, thus in-
creasing their storage life. The foods
are exposed to radioactive cobalt and
cesium, which emit highly energized
particles. These radioactive emissions
damage the DNA of the organisms liv-
ing in or on the food, thus killing them.
In Canada, wheat flour is irradiated
to kill insects, and ground spices are
irradiated to kill fungi and bacteria.
Potatoes and onions are irradiated to
prevent sprouting.
Genetically Modified
(GM) Plants
Whenever plant breeders do selective
breeding or hybridization, they are mod-
ifying the genetic makeup of the plants
to produce the desired characteristics.
With these techniques, breeders manip-
ulate genes that occur naturally in the
plant. With the rise of recombinant DNA
technology, scientists can now add spe-
cific genes from other plant species, or
even animal species, to a plant. These
genes will produce a desired charac-
teristic in the new plant.
FIGURE 15.21 Pesticides being applied to a
farmer’s field. Pesticides protect against crop
losses, but are costly to use and may have
environmental and health consequences.
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Canada’s Laws on  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Pesticide Use
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) recently announced

the introduction of its own “ecological” brand of pro-
duce. Farmers from Ontario, P.E.I., New Brunswick,
and Alberta formed a partnership with the WWF
and agreed to grow apples and potatoes using fewer
pesticides.
This is causing debate among different groups
affected by the farm produce industry. Some envi-
ronmentalists argue that using fewer pesticides in
growing some crops does not mean those crops can
be given an “organic foods” label. The “ecological”
brand misleads the public into believing the food
has had no exposure to harmful chemicals. In re-
ality, pesticides are still present in those foods. Many
consumers also share this view.
Farmers in the agricultural sector want to
continue to use pesticides in growing food crops. It
has been a successful method of preventing de-
struction of crops by insects and disease. If they stop
using pesticides, their livelihoods could be at stake.
Critics of the WWF suggest that the organiza-
tion should be spending its money on educating the
public about the risks of pesticides and lobbying the
government to make changes to the Pest Control
Products Act. They believe public awareness is the
key to changing current practices. As long as pes-
ticides remain legally acceptable, they say, the use FIGURE 15.22 Potato field being sprayed in Prince Edward
of pesticides will not stop. Island. The WWF’s goal is to reduce pesticide use.

Analyzing the Issue

1. In a web diagram, show who the principal stake-
holders are for this issue, and identify the perspec-
tives they may hold.
2. Research organic foods, and identify one widely held
assumption about organic foods that may be
challenged by your research and explain why an
assumption like this may exist.
3. The shift to reducing use of pesticides is seen as in-
sufficient by critics of the WWF. In your opinion, how
does this affect what the WWF partnership repre-
sents?
4. Write a Letter to the Editor expressing your personal
point of view on the issue. Do additional research to
support your position.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 509

INFOBIT
The first GM crops developed
in North America were
tomatoes genetically
engineered to produce less
of an enzyme that causes the
fruit to ripen. These tomatoes
can be stored longer and can
resist spoilage. However,
because consumers were wary
of GM foods, these tomatoes
did not sell very well.
510 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
The resulting plant is a transgenic plant
because it contains genes from a com-
pletely different species. It is also known
as a genetically modified (GM) plant.
A common method of introducing
“new” DNA into a plant cell is by using
bacteria called Agrobacterium tumefa-
ciens. This bacterium causes a tumour
called crown gall disease in some plants.
In this technique, a non-harmful strain
of the bacteria is used. The desired gene
is inserted into the plasmid of the
bacterium using recombinant DNA tech-
nology. (See Chapter 12 for details of this
process.) The bacteria containing the new
gene infect the plant cell and the gene
gets incorporated. The cell is then grown,
in culture, and forms into a callus and
then into a tiny plant. It is then cloned,
and these genetically modified plants are
planted as crops. Each plant is identical
and shows the desired characteristics
produced by the introduced gene.
GM plants are tested to ensure they
will not have any adverse effects on hu-
mans before they are allowed on the
marketplace. However, long-term possi-
ble effects are unknown.
The main goal of genetically engi-
neering crop plants is to increase crop
yields to meet the nutritional demands
of a steadily growing population. This
goal can be met in a number of ways,
for example, by engineering crops that
will not be affected by weed killers.
A major problem for farmers has always
been to control weeds that compete with,
and sometimes destroy, crops. The cost
of growing crops, and thus the cost of
food to consumers, could be reduced if
fewer herbicides had to be used.
Other genetically modified crops
have been engineered to make them
insect-resistant. Two examples of such
plants grown in Canada are corn and
potatoes. A certain variety of corn that
is susceptible to an insect called the
European core borer has been geneti-
cally modified so that it now contains a
gene from a bacterium, B. thuringiensis
(Bt). This gene produces a protein that
kills the insect. The protein is found only
in minute quantities in the leaves and
pollen of the plant. The borer eats the
leaves and dies. Another Bt protein from
a different strain of this bacterium has
been placed into a variety of potato
plant. Bt kills the Colorado potato
beetle once the insect eats the leaves.
The GM potato, called Newleaf™, was
approved for commercial use by
Agriculture Canada in 1997.
Similar to insect resistance, crops
are also being genetically engineered
to resist infection by disease-causing
viruses, fungi, and bacteria.
Environmental conditions can also
lower crop yields, or even prevent cer-
tain crops from being grown at all. Some
areas get very little rain, or have very
saline soil. Research is under way to en-
gineer drought- and salt-resistant crops
so that areas previously unusable as
farmland can be used to grow food.
Plants have also been genetically en-
gineered to increase their nutritional
content. For example, Swiss researchers
have engineered a strain of rice that
contains beta-carotene, the precursor to
vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a
common problem in many developing
countries. Similar research is under way
FIGURE 15.23 In 1999, scientists at the
University of Victoria created a genetically
modified potato plant that is resistant to both
bacteria and fungi. In late 2000, consumer
demand for GM potatoes was so low that few
farmers were planting them.
to produce an iron-rich rice. Also, plants,
such as alfalfa, could be engineered to
produce more protein. The animals that
eat the alfalfa, such as sheep, obtain
an increased amount of protein in their
diet as a result. However, those plant va-
rieties that produce more protein require
large amounts of nitrogen compounds
in the soil. Therefore they require ad-
ditional fertilizer.
Nitrogen compounds must normally
be added to the soil in the form of fer-
tilizers. Legumes, such as beans, peas,
and alfalfa are able to convert atmo-
spheric nitrogen into nitrogen
compounds the plants are able to use.
They do this by means of nitrogen-fix-
ing bacteria in their roots. A major ef-
fort is being made to genetically alter the
ability of these bacteria to fix more ni-
trogen so that less fertilizer is required
for the high-protein producing legumes.
Efforts are also being made to develop
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can live in
the tissues of plants other than legumes,
Total GM crops (%)
canola and potatoes. Since 1996, the
global number of hectares of GM crops
has risen from 1.7 million hectares in
1996 to 41.2 million hectares in 2000—
a 25-fold increase.
In spite of the potential of GM crops,
this approach remains controversial.
Many people have concerns about the
safety of these plants and the impact
they might have on the environment and
on human health. The potential benefits
of using GM crops may or may not out-
weigh the risks. Farmers and scientists
are not the only ones who need to
be aware of the risks and benefits.
An informed public is essential to make
certain that governments make the
best choices for society and for the
environment.
100
80

thus reducing the need for fertilizers for

60
these plants. Scientists are also trying to
develop plants that can fix atmospheric
nitrogen themselves without the need for 40
the specialized symbiotic bacteria.
Most of these applications of
20
genetic engineering are either in the
research stage, or in very limited use.
Most of the GM crops currently grown are 0
herbicide insect herbicide & pest
either herbicide- or insect-resistant resistance resistance resistance
(Figure 15.24). Currently, Canada pro-
duces seven percent of the world’s GM FIGURE 15.24 Traits of GM crops as of 2000
crops. GM soybeans and corn are the Source: International Service for the Acquisition of
most commonly grown, followed by Agri-biotech Applications

New Food or
Novel Food?
New food products appear on the
grocer’s shelf every year. New break-
fast cereals, snack foods, soft drinks,
and a host of other products are
introduced. Some of these food prod-
ucts contain genetically modified
plant material or are manufactured
using gene modification techniques.
If the food product contains GM plant
matter, it is known as a novel food.
There are over 40 such foods cur-
rently on the market in Canada. Two
examples are foods containing pro-
tein from GM corn and GM potatoes.
Health Canada defines a novel food
as “a food that is derived from a plant,
animal, or micro-organism that has
been genetically modified such that
… the plant … exhibits characteristics
that were not previously observed in
that plant …” Usually, one or two
novel genes have been added to the
plant. One codes for the desired trait
and the other acts as a marker so that
scientists can readily identify these
genetically modified plants.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 511

 Preserving Old Plant
Varieties
Once a plant has been developed with
desirable characteristics, it is planted in
large numbers. The growing of one va-
riety of a crop in a large area is known
as monoculture (Figure 15.25). Although
the plants may be highly resistant to
drought, or may all bear fruit at the
same time, for example, there are draw-
backs. Planting a single variety of crop
may prove disastrous because these ge-
netically identical plants may not be able
to resist a particular fungal or bacterial
disease. In this situation, an entire crop
could be wiped out. In 1846, the entire FIGURE 15.26 Seeds of many varieties of
wheat (Triticum sp.), some close to extinction,
potato crop in Ireland was wiped out by
are kept in cold storage in this seed bank for
a mould (blight). The potato variety de- future use.
stroyed by this fungus had been selected
as the most desirable after hundreds of
years of cultivating potatoes. Nearly 10 available, then a disease-resistant vari-
percent of the Irish population died as a ety could be grown after the disaster.
result of the potato famine. Also, wild relatives of crop plants often
Around the world, agricultural seeds are an excellent source of resistance
of all varieties are stored in seed banks when new or stronger strains of diseases
(Figure 15.26). Seeds of both cultivated appear. If a plant variety were to become
and wild varieties are stored. These seed extinct, scientists could then re-intro-
banks are important for several reasons. duce the plant using the stored seeds.
First, the genes of a large number of va- Finally, seeds of plants no longer in agri-
rieties of an agricultural plant must be cultural use will be available for research
saved in case disasters like the Irish purposes. With new technologies, sci-
potato blight were to wipe out a crop. entists may be able to develop improved
If a number of varieties of the plant are varieties from the stored seeds.

FIGURE 15.25 A monoculture of corn. Monocultures are risky because if the variety that has
been planted cannot resist a certain disease, the whole crop can be wiped out.

512 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Plant Technology Trade-offs
Many factors affect the development and
use of plant technologies. One of these
is the cost of developing the technol-
ogy. The cost is reflected in the price of
the technology. For example, when a
biotech company develops a GM crop,
they have to consider whether the cost
of the end product is reasonable.
There are also safety factors to
consider when developing a new plant
technology. For example, a proposal to
genetically engineer a brazil nut gene into
a soybean plant was abandoned because
of the possible effects on people with nut
allergies. It was thought that the poten-
tial health risks outweighed the benefits.
Section 15.2 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Name two groups of plants that pro-
vide major sources of food for humans.
2. In your own words, define
a) selective breeding
b) hybridization
c) cloning
3. In a chart, compare two plant tech-
nologies and indicate the advantages
and disadvantages to using each one.
4. Outline the potential risks and benefits
of developing genetically modified
crops.
5. How might scientists safeguard against
potential problems associated with
growing one variety of GM crops?
6. Create a web to show the different
components of food plants and the
products that are developed from them.
7. In a field of corn, all the plants on some
rows are growing healthy corn cobs.
All the plants in other rows have been
eaten by insects. Propose a possible
explanation for these observations.
Making Connections
8. Canadian consumers want fresh
produce year round at affordable
prices. In what ways does this
influence plant science and technology?
Farmers have to decide which vari-
eties of crops to grow. If a farmer grows
a variety that produces tomatoes that
are very tasty but bruise easily, the su-
permarket might not buy them. To avoid
this risk, the farmer might decide to
grow a hardier but less flavourful vari-
ety to be certain of selling his or her
crop.
Finally, consumer preferences also
determine what plant technologies are
developed and used. For example, con-
sumers want the cheapest food possible,
but they also want food that looks and
tastes good. They might also be con-
cerned about the environment, and may
prefer more costly organic foods.
9. With the known dangers of DDT, why
would this pesticide still be in wide use
in developing countries?
10. Genetically modified foods continue to
be controversial. What impact does this
issue have on the traditional farmer in
society?
11. How have farming careers changed
with the increasing uses of biotech-
nology?
12. Explain why it is important to society
that farmers have techniques for in-
creasing plant yields.
13. Should money be spent on improving
organic farming techniques or should it
be spent on developing GM plants?
Research organic farming and GM crops
and list the positive and negative effects
of each on producers and consumers,
on the environment, and on society as
a whole. Based on your research, eval-
uate the relative merits of funding
research in each area.
14. Explain why vegetable producers might
prefer to grow varieties that don’t spoil
easily over varieties that have better
flavour or nutritional value. Examine
the producers’ choice in terms of cost,
environmental impact, and consumers’
preferences.
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 513
 15.3 Plants in Industry
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section you will be able to:
 identify products made from plant fibres, plant extracts, and wood pulp

 describe and explain some of the food and industrial processes that depend on plants

 describe and explain some of the uses of plant extracts in food products

In addition to supplying heterotrophic largest supplier of newsprint to coun-

organisms with their food supply, plants
are used by humans to create a vast
array of important products (Figure
15.27). Trees are the source of wood for
building a variety of items, from musi-
cal instruments to the frames of houses.
Plants also supply us with many other
substances including a wide variety of
fibres and chemicals. They also serve as
a major source of fuel.
Products from Wood
The forest products industry is Canada’s
leading manufacturing sector. Wood
products include lumber, plywood,
newsprint, fine papers, and paperboard
or cardboard. Hardwoods such as maple
and oak are used to make furniture,
flooring, mouldings, cabinets, plywood,
and charcoal, as well as products rang-
ing from sponges to baseball bats.
Softwoods such as pine and cedar
are used to make paper and paper prod-
ucts because their cellulose fibres are
longer than hardwood. Longer fibres add
strength to the paper.
In 1999, over 30 billion tonnes of
paper and cardboard products were
produced in Canada. Canada is the
tries around the world. The Canadian
pulp and paper industry is the largest
employer in the country. Over 250 000
people work directly in the industry.
Indirect employment in the pulp and
paper industry across the country is
estimated to be about 760 000.
To make paper products from wood,
the first step is to make pulp. The bark
is removed from the log and the logs are
then ground up into chips. The chips are
either ground even finer, or mixed with
chemicals to separate the individual fi-
bres from one another. The pulp is
washed and then passed through a
screen. It is then thickened by removing
water from the pulp mixture. If the pulp
is to be used to make white paper or di-
apers, the pulp is bleached.
To make paper from pulp, water is
added so that the individual fibres be-
come separated and saturated with water.
This mixture is then filtered through a
screen, and the substance left on the
screen forms a matted sheet of cellulose
fibre. This sheet is passed through a roller
to squeeze out the water. The resulting
sheet of paper is then left to dry. Canada
produces a variety of paper products from
writing paper to facial tissue.

Discovering Biology A Closer Look at Paper

In this activity, you will be investigating paper fibres. Obtain several samples
of paper from your teacher. Set up a dissecting microscope at 50 X or 60 X
magnification.
■ Observe each of the samples using sub-stage illumination.
■ Describe any differences you see in the fibres of each of the paper samples.
■ Form conclusions as to whether there is a relationship between the structure
of paper and its use. Explain your reasoning.

514 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 cork oak tree
(bulletin board)

balsam fir
(particle board)

cotton plant
(T-shirt)

rubber tree
(eraser)

FIGURE 15.27 We use a variety of plant products in our daily lives. flax plant
(linen pants)

A New Use for
Wood Pulp
In the pulp manufacturing process, a
frothy layer called tall oil forms. Tall
oil contains a mixture of plant chem-
icals. Traditionally, chemicals in tall
oil have been used to manufacture
soaps, paints, and lubricants.
Recently, a Canadian company has
found a new use for some of theses
chemicals. They have extracted a
group of chemicals called phytosterols
(plant sterols) from the tall oil and
used them to create a drug that low-
ers cholesterol levels in humans.
Plant sterols are complex molecules
found naturally in many plants. The
drug, known as Phytrol TM is being
used as an ingredient of food prod-
ucts such as cereal, soy beverages,
and milk. The drug has been shown
to reduce the levels of “bad” choles-
terol. High cholesterol levels are
associated with heart disease and
circulatory problems.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 515

WEBLINK
For centuries, the hemp plant,
Cannibis sativa, has been
grown because it can be used
to make many useful products.
However, with the rise of the
illegal cannabis use, the
cultivation of hemp has been
outlawed. Investigate the legal
cultivation and use of low-THC
hemp. Look at hemp production
in terms of ease of cultivation,
cost to cultivate it, and possible
legal and societal implications.
Create a P-M-I chart to record
the pluses and minuses of
hemp cultivation. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 524,
Investigation 2
. the production of processed foods such
516 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Products from Plant Fibres Oils from olives, coconuts, yuccas,
jojoba, among others, are used to make
Most fabrics are made from plant fibres.
soaps, shampoos, and skin softeners.
Cotton, used for fabrics for centuries,
The other ingredients mixed in with
is just one of the important fibres de-
these oils affect the type of end product.
rived from plants. Other plants used
For example, olive oil is used to make
for fibres include flax, used to make
soap, shampoo, moisturizer, or bath oil.
linen; jute and sisal, used to make rope;
Linseed oil is extracted from the seeds of
and kapok, used as a filling in mattresses
the flax plant. It is a popular finish for
and upholstered furniture. Cellulose fi-
furniture because it gives dry wood a
bres, mainly from cotton and wood, are
pleasing colour and protects it against
used in countless products, from the
moisture damage.
kitchen “sponge” to the film in your cam-
era. Cellulose is also used to manufac-
ture rayon, a fibre that is woven into
fabric used in clothing.
Plant Extracts
A plant extract is any substance that is
produced by processing a plant or part
of a plant. Cooking oils are extracts from
seeds such as sunflower, safflower, corn,
olive, and canola. Seed oils are used in
as margarine, ice cream, peanut butter,
and salad dressings. Most seed oils are
unsaturated and are liquid at room tem-
perature. Interestingly, oils such as canola
and corn oils have to be hydrogenated in FIGURE 15.29 Linseed oil is added to oil-based
order to be used as an ingredient in mar- paints to give them a good consistency and to
increase the gloss of the paint.
garine. Hydrogenation makes them more
solid at room temperature, which makes
the margarine solid enough to spread.
However, hydrogenated oils may be less Seed oils have a variety of other in-
healthy than unsaturated oils. dustrial uses. Many paint bases, some
lubricants, and even the oil for high-pow-
ered microscope objectives all come from
seeds. Castor bean oil, which is extracted
from seeds of the castor bean plant,
has long been known for producing oils
that can withstand high temperatures
and pressures, and is used in hydraulic
systems in industrial machinery. The
oil is also used as an ingredient in motor
oils (Figure 15.28) for high-performance
automobile engines. It clings to the very
hot moving metal parts and protects
them from the harmful effects of friction.
Essential oils are extracted from the
flowers of plants such as jasmine, lilac,
and the rose, and used in the manufac-
FIGURE 15.28 Castor bean oil is an ingredient
ture of perfumes. The formulas for
of some motor oils.
perfumes are carefully guarded by
manufacturers.
Rubber is manufactured from the
milky liquid called latex, which is pro-
duced from several types of rubber trees.
Rubber trees are tropical plants grown
in South America and Southeast Asia.
Once collected, excess water in the
latex is removed by evaporation and crude
rubber is left. Crude rubber tends to melt
or become brittle in extreme temperatures
so it has to be vulcanized. In the vulcan-
ization process, sulfur and carbon are
added to the rubber. Once vulcanized rub-
ber is much more pliable, it can be used
to make a variety of products such as bi-
cycle inner tubes and tires. FIGURE 15.31 Latex from a rubber tree is
Plants have supplied the raw mate- collected by cutting small slits in the bark of the
tree.
rials for dyes used on fabrics over the
centuries. Roots, berries, flowers, and
wood are all sources of dye. One of the of dye for decorating the human body. INFOBIT
oldest known sources of dye is a group In India, it is called mehndi, and in a tra-
of tropical shrub-like plants commonly ditional wedding ceremony, the bride The ancient Greeks and
usually has her hands and feet covered Romans used olive oil as a
called indigo plants. The plant was used
soap. They rubbed oil on
in ancient Egypt, Rome, and India to dye with beautiful henna designs (Figure their skin to loosen natural
fabrics various shades of blue. The 15.32). The plant, also called Egyptian secretions and dirt. This dirty
chemical indican, produced by the plant, privet, is native to North Africa and oil was scraped off, leaving
reacts with oxygen in the air to produce India, and can grow to heights of six the skin soft and clean, but oily
metres. Orange, red, or brown dye is by our modern standards. The
the intense blue colour.
olive scent was undoubtedly
The henna plant has been used extracted from its crushed leaves. Henna preferable to the odour of an
since ancient Egyptian times as a source is also used for colouring hair. unwashed body.

FIGURE 15.30 The manufacture of perfumes FIGURE 15.32 Hands decorated with henna.
depends on plant extracts. The dye usually wears off after several weeks.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 517

INFOBIT
What do tapioca and nail
polish remover have in
common? They are made from
substances produced by the
cassava plant. Acetone, the
solvent in nail polish remover
and many other industrial
chemicals, is obtained from
fermenting parts of the cassava
plant. Tapioca comes from
starch in the roots.
FIGURE 15.33 Average
global fuelwood production is
roughly 1.7 million cubic
metres. This wood is used for
cooking, heating, and power
production. Canada produces
roughly 5000 cubic metres.
518 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Plant protein, which is found mainly
in the seeds of plants, is used to manu-
facture food products such as tofu. The
soya bean is high in protein and is used
extensively in meatless products such
as vegetarian burgers and soy hot dogs.
Products such as these are important
sources of protein for vegetarians.
A recently developed snack food that
looks like peanuts but is made from soya
beans, can be enjoyed by people with an
allergy to peanut products. Soy drink or
soy “milk” is a common substitute for
cow’s milk for people who are lactose
intolerant.
Energy from Plants
Until the industrial revolution, wood was
the major source of fuel for cooking and
Section 15.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. What is the most important industry in
Canada that uses plants?
2. In a flow chart, illustrate the process
of making paper.
3. Vanilla is a common extract found in
the kitchen. In your own words, ex-
plain what a plant extract is. List two
different types of extracts that are used
in the food industry.
4. Explain some of the ways that food and
industrial processes depend on plants.
5. Why can it be said that plants
warmth. In many developing nations,
wood and charcoal are still the pri-
mary fuel sources.
In industrialized countries, plants
are the major energy source. Coal, oil,
and natural gases are all combustible
materials that are produced from an-
cient, fossilized plants. These important
fuel sources are used around the world
for heating, transportation, many in-
dustrial processes, and the generation
of electricity.
As oil and gas resources become
scarcer and more expensive, we turn to
plants to find new ways to supply fuels
for energy, especially for transportation.
Gasohol is a fuel made by combining
gasoline with ethanol. Ethanol is formed
by the fermentation of wastes from crops
such as corn and potatoes. Gasohol re-
duces the dependence on petroleum but
also reduces the number of pollutants
produced by the automobile engine.
Currently, gasohol can contain only about
10 percent ethanol. Higher ethanol
content can damage some components
of the engine. Gasohol is also expensive
to produce. Until cheaper production
methods are developed, gasohol will not
become as common a fuel as was
originally hoped. Currently, 250 million
litres are sold in Canada each year. In
Ontario, there are 520 gas stations that
sell gasohol.
provide the vast majority of all sources
of energy used by society?
Making Connections
6. What are the advantages and disad-
vantages of using gasohol?
7. Based on the importance of plants to
the well-being of society, what actions
could industry take to ensure biologi-
cal diversity?
8. Research careers directly and indirectly
affiliated with the logging industry.
Record your findings in a concept map.
15.4 Plants in Medicine
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you will be able to:
 describe some of the uses of plant extracts in therapeutic products
 compile information about chemicals derived from plants
Plants produce thousands of chemical
substances. Most of these chemicals have
nothing to do with the plant’s most
important process, photosynthesis.
Because plants cannot move, they have
developed adaptations to ensure that
sexual reproduction takes place. Plants,
for example, lure bees to flowers by
producing chemicals in nectar. The
chemicals produced also protect the
plants from animals and a host of
parasites. For example, mustard plants
produce a number of chemicals with
strong odours that deter most insects
from eating them. Humans discovered the
therapeutic uses of plants thousands of years
ago and have been using plants and their
extracts for this purpose ever since.
Plants in Medicine in the Past
The earliest evidence of plant use in
medicine was found in Iraq in the 1950s.
Neanderthal remains were found in
FIGURE 15.34 A page from the 13th-century
Arabic manuscript Treatise of the Theriac,
showing six herbs used to make theriacs,
antidotes to poisons.
the Shanidar Cave, along with pollen
from prehistoric plants that lived an es-
timated 60 000 years ago. The pollen of
seven flowering plants was found in clus-
ters, leading scientists to believe that the
flowers were arranged in a wreath worn
by a prehistoric man or woman who was
sick. The pollen was identified, and it
turns out that each of the flowering
plants from the cluster is used today for
medicinal purposes. One of the plants
was a hollyhock, which is a common
Ontario garden plant. It has been used
over the centuries as a herbal remedy
for its pain-killing properties.
Over 5000 years ago, the Sumerians
recorded the use of plants for healing
purposes. There are also many refer-
ences to the medicinal use of plants in
FIGURE 15.35 The cover of
the Bible. One of the oldest records of
Herball.
the medicinal use of plants comes from
China. Around 2800 B.C., a list of hun-
dreds of medicinal plants was compiled,
many of which are still in use. A com-
prehensive list of herbal remedies, made
in 200 B.C., documents thousands of
years of use in China. Doctors tested
plant remedies on commoners who
showed similar symptoms to the sick
emperor. If the remedy cured the com-
moner, it was given to the emperor. The
symptoms and appropriate herbal treat-
ments were then recorded. There are
over a thousand plant drugs still used by
doctors in China today. The last 30 years
have seen a much greater interest in
North America in ancient Chinese herbal
medicines.
In 1597, the book Herball, published
in England, listed the medicinal uses of
hundreds of plants (Figure 15.35). One
of the treatments in this book was for
disorders of the “inward parts” of the
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 519

FIGURE 15.36 Foxglove
plants
FIGURE 15.37 A small
section of a fresco in Mexico
City’s Hospital de la Raza,
showing an Aztec healer and
some of the medicinal plants
the Aztecs used.
520 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
body, including the liver. A remedy using
the leaves of the foxglove plant (Figure
15.36) was prescribed. It was eventually
discovered that the powerful heart drug,
digitalis, is produced by this plant.
In the late sixteenth century, during
the Spanish conquest of Peru, the
Spaniards discovered that the native
Peruvians used the bark of a tree known
as the “fever tree” to treat the mosquito-
borne disease, malaria. Several hundred
years later, the chemical quinine was iso-
lated from the bark of the yellowbark
cinchona plant, the “fever tree.” The
drug was used for many years as a ther-
apeutic product to prevent and cure this
deadly disease.
Today, malaria still affects close to
500 million people and kills over two
million people a year. Because the
Anopheles mosquito lives in the tropics,
Canadians have largely been unaffected
by the disease. However, with an in-
crease in travel to tropical countries, the
incidence of malaria in this country has
also increased.
Quinine was replaced in the 1940s
with synthetic forms of the drug.
Scientists used the molecular structure of
quinine to make these new drugs. In
the 1960s, doctors and scientists around
the world noticed an increase in resis-
tance of the parasite to these drugs. New
drugs had to be developed. A relatively
new drug that is now used to combat
some of the resistant forms of malaria
is called mefloquine. Unfortunately, it has
serious side effects in some people.
For centuries, a mixture contain-
ing the leaves of the white willow tree
had been used as a remedy for all types
of pain. It was eventually discovered that
the bark of the willow tree produces the
chemical, salicylic acid. Another small
plant called queen of the meadow also
produces this chemical. At the end of the
nineteenth century, German scientists
had isolated and finally prepared the ac-
tive pain-killing substance, acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA), which they named Aspirin.
ASA is probably the most familiar drug
in the world.
Medicinal Chemicals
from Plants
The medicinal value of plants is due to
chemicals found in the leaves, stems,
roots, seeds, flowers, fruits, bark, or
wood. The sugars that plants produce
through photosynthesis are converted by
the plant to many other substances. So
far, over 10 000 different plant chemicals
have been identified. The function of large
numbers of these substances is still un-
known.
Plant chemicals can have stimulat-
ing, soothing, or relaxing effects, or even
kill invading micro-organisms. Practically
all of the drugs considered as “recre-
ational” come from plants. These include
caffeine, nicotine, the chemicals in choco-
late, and marijuana. One-quarter of all
prescription drugs used today contain
plant-produced chemicals.
Two of the most important groups
of plant chemicals used in medicine are
the alkaloids and the glycosides. The al-
kaloids include drugs such as morphine,
nicotine, cocaine, and quinine. Opium,
the source of the powerful pain killer,
morphine, is obtained from the dried
latex of the poppy fruit (Figure 15.38).
 Digitalis, a glycoside, is a crude form
of a heart drug from the foxglove plant.
Two other powerful heart drugs, digi-
toxin and digoxin, are also extracted
from digitalis. These drugs cause a dis-
eased heart to beat more strongly and
with a more regular rhythm. The glyco-
sides alone have saved thousands of lives
over the years.
Antioxidants are chemicals that are
believed to help normal animal cells
resist diseases like cancer. Many of these
chemicals are produced by plants. Dark-
green vegetables such as broccoli,
cauliflower, and cabbage, legumes such
as beans, and citrus fruits produce
antioxidants. There is evidence that
people who eat these foods regularly are
less likely to get cancers of the colon,
stomach, and esophagus. Researchers
are currently exploring the possibility
that these chemicals may also help slow
the aging process.
The drops that the eye doctor or the
optometrist puts in your eyes to dilate
your pupils when you have your eyes ex-
amined contains a drug called atropine.
It comes from the belladonna plant.
Codeine and antihistamines, found in
cold remedies, also come from plants.
Steroids are also produced by plants. In
fact, a major source of estrogen for the
production of birth control pills is the
yam. Two powerful drugs have been iso-
lated from the rosy periwinkle, a rare
plant found in the rain forest of
Madagascar. One is very effective in
treating a form of cancer called
Hodgkin’s disease, while the other is
used to treat some types of leukemia.
Therapeutic chemicals extracted from
plants are generally less expensive to
obtain than chemicals synthesized in
laboratories. Some of the molecules in the
compounds produced by plants are so
complex that they either cannot be
artificially manufactured, or the cost of
making them would be very high. As a
result, the cost of the medication for those
who need it would be high.
WEBLINK
Naturopathic medicines have
become increasingly popular in
recent years. One of the most
popular is Echinacea. Find out
whether there is scientific
evidence to support whether
Echinacea is effective and
decide whether you would use
Echinacea. Write a paragraph
to support your decision.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
FIGURE 15.38 Seed pods of the poppy plant
The Search for
New Plant Drugs
Pharmaceutical companies have been INFOBIT
putting most of their research efforts into
finding drugs produced by bacteria Researchers are testing
and fungi. With modern recombinant several varieties of broccoli
DNA techniques, it is relatively inex- to see whether levels of an
antioxidant called sulforaphane
pensive to produce large quantities of differ among the varieties.
the type of micro-organisms desired for If sulforaphane levels are
the research and development of new genetically controlled, new
drugs. In order to investigate a plant varieties could be developed
as a potential drug source, many of the with higher levels of this
antioxidant.
plants are needed. One of the difficulties
is in obtaining enough plants, especially
if the plant is rare and grows in an in-
accessible area such as the Amazon
jungle. It often takes a large quantity of
plant material to produce a small
amount of the drug. In the case of the
medicinal chemicals produced by the
rosy periwinkle, about 500 kg of leaves
are required to produce one gram of
each drug. Drug research in plants is not
being carried out on a wide scale. It is
difficult to know which of the 300 000
species of plants to investigate. All plants
produce chemicals. Which ones might
be useful to humans?
Should scientists investigate all
plants for drug-producing abilities? Even
if scientists examine plant groups with
known medicinal functions, the task is
huge, since these plants produce
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 521

FIGURE 15.39 Though ASA
is an effective pain reliever, it
causes stomach irritation in
some people.
hundreds of blood from coming together to form clots.
chemicals. Even Clots are particularly harmful in patients
plant-derived with advanced heart disease because
drugs that have their narrowed vessels may become com-
been used for pletely blocked. In the last decade, thou-
many years for a sands of people have taken ASA
particular ailment regularly to protect themselves against
could have a bene- a second heart attack or stroke.
ficial effect on The search for anti-cancer drugs
some completely from plants is perhaps more difficult
unrelated disease. than for other drugs. In many cases,
A good example is drugs have been “discovered” that were
the case of ASA. used for centuries by the local inhabi-
ASA has been tants for a particular ailment. The use
used for about 100 of quinine by Peruvians to treat malaria
years as an effec- is a good example. In the case of cancer,
tive pain reliever however, descriptions of the disease in
and to reduce local folklore and traditional medicine
fever. ASA hinders the production of a are vague.
group of hormones called prostaglandins. Because scientists cannot predict
When these hormones are released by which plants will produce useful drugs,
human tissue, they cause fever, pain, and as many plants as possible must be pre-
inflammation. However, in the late served in their natural habitat.
1980s, researchers found that taking Biodiversity must be maintained if
ASA could reduce the chances of some- society hopes to continue using plant
one having a second heart attack or chemicals that nature has provided to
stroke. ASA prevents platelets in the cure diseases.

Section 15.4 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Give two reasons why plants produce
so many chemicals.
2. Create a web to show the different
chemicals that come from plants.
3. In a table, list the chemicals produced
by plants listed in the text and describe
their therapeutic role.
4. Malaria has been a dangerous disease
throughout history. Describe how the
drugs used to treat malaria have
changed over time.
5. Research antioxidants and, in a chart,
record the effects they may have on
disease.
Making Connections
7. There is a large tract of tropical rain
forest that farmers want to clear so that
they can grow food and graze livestock
to feed their families. However, the
plants in the area have never been sur-
veyed by scientists as possible sources
of life-saving chemicals. Identify the so-
cial groups who have a stake in the
area. Propose a course of action for this
rain forest and justify your plan by
explaining how each group would be
affected by it.
8. Should plant research be more
widespread? In a paragraph, support
your opinion.

Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Hypothesize why plants have been a
source of medicines through history.

522 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 15.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
A Test for Protein in Seeds  Concluding and Communicating

Problem 6. Place several layers of cheesecloth in a clean funnel

inserted in a clean, labelled test tube. Filter the con-
Seeds supply energy and nutrition. In this investiga- tents of your first sample through the cheesecloth.
tion, you will determine whether various seeds contain
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the remaining samples,
protein.
washing the funnel between samples. Use a
separate test tube and fresh cheesecloth for each
Materials filtration. Discard the cheesecloth and its contents
For each group of students: after each filtration.
 dry navy, white, pinto,  cheesecloth 8. Adjust the volume of each extract to approximately
or kidney beans  mortar and pestle 5 mL (thumb width).
 flax seeds  funnel 9. Treat each extract as follows: add 10 drops of 10%
 soft wheat kernels  10 20-mL test tubes NaOH and 7 drops the Biuret reagent. Mix con-
 dried, chopped chest-  Biuret reagent tents by gently “flicking” the bottom of the test tube
nut “meats”**  10% NaOH while holding the top securely.
 gelatin powder  filter paper 10. Observe each test tube. Record any colour changes
 distilled water  balance for each of the samples after the Biuret reagent
has been added.
* beans may require soaking overnight in room-temperature water
before grinding
** chestnut preparation: prior to investigation, remove wall of chest-
Analyzing and Interpreting
nuts, chop into pieces no larger than 5 mm, and dry overnight in a 1. Construct a chart with the following headings:
warming oven Extract, Colour, Colour after Biuret Test.
2. Record your observations for each sample in your
CAUTION: If you have an allergy to nuts, do not do this
chart.
investigation. Biuret reagent is toxic and 10% NaOH is very
corrosive. Avoid contact with skin. Wear eye protection. 3. Interpret each of your observations after testing for
the presence of protein.
Procedure 4. Gelatin powder is pure protein. Explain why it is
used and how it helps you to interpret your ob-
1. Using a mortar and pestle, thoroughly grind a few servations.
pinches of seeds (of the same type) at a time. A
1-g sample of ground seeds is required for each
type of seed. Concluding and Communicating
2. Weigh the ground seeds on filter paper. (Adjust the 5. According to your observations, which seeds con-
balance to compensate for the mass of the paper.) tain protein?
Measure 1 g of ground seeds for each type. Wipe the 6. In what occupations might this information be
mortar thoroughly each time with paper towels be- needed?
fore grinding the next seed type. It is not necessary
to wash the mortar if you wipe it clean each time.
3. Weigh 1 g of dry gelatin powder. Extending
4. Place each ground-seed sample in a clean, dry, and 7. What other chemical tests could be run on the ex-
labelled 20-mL test tube. Place the gelatin in a fifth tracts of these and other seeds? The testing done
test tube. in this investigation is a qualitative test. Explain
5. Add 10 mL of distilled water to each test tube. Using how another type of test might be more valuable
your thumb as a stopper, shake each one vigorously for testing nutrient contents in seeds.
for 30 s. 8. Find out what percentage of seed mass is protein
for each type of seed.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 523

 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 15.3)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites  Concluding and Communicating

Dust mites are tiny relatives of spiders and live in car-
pets, bedding, upholstered furniture, and stuffed
toys. Their diet consists of dead skin cells from humans
and pets. The mites’ droppings are an allergen for many
people and can cause sneezing , runny nose, and
asthma. It is very difficult to get rid of these tiny pests.
Eucalyptus oil is an extract of the eucalyptus tree,
a tree native to Australia. Preliminary evidence has
shown that eucalyptus oil may kill dust mites.
 Decide how you will measure the results of your
experiment.
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Present your observations in a data table.
2. How did the concentration of eucalyptus oil affect
your results?
3. Prepare a lab report to summarize your findings.

Question Concluding and Communicating

Will eucalyptus oil kill dust mites?
4. Was eucalyptus oil effective in killing dust mites?
5. Would removing dust mites result in increasing
Hypothesis/Prediction other allergens or affect other homebound in-
Develop a hypothesis for your experiment. sects, i.e., affect the food chain in the dust mites’
ecosystem?
Materials 6. Prepare a written lab report to summarize your
 dust mites investigation.
 cloth
 plastic bag
 dissecting microscope
Extending
 eucalyptus oil 7. Research other possible uses there might be for
plant extracts such as eucalyptus oil.
CAUTION: Students with allergies to dust should not be 8. Could any other plant extract be used on dust mites
involved in collection of the dust. instead of eucalyptus oil? Develop a procedure to
test your idea.
Experimental Design
 To begin the experiment, collect dust mites by plac-
ing a smooth, dark-coloured cloth on the floor and
sweeping house dust onto the cloth. After several
days, gently shake off the dust, place the cloth in a
clean plastic bag, and bring it to your science class.
Place the cloth under the microscope and check
for dust mites. Use Figure 15.40 as a guide. Make
sure that you view the cloth at 50 X magnification.
 Develop a scientific investigation to show the effects
of eucalyptus oil on dust mites.
 Select the variables you can manipulate to test eu-
calyptus oil’s effectiveness in killing dust mites.
 Select which variables you will control in your
experiment.
 Design a procedure to test the variable you have
selected.
 Have the teacher review your experiment before you FIGURE 15.40 House dust mite
carry out the plan.

524 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
biological control ecological succession
clone (succession)
cutting genetically modified (GM)
Essential Understandings
15.1 Plants in Nature
 Plants supply usable energy to other organisms.
They also provide habitat.
 Increased plant diversity leads to increased ani-
mal diversity.
 The diversity of a plant community changes over
time through the process of succession.
 Primary succession happens in places where no
plant life existed previously; secondary succession
occurs after disturbances in existing communities.
15.2 Plants in Agriculture
 The most important food crops for humans are
the grains or cereals and the legumes.
 Sources of food come from roots, stems, leaves,
fruits, and seeds.
 Growers use a variety of techniques to increase
yields to provide affordable food to an expanding
population.
 Yields from agricultural plants have been continu-
ously improved over the centuries by selective
breeding, grafting and, more recently, by cloning.
 Cuttings, grafts, and test-tube cloning allow for the
production of agricultural plants that are genetically
identical.
 Hybridization and recombinant DNA techniques are
used to produce genetically modified plants with a
variety of desired characteristics.
Consolidate Your Understanding
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 495 and review
the web you used to brainstorm products derived from
plants. Revise the web diagram based on what you have
learned in the chapter.
2. Draw a concept map to summarize what you have
learned about the uses of plants in agriculture using the
following key terms: selective breeding, hybridization,
clone, genetically modified, monoculture.
grafting primary succession
hybridization secondary succession
monoculture selective breeding
 Although a monoculture allows for high yields of a
desired crop, it is risky because the entire crop could
be destroyed by disease.
15.3 Plants in Industry
 Many important industrial products are made from
plant fibres, extracts, and plant proteins.
 Industrial processes such as papermaking and tire
manufacturing depend on plants.
 Although plants are an important fuel source in de-
veloping countries, new fuel sources from plants,
such as gasohol, are being developed.
15.4 Plants in Medicine
 Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for
thousands of years.
 Quinine and salicylic acid are two of the oldest
and most well-known plant extracts used as medic-
inal drugs.
 Only a small number of plant chemicals have been
identified and only a few of these have been re-
searched for medical uses.
 Finding new drugs from plants is time-consuming
and difficult. Plant biodiversity must be preserved
in order to give scientists the time to discover new
drugs from plants.
3. There are a wide variety of career choices in plant sci-
ence relating to industry, agriculture, and medicine.
Research a career in one of these categories and describe
the skills you would need to succeed in that career.
4. Reflect on your learning. When you research on the
Internet, what are the criteria you use to evaluate the
information on the sites that you explore?
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 525
C H A P T E R 15 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts 12. Explain how the rotation of crops reduces the need for
applying a pesticide to control an insect pest.
1. The pollination of a plant possessing a desired trait with
another variety of the same species is known as 13. Make a chart showing the categories of edible plant parts
a) self-pollination and common foods from each category. Give two ex-
b) grafting amples for each.
c) cloning
d) hybridization 14. Identify the agricultural technique used to produce many
identical plants without planting seeds. List four com-
2. Aspirin is used mon crops produced in this manner.
a) as a painkiller and heart stimulant
b) to reduce fever and prevent blood clots from 15. Explain why the tropical rain forest biome supports a
forming wider diversity of animal life than the boreal conifer-
c) to reduce fever and prevent malaria ous forest.
d) to reduce fever and treat certain cancers
16. Compare secondary succession in the temperate decid-
3. Legumes have an advantage over other types of plants uous forest to that in the boreal forest.
in that they require
a) less fertilizer 17. a) Provide two specific examples of genetically modi-
b) more protein fied crops grown in North America.
c) genetic modification b) Outline the reason(s) why these crops were developed
d) more fertilizer and the benefit(s) derived from growing them.

4. The bacteria that cause crown gall disease are impor- 18. Copy Table 15.3 into your notebook. Complete all sec-
tant in agriculture because they tions with a suitable word or phrase.
a) does not affect plants
b) can transmit a desired gene to a plant TABLE 15.3 Plants and Their Uses
c) causes cloned plants to reproduce
d) can be cloned Plant extract Source Commercial use

5. A major use of genetic modification of plants has been latex

the development of crops that
a) absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere
b) survive freezing temperatures flax seeds
c) resist the effects of weed killers
d) do not require light to grow
peanut butter
6. Explain why both grafting and cloning are considered to
be asexual reproduction. castor oil

7. Describe how the technique of selective breeding works.

henna leaves
8. Explain why selective breeding is an important agricul-
tural technique.
indigo dye
9. Describe how and why one plant extract is used in the
auto industry.

10. a) Name some processed foods derived from plants.

b) Identify the plant(s) that are used in a). 19. Describe how food irradiation works.

11. Explain why an occurrence such as the Irish potato blight, 20. Provide three examples of plant extracts that are used
in which most of the potato crop was lost, is unlikely to in industries that are not connected to the food indus-
happen today in most countries. try. Describe how they are used.

526 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Applying Inquiry/ 27. Prepare a report explaining how either of the following
Communication Skills is manufactured:
a) cardboard
b) kraft paper
TABLE 15.4 The number of species growing in a field near
Windsor, Ontario, that was abandoned 40 years ago. Data were 28. Write a report on the efforts currently being made to
collected periodically over the 40 years. conserve biodiversity in Canadian forests.

Vegetation Years after abandonment that the field 29. Describe how society affects plant science and technology.
type was sampled
30. Investigate the current protective measures recom-
1 5 15 25 40
mended for travellers to malaria-infested areas of the
grasses 31 27 23 31 34 world. Include in your brief report, a discussion of the
treatment for travellers returning to Canada who have
shrubs 0 4 5 7 17 contracted malaria.
trees 0 0 0 14 23
31. Irradiation is used to prevent foods from spoiling and it
total species 31 31 28 52 74
extends their shelf life. Bacteria, fungi, and insects are
killed by this process. Even though irradiation has been
shown to be effective in preventing human disease, there
21. Analyze the data in Table 15.4. What do you conclude is opposition to the use of this technology. Prepare a brief
about the plant diversity in the field and explain how the report on the pros and cons of food irradiation.
data supports your conclusion.
32. In the late 1980s and early 90s, a chemical called Alar
22. Analyze the data in Table 15.4 and conclude whether was applied to apple orchards to ensure all the fruit
these data provide evidence of succession and explain ripened at the same time. There were reports in the
how the data support your conclusion. media at the time that this chemical might be harmful
to humans. In fact, some Hollywood celebrities supported
23. Given the trends in the data, predict what the data might a public outcry against the use of Alar. Research the con-
be for each vegetation type after another 25 years. troversy over the use of this chemical and prepare a brief
report about what happened. Include the role of the
24. In Discovering Biology on page 500, you predicted what media in the controversy as well as the research find-
an abandoned playing field would look like after 10 and ings about the effects of Alar.
100 years. Suppose you were asked to test your predic-
tions, but you were given only a few weeks to do it,
33. Food additives are put into processed foods for a vari-
and you could only examine natural areas near where
ety of reasons. There are many consumers who are
you live. Design an experimental procedure to test your
against the use of such additives. Identify a number of
hypothesis. What would you use as a control for this
additives from labels of a variety of processed foods. Find
investigation?
out what effect each has and why it is added to the food.

34. Some people in society do not support the use of genet-

Making Connections ically modified food, Research what concerns they
have and decide whether these concerns are valid.
25. All Koster blue spruce trees are sterile (unable to re- Provide evidence to support your decision.
produce). However, many of these trees are grown in
residential areas throughout the country as ornamen-
35. There is increasing interest in natural remedies and
tal or decorative trees. Explain how these trees are
plant-derived products for internal and external use.
obtained.
Gingko, aloe vera, Saint John’s wort, slippery elm
bark, and many other plants are now available as herbal
26. Explain how it was possible for the Macintosh apple to
remedies. Research the use of herbs in treatments for
become an important agricultural product.
ailments, as supplements, or as skin creams.

CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 527

 CHAPTER 16

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Plant Structure and
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 describe the structure and function
Function
of the components of each of the
leaf, the stem, and the root of a
representative vascular plant (16.1,
16.2, 16.3)
 differentiate between monocot and
dicot plants by observing and com-
paring the structure of their seeds
and identifying vascular differences
between plants (16.1, 16.2,
Investigation 1)
 identify, using a microscope and
models, the plant tissues in roots,
stems, and leaves (16.2,
Investigation 2)
 explain how non-vascular plants
function without a vascular system
(16.3)

[CATCH: P2 colour enhanced

scanning electron micrograph
of a cross section of the root of
a corn plant. 1/3-1/2 page]
Caption:

FIGURE 16.1 This micrograph shows the intricate structure of the root of a corn plant.

528
E ver since land plants evolved from green algae millions of years ago, they
have evolved specialized structures that have enabled them to spread out
into different ecosystems and survive in diverse environments. The pho-
tomicrograph in Figure 16.1 shows the intricate, organized, and complex
structural characteristics of plants. The root, stem, and leaf are basic
structures of plants. Various cells and tissues in these structures perform
specialized functions and work together to sustain the life of the plant.
Plants have several types of tissue that perform different functions. In
order for plants to survive, they need nutrients and they need to be able to
move these nutrients to every cell. Roots absorb minerals and water from the
soil, and specialized transport tissues conduct the water and minerals from
the roots, through the stem, to the leaves. Cells in the leaves use the water,
along with carbon dioxide, to create sugars through photosynthesis. Another
specialized transport tissue moves these sugars to all the other cells of the
plant where they are used as an energy source. Another tissue protects the
plant structures to ensure they function effectively. Yet another tissue has var-
ious specialized cells that provide the plant with support and allow the
plant to grow and develop.
The movement of water and nutrients is critical to the survival of
plants. The mechanisms and processes by which plants supply themselves
with water and nutrients are extremely complex. This chapter examines the
structure of green plants and explains how structure is directly related to the
many functions carried out in plants.

Discovering Biology
Determining the Age of a Tree
Examine a cross section of tree
trunk provided by your teacher
in which the annual rings are
clearly visible. Each ring repre-
sents one year in the life of the
tree. Determine the age of the
tree used in class or the one in
the photo. In your group, hy- CHECKPOINT
pothesize how these rings are
produced each year. Make a T-chart that lists the
structures and functions of
the different parts of the
plant.

Structure Function

FIGURE 16.2 Cross section of a tree trunk

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 529

 16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the structure and function of the roots, stems, and leaves of vascular plants
 identify some vascular differences between monocot and dicot plants
 compare the seed structures of monocots and dicots
A plant is organized into roots and
shoots (Figure 16.3). The root system
is below ground and the shoot system is
above ground.
Roots serve at least three important
functions in plants: they act as anchors
to hold the plant in the soil, they absorb
water and minerals, and they trans-
port water and minerals to the stem
for distribution to the rest of the plant.
In some plants, the roots also serve an
important food-storage function.
The leaves and the stem make up
the shoot system. The primary role of
the leaf is to serve as the main location
for the food-making process of green
terminal
flower bud
leaf
bud
shoot
root root
hairs
FIGURE 16.3 The two parts of plants.
Although flowering plants vary widely in shape,
they all have the features labelled here.
530 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
plants, photosynthesis. The primary
function of the stem is to support the
leaves. Stems also transport water and
minerals to the leaves and sugars from
the leaves. There are also stems that
store food.
Monocots and Dicots
Angiosperms are a class of plants, the
Angiospermae, that produce flowers.
Angiosperms can be further divided into
two subclasses: the Monocotyledoneae
and the Dicotyledoneae, commonly
called monocots and dicots. There are
over 200 000 different species of dicots
and more than 50 000 types of mono-
cots. Monocots include the grains and
grasses, while the dicots include such
common plants as the daisy, tomato, and
maple tree. The names of the two sub-
groups are based on the structure of
their seeds. A seed is made up of a seed
coat, embyro, and endosperm. All
angiosperm seeds have at least one seed
leaf, or cotyledon. Monocots have only
one cotyledon. Dicots have two
cotyledons and these store nutrients that
nourish the embryo as it develops. In
monocots, the cotyledon does not
provided nourishment to the embryo;
the nourishment comes from the
endosperm. Table 16.1 shows the major
differences in structure between
monocots and dicots.
Roots
There are two main types of roots found
in plants: taproots and fibrous roots
(Figure 16.4). The primary root emerges
from the germinating seed and develops
TABLE 16.1 Differences in Structure between Monocots and Dicots

Many differences result from whether a plant is a monocot (has one seed leaf) or a dicot (has two seed
leaves).

Monocots Dicots

Vascular bundles
scattered arranged
throughout in ring in
stem stem

Seed leaves one two

cotyledon cotyledons

Flower parts multiples multiples

of three of four or
five

parallel branching
veins veins
narrow broad
Mature leaves leaves leaves

fibrous tap root

root system
Roots system

orchids, wheat, rice, bananas oak and maple trees, cacti,

Examples
sunflowers

into a long, thick root called a taproot.
Branch roots, called secondary roots,
emerge from the taproot as the plant
grows. Dicots have taproots. Common
plants with taproots include carrots,
beets, and dandelions. Dandelions are a
problem to remove from lawns because
of their long taproots. If you pull out the
plant but leave some of the taproot
in the soil, that piece of root will grow
new shoots, resulting in a new plant.
Although a dandelion root might be long,
a mature oak tree’s taproot can grow
to a depth of four metres.
Monocots, such as the grains and
FIGURE 16.4 A taproot of a
grasses, possess fibrous root systems. In dandelion (top), and the
this system, there are many main roots fibrous root of a blue lace
of about the same size, and thousands flower (bottom)

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 531

 of secondary and tertiary roots. Often,
Discovering Biology Monocot and Dicot Seeds the roots of such plants extend laterally
You will be provided with dried peas, dates, corn seeds, oat seeds,
over a great area. The total length of
pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds. Remove date seeds from all the roots in the fibrous root system
their fruit and remove the “shells” from the pumpkin and sun- of the rye plant has been estimated to
flower seeds. be over 500 km! In some plants, roots
 Observe each type of seed carefully with a hand lens. known as adventitious roots develop.
 Determine whether the seed consists of one cotyledon or two.
These emerge from tissues other than
 Categorize each seed as a monocot or dicot.
roots, such as the stem and leaf. The
 Present your results in a table.
corn plant grows adventitious “prop”
roots from its stem to help support the
CAUTION: Do not eat any of the seeds. Do not do the activity if you
have a nut allergy.
plant (Figure 16.5).
There are several different types of
tissues found in the root. These can be
seen in the cross sections of the mono-
cot and dicot roots shown in Figure 16.6.
The epidermis is one cell layer thick
and is the outermost layer of the root.
In addition to protecting the inner cells
of the root, the epidermis absorbs water
and minerals from the soil. Specialized
epidermal cells form root hairs, which
act as sites of water and mineral ab-
sorption. Root hairs greatly increase the
surface area of the root, allowing this
absorption to occur faster.
The cortex is a layer of cells found
FIGURE 16.5 Prop roots growing from a stem just below the epidermis (Figure 16.6)
of a corn plant and consists of cells that store molecules

epidermis
cortex
endodermis

vascular
vascular cylinder
cylinder

xylem
phloem

a) monocot root b) dicot root

FIGURE 16.6 Cross sections of roots

532 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 endodermal cell endodermis

root hair
cell Casparian strip
wall
epidermis

xylem
cell
membrane

phloem

vascular
cylinder

cortex

FIGURE 16.7 The Casparian strip is like a series of rubber bands placed around each cell of
the endodermis.

such as starch. These cells also help minerals is being exploited by scientists INFOBIT
transport water and minerals from the in an effort to clean up the environment.
epidermal cells to the centre of the root. Phytoremediation is the use of plants Scientists have estimated that
Water moves by osmosis through these to extract toxic substances from soil and the total surface area available
for water absorption in the rye
cells. The inner layer of cortex is a spe- water. Contaminants such as lead, ar- plant is about the same as the
cialized wax-coated cell layer called senic, and uranium are absorbed by the floor space of a very large
the endodermis. The Casparian strip, roots. These substances are concentrated (400 m2) house.
which surrounds the endodermal cells in the roots and shoots of the plants. The
(Figure 16.7), prevents water from mov- plants can either be recycled or the en-
ing around them. Water must move tire plant can be safely disposed of.
through the endodermal cells into the Plants currently being used for phytore-
vascular cylinder by osmosis, and min- mediation are the mustard plant, the
erals are pumped through them by sunflower, aspen, and cattail.
active transport. This layer controls
the movement of water and minerals
into the central area of the root known
as the vascular cylinder. The vascular
cylinder contains the plant’s conducting
tissues, the xylem and phloem. Once the
water and minerals have entered the
cylinder, they are not able to move back
into the cortex cells. The role of the
xylem is to conduct water and miner-
als to the leaves and the role of the
phloem is to transport sugars from the
leaves to other parts of the plant. The
details of how these tissues function are
found in section 16.2. FIGURE 16.8 Sunflower plants have been used
The fact that roots are so effective in the phytoremediation of radioactive material
in absorbing not only water but also from contaminated water in Chernobyl, Ukraine.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 533

WORD ORIGIN
xylem from the Greek word
xulon, meaning “wood.”
phloem from the Greek word
phloios, meaning “bark.”
Investigation
Refer to page 551,
Investigation 1
Stems
There is a huge variety in shapes and
sizes of stems in different plant species.
Whatever the shape of the stem, its main
functions are to hold leaves up to the
sunlight and to conduct various sub-
stances between the roots and the
leaves. There are two main types of
stems. Herbaceous stems are green and
usually soft. These stems do not survive
the winter and are regrown each year.
Woody stems contain tough, hard tis-
sues commonly called wood. Trees and
shrubs, such as the lilac, are examples
of plants with woody stems. These stems
survive the winter.
Herbaceous Stems Vascular bundles are
collections of xylem, phloem, and asso-
ciated tissues. In the vascular bundles,
the xylem is always closer to the centre
of the stem and the phloem is closer to
the outside of the stem. The vascular
bundles are surrounded by supporting
tissues. The vascular bundles of herba-
ceous monocots, such as corn, are
scattered throughout the stem (Figure 16.9
a). In herbaceous dicots (Figure 16.9 b),
the bundles are arranged in a ring. In
dicots, there is a thin layer of tissue
called the vascular cambium in between
the xylem and phloem. Many herbaceous
dicots, such as buttercup or Ranunculus,
have a hollow stem.
Woody Stems The most complex stem is
the woody stem. All trees have woody
stems. Its major components are shown
in Figure 16.10. Woody stems are able
to grow thicker over time. This is due to
its vascular cambium (Figure 16.11). The
cambium makes so much new xylem
and phloem that the individual vascular
bundles are jammed together and are
difficult to distinguish. Each year, cam-
bium produces a layer of new xylem
(and phloem). Sapwood is younger
xylem, which conducts water and min-
erals. As new xylem is formed each year,
the older xylem created in previous years
fills with resins, oils, and other complex
chemicals and becomes heartwood. The
chemicals resist decay and may also give
the heartwood a different colour.
Heartwood is no longer able to conduct
fluids. As the tree grows each year, more

pith

vascular cortex
bundle

epidermis

fundamental xylem
or ground
tissue phloem

a) monocot stem b) dicot stem

FIGURE 16.9 Herbaceous stems

534 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 heart
wood

cork phloem

bark
vascular sapwood
cambium

FIGURE 16.10 Layers of a woody stem

wood is added, and the trunk widens. the outer cork layer often cracks or peels
The growth of new xylem each spring off in strips as the wood grows.
results in a new layer of sapwood or
annual ring being formed. Specialized Stems The stems of cacti
By counting the number of annual (Figure 16.12) are herbaceous but are
rings, a person can determine the age very different in structure and function
of the tree when it is cut down. By from plants found in Canada. In deserts, summer spring
carefully examining the xylem within the water is briefly available only at wood wood
annual ring, one can also determine the
weather during the year that the xylem
was produced. Spring growth is rapid.
Many large xylem cells (spring wood) are
formed by the cambium. Summer growth
is slower and smaller cells are produced
(summer wood). The difference in spring
and summer xylem can be seen in Figure
16.11. Cambium activity stops in late
summer and resumes the following
spring. A wide annual ring indicates a
long growing season and a narrow ring
indicates a short one.
The outer part of the woody stem is
the bark. Bark is a protective tissue that
phloem vascular
consists of the phloem and cork tissue. annual
cambium
The outer cork cells are dead and con- ring
tain fats, oils, and waxes, which help
prevent water loss. As the stem widens, FIGURE 16.11 A cross section of a woody dicot stem

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 535

 certain times of the year. Cacti must be
able to store the water they absorb dur-
ing those periods. Most cacti have stems
that are adapted to store water, so they
have a constant supply for photosynthesis
throughout the year (Figure 16.12).
Stems can also be used to store food,
to help the plant survive the winter and
spring. The plant uses the stored food
until it has grown new leaves that can
make food. There are several different
types of modified stems (Figure 16.13).
Rhizomes are thick, fleshy stems that
FIGURE 16.12 A giant saguaro cactus. All that
is seen in the photo is stem. The leaves are tiny
needles that are not visible in this photo.
a) Iris rhizomes b) Potatoes are tubers.
FIGURE 16.13 Specialized stems
536 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
grow on or just below the soil’s surface.
Rhizomes develop roots and can survive
winter. In the spring, buds develop from
the rhizomes. Many familiar garden
plants, such as irises and canna lilies, and
many species of grass develop rhizomes.
Tubers are another form of special-
ized stems. Even though tubers are
stems, they grow underground. They be-
come so enlarged with stored food that
they don’t resemble stems at all. Tubers
have “eyes,” which are actually buds.
These buds grow into new shoots above
the ground. Potatoes are common tubers.
Bulbs are also underground stems.
The actual stem, though, is quite small. It
is surrounded by layers of modified leaves.
These leaves are short and very thick.
Tulips, onions, and daffodils develop
bulbs.
Leaves
The leaf not only makes sugars for the
plant but also supplies all living organ-
isms with their source of food and oxy-
gen. The photosynthetic machinery of
plants, the chloroplasts, is located pri-
marily in the leaves of green plants.
There are many different types of leaves
but most are designed to provide the
maximum exposure to sunlight. Figure
16.14 shows the difference between a
simple leaf and a compound leaf, as well
as some highly modified leaves. The typ-
ical leaf, as seen in cross section in
Figure 16.15, contains a number of spe-
cialized tissues.
c) Tulips form bulbs.
 Most leaves are covered by a waxy compound
leaves
substance known as cuticle, which is
produced by the epidermis. As in the
root and stem, the epidermis forms the
outer cell layer of the plant. The
epidermis and cuticle provide water-
proofing for the leaf, as well as a
protective barrier for the tissues inside
the leaf. However, water vapour, oxygen,
and carbon dioxide must be able to
move into and out of the leaf. The pas-
sage of these gases happens through the
stomata (singular: stoma). In land
plants, most of the stomata are located
on the underside of the leaves. Woody simple
plants, such as the oak and apple, have leaves
no stomata on the upper leaf surface,
while the leaves of herbaceous plants,
such as corn, have significant numbers
on their upper surfaces.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
is one of the raw materials used by the
chloroplasts to manufacture sugars. In
general, the stomata are open during
daylight hours to allow in the carbon
dioxide needed for photosynthesis and to
allow water vapour out. Oxygen, a by-
product of photosynthesis, is also released
through the open stomata into the at-
leaves modified leaves modified
mosphere. Since photosynthesis can’t as spines as tendrils
happen at night, carbon dioxide is not
needed, so the stomata are usually closed FIGURE 16.14 Leaves come in many different shapes. Simple leaves have just one
at night to prevent excess water loss. blade, but compound leaves are divided into smaller leaflets.

vein
cuticle

epidermis

palisade layer

mesophyll

spongy layer

stoma

epidermis

guard cells xylem phloem air spaces

FIGURE 16.15 Leaves are the site of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 537

INFOBIT
Scientists have estimated that
the total surface area of the
chloroplasts in all the leaves of
one mature tree, such as an
elm, is slightly less than the
entire land area of the island
nation of Barbados (about
430 km2).
closed stoma
guard cells
FIGURE 16.16 Two stomata
are visible. One is open and
one is closed. In this photo-
graph, most of the epidermis
has been torn away, revealing
the spongy layer that lies
below it.
538 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Plants are also able to close their stomata
during the day, depending on environ-
mental conditions. When it’s too hot, or
when there is a lack of water in the soil,
plants can close their stomata until
conditions improve. Many plants also
display a “rhythm” of opening and
closing of stomata during daylight hours.
Each stoma is surrounded by two
guard cells (Figure 16.16). The guard
cells are specialized, kidney-shaped epi-
dermal cells containing chloroplasts. In
daylight, the complex movement of ions
into the guard cells creates a hypertonic
environment inside the cells. As a result,
water moves by osmosis from the sur-
rounding cells into the guard cells, causing
them to swell. Because the inner wall of
the guard cell is thicker than the rest of
the cell wall, the cell curves more on
its outer side as it swells with water. The
uneven curving of the guard cells causes
them to pull away from each other and
open the stoma. At night, the ions move
out of the guard cells and the water
follows, causing the cells to shrink and
close off the opening, or stoma.
The cells within the leaf are known
as mesophyll cells (Figure 16.15). These
thin-walled cells contain numerous
chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis.
In many plants there are two distinct lay-
ers of mesophyll, the palisade layer and
the spongy layer. The palisade cells are
more densely packed and usually contain
more chloroplasts than the spongy cells.
The spongy layer cells are loosely spaced
so that air can be in contact with these
cells. In fact, there is more surface area
exposed to air inside the leaf than out-
side the leaf! The mesophyll cells are the
sites of gas exchange in the leaf. Carbon
dioxide and oxygen have to be dissolved
in water to enter and leave the mesophyll
cells, so all the cells have to be covered
in a thin film of water. The water is trans-
ported from the roots by the xylem and
supplied to the leaf cells. Over 90 percent
of the water entering the roots of plants,
however, evaporates from the surface of
the mesophyll cells. Once it has evapo-
rated, the water vapour moves through
the spaces between mesophyll cells and
out through the stomata. This process of
water loss through evaporation in leaves
is called transpiration. On a warm sum-
mer day, a mature maple tree can lose
over 160 L of water per hour through this
process.
The xylem and phloem continue
from the stems through the petiole, or
leaf stem, into the leaves, forming part
of the vascular bundles. These bundles
are called veins. The veins in a leaf
branch out extensively so that the xylem
and phloem are close to the mesophyll
cells. The arrangement of patterns
varies: in monocots the veins run par-
allel to one another, while in dicots the
veins form a branching network. As you
have learned, xylem carries water and
dissolved minerals from the soil, and
phloem transports the sugar manufac-
tured in the leaf mesophyll cells, to all
parts of the plant. The conducting tis-
sues found in the leaf are continuous
with those in the stem and root. In a ma-
ture cedar or redwood, the conducting
tissues can be hundreds of metres long!
 Decision-Making Skills
 Defining the Issue
Case Study
 Developing Assessment Criteria
 Researching the Issue
 Analyzing Data and Information
 Proposing a Course of Action
Using Plants to Fight  Justifying the Course of Action
 Communicating Your Proposal
Pollution
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N

Mustard and sauerkraut aren’t just hotdog toppings

anymore. Scientists are now using mustard and cab-
bage plants to clean soil. These plants are being used
for their ability to absorb cesium and strontium from
contaminated soil. Phytoremediation is the pro-
cess of using plants to clean up contaminated soil,
sediments, and water. Certain plants have the abil-
ity to absorb large amounts of contaminants and
transfer them to their tissues. These plants act as
a kind of biological pump. There are many different
plant species that have the ability to absorb various
contaminants. Research is underway to find plant
species that can absorb specific contaminants effi-
ciently.
Plants can be used to absorb toxic metals such
as chromium and mercury, organic compounds such
as hydrocarbons and PCBs, and radionuclides (sub-
stances that produce ionizing radiation such as
x-rays and gamma rays). These include uranium, FIGURE 16.17 A wastewater treatment facility at a Body
strontium, and cesium. Because different plants can Shop manufacturing site. In this form of phytoremediation, the
be used to absorb a wide range of toxic substances, plants’ roots provide habitat for different types of bacteria that
can break down pollutants in the wastewater. The water
many contaminated sites around the globe could
passes through several different tanks before being dis-
benefit from phytoremediation. Mine tailings ponds, charged.
nuclear waste dumps, and old munitions dumps
could all benefit from phytoremediation. Removal
of contaminants by other methods from any of these
sites is difficult and very costly. The use of plants is being used in selected sites, but it is still in the re-
to clean up such areas promises to be an inexpen- search and development stages. Additional study
sive and natural way to remove harmful substances needs to be completed before the process becomes
from contaminated soil and water. Phytoremediation more widespread.

Analyzing the Issue

1. Use the Internet and other sources to research and
describe the biochemical processes involved in
phytoremediation.
2. Analyze your data in a PMI chart. What other questions
come to mind from evaluating your findings? Explain.
3. What factors affect the decision to use phytoremediation
on a broader scale?
4. Identify and explain the environmental and economic
impacts of implementing this process.
5. Propose a media campaign to educate the public about
phytoremediation and promote the decision to imple-
ment this technology immediately on a worldwide basis.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 539

 Specialized Leaves Plants that live in dry
conditions usually have modified leaf
structures to help retain water. The
leaves often have a thicker epidermis
with a very thick cuticle, which helps
cut down on water loss (Figure 16.18).
Also, all the stomata are on the under-
side of the leaf, out of direct sunlight.
Keeping the gas exchange surface cool
slows the rate of transpiration. The
leaves may also be thick and used for
water storage.
FIGURE 16.18 The leaves of a jade plant, cactus, and water lily. All have structural
adaptations that allow them to live in their specialized environments.
Section 16.1 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. In a table, state the three main func-
tions of the root and identify the root
structure(s) that actually carry out these
functions.
2. In your own words, define:
a) tuber
b) rhizome
c) bulb
3. Identify the roles of vascular bundles
in plants.
4. Using diagrams, contrast the structural
differences between monocot and dicot
plants.
5. How does the structure of a leaf sup-
port its function?
6. Explain why most plants have stomata
mainly on the lower surface of their
leaves.
7. Predict the environment in which you
would expect to find plants with
540 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
The leaves of a cactus are modified into
spines for protection and they no longer
perform photosynthesis. The spines have
no stomata or chlorophyll. Photosynthesis
happens in cells near the surface of the
stem instead.
Aquatic plants such as the water lily
have modified leaves. The underside of the
leaf is in contact with water, and so gas
exchange cannot happen on that surface.
To overcome this, water lilies have stom-
ata only on the upper surface of the leaf.
several layers of palisade mesophyll
cells densely packed with chloroplasts.
Explain the reasoning behind your pre-
diction.
8. Draw and label a cross section of a leaf.
Draw arrows to indicate the directions
of water vapour and carbon dioxide
movement.
Making Connections
9. What factors does a landscaper have
to consider when selecting plants for a
garden?
10. Research the use of phytoremediation
in Ontario. What criteria should envi-
ronmentalists consider in applying this
technology?
11. Select an analogy that could be used to
explain leaf structure.
 16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 identify the tissues found in angiosperms

 describe the functions of fundamental, vascular, and protective tissues

 locate meristematic tissues and explain their functions

A tissue is a group of cells, usually iden-
tical, that act together to carry out a
specific function. Just as animals contain
specialized tissues (such as muscle and
nerve tissues), so do plants. The an-
giosperms have a number of tissues,
each designed to carry out an important
role.
Vascular Tissue
As you know, xylem conducts water and
dissolved minerals (together called xylem
sap) from the roots to all parts of the
plant. There are two types of xylem cells:
vessels or vessel elements and
tracheids (Figure 16.19). Vessel ele- Investigation
ments are only found in angiosperms. A Refer to page 552,
vessel consists of many vessel elements Investigation 2
connected end-to-end. The ends are ei-
ther absent or perforated. This allows
xylem sap to pass from one element to
the next as it travels upward through the
length of the vessel. Vessels are often
packed side-by-side and may be con-
nected to each other by pits. These
permit the lateral flow of xylem sap from
one element to the next. Thus, xylem sap
may flow straight upward or may
change vessels part way by flowing
through pits.

water water

vascular bundles
phloem xylem

vessel
sieve elements
companion tracheids
elements
cells

stem section

food FIGURE 16.19 Cells of the xylem and phloem. The inset photo is a microscopic view of
vascular tissue.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 541


WORD ORIGIN
collenchyma from the Greek
words kolla, meaning “glue,”
and enchima, meaning “an
infusion.”
meristematic from the Greek
word meridzein, meaning “to
divide.”
The tracheids are much narrower
than the vessel elements and their ends
are so sharply angled that they appear
pointed. They also have numerous pits.
Tracheids are found in all vascular
plants, not just in the angiosperms. They
are the only kind of xylem found in gym-
nosperms.
The substances cellulose and lignin
are deposited on the exterior surfaces of
xylem cells to form rigid cell walls. When
the cell walls are complete, the cyto-
plasm dies, leaving dead, hollow xylem.
In woody dicots, xylem cells eventually
become plugged with oils, gum, tannins
and resin, resulting in the formation of
heartwood.
Phloem transports water and dis-
solved carbohydrates (primarily sugars)
from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Most phloem cells (Figure 16.19) are
called sieve tube cells (or members) be-
cause they have sieve plates at each end.
These resemble vessel elements, but
are much smaller. Also, these cells remain
alive, unlike the xylem elements. At ma-
turity, however, sieve tube members con-
tain no nuclei. Instead, they have
cytoplasm. Even though a sieve tube
cell lacks a nucleus, it is still able to func-
tion. The cytoplasm of each sieve cell is
connected by pores to a small nucleated
companion cell next to it. The compan-
ion cell appears to direct the operation of
the sieve cell. Experiments have demon-
strated that if the companion cell dies,
the sieve cell stops functioning.
Fundamental or
Ground Tissue
Most of a plant is made of ground tissue,
and this tissue consists of parenchyma
cells. Parenchyma is found in the roots,
stems, leaves, and fruit. Parenchyma has
many different functions. It provides
support for the plant and stores food
and water. Photosynthesis also occurs
in parenchyma cells containing
chloroplasts. The flesh of an apple
or watermelon is parenchyma, and
potatoes and radishes are mostly
parenchyma. The cell walls of
parenchyma cells are quite thin and
flexible (Figure 16.20). Collenchyma and
sclerenchyma are specialized types of
parenchyma with thicker and more rigid
cell walls. They provide support in plant
stems. Mature sclerenchyma consists
mainly of the rigid walls of dead cells.
Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissue is a type of tissue
that produces new cells by mitosis.
In plants, mature cells cannot divide.
This means that the plant can only
grow where there is meristematic tissue.

a) parenchyma b) collenchyma c) sclerenchyma

FIGURE 16.20 The cell walls get progressively thicker across the three types of
ground tissue. Sclerenchyma forms the shells of nuts and the spines of cacti.

542 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 producing cells that increase the stem
shoot apical
meristem length, the meristems in all shoot tips
(terminal also produce leaves and vascular tissues.
bud) In roots, the apical meristem produces
new cap cells as well as the elongating
vascular tissues. These protective root-
cap cells are continually sloughed off as
the tip forces its way farther into the soil.
A typical root tip is shown in Figure
16.22b).
There are two other types of meris-
lateral bud tematic tissue. These tissues allow
woody plant stems to grow in width,
as discussed in section 16.1. Vascular
cambium is a ring layer of meristematic
tissue found between the xylem and

a)
immature
leaf

shoot apical
meristem

root apical
meristem

FIGURE 16.21 The meristems are the purple

areas on the shoot and root.

These regions are referred to as

b)
meristems. Apical meristems are lo-
cated at the ends of shoot and root tips
(Figure 16.21). These are responsible for
the primary growth (growth in length) root
of the stem and root. A plant may have apical
thousands of apical meristems: every meristem
root tip and bud has one! Lateral buds
are located between the main stem and
the branches. These contain meristem-
atic tissue that can give rise to new
leaves or flowers. root
The youngest cells are at the tip of cap
the apical meristem. These cells are very
small. Older cells are located farther
away and they rapidly increase in size
FIGURE 16.22 The cells of the apical meristem
(Figure 16.22a). Most of the growth in in a shoot a) are seen in brown. The cells of a
shoot length comes from the elonga- root meristem b) are found behind a group of
tion of these older cells. Besides cells that form the root cap.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 543

 secondary xylem
first
annual
growth
ring
INFOBIT
The “skin” of a potato is
actually a thin layer of cork. So
people who eat the “skins” of
cooked or baked potatoes, are
actually eating cork!
544 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
The cork cells produce a waxy substance
second third that acts as a water repellent. The outer
annual annual
layers of dead cells make up most of the
growth growth
ring ring cork tissue. However, new cells are con-
bark stantly being produced by the cork cam-
bium.
The product known as cork comes
from a single species of tree, the cork
oak (Quercus suber), which grows in
Mediterranean countries. The cork cells
from this tree are air-filled and water-
tight, which makes cork tissue very light
and impervious to water or other liquids.
Cork can only be taken from trees that
are over 25 years old. The cork is
stripped by cutting slits in the outer bark
and then peeling away the cork layer in
vascular secondary cork cork
cambium phloem cambium large sheets from the living phloem
below. It’s very important that the
phloem and vascular cambium are not
FIGURE 16.23 Secondary growth tissues. Bark damaged in the process. Cork sheets are
consists of secondary phloem, cork cambium,
then boiled to increase the cork’s flexi-
and cork.
bility. These sheets are then used to
make stoppers for bottles, flooring, cork
boards, and many other products. Cork
phloem in dicots. Tissue produced by di-
trees can be stripped of their cork layer
viding cambium cells is called secondary
repeatedly. A healthy tree, once it has
growth (growth in width). Secondary
been stripped, will grow a new layer of
vascular tissue is important to plants like
cork in 3 to 10 years.
trees that have permanent, growing
roots and stems. The cambium produces
new large xylem cells on its “interior”
surface and new phloem cells on its “ex-
terior” surface. These new layers are
called secondary xylem and secondary
phloem (Figure 16.23).
As more and more cells are added
by the vascular cambium, the diameter
of the root or stem gradually increases.
Cork cambium produces cork, the outer
protective layer of a woody stem.
Protective Tissue
The epidermis, usually only one cell in
thickness, is the outer protective layer
of leaves, stems, and roots. As you
learned in the previous section, the epi-
dermal layer, with its covering of cuti-
cle, also serves as waterproofing for
plant tissues.
Cork, protects inner tissues from in-
FIGURE 16.24 The cork is peeled off a cork
jury. It is more than one cell layer thick. tree by hand.
 Section 16.2 Review
Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/
1. Draw a diagram of the two types of
Communication Skills
water-conducting xylem cells.
2. Describe how the sieve tube and com-
panion cells work together to perform
their transport role.
3. Starting with the word “tissue,” create
a concept map to illustrate the three
classes of tissues and their functions.
4. Distinguish between the functions of
parenchyma and meristematic tissues.
5. Outline the reasons why a monocot,
such as a corn plant, cannot increase
its stem width each year, whereas a FIGURE 16.25
dicot, such as an oak tree, is able to do
so for decades.
6. Some plants that grow in arid areas 7. Identify as many tissues as possible
often have thicker leaves to store water. in Figure 16.25. Is this a slide of a stem
Which type of tissue would the bulk or a root? Give reasons for your an-
of the leaf be made of? Provide reasons swer.
for your answer. 8. Draw a cross section of a root and use
coloured pencils to shade in the ground
tissue, protective tissue, and vascular
tissue.

16.3 Water and Food Transport

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 explain the mechanism of water transport in vascular plants

 explain why sugar transport in vascular plants is more complex than water transport

 explain how non-vascular plants function without a specialized vascular system

The function of xylem in vascular plants Water Transport in

is to transport water and minerals from
the soil to all parts of the plant, and the
function of the phloem is to transport sug-
ars from the leaves to all parts of the plant.
How the xylem and phloem actually carry
out these tasks is not fully understand.
Scientists can only theorize as to the
intricacies of water and food transport.
Vascular Plants
In the Root Root hairs absorb essential
minerals from the soil by active
transport. The energy needed for active
transport comes from the respiration of
carbohydrates in the root cells. Once in-
side the epidermis, the minerals are

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 545

 moved toward the centre of the root
where the wax-coated endodermis pre-
vents them from diffusing back out to
the soil. This concentration of minerals
creates xylem sap that is hypertonic
relative to soil water outside the root.
Consequently, the hypotonic soil water
enters the root by osmosis. Energy is not
required for water entry but is required
for mineral transport. As long as the root
hairs continue to absorb minerals, water
will follow by osmosis.
The accumulation of water and
dissolved minerals creates pressure. This
pressure pushes the sap up the xylem.
This pressure is called root pressure and
it can be measured in some plants such
as tomatoes. If the stem of a tomato plant
is cut off just above ground, the stump
FIGURE 16.26 Guttation occurs in some small
will “bleed” sap. Root pressure can also
plants, and usually takes place at night in humid cause guttation, where water droplets
conditions. are exuded from blades of leaves (Figure
16.26).
Root pressure is able to push water
Discovering Biology up to only a maximum of a few metres
in some plants. However, there are many
Water Movement in Narrow Tubes trees, such as giant redwoods and cedars,
Your group will be provided with a Petri dish, food colouring, that are over 100 m tall. Also, in many
and 3-4 capillary tubes of identical lengths but different plants, including some trees, there is no
diameters. Fill the Petri dish half full with water measurable root pressure. Clearly, root
and add 2 drops of food colouring. Gently pressure cannot entirely account for
swirl the dish so that the water is a xylem sap movement.
uniform colour. Each member of your
group, in turn, will place one capillary In the Stem Water clings readily to a
tube into the dish and hold it variety of non-oily surfaces. This
upright as in Figure 16.27. phenomenon is known as adhesion.
 Before you place the tubes This principle is demonstrated every
in the dish, predict what time you dry yourself with a towel. Water
you think will happen. It is
clings more readily to the fibre of the
not necessary to reach a
consensus. towel than to your skin, which is oily
 compared to the towel. When a drop of
Carefully observe the water in
your capillary tube. Measure the water on your skin comes into contact
height of water in the tube. with the towel, it “flows” and adheres to
 Provide possible the towel fibres. This same principle
explanations for the accounts for the movement of water into
results. sponges and blotters even if the
movement of the molecules is against
gravity, as it is in the xylem. Water
adheres to the inner walls of the xylem,
creating a “pulling” force on the column
of water molecules.
FIGURE 16.27

546 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 xylem sap

air space

mesophyll cells

stoma
outside air
water molecule

Transpiration cohesion of
water molecules

adhesion

xylem cells
flow of water
Cohesion and Adhesion in the Xylem

soil particle

water molecule

root hair

water

Water Uptake from Soil

FIGURE 16.28 The flow of water from the roots to the leaves

The ability of water to stick to itself
is known as cohesion. Because of the
hydrogen bonding between adjacent
water molecules, very strong forces of
attraction are created. If you have ever
tried to pry apart two wet microscope
slides, you will have noticed how tightly
they stick together. The water between
the slides acts like glue. A xylem vessel
may be very long, but it does not con-
tain much water because it has a small
diameter. The cohesion of water
molecules in this long cylinder results in
the water column holding together
continuously from the ground to the top WEBLINK
of the highest leaves. This narrow col-
umn of water is incredibly strong: it has
the same strength as steel wire of the
To further explore the concept
same diameter! This is more than
of water movement from the
enough to support a column of water roots to the leaves, go to
in the tallest trees. If a “pull” at the top www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
of this water column were exerted, there
would be enough cohesive strength to
draw water all the way from the roots.
The “pull” required comes from the
leaves via a process called leaf pull or
transpiration pull.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 547

WEBLINK
Maple syrup is a popular
Canadian export. Research
more about maple syrup
production in Canada. What
provinces produce maple
syrup? What countries does
Canada export to? How much
maple syrup is produced
annually? Complete a data
table to summarize your
findings. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
FIGURE 16.29 Tapping does
not harm the tree, provided
that not too much sap is
taken.
548 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
In the Leaves Most of the water entering Food Transport in
the leaves is lost through the process of Vascular Plants
transpiration. As each water molecule
The precise mechanism of food trans-
evaporates during transpiration, it
port is not known. One of the problems
“pulls” on the adjacent water molecules.
in explaining how food is moved in
These molecules in turn pull on the next,
plants is that the phloem sieve-tube cells
and so on, in an unbroken cohesive
are living cells, containing cytoplasm
chain all the way to the root hairs. The
with most of the organelles that other
evaporation of liquid requires heat en-
cells have. Functioning xylem vessel
ergy, which comes from its environment
cells, as you know, are dead and hollow.
around the plant. Thus, the plant uses
Scientists have a much easier time ex-
heat energy from its surroundings to pull
plaining how water moves up hollow
water from the roots to the top of the
“pipes” than how sugars and other com-
plant. Xylem sap movement is depen-
plex molecules move from living cell
dent on the rate of transpiration. If the
to living cell at rates as fast as 2 m
air temperature is low, as in a north-
per hour. The theory that best explains
ern climate, the rate of evaporation (and
the movement of sugars is called the
thus the rate of transpiration) is low. But
pressure-flow theory.
if the temperature is high, these rates
In this theory, the leaf cells are called
are also high. That is, the faster water
the source, and the storage cells in the
evaporates from the leaves, the faster
roots are called the sink. In the leaves,
sap will rise. Under ideal conditions, sap
sugars are “pumped” into phloem sieve-
can rise 75 cm per minute in a tree.
tube cells by active transport, thus build-
The “pull” or tension exerted on the
ing up a hypertonic solution inside
column of water in the xylem is strong
(Figure 16.30). This hypertonic solution
enough to account for the movement of
causes water to move by osmosis into the
water to the tops of any tree found on
sieve-tube cells from adjacent hypotonic
the planet. Scientists have estimated that
xylem cells. This results in the creation
the pulling forces exerted by transpira-
of a pressure that “pushes” the sugars
tion pull, combined with cohesion forces,
through the phloem away from the
could transport water to the top of trees
leaves, down the stem toward the roots.
three times higher than the tallest known
In the root, the soluble sugars are
trees.
moved out of the sieve-tube cells into stor-
This theory of water transport is
age parenchyma cells (the sink). This may
currently widely accepted by most sci-
happen passively depending on the rela-
entists because it is the best interpreta-
tive sugar concentrations inside and
tion of the observations.
outside the root cells. Water molecules
follow the sugars out of the sieve-tube
A Product Derived from Xylem Sap In cells by osmosis. The phloem sap is now
North America, the xylem sap of the under less pressure in the roots. As leaves
sugar maple tree is put to use. In early add and the roots remove sugars, the
spring, when the days are warm and the phloem sap experiences two different
night temperatures fall below freezing, fluid pressures. A high pressure in the
sugar maples begin to convert starches, leaves “pushes” on the sap and a low
stored in the roots, into sugars and send pressure in the root “pulls” on the sap.
them up the xylem to the branches. To A number of observations support
make maple syrup, holes are tapped into this theory. One of the most interesting
the xylem to collect the clear xylem sap. involves an insect called an aphid (Figure
Maple syrup producers then boil this sap 16.31). Aphid colonies are usually found
down to remove most of the water. on thin stems just below leaves. An
About 50 L of sap are needed to produce aphid’s mouth-parts form an extremely
one litre of pure maple syrup. fine tube or proboscis, which it inserts
 XYLEM PHLOEM
SOURCE
sugar
water
leaf cell
SINK
sugar
water
root cell
vessel elements sieve elements
FIGURE 16.30 Food transport in plants requires energy to pump the sugars into
the phloem.
into individual phloem sieve cells to
withdraw phloem sap for food. While an
aphid is actively feeding, researchers are
able to “snip” the aphid away from its
embedded proboscis. The proboscis con-
tinues to ooze phloem sap, clearly indi-
cating that the phloem is under pressure.
Chemical analysis shows that this
phloem sap is up to 30 percent dissolved
chemicals (mostly sugars), which is a
much higher sugar concentration than
that in the phloem in leaves. This indi-
cates that there is a “pumping” or con-
centrating mechanism (probably active
transport) at work. Chemical analysis of
WEBLINK
high sugar concentration
and high water pressure
To further explore the concept
1. active transport of sugar of sugar transport in plants,
into phloem go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
2. water follows by osmosis
3. pressure gradient moves
fluid down phloem
4. active or passive transport
of sugar into root cell
5. water follows by osmosis
low sugar concentration
and low water pressure
FIGURE 16.31 Aphids feeding on a stem
root phloem sap generally shows a lower
concentration of dissolved substances.
These observations are consistent with
the pressure-flow theory.
In general, pressure is high in the
leaves and low in the roots where the
sugar is being used. All tissues that use
sugars, however, such as a growing
shoot higher up on the plant, also de-
velop low phloem pressure. The plant is
able to reverse the direction of flow of
sugars from the root to other parts of the
plant. The roots then act as the source
and the shoots or other upper tissues of
the plant act as the sink.
CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 549
 Water and Food Transport in
the Bryophytes
The non-vascular plants, the bryophytes,
do not have xylem or phloem. There are
consequences to lacking transport tis-
sues for this primitive group of plants.
There are three groups of bryophytes:
the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
Bryophytes grow on rocks, on the bark
of trees, and in soil. Because these plants
have no xylem, they must live in wet,
shady environments. Water moves from
the environment into the plant and from
cell to cell by osmosis and capillary ac-
tion. These forces work only over short
distances, so all the bryophyte’s photo-
synthetic tissues must be close to water
(Figure 16.32). Thus, most bryophytes
are restricted to heights of less than 2
cm. These plants do not have true leaves,
stems, or roots. Rhizoids serve to anchor
the plant. Photosynthesis takes place in
Section 16.3 Review
Understanding Concepts
1. Explain why root pressure alone can-
not account for water transport in most
plants.
2. a) Name the tissue(s) in a typical plant
that is (are) the source(s) of carbo-
hydrates.
b) Identify several tissues in another
plant organ that use the carbohy-
drates produced by the plant.
3. Outline two consequences for the
bryophytes of not having vascular
tissues.
4. You are using an electron microscope
to examine sections of a plant cell that
receives carbohydrates from sieve-tube
cells. Predict which organelle(s) you are
unlikely to observe in these sections
and provide a brief explanation.
5. Explain why aphids provide evidence
that supports the pressure-flow theory.
6. Create a Venn diagram to compare the
similarities and differences between
water transport and food transport in
vascular plants. Your answer should
include energy inputs, direction of
transport, plant tissues used, among
others.
550 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
FIGURE 16.32 All cells of a bryophyte depend
on osmosis to get water. As much of the plant’s
tissues as possible must be in direct contact
with water.
the upper, small, leaf-like sections of the
plant. Unlike the vascular plants, each
cell in a bryophyte is responsible for
manufacturing its own sugars, since the
plant lacks phloem to take sugars from
one cell to another.
7. When they receive cut flowers, people
often cut off the ends of the stems while
holding them underwater and then
transfer the flowers to a vase, making
sure there is a water droplet at the end
of each stem. Explain how this slows
the wilting of cut flowers.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
transpiration
30
(grams per 2 hours)
Relative rate
20
10
water
uptake
0
6 am noon 6 pm midnight
Time of day
FIGURE 16.33
8. The graph in Figure 16.33 shows the
rate of water loss through transpira-
tion and the rate of water uptake.
Analyze the data and propose a rela-
tionship between water uptake and
transpiration.
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 16.1)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording

Examining Monocot and Dicot Stems  Analyzing and Interpreting

 Concluding and Communicating

Problem Analyzing and Interpreting

In this activity, you will examine the arrangement of 1. a) Which conducting tissue was always closest
vascular tissue in prepared slides of monocot and dicot to the epidermis in the monocot stem?
plant stems to determine the differences between the b) Was this pattern followed in the dicot stem?
two.

Concluding and Communicating

Materials 2. What is the major difference in structure between
For each pair of students: monocot and dicot stems?
 prepared slides of
monocot stem cross section, e.g. Zea mays
(corn)
herbaceous dicot stem cross section,
e.g. Rununculus (buttercup)

Comparing Monocot and Dicot Stems

Procedure
1. Examine a herbaceous monocot stem cross
section such as corn, Zea mays, under low magni-
fication. Locate the following: epidermis, vascular
bundles, and fundamental or ground tissue.

2. Make a labelled drawing, showing the arrangement

of the vascular bundles.

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a herbaceous dicot stem

cross section.

4. Move the microscope objective to a higher magni-

fication so that one vascular bundle almost fills the
field of view. This may be medium or more likely
will be high power.

5. Locate the following tissues: xylem, phloem, cam-

bium, pith, cortex, and epidermis.

6. Under high power, draw and label a section through

the vascular bundle starting at the epidermis,
through the bundle tissues, into the pith cells. The
section should only be as wide as the width of 3–4
epidermal cells, but include cells from each area
through the stem. FIGURE 16.34 Micrographs of stems

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 551


Investigation 2
Examining Plant Tissue
Problem
In this activity you will examine tissue from a living
stem and determine what type of tissue it is.
Materials
 microscope
 microscope slides
 1. Compare your tissue sample to the illustrations in
cover slip
 Figure 16.19. Identify the tissue. What is the
double-edged razor blade
 feature that allowed you to identify your tissue
dissecting needle
 sample?
forceps
 celery stalks
CAUTION: One edge of the razor should be carefully taped
by your teacher with several layers of masking tape. Handle
the razor blades with care.
Procedure
One day prior to activity: Place several celery stalks,
with leaves attached, in a beaker one-third filled with
water dyed with red food colouring.
1. Using the razor blade, cut across the centre of a cel-
ery stalk dividing it into 2 equal halves. Make sure
that the cut is at a right angle to the length of the
stalk.
2. Observe the cut end and draw a diagram.
3. Using your instruments, carefully dissect a 1-cm
length of one of the red-coloured strands. Using the
razor, slice as thin a section as you can of a length
of red tissue. Try to isolate just the red tissue. Scrape
off as much of the surrounding tissue as possible.
4. Put the isolated strands on a microscope slide placed
on a clean lab counter surface. Using a second slide,
carefully but firmly press down with your thumb on
top of the slide to squash the tissues. Rotate the slide
slightly as you press down.
5. Remove the top slide. Add a drop of water, and then
place a cover slip over the squashed tissue. Tap on
the cover slip to remove air bubbles.
552 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning
(Section 16.2)


Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
 Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating
6. Place the slide on the microscope stage. Observe the
tissue under low and then medium power.
7. Draw what you observe through the microscope at
medium power.
Analyzing and Interpreting
2. What other tissue(s) are connected to the red
tissue you have isolated? What is their function?
Concluding and Communicating
3. What is the specific function of the red tissue you
have identified?
Extending
4. How are food/nutrients transported in stems?
Where in the stem is this tissue located?
5. The spiral or coiled structures you observed are
made of the substance called lignin. Investigate
a) the role of this substance in plants;
b) what types of plants produce this substance;
c) what cells are able to manufacture lignin; and
d) the importance of this material in commercial
products made from plants.
6. If you make a cut around the circumference of a
plant’s stem, just shallow enough to cut the phloem,
the plant will die even though its water transport
system is intact. Explain why this happens.
7. What group of vascular plants contain the tissue
you have identified?
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

adhesion guard cells primary growth transpiration

cambium heartwood root hair transpiration (leaf) pull
cohesion herbaceous root pressure vascular bundle
cortex meristem sapwood vessel element
cotyledon mesophyll secondary growth woody
cuticle monocot sieve tube cell xylem
dicot parenchyma stomata
epidermis phloem taproot
fibrous root pressure-flow theory tracheid

Essential Understandings

16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function
 Monocots and dicots have structural differences. A
major difference is in the seed structure: monocot
seeds have one seed leaf, dicots have two.
 Roots anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals,
and transport water to the stem.
 Root hairs increase the surface area available for
water absorption.
 Stems conduct water and sugars to and from leaves.
 Monocots have vascular bundles throughout the
stem; the vascular bundles of dicots form a ring.
 Herbaceous (soft) and woody (hard) are the two
main types of stems found in plants.
 Mesophyll cells in the leaves are arranged to max-
imize light absorption and gas exchange in order to
carry out photosynthesis.
 Transpiration in the leaf is controlled by specialized
epidermal cells, called guard cells.
16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions
 Water and dissolved minerals are transported in
dead, hollow xylem cells called vessels and tracheids.
 In phloem, living sieve-tube cells, with the aid of
companion cells, transport sugars.
 Parenchyma tissue provides storage or support.
 Meristematic tissue is the growth tissue of plants. It
is the only plant tissue whose cells can divide.
 Epidermal tissue provides waterproofing and phys-
ical protection.
16.3 Water and Food Transport
 Water transport up the xylem depends on root pres-
sure, which “pushes” water into the vascular cylin-
der, as well as transpiration (leaf) pull, which “pulls”
water up the stem to the leaves. Water transport re-
quires no energy from the plant.
 In the pressure-flow theory, sugars are pumped into
the phloem and move down to the root because of
differences in water pressure between the leaf and
phloem. Sugar transport requires energy.
 Non-vascular plants rely on osmosis and capillary
action for water transport.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 529 and re-
view the chart listing the structures and functions of
plants. Revise the chart based on what you have learned
in the chapter.
2. Draw a concept map beginning with the terms water,
roots, and leaf to summarize what you have learned
about plant structure and function.
3. The pressure-flow theory was described in section 16.2.
Explain how this theory is important to our under-
standing of how plants function.
4. Reflect on your learning. Diagrams are an important way
of communicating information in science. Name three
advantages to using diagrams as you learn.

CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 553

C H A P T E R 16 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts 12. Analyze how the shape of a typical dicot leaf is adapted
to its function.
1. The large surface area of root systems is mainly due to
the presence of 13. Plant growth is of two types: growth in height and growth
a) adventitious roots in diameter. Specific tissues are responsible for each of
b) root hairs these types of growth. By continuously cutting away one
c) taproot of these tissues, a miniature — but fully mature — plant
d) secondary roots can be obtained. Explain how and why this occurs.

2. Which of the following does not belong in this list? 14. A 10-cm nail is hammered 5 cm into a young tree trunk
a) parenchyma 1 m above the ground. Describe what one would observe
b) cork cambium about 30 years later with respect to where the nail would
c) apical meristem be and how deep it would be in the trunk. Provide rea-
d) vascular cambium sons for your answer.

3. Which of the following tissues does not contain meris- 15. There are at least two different plant tissues that serve
tematic cells? their primary function once they are dead. Identify these
a) vascular cambium tissues and describe the specific role(s) of each.
b) stem tip
c) root tip 16. Describe the likely effect on a) the root and b) the en-
d) phloem tire plant of adding a high concentration of salt to the
ground where the plant is growing. Explain your an-
4. Annual rings in the stem of a tree are actually swers.
a) layers of xylem
b) layers of phloem 17. Suppose a chemical can be administered to a plant
c) layers of xylem and phloem that stops the process of active transport but has no other
d) sapwood effect on the plant. Describe the likely consequences on
a) water transport
5. The pressure exerted at the source in the pressure- b) food transport
flow theory is the result of Explain the reason(s) for each of your answers.
a) diffusion of sugars into root cortex
b) diffusion of sugars into palisade cells 18. Where would you expect to find stomata on floating water
c) osmosis of water into sieve-tube cells plants? Explain.
d) osmosis of water into xylem vessels

6. Draw a cross section of a monocot root and add labels Applying Inquiry/
to identify the tissues. Communication Skills
7. Construct a table showing the differences between mono-
19. Design an experimental procedure to determine whether
cots and dicots.
a plant exhibits root pressure. What evidence would sup-
port your hypothesis?
8. Distinguish between adhesion and cohesion. Briefly
describe how each of these helps in the transport of
20. You have learned that by counting the annual rings in
water.
a cut tree trunk, one can determine the approximate age
of the tree when it was cut down. Find out how envi-
9. Draw a diagram describing the process of water move-
ronmental conditions that the tree was exposed to over
ment into sieve-tube cells.
its life can be determined from carefully examining the
annual rings.
10. Explain why the terms source and sink are used in de-
scribing food transport in the pressure-flow theory.
21. People spend a lot of time trying to get a perfect lawn.
The physical removal (by hand) of dandelions and un-
11. On the basis of the structure of xylem and phloem, pro-
wanted grass from a lawn are both difficult, but for dif-
vide an explanation for the faster movement of sap
ferent reasons. Provide a brief explanation based on the
through xylem.
structure of the plants.

554 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

22. Radish seedlings were examined by students to
determine the surface area of the root hairs on the
emerging primary root. The average surface area of a
typical root hair was estimated at 0.3 cm2. Table 16.2
below shows results from four seedlings.
a) Calculate the total surface area for each of the radish
seedlings as well as the average total surface area
for the four samples.
b) Compare the average surface area calculated to the
surface area of the cover of your textbook.
c) The data you are looking at comes from only one
small primary root, about 3-4 cm in length. What
conclusions can be drawn from the fact that mature
dicot plants will have hundreds of branch roots in
addition to a long primary root?
TABLE 16.2
Radish seedling Number of root hairs (estimate)
1 1050
2 1200
3 1180
4 1300
23. Design a classroom experiment to determine the effect
of physically preventing leaf transpiration on geranium
plants. You must control only this factor; all other con-
ditions must be suitable for normal plant growth. Control
plants must be part of your experimental design.
24. The graph in Figure 16.35 shows the percentage of di-
viding root cells in a root tip.
35
30
25
Cell divisions (%)
20
15
10
5
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Distance from end of root (x10–4 cm)
FIGURE 16.35
Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What does it tell you
about the location of cell division in the root tip?
25. Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What conclusions can
you draw as to the type of tissue in the root tip?
26. If the same measurements had been taken in a section
of root 16–20  10-4 cm from the end of the root, predict
what data would be obtained. Draw a graph of this
hypothetical data.
27. What conclusions could you draw about the type of
tissue in the previous question?
Making Connections
28. Beavers often kill trees by “girdling” them (removing a
strip of bark from the entire circumference).
a) Explain specifically why the tree will die.
b) Propose a method to prevent this from happening
in an area without harming the animals or the en-
vironment.
29. Explain why “old xylem” is vital to Canada’s economy.
30. Scientists have discovered that certain plants produce
additional layers of cuticle as a protective measure when
attacked by pests such as fungi. Assume that scientists
will be able to put this characteristic into any plant they
want to in the future. Predict some of the possible con-
sequences of this technology.
31. A number of plants are currently being studied for use
in cleaning up land sites containing toxic substances.
a) Name the technique of using plants for this purpose.
b) Briefly describe how this process works.
c) Consider some of the limitations and possible neg-
ative effects on the environment of this method of
cleaning up toxic land sites. Outline your concerns.
32. Trees in urban areas often have difficulty surviving. They
are exposed to air pollution. The water they receive may
contains dissolved salt, used to clear icy streets, and oil
from automobile leaks. Their roots are often confined to
cement planters or are mostly covered by concrete
sidewalks. List the benefits trees provide to an urban
location. Describe actions that could be taken to increase
the number of trees in an urban area near you. Also,
propose a course of action that would improve the
chances of survival for existing trees.
20
CHAPTER 16 Plant Structure and Function 555
 C H A P T E R 17

SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Plant Growth and
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
 describe the nutrients required for
Development
the development of plants (17.1)
 describe the effects of growth
regulators (17.2)
 design and carry out an experiment
to determine the factors that affect
the growth of a population of
plants (Investigation 1)

FIGURE 17.1 Lettuces and beans being grown hydroponically

556
 T he lettuces in Figure 17.1
are being grown hydropon-
ically. Instead of being planted
in soil, their roots are placed in
a solution that contains all
the dissolved nutrients the
plants need. Growing lettuce
hydroponically has certain
advantages. The grower can
carefully control all the factors
that affect the growth of the let-
tuce plants. Sunlight can be
controlled through the use of
ultraviolet light. The tempera-
ture can be controlled in the
greenhouse. The nutrients in
the growing medium can be
adjusted easily. By controlling
each of these factors, plants can
be grown efficiently in the
shortest possible time, provid-
ing Canadians with fresh
produce all year round.
FIGURE 17.2 This massive pine tree germinated
Unlike the hydroponic
from a tiny winged seed. Conifers grow continuously lettuces, the tree in Figure 17.2 CHECKPOINT
for hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of belongs to a family of trees that
years, and can reach heights of over 100 m. can grow to heights 10 times All seeds have certain
higher than a typical two-storey requirements for germination
high school. How does a seed and growth. Using a
grow into such a massive structure, one that can live for over a thousand flowchart, begin with the
years? Many processes, some very complex, take place in the growth and word seed and list all the
development of a new plant. requirements you can think
of that will make the seed
grow into a mature plant.

Discovering Biology Seed

It’s a Gas!
Bananas produce a gaseous substance that may affect the ripening of green
tomatoes.
Work in small groups and design an experiment to test this hypothesis. Each
group will need three green tomatoes, a ripe banana, and two plastic bags.
 What will be the control in your experiment?
 Carry out the experiment recording your observations over the next
several days. Mature Plant

 Analyze your observations and form conclusions about what effect the
banana has on the ripening of tomatoes.

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 557

 17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 describe the nutrients required for the development of plants
 describe how plants adapt to growth factors in their environments
 design and carry out an experiment to determine the factors that affect the growth of
plants
Plants need water, carbon dioxide, and
light in order to manufacture the organic
molecules required for energy and
growth. Inorganic substances, commonly
referred to as minerals, are absorbed
from the soil by the plant’s roots and are
carried, dissolved in water, to the leaves.
In order for seeds to germinate, certain
environmental conditions must be pre-
sent. Only then can a seed germinate
and develop into a new plant.
Soil and Soil Nutrients
Plants need nutrients to grow and
develop and they get these nutrients
from the soil. Soil consists of sand, clay,
rock particles, minerals, and decaying
plant and animal matter called humus.
humus
topsoil containing humus
subsoil
bedrock
FIGURE 17.3 Soil. The various layers together are referred to as the soil profile.
558 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
The amounts of these components vary
in different soils. There are several lay-
ers that make up soil (Figure 17.3). The
top layer consists of humus. Soil with
higher concentrations of humus will sup-
port plant growth better than soils with
little humus. Beneath the humus is top-
soil, the layer that primarily supports
plant growth. It contains humus, clay,
minerals, and sand. A layer of subsoil
lies beneath it and a layer of bedrock is
found under subsoil. Plants cannot grow
well in subsoil and do not grow at all
in bedrock. Many varieties of insects,
worms, and micro-organisms live in the
top three layers of soil. Water, as well as
the minerals dissolved in it, is absorbed
by plant roots from these three layers.
Plant nutrients are classified as ei-
ther macronutrients or micronutrients.
Macronutrients are required in relatively
large amounts by the plant, whereas mi-
cronutrients (or trace elements) are
needed in very small quantities. Both
types of nutrients are taken in by the
roots. Table 17.1 lists each type of plant
nutrient and its function.
Nitrogen is of prime importance for
plant growth. Although 80 percent of
Earth’s atmosphere consists of nitrogen,
plants cannot take it in as a gas. Nitrogen
must be absorbed, by the roots, in the
form of nitrate or ammonium com-
pounds. These compounds are supplied
by the decomposing organic matter in
the soil. Unlike most other plants, the
legumes, which include the bean, pea,
and alfalfa families, have specialized
roots that allow them to absorb nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere by a pro-
cess known as nitrogen fixation. The
TABLE 17.1 Some Plant Nutrients and Their Functions

Plant Nutrient Function

Macronutrients: Nitrogen component of proteins, DNA, RNA

Phosphorus component of DNA, RNA

Potassium controls operation of stomata, crucial in water intake in roots

Calcium important in the development and functioning of cell walls

Magnesium component of chlorophyll

Micronutrients: Iron important in cell respiration

Zinc crucial in the functioning of chloroplasts

Copper important in cell respiration

roots of legumes have small swellings or
nodules (Figure 17.4), which contain ni-
trogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria
are able to convert or “fix” nitrogen from
the atmosphere into the nitrate and am-
monium compounds required by plants.
This process is called nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen and sulfur are important
components of proteins made by the
plant. Phosphorus (as well as nitrogen)
is used by cells to make DNA. Potassium
is also important in protein synthesis as Investigation
well as in the normal development of Refer to page 574,
roots. Calcium is important in the Investigation 1
normal development of cell walls, and
magnesium is a key component of the
chlorophyll molecule. Humans require
the same inorganic substances for
growth as plants do and most of these
substances are obtained by eating plants.
Even though they are required only
in very small amounts, the micronutri-
ents are also critical in normal growth
of plants. If any of the required
micronutrients are missing from the soil,
the plant will not grow properly or it
may die.

FIGURE 17.4 Nodules on roots of a bean plant. FIGURE 17.5 The leaves of this bean plant are
The nodules contain the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, turning yellow due to a lack of sulfur.
Rhizobium, which convert nitrogen from the air
to nitrogen compounds needed by the plant.

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 559

 Fertilizers and Plant Growth Choosing the right kind of fertilizer
depends on the type of plant, as well as
Farmers have known for centuries that
the kind of growth you want from the
adding fertilizer to soil results in better
plant. For example, do you want a plant
crops. There are two types of fertilizers.
to produce many flowers, as in rose
Organic fertilizers come from living
bushes, or do you want a plant to pro-
sources and contain decaying plant or an-
duce lots of green growth, as in a lawn?
imal matter; examples are compost, sheep
Fertilizers with a high first number
or cow manure, bone-meal, and fish meal.
promote green growth, so a fertilizer
Inorganic fertilizers are produced chem-
with a high nitrogen content is used on
ically. Commercial fertilizers such as lawn
lawns and evergreen shrubs. Fertilizers
and plant fertilizers have three numbers
with a high second number have large
on their labels, such as 10-6-4. The first
amounts of phosphorus. Phosphorus is
number indicates the percentage of ni-
used by the plant to grow roots and to
trogen; the second, the percentage of
form flowers. If you are growing flow-
phosphorus; and the third, the percent-
ering plants, growing grass from seed,
age of potassium.
or have laid new sod, fertilizers with
high phosphorus content are the most
effective. Potassium helps build
hardiness into plants. Fertilizing plants
with a high potassium fertilizer in late
autumn helps plants to survive the
winter. Vegetables require moderate to
high levels of all three nutrients.
An advantage of using organic
fertilizers is that they release nutrients
into the soil more slowly than inorganic
fertilizers do, and are less likely to be
washed away in a heavy rain.

FIGURE 17.6 A bag of commercial fertilizer.

This fertilizer has high nitrogen and potassium
percentages.

Discovering Biology Which Fertilizer for What Job?

As you have read, different fertilizers are used for dif- TABLE 17.2 Common
ferent purposes. For instance, people who do not want Garden Fertilizers
to cut their grass very often may select a fertilizer with
Fertilizer
a lower nitrogen content than one recommended for
a lush, rapidly growing lawn. 10-20-10
Copy the list of fertilizers in Table 17.2 into your 10-4-14
notebook. Match each of the following desired
outcomes with the appropriate fertilizer: high veg- 20-27-5
etable yields; a lawn successfully surviving winter; a 25-3-5
lush, green lawn; new lawn growth from seed; and
many flowers. 12-12-12

560 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Requirements for Seed initiate or contribute to germination. Some INFOBIT
Germination species like the jack pine require that their
cones be heated or singed by fire to re- Possibly the most durable seed
Once a seed has been released from the comes from the Arctic lupin.
lease the seeds. Other species like oak
fruit, it won’t necessarily germinate Frozen seeds were found in the
acorns and walnuts require exposure to Yukon in 1954. Some seeds
immediately upon landing in a suitable
cold temperatures for a long period be- were successfully germinated.
environment. Most seeds go through a
fore the embryo will germinate. The lotus Radiocarbon dating showed
resting period or dormancy. The em- the seeds were produced
seed requires scratching or cracking
bryo cells in the seed undergo very slow between 8000-13 000 B.C.!
(called abrasion) of the seed coat before
metabolic processes. Some seeds, such
the seed will break dormancy. Other
as the coconut, may have a dormancy
species require that their seed coat be
period of months. In some cases, seeds
altered chemically by some factor in the
can remain dormant for years and still
environment. For instance, some seeds
be able to germinate.
will germinate only after passing through
Other seeds germinate within days
the digestive system of a particular animal.
of finding suitable soil conditions. There
The seeds of desert plants have a
are even examples of plants in which the
tricky problem. They must germinate only
seed has no dormancy period at all. In
when there is enough moisture in the
the red mangrove, a subtropical tree
ground to support their growth to matu-
(Figure 17.8), the seed germinates in the
rity. If they germinate after a brief rain,
fruit, while still attached to the tree.
the seedling could dry out and die after a
In agriculture, it is important for
week or so. Only a prolonged rain is suf-
seeds to be stored under controlled con-
ficient to let them complete their growth,
ditions so that they will be able to
bloom, and produce the next generation
germinate when they are needed. Proper
of seeds. These plants have a chemical in
crop seed storage is crucial in ensuring
their seeds that inhibits germination. Only
society’s continuing food supply.
a heavy rainfall can wash away this in-
When conditions are right, a seed em-
hibitor and let the seed germinate. A light
bryo will end its dormancy and begin to
rain will not break their dormancy.
grow. For many seeds, this process of ger-
mination begins with the absorption of
heat and moisture from the soil. The seed
also requires oxygen to germinate. Some
seeds require light before they will ger-
minate. There are also other factors that

FIGURE 17.7 Germinating coconut. This FIGURE 17.8 The radicle

coconut seed may have been dormant weeks or emerging from a mangrove
months before it germinated. fruit/seed still on the tree

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 561


Extinction May Cause
Extinction
The island of Mauritius in the Indian
Ocean is the only habitat of a species
of tree called the dodo nut tree.
Strangely, the youngest of these trees
are more than 200 years old. Despite
their abundant crops of cherry-sized
WORD ORIGIN
radicle from the Latin word
radix, meaning “root,” and
-ulus, meaning “little.”
FIGURE 17.10 Corn and
bean seed structure. In some
plants, the endosperm is the
only source of nourishment
for the embryo. In other
plants, nutrients are stored in
the cotyledons.
epicotyl
Bean (dicot)
562 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
fruits, these seeds have failed to
germinate. This phenomenon has
puzzled botanists for many years, but
scientists now hypothesize that the
dodo bird, which became extinct at
about 1790 due to human slaughter,
was the main consumer of this fruit.
The dodo ate the fruit for its fleshy
exterior. The seed was activated by
abrasion and chemical action as it
passed through the dodo’s gut. By
killing the dodo, this species of plant
may be doomed to extinction as well!
Germination
Germination in both monocots and di-
cots begins when the embryo releases
the plant hormone, gibberellin, into
the rest of the seed. This chemical trig-
gers the production of digestive enzymes
within the seed. These enzymes break
down large storage molecules such as
starch and release smaller sugar
molecules to provide energy for the
growing embryo. Other enzymes digest
the stored lipids and proteins.
These sugar molecules greatly in-
crease the solute concentration of the
liquid inside the seed. This makes the
interior of the seed hypertonic, causing
more water to be absorbed by osmosis.
Eventually, the seed coats soften and
stretch or crack under pressure from
their swelling contents. Oxygen can now
diffuse in, and the embryo obtains
energy using aerobic respiration. The tip
of the radicle emerges and elongates
rapidly. Rapid growth is possible because
the cells of the radicle were formed
plumule
hypocotyl
radicle
cotyledons
seed coat
Corn (monocot)
FIGURE 17.9 Drawing of the extinct dodo
bird
before dormancy. They now elongate
under the influence of hormones and ab-
sorbed materials. The growth in the
length of the root occurs in an area of
cells just above the apical meristem
called the zone of elongation (Figure
17.11). In the zone of maturation, these
cells develop into a variety of mature root
cells, including specialized epidermal cells
with root hairs.
In plants such as the bean, once the
radicle has begun to grow rapidly, the
hypocotyl begins to emerge (Figure
17.12). The hypocotyl forms a loop or
“hook” that elongates upward, anchored
by the well-developed radicle. The hook
drags the cotyledons with it. When the
hook encounters light, it stops elongat-
ing and straightens. The hypocotyl
becomes the lower portion of the stem.
The epicotyl supports the leaves, the
upper part of the stem, and the termi-
nal bud. The leaf-like cotyledons remain
on the plant temporarily and perform
photosynthesis. As true leaves develop
seed coat
endosperm
plumule
cotyledon
embryo
radicle
epidermis cortex xylem
phloem
endodermis
differentiation
zone of
root hair
elongation
zone of
cell division
zone of
apical meristem
root cap
FIGURE 17.11 Longitudinal section of a
growing root
from the apical meristem, the cotyledons
wither and fall off.
Plant Adaptations to
Different Environments
Plants need light, water, and soil nutri-
ents to grow, yet some environments lack
one or more of these requirements. Over
many thousands of years plants have de-
veloped adaptations to deal with these
less than ideal conditions.
Desert Adaptations Deserts lack water
and so plants that live in this environ-
ment must have adaptations to help
them find and conserve water. Familiar
desert plants such as cacti possess a
thick waxy outer layer called a cuticle,
and have small or no leaves. Since most
water loss in plants occurs by transpi-
ration from leaves, desert plants such as
cacti have leaves modified into needles
epicotyl
cotyledons
cotyledon
radicle hypocotyl
hypocotyl
FIGURE 17.12 Development of a bean seedling
to reduce the surface area, and there-
fore water loss. Because the needles are
so small, photosynthesis occurs in the
stems. In addition, cacti have thick stems
specially adapted to store water.
The root system of most desert
plants is usually very extensive to allow
for maximum absorption of what little
water is available. The seeds germinate
quickly. The plants develop rapidly dur-
ing the very short rainy season. Flowers
and seeds are produced within a few
weeks. As the long dry period begins,
only the seeds survive until the next pe-
riod of rain arrives.
Discovering Biology Leaf Adaptations
Obtain three different leaves from your teacher, each from a plant
that grows in a different environment. Observe each leaf carefully.
You may want to examine them with a hand lens. Decide what
environment each plant lives in. Discuss with a partner what
adaptation(s) each leaf shows that allows the plant to successfully
live in its particular environment.
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 563
 Adaptations for Wet Environments The
ponds, swamps, bogs, and marshes
common to the boreal forest all contain
plants that are adapted to water. Many
species of plants live in shallow ponds
and extend their leaves and flowers to
the surface. Floating leaves, such as
lily pads (Figure 17.13), exchange gases
more readily than underwater leaves.
The living tissue in plant roots must ob-
tain oxygen if cellular respiration is to
occur. For tissues that are underwater,
this can be difficult. Herbaceous pond
plants like the water lilies have special
stems to help move oxygen to their un-
derwater roots. Hollow tubes in the
stems allow gases to diffuse downward.
These tubes serve a dual purpose: they
make the stem buoyant, which then
helps to keep the plant upright in the
water. Vascular plants like the pickerel
weed and water plantain live partly sub-
merged in water often produce seeds
that are designed to float.
fireweed (Figure 17.14) and Populus
grow only after a fire, and quickly cover
the ash-coated ground. When other
plants and trees eventually appear,
these two species are crowded out.
Plants that are “specialists” on
burnt land must have a means of sur-
viving fire. The seeds of some species
need to be strongly heated or singed by
fire in order to germinate. This char-
acteristic makes good ecological sense:
the seeds will germinate and grow best
after a fire, when there is no competi-
tion for soil and light from mature
plants. Also, the ash-enriched soil
makes an ideal environment for young
seedlings.

FIGURE 17.14 Fireweed is one of the first

plants to appear after a forest fire.

FIGURE 17.13 Water lilies. The leaves of the

water lily have stomata on their upper surface
only.

Adaptations for Fire Fire is a normal oc-

currence in the boreal forest. It removes
old and dying trees, and enriches the soil
with ash. The ash neutralizes some of
the acid in the soil, making the soil
conditions better for new plants. Many
plants can live only in environments FIGURE 17.15 This jack pine cones have
recently ravaged by fire. Plants such as opened after being singed.

564 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Cold Climate Adaptations Many plants
must contend with sub-zero tempera-
tures and dry winter conditions,
especially in the tundra and boreal for-
est. Plants have developed adaptations
that allow them to survive and repro-
duce in such harsh conditions. In colder
climates, heat-collecting adaptations are
useful. The flowers of some tundra
plants such as the arctic poppy act as
miniature solar collectors (Figure 17.16).
Under hormonal control, these flowers
rotate to follow the sun across the sum-
mer sky. The shape of their flowers con-
centrate the sun’s rays on the ovary at
the base of the petals. With the extra heat,
the ovary matures faster so that repro-
duction can occur before winter sets in.
This is an important adaptation in a short
growing season.
FIGURE 17.16 The flowers of the arctic poppy
act as solar-energy collectors.
Plants must have a means of sur-
viving winter’s lack of water. Plants that
grow in areas with a cold winter have a
dormant period. Just how plants sense
the approach of winter is not clear, but
it is thought that the lower tempera-
ture and declining daylight periods are
the key stimuli to trigger leaf fall in de-
ciduous trees. If leaves remained on the
trees, the water in the leaves could
freeze and damage the leaves’ tissues.
With a large surface area, they would
also dry out easily. The simple solution
for many plants is to lose their leaves as
winter approaches.
In deciduous plants, nutrients are
moved out of the leaves before they are
dropped and are stored in the roots over
winter. In early spring, the days lengthen
and water becomes more abundant. As
the trees come out of dormancy, these
sugars are brought from the roots, in the
sap, as new leaves develop. It is during
this time that maple trees are tapped for
this sap in order to make maple syrup.
Evergreens, such as the spruces, FIGURE 17.17 Balsam fir
do not lose their leaves in the winter. leaves are flattened needles.
Instead, the leaves are designed to min- New growth shows a lighter
imize winter drying by having a thick green.
layer of moisture-proof cuticle. Evergreen
leaves are modified to form needles,
which minimize the surface area of the
leaves, to reduce winter drying (Figure
17.17).
Adaptations for Nutrient-Poor Soil Some
soils are very acidic. In boreal forest soil,
the acid is mostly humic acid from fallen
conifer needles. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
do not thrive in acidic soil, and so there
is little conversion of nitrites to nitrates,
the form of nitrogen that plants are able
to use. Angiosperms, however, need gen-
erous supplies of nitrogen, which are
needed to make proteins. A number of
angiosperms that live in nitrogen-poor
soil have developed a special technique
for obtaining nitrates: they “eat” animals.
Carnivorous plants capture, kill, and
partly digest insects. The digestion
proceeds far enough to remove the
nitrogen-containing compounds and the
remainder of the animal is then
discarded. In Ontario, carnivorous plants
include the sundew (Figure 17.18), the
pitcher plant, and the butterwort.
Some plants survive in nutrient-poor
soils by “stealing” food from other plants.
There are over 2500 species of parasitic
flowering plants worldwide. These plants
can get water, minerals, or sugars from
their host plant. Mistletoe (Figure 17.19c),
a plant with chlorophyll, obtains some
of its nutrition by “sucking” fluid from
the xylem of its host plant. The parasitic
vine, dodder, which contains almost no
chlorophyll, obtains all its nutrition by
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 565
 FIGURE 17.18 Although the
Venus fly trap a) does not
grow in Ontario, it is probably
the best-known carnivorous
plant. It grows in the southern
U.S. Sundews b) are found in
Ontario.
FIGURE 17.19 Parasitic plants
a) Dodder
FIGURE 17.20 The forest
floor gets only a small
amount of direct sunlight.
566 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
a)
b) Indian pipe
drawing fluids from the host’s xylem and
phloem. Indian pipe gets its nutrition
from the host tree’s roots.
Adaptations to Shade In both the boreal
and temperate deciduous forests, the
canopy of tall trees shades the ground
(Figure 17.20). Deciduous maples and
beeches can block more than 98 percent
of the sunlight reaching the ground
below. Smaller plants below these trees
must be adapted to live with limited
light, particularly in the deciduous for-
est where fires are much less frequent.
Many herbaceous plants of the tem-
perate deciduous forest have adapted to
this lack of light by blooming early in the
b)
c) Mistletoe
spring. Plants that use this adaptation
are called spring ephemerals. As soon
as the snow melts, trilliums and dog-
toothed violets send their shoots
upwards (Figure 17.21).
Within days, their leaves are
collecting light and soon they are in full
bloom. This rapid growth is possible
because each plant has a specialized
energy-storing root underground. These
plants’ life cycles are carried out
before the forest canopy leaves appear.
By midsummer, the spring plants have
disappeared.
Winter survival was difficult for
native peoples and early European set-
tlers in North America. In spring, with
winter food stores dwindling, any source called wild leek emerges early in the
of food was welcome. Spring plants spring. Its leaves and bulb are edible,
helped. A member of the onion family tasty, and nutritious (Figure 17.22).

FIGURE 17.21 The trillium is the official flower FIGURE 17.22 Wild leeks
of the province of Ontario. If you see trilliums
flowering in the early spring, enjoy looking, but
do not pick them.

Section 17.1 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. Make a chart listing three important
inorganic substances from soil needed
by plants in significant quantities, and
the role each plays in growth.
2. Indicate one advantage and one dis-
advantage of using inorganic fertilizer.
3. Describe the factors that affect the
growth of a desert plant and explain
how the plant has adapted to grow in
desert conditions.
4. In a germinating seedling, what role
do the cotyledons play? Explain the risk
that the seedling faces if the cotyledons
drop off or are broken off prematurely.
7. Scientists have “tricked” a type of plant
that normally does not fix nitrogen into
developing root nodules, the structures
that hold nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
legumes. These nodules do not have
bacteria in them. Describe further steps
you think scientists need to carry out
to enable these plants to fix nitrogen
in the same manner as the legumes.
TABLE 17.3 Three trays of seedlings were
given a complete nutrient solution, distilled
water, or a nutrient solution lacking nitrogen.
After several days, the root length of the
seedlings were measured.

Applying Inquiry/ Solutions Mean Root Leaf Colour

Communication Skills Length (mm)
5. Interpret the results in Table 17.3 to Complete 46 deep green
determine which solution provided the nutrients
elements for healthy growth.
Distilled 13 pale green/
6. Decide whether there is enough
water yellow
evidence to conclude that a solution
lacking nitrogen is better for plant Lacking 15 pale green
growth than distilled water. Provide nitrogen yellow
reasons for your answer.

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 567

 17.2 Hormones and the Control
of Plant Growth
Key Understandings

When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
 identify plant hormones and describe their functions

WORD ORIGIN
hormone from the Greek word
horman, meaning “to set in
motion” or “to urge.”
auxin from the Latin word
augeo, meaning “to enlarge,
grow, or increase.”
auxin
molecules
All organisms must be able to control
their own growth and plants are no
exception. Plants use hormones to
coordinate their growth in response
to external factors such as light, gravity,
nutrients, and competition, or in re-
sponse to internal factors such as the
need for repair or reproduction.
A hormone is a complex chemical
produced in very small amounts within
the plant, and it has a dramatic effect on
the plant’s growth. Hormones are often
produced in one location (the source)
and travel to another location to exert
their influence (the target). Only small
amounts of hormones are required to
stimulate the target cells.
There are three groups of plant
hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins. There are also two hormones
that are not classified into any of these
groups: abscisic acid and ethylene.
tion
ga
lon
ll e
ce
Individually or collectively, they can alter
the rate of mitosis, direct differentiation,
control aging, and stimulate the growth
in size of individual target cells.
Auxins
It has long been observed that plants
bend toward a light source. Experiments
done in the late 1880s showed that the
tip of a growing stem was responsible for
this phenomenon. Plants such as grasses
have a coleoptile, a sheath that covers
the young leaves as the seedling emerges
from the ground. The coleoptile responds
to light by bending toward it. A hormone
called auxin is released from the tip of
the coleoptile when it is exposed to light
(Figure 17.23). The auxin is transported
downward and causes the cells of the
growing stem to elongate. If the light is
coming from the side, the auxin moves
away from the light to the shaded side of
the stem, causing only those cells on the
dark side to elongate. As a result of the
uneven elongation of cells, the stem bends
toward the light.
In the root, auxin produced in
apical meristems causes the root to grow
downward with the pull of gravity and
away from light. In root cells, auxin has
the opposite effect than on the shoot

cells: high concentrations of auxin in-

hibit cell elongation. If a root is exposed
to light, auxin accumulates in the cells
that are the least exposed to the light.
Thus, the “sunny” cells elongate more
a b c
than the shaded ones, causing the root
to curve downward, away from the light.
The same thing happens when grow-
FIGURE 17.23 The action of auxin in shoots. Auxin molecules move away from the
ing roots hit an object such as a stone.
light source, either downward a) or sideways b), depending on the position of the
light source. Auxin accumulates on the lower side of

568 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

 coleoptile was covered everywhere
except the tip, it still responded to
light by bending. The Darwins con-
cluded that coleoptile is light sensitive
The Darwins’ and that it produces an “influence,”
Experiments or signal, that causes bending further
down the stem. They did not know
what this “influence” was or how it
functioned. Some 40 years later, an-
other researcher discovered that the
“influence” was in fact a chemical,
which is now known as auxin.

Charles Darwin, well known as the

co-originator of the theory of evolu-
light
tion, and his son Francis were the
first researchers to provide evidence
for the existence of plant hormones.
In 1880, the Darwins performed a se-
ries of experiments with grass
seedlings to investigate how they re-
spond to light (Figure 17.24). They
found that if the tip of the coleoptile
control tip tip covered tip covered base covered
was covered with a light-proof cap, removed by opaque by transparent by opaque
and the stem was left exposed, the cap cap shield
stem continued to grow but did not
bend toward the light. However, if the FIGURE 17.24 The Darwins’ experiments

the root, and the upper part elongates.

The root then grows sideways and then
downward around the stone.

Other Effects of Auxins Auxins also affect

other plant parts. The terminal bud (the
highest bud) of many plants produces an
auxin that inhibits or retards the devel-
opment of other buds below it on the
stem. This is called apical dominance.
Plants that show strong apical dominance
grow tall and straight. Plants that lack
apical dominance are usually short and
bushy. Shade trees often have apical dom-
inance when young, and then lose it as
they mature, thus forming a spreading
canopy high above the ground.
Auxins (or their absence) also control
maturing processes in plants. Leaves on
deciduous plants release auxin during the
warm growing season, but stop releas-
ing it as fall approaches. Without auxin, a
layer of cells at the base of the leaf stalk
called the abscission layer weakens, al-
lowing the leaf to fall away at the end of
the growing season (Figure 17.25).
Auxins also aid in root development,
and in the initiation of flowering.
FIGURE 17.25 Leaf fall is
caused by declining levels of
auxin.
Uses for Auxins Chemically, auxin is
known as indoleacetic acid or IAA. IAA
is the only known natural auxin, but oth-
ers similar to it have been synthesized and
are now commercially available. IAA is
used commercially in the horticulture
industry to promote root growth in cuttings.
Some commercial weed killers have an
artificial auxin, a chemical called 2,4-D. In
high concentrations, it is toxic to dicots,
but monocots, such as grass, can toler-
ate these concentrations. Broad-leafed

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 569

 weeds sprayed with 2,4-D grow uncon- also produced in leaf chloroplasts.
trollably and the plant “grows itself to Gibberellins work together with auxins
death,” leaving only the surrounding to promote elongation of stems and
grass. Unfortunately, during the pro- roots. They also work alone to promote
duction of 2,4-D, another chemical called leaf growth and flowering. Earlier in this
2,4,5-T is also manufactured as a side section, you learned how gibberellins are
product. Together these two chemicals involved in seed germination.
are known as “agent orange.” Agent or- Gibberellins also control fruit devel-
ange was used as a defoliant in the opment. An important application of
Vietnam war in the late 1960s and early gibberellins is the spraying of the
70s. Besides killing all plants, it is dan- Thompson variety of seedless grapes.
gerous to human health. A by-product When giberellins are sprayed on the
of 2,4,5-T is dioxin, which is linked to grapes, each grape grows larger and far-
birth defects, skin diseases, and a num- ther apart in a cluster (Figure 17.26).
ber of cancers.
Another artificial auxin is used to re-
tard the sprouting of potatoes during
storage. Seedless tomatoes and water-
melons are produced using an auxin
sprayed on the flowers before pollina-
tion. The unfertilized (and therefore
seedless) ovary develops a fleshy coat
under the influence of the hormone.
Sprayed auxins may also be used to pre-
vent ripe fruit from falling off orchard
trees. The auxin prevents the abscission
layer from developing, thus allowing the
farmer extra time to harvest the crop.

Gibberellins
Gibberellins are produced in apical FIGURE 17.26 The grapes on the right have
meristems but, unlike auxins, they are been sprayed with gibberellin.

very tall, but these plants soon

Foolish
Seedlings
In the 1920s, Japanese biologist Ewiti
Kurosawa was working with a fun-
gal disease of young rice plants. The
fungus caused infected plants to grow
fell over. The disease was ap-
propriately known as “foolish
seedling disease.” The scientific
name of the fungus is Gibberella
fujikori. Kurosawa discovered
that a chemical released by the
fungus was responsible for the
abnormal growth. The term gib-
berellin was used to name this
chemical. Further research
showed that there were many
FIGURE 17.27 Farmers need rice plants
different forms of gibberellins.
with strong stalks to keep the rice seeds
(More than 80 are now known.) away from the ground.

570 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Cytokinins
Cytokinins are hormones that promote
cell division and cell differentiation. They
also promote seed germination and flow-
ering. Cytokinins are produced in the
roots and are transported to their target
cells. One effect of cytokinins is that they
prevent some plant cells from aging
too quickly. Florists spray cut flowers
with cytokinins to keep them fresh for a
longer time.
Other Hormones
Unlike the three groups of hormones
previously discussed, abscisic acid
(ABA) does not stimulate growth but,
rather, inhibits it. In the lab, ABA speeds
up the fall of leaves when sprayed on
plants. Whether or not it controls this
process in the natural environment is
unclear. It certainly slows down or stops
growth and induces dormancy.
Auxin stimulates the production of
fruit, but another hormone, ethylene,
causes the ripening of fruit in many
plants. Ethylene is a gas produced in
large quantities by over-ripe fruits. It also
initiates the formation of the abscis-
sion layer in the stems of fruits.
Ethylene has widespread commer-
cial applications. Many fruits are now
picked before they are ripe. Green fruits
are tougher, do not spoil, and are easy
to ship. The action of ethylene produced
by the fruit as it ripens can be stopped,
but not reversed, by adding large quan-
tities of carbon-dioxide gas to storage
containers. They can be stored for an
extended length of time near their final
destination in giant cold lockers flooded
with carbon dioxide. When the market
is ready, as in mid-winter, the locker is
warmed and filled with air and ethylene.
The fruit then ripens and is sold.
Tropisms and Turgor
Responses
Plants grow in response to external
stimuli. The pattern of growth and the
appearance of the plant are determined
in part by the environment. These
growth responses are called tropisms
and are controlled by plant hormones.
Positive tropisms are growths toward
the stimulus whereas negative tropisms
are growths away from the stimulus.
There are several known kinds of
tropisms, and they are classified by the
type of stimulus to which they respond.
Phototropism The bending and growth
of a stem toward a light source is an ex-
ample of a phototropism. Stems and
leaves almost always show a positive
phototropic response because this allows
them to capture more sunlight energy.
Roots, on the other hand, show a nega-
tive phototropic response by growing
away from light. As you have studied,
auxin is responsible for the different
ways in which stem and root cells elon-
gate when exposed to light.
Gravitropism The growth response to
gravity is called gravitropism or
geotropism. Stems show negative grav-
itropism and roots show positive
gravitropism in response to the force
of gravity. It is believed that the direc-
tion of gravitational force is sensed by
specialized cells found in root caps and
along the length of stems. These cells
contain dense organelles called
amyloplasts. The amyloplasts sink to the
lowest side of the cell, thus indicating
which direction is down. The result is
the release of auxin, which causes un-
even cell elongation and the subsequent
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development
WORDORIGIN
tropism from the Greek word
tropé, meaning “a turning.”
INFOBIT
The old expression that “one
rotten apple will spoil the
whole barrel” is true because
the rotting apple gives off
ethylene gas, which
accelerates the ripening of
all fruit near it.
WEBLINK
Plant hormones often work
together to produce changes
in a plant. Research plant
hormone interactions and
create a concept map to show
these interactions and their
effects on plants. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 576,
Investigation 2
FIGURE 17.28 After
being placed on its side,
this oak sapling stem
has curved upward
against gravity.
571
 Gravity acts on the emerging root. Auxin is released and moves to
the downward side of the root,
inhibiting cell elongation.
gravity
FIGURE 17.29 Gravitropism in plant roots. Roots show a positive gravitropism.
bending of the root downward, with
gravity (Figure 17.29).
Thigmotropism Some plants grow in re-
sponse to touch. This response is termed
thigmotropism. Most vines are masters
of this response, using it to gain support
without growing a thick woody trunk.
Specialized cells in the epidermis of
these plants control this response.
FIGURE 17.30 Thigmotropism
572 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
Cells on the upward side elongate,
causing the root tip to point downward.
Other Tropisms Other tropic responses
have been observed. Chemotropism is
a response to certain chemicals in the
environment. Hydrotropism is a special
type of chemotropism: growth toward
water. All tropic responses are of adap-
tive value, that is, they improve the
likelihood of the plant’s survival.
Turgor Responses
One of the most remarkable plant
responses is rapid movement. The
insect-trapping movement of a Venus fly
trap is a familiar example. Less well
known, but even more dramatic is the
rapid movement of the leaflets of the
mimosa plant (Figure 17.31).
These rapid movements are brought
about by changes in turgor pressure.
When plant cells are filled or swollen
with water, they are rigid and have high
turgor pressure. When their water
content is low, the cells are limp and tur-
gor is low.
This is similar to a truck tire with
an inner tube. When the tube is full of
air, it presses against the tire. The tire
becomes rigid and can bear weight.
When the tube is low on air, it does not
press firmly against the tire. The tire be-
comes soft and cannot bear weight.
Touching the petiole of the mimosa or
trigger cells on the Venus fly trap causes
a sudden loss of turgor in special cells.
 FIGURE 17.31 Mimosa leaflets. Touching the petiole of a mimosa plant causes a
loss in turgor pressure and the leaflets close rapidly.

This is like a nail punching through a

tire’s tube. Rigid weight-bearing cells
rapidly become limp, and the leaflets
close quickly.
Plants like the sunflower (Figure
17.32) use turgor to “track” the sun like
a TV satellite dish. Many leaves do the
same. These regulated responses are
also carried out by changes in the tur-
gor of specialized cells.

FIGURE 17.32 All the sunflower plants have

angled their flowers toward the sun.

Section 17.2 Review

Understanding Concepts
1. A growing plant is illuminated from
one side. Describe the effect of auxin
on the stem cells of the plant.
2. Describe the effect gibberellins have on
a plant and what parts of the plant are
affected.
3. Explain the difference between a pos-
itive and negative tropism. Give one ex-
ample of each.
4. Flowering tropical plants called
bromeliads can be “tricked” into flow-
ering by growing them inside a clear
plastic bag that also has a ripe apple
in it. Propose a mechanism that ex-
plains this observation.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Using additional sources, collect more
information about the actions of each
of the hormones listed in the text.
Create a chart that lists the hormones’
various actions, and where in the plant
each hormone is produced.
Making Connections
6. Write a brief report on the uses of plant
hormones in agriculture. In your re-
port, outline the positive and negative
impacts of using hormones on soci-
ety, the environment, and on food
producers and consumers.

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 573

 Inquiry
InquirySkills
Skills
 Initiating
Initiatingand
andPlanning
Planning

Investigation 1 (Section 17.1)

 Applying
ApplyingTechnical
 Using
TechnicalSkills
UsingTools,
Skills
Tools,Material,
material,Equipment
Equipment
 Conducting
Conductingand
andRecording
Recording
 Analyzing
Analyzingand
andInterpreting
Interpreting
Factors Affecting the Growth of Plants  Concluding
Concludingand
andCommunicating
Communicating

In this activity your group will design and carry out an 9. Once the seeds have germinated, the lids may be
investigation to determine how certain factors affect removed.
the growth of a population of plants. You will carry out
your investigation on cress seedlings, which you will Part B–Design and Conduct an Experiment
grow in Part A of the activity.

Part A–Growing Cress Seedlings Experimental Design

1. Discuss each of the following factors and decide
In this activity you will grow cress seedlings using a which one your group will investigate.
soil-less growth medium. You will use the resulting • quality of light (colour)
plants in the experiment you design in Part B. • intensity of light
• amounts of nutrients supplied to plants
Materials LAL1 • temperature
 cress seeds • salinity
 distilled water 2. Once you have chosen a factor, propose a hypoth-
 3 Petri dishes esis for your investigation.
 vermiculite 3. List the materials you will need to carry out your
 marking pens experiment. The materials must be available either
 25-mL graduated cylinder through your teacher or brought from home.
4. Assess whether there are any safety issues with any
of the materials.
Procedure 5. Design your procedure. Outline, in sequence, the
1. Mark the sides of your Petri dishes clearly to steps you will take to carry out your investigation.
identify them as yours.
6. Decide which variable you will manipulate and
2. Fill the bottom half of each Petri dish evenly with which variables will be kept constant
vermiculite and smooth it out so that the surface is
flat. 7. Decide what you are going to measure and how you
are going to record the data.
3. Measure 20 mL of water into the graduated cylin-
der. Carefully pour the water evenly over the ver- 8. Write out the entire procedure in logical sequence
miculite so that it is thoroughly moistened but there and clearly so that any other science
is no standing water. Record the exact amount of student could carry out your investigation.
water you used. 9. Once your group has completed the procedure,
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other two Petri dishes. exchange it with the procedure of a group investi-
Make sure you use exactly the same amount of gating another factor. Suggest ways they could
water as in step 3. clarify or improve their experimental design.

5. Sprinkle roughly the same amount of cress seeds 10. Modify your experimental design as necessary.
evenly onto the surface of the vermiculite in each dish. 11. Submit your final experimental design to your
6. Gently push the seeds onto the surface and replace teacher for approval.
the lids of the Petri dishes. 12. Once approved, carry out your investigation.
7. Store the dishes in a dark cupboard at room tem- 13. Record data from your investigation.
perature or slightly higher.
8. Check the dishes each day and add water to keep
the vermiculite moist. Always add equal amounts
of water to each dish.


574 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

(continued)
Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Analyze your data and decide whether your data
support your hypothesis.
2. Compare your results with other groups that
investigated the same factor.
3. Your group may not have obtained the results you
expected for a variety of reasons. Analyze your ex-
periment and determine the most likely reasons
why you did not get the expected results.
Concluding and Communicating
4. Draw a conclusion from your data.
5. Prepare a written lab report as outlined by your
teacher. Be sure to include any possible errors in
the design and the carrying out of your experiment,
and how they may have affected your
results.
6. From your observations of Part A, are nutrients
needed for seed germination? Explain.
7. From Part B, at what level (concentration intensity,
and so on) did your factor produce the
optimum growth in your seedings?
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 575
 Inquiry Skills
 Initiating and Planning

Investigation 2 (Section 17.2)



Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
 Conducting and Recording
Investigating Gravitropism  Analyzing and Interpreting
 Concluding and Communicating

Problem a dark place. The tape will hold best if the edge of
the dish rests on a shelf.
In this activity, you will investigate what kind of
response seedlings show to gravity. 5. Predict the direction of root growth as they emerge
from the seeds.
6. Observe the seeds each day and add water as
Materials necessary to keep the towels moist. When the roots
For each groups of students: are 3–4 cm long, mark their location and direction
 12 corn seeds soaked  Petri dish on the cover with a felt pen.
for 48 h  masking tape 7. Rotate the dish clockwise 90° and reattach it to the
 paper towels  felt pen wall. Predict what will happen to the direction of
growth.
8. After 24 h and after 48 h, observe and draw the
Procedure pattern of root growth.
1. Line the bottom of the Petri dish with folded
paper towels. Use enough paper towels so that in
step 2 the seeds will press against the lid firmly Analyzing and Evaluating
enough to hold them in place. Moisten the towel 1. In what direction did the majority of stems grow
and pour off excess water. after emerging from the seeds?
2. Select 12 corn seeds and arrange them in the 2. After rotating the Petri dish, did the roots continue
dish in a circle with their tips pointing toward in a straight line or did they change direction? If
the centre as in Figure 17.33. Place the dish lid they changed direction, what was their new
on top. direction?
3. Why was it important to place the seeds in a
circle?
4. If cell growth in an emerging root is uniform,
corn seed
then there is no reason for a change in the direc-
tion of growth. However, if there is a change in the
direction, then unequal cell growth must be occur-
ring. Based on your observations, determine where
in the root cell growth or cell elongation must be
greatest.

Concluding and Communicating

5. Based on your observations, what conclusions
can you draw about a root’s response to gravity?
6. Do roots show a positive or negative gravitropism?
FIGURE 17.33 Explain.
Corn seeds in paper towels squeezing 7. Scientists are very interested in how plants will
a Petri dish seeds to lid grow in space. Explain why it would be important
to know this.
3. While holding the cover firmly in place, turn the
dish on its edge and shake gently. If any seeds
move from their location, open the dish and add
Extending
more towels until the seeds no longer move when 8. Continue the experiment, observing and recording
the dish is shaken. the growth of the stem. Predict what happens to
the stem when the dish is rotated clockwise, once
4. Tape the edges shut and tape the entire dish onto
the stems are 1–2 cm long. Do the stems
a wall in a cupboard so that the dish is vertical in
respond differently to gravity?

576 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

Key Terms

abscisic acid dormancy hormone phototropism

apical dominance ethylene macronutrient tropism
auxin gibberellin micronutrient turgor response
cytokinin gravitropism (geotropism) nitrogen fixation

Essential Understandings

17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations
 Soil, consisting of several layers, contains a num-
ber of important nutrients needed by plants.
 Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the major
plant nutrients.
 Legumes are able to fix nitrogen from the air by
means of specialized bacteria living in their roots.
 The conditions required for seeds to germinate vary,
depending on the plant.
 Nutrients within the seed nourish the seedling until
leaves and roots develop.
 Plants have developed a variety of adaptations to
overcome excesses or lack of growth factors in their
environments.
17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant Growth
 Auxins control plant growth responses to light and
to gravity.
 Gibberellins promote elongation of roots and stems.
 Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation.
 Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
 Ethylene promotes ripening in fruit.
 Phototropism is a plant’s growth response to light.
Gravitropism is a plant’s growth response to
gravity.
 Turgor responses allow plants to respond rapidly to
stimuli.

Consolidate Your Understanding

1. Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 557 and re-
view your flow chart outlining growth requirements for
the development of a seed to a mature plant. Revise
the flow chart based on what you have learned in the
chapter.
2. Draw a concept map to summarize what you have
learned about plant growth and development using the
following key terms: dormancy, germination, zone of
elongation, zone of maturation, radicle, hypocotyl.
3. Draw a series of unlabelled diagrams illustrating how
a coleoptile responds to a light source directed on one
side of a plant. In your diagrams, indicate the role of
auxin in the growth response.
4. Reflect on your learning. You completed a lab report for
Investigation 1 (Section 17.1): Factors Affecting Plant
Growth. Why is a lab report an effective learning tool?

CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 577

C H A P T E R 17 R E V I E W

Understanding Concepts
1. Seed germination begins with the
a) release of a hormone from the seed embryo
b) release of a hormone from the plant
c) landing of the seed in suitable soil
d) first rain and warm temperature
13. Explain why crops such as peas and beans do not re-
quire fertilizers rich in ammonium compounds whereas
most other crops do require these compounds.
14. Place the following events in proper sequence: cotyle-
dons drop off, radicle emerges, seed coat breaks, leaves
form, hypocotyl emerges.

2. In phototropism, auxins 15. Explain why seeds are called “time and space travellers.”
a) migrate to the illuminated side of the growing shoot
b) stimulate cell division in the shoot 16. When a deciduous tree is cut down in midsummer, its
c) stimulate cell elongation on the “illuminated” side leaves die, shrivel, and turn brown. However, they do
of the shoot not fall off the branches for months or even years. Explain
d) stimulate cell elongation on the “dark side” of the why these dead leaves do not fall off.
shoot
17. An experiment using radish seeds was set up to inves-
3. During seed dormancy tigate gravitropism. Three groups of seeds were planted
a) no metabolic processes in the seed occur in soil. As soon as the radicles emerged, the seedlings
b) cell respiration occurs at a slow rate in group 1 were placed so that the radicles were facing
c) cell respiration ceases up, group 2 seedlings were placed with their radicles
d) the seed is dead facing down, and group 3 were arranged with their radi-
cles growing horizontally.
4. The requirements needed by all seeds for germination a) Predict what will happen to root growth over sev-
are eral weeks with each group. All of the plants are
a) light and moisture provided with ample water and ideal growing
b) moisture and oxygen temperatures.
c) heat and light b) Explain briefly how auxin controls root growth re-
d) oxygen and light sponse to gravity in each of the three groups of
plants.
5. Which of the following does not belong in the list below?
a) gibberellin 18. Describe four plant adaptations for living in cold envi-
b) ethylene ronments. For any one of these, explain how the same
c) 2,4-D adaptation allows other plants to live in extremely hot
d) auxin environments.

6. Identify the three layers that make up soil and name the
layer that provides the most nutrients to plants.
7. Differentiate between the terms micronutrient and
macronutrient.
8. Name the three most important macronutrients for plants
and describe one role of each.
19. House plants grown on a window sill should be turned
or rotated one-quarter turn each week. Provide the rea-
son for this advice.
20. A bean seedling is growing in a pot, and it’s shoot sys-
tem has emerged from the soil. The pot is knocked on
its side and left in that position. Draw a diagram of the
seedling after having been on its side for three days.

9. Fertilizer designated as “10-6-4” is likely to be used to 21. When a seed germinates, the roots always emerge
promote a lush green lawn. Indicate why this particular before the shoots. Explain why this provides an
fertilizer would be used. advantage to the plant.

10. Describe the role of gibberellins in seed germination.
11. Distinguish a plant turgor response from a tropism.
12. Gardeners often “pinch” or cut off the terminal (apical)
shoots of young plants in order to increase the
“bushiness” of the plant. Explain why this technique
works.
22. Reread the InfoBIT on page 561. This is an extreme
example of dormancy. However, Arctic lupin seeds have
evolved the ability to remain dormant for many years.
Given that this plant lives in the tundra biome, explain
how this adaptation could help the plant.

578 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
23. Research the nitrogen cycle. Explain the role of the
legume family of plants in this important natural cycle.
24. Table 17.4 indicates the nutrient levels in four different
fertilizers. Copy them into your notebook and match one
to each of the desired outcomes: new sod surviving,
shrubs surviving the winter, high-quality vegetables, and
increased growth of evergreen seeds. Explain the rea-
soning for each of your answers.
TABLE 17.4
Nutrient Levels 10-20-10
in Four Fertilizers
25-3-5
4-4-14
7-7-7
25. An experiment using oat seedlings was carried out to
study the effects of auxin on the growth response of the
coleoptiles (the shoots). Examine Figure 17.34 below
showing the experimental set up. The “wafers” used in
this experiment are very thin sections of glass, similar
to microscope cover slips. Predict what the growth re-
sponse of each seedling will be. Draw a diagram of your
predictions. Explain your predicted results based on your
knowledge of the action of auxins.
glass wafer
light
FIGURE 17.34
26. Figure 17.35 shows the relationship between the mass
of seeds and the mass of seedlings grown from these
seeds after 30 days of growth. Examine the graph to de-
termine the relationship between seed mass and seedling
mass. Propose a hypothesis to explain these results.
40
Mass of seedings (mg)
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 17.35 Mass of seed (mg)
27. Using the Internet and other resources, prepare a sum-
mary table showing the known functions of each of the
following plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins.
Making Connections
28. One of the roles of auxins in some plants is to stimulate
the development of fruit. These auxins are produced in
the seeds of the fruit. Synthetic auxins are applied to an-
giosperms, such as the tomato plant, to induce the pro-
duction of fruit without the need for pollination.
a) Relate what is unusual about fruit grown this way.
b) Discuss any practical advantage this technology pro-
vides for either the food industry or consumers.
29. The herbicide 2,4-D is widely used to kill weeds. It is es-
pecially useful in agriculture since it only kills dicot plants.
Explain the significance of this feature of the chemical
in the spraying of agricultural crops. Include a specific
example of a crop in your answer.
30. It is not possible to supply sufficient soil nutrients for
agriculture by using animal manure only. Thus, indus-
trial, inorganic fertilizers must be used worldwide. Specify
some of the environmental concerns farmers must be
sensitive to in using fertilizers.
31. One of the functions of the plant hormone ethylene is
to cause fruit to ripen. Prepare a brief report on this hor-
mone using the following headings: a) plant production
of ethylene, b) effects on fruit tissues, c) commercial uses
of ethylene.
32. Irrigation allows farmers to grow crops in parts of
Canada that receive little rainfall. Research the use of ir-
rigation and create a PMI chart on the use of irrigation.
Investigate how irrigation affects society, the economy,
and the environment.
33. In order to have high crop-yielding agricultural land,
farmers around the world have had to supply nutrients
to the soil in the form of fertilizers. Without fertilizers,
the yield of agricultural land is very inefficient. Predict
what the effect(s) would be on the world’s natural habi-
tat if fertilizers were not used on agricultural land.
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 579
 EXPLORING CAREERS
After Class
You’ve learned how career opportuni-
ties in biology are increasing and
changing, as well as how many of these
careers overlap into the other sciences.
You’ve practised how to communicate
your science skills to prospective em-
ployers and on forms. You may have
found exactly the right match between
your own interests and a particular field
within biology, as well as which
universities offer the most specific
education in that field. But what comes
next? What can you do toward a
career in biology after this class?
Have a look at the excerpts from job
ads shown on this page. Each is a re-
quirement for experience. You already
know the importance of having experi-
ence when you apply for a job. If you are
looking for your first job, you can only
580 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
talk about the experience you’ve gained
through accomplishments at home and
school. These accomplishments are
important and will certainly help get you
part-time or summer work. But the
moment you start that first job, you will
begin to accumulate specific experience
that can help you obtain the post-
secondary education you want and the
career in biology that interests you.
Finding Experience
1. Choose one of the experience re-
quirements listed. How could you go
about gaining this experience
during your summer break, or after
school?
 Make a list of places that could
offer experience. Consider as
many ideas as you can. For ex-
ample, if you selected “working
with animals” you might list pet
shops, animal shelters, dog
grooming services, kennels,
breeders, stables, wildlife/con-
servation groups, farms, groups
supplying therapeutic or com-
panion animals. (Hint: Ask
others for their ideas.)
 Obtain a local phone book.
Using this, and your list, look for
places within your community
you could approach for experi-
ence. (Hint: Ask others for sug-
gestions but, this time, ask for
specific contact information.)
 Call or visit these places to
find out more. Do they hire
students? Do they take on
volunteers? Do they offer
apprenticeships or other
training? Be sure to mention
why you want this experience.
The Importance of Experience
Experience doesn’t just make your
résumé look terrific to an employer. It is
important in applying to university as
well. If your goal is to apply for a uni-
versity program with a set number of
new students a year, such as medicine
or veterinary science, pharmacology, or
other professions, related experience will
make an immense difference as to
whether you will be accepted.
2. Use university calendars and other
sources of information about
specific professional schools and
programs to find out what experi-
ence is required or recommended
for admission. (Hint: This will be
listed separately from requirements
to enter a B.Sc. program.) Remember,
you need to do certain undergradu-
ate programs or even obtain a B.Sc.
before you apply to medical or other
schools, but you can begin prepar-
ing for that application now.
 you leave or need it for an application.
Are there any specific experi-
ence requirements? For example,
a valid St. John’s Ambulance
First Aid Certificate is needed
when applying for medical
school. This is something you
can obtain immediately and will
also let you see what it is like to
work in the health field.
 Are there any general experi-
ence requirements? For example,
admission to veterinary med-
icine requires demonstrated
experience working with animals
as well as letters of reference
from veterinarians. This is
something you can begin
immediately, by looking for
opportunities to volunteer or
work part-time with a local
veterinarian.
Get it in writ-
ing! When you
do any kind of
work, paid or
volunteer, be
sure to get it
documented.
Make a list of
your duties and
keep it with
your résumé
and other im-
portant infor-
mation. When
you ask for a
letter of refer-
ence, explain to
your supervisor
or employer
that it would be helpful if this letter FIGURE 1 Volunteer work or
summer jobs will gain you
emphasized the experience you gained.
valuable experience.
Most will be very willing to add a
sentence or two, especially if they know
why it is important to your career plans.
Ask for this letter at least a week before
Looking Outward
Taking a first aid course is an excellent
idea, whether you are interested in
medicine, human biology, or simply want
to be better prepared for an emergency.
You will also find such a course is rec-
ommended or required for many types
of jobs, especially outdoors jobs. Find
out when and where the next St. John’s
Ambulance First Aid Course will be held
in your area. Plan to attend. You will
gain confidence dealing with emergen-
cies as well as knowledge on how to
handle everyday mishaps. (Hint: If you
have previously taken a first aid course
through school, a club, or sports, check
your qualifications. You must upgrade
your training every few years to keep
your certificate valid.)
Exploring Careers 581
 ACHIEVEMENT TASK

Golden Rice: Problem or Solution?

Background Information
Most Canadians eat a well-balanced diet that
provides all of the vitamins and minerals their
bodies need. In many developing countries
around the world, rice is a large part of people’s
diet, just as wheat is in Canada. However, a
major drawback of rice is that it lacks vitamin
A. In developing countries, the very poor may
eat just a few bowls of rice a day and not much
else. As a result, millions of children around the
world don’t get enough vitamin A. Having a vi-
tamin A deficiency is particularly serious. Lack
of vitamin A causes night blindness, and can
leave the body vulnerable to diarrhea and in-
fectious diseases such as measles, which to-
FIGURE 1 Rice being planted. Rice is a staple in many
gether kill 3.5 million children a year world developing countries.
wide. It is estimated that 100 million children
suffer from vitamin A deficiency.
Swiss scientist Ingo Potrykus decided to
address this issue by developing a genetically Golden rice was never meant to be a total so-
modified rice that would be rich in beta lution to vitamin A deficiency. Studies are
carotene, the building block of vitamin A. It took needed to assess the long-term effects of all ge-
him many years to perfect this new strain of netically modified foods as they become more
rice, which he then offered as new seeds to poor widely used.
farmers in India. Instead of being recognized
for having a sense of social responsibility, his
“golden rice” caused a huge public outcry, and
the warehouse where it was stored had to be
SCENARIO
protected against attacks.
Some environmentalists call the golden rice
“Frankenfood.” They are concerned that golden You are attending a summit on world health and
rice may interbreed with other varieties of rice. will be presenting a funding proposal for re-
Because large corporations helped to market search on genetically modified foods. Your pro-
the rice, there is a fear that the profit motive posal should be based on what you have
may overshadow humanitarian goals. Environ- researched, and your personal views on the
mentalists and agriculturalists say other issue. Your presentation should include: graph-
alternatives, such as the distribution of ics such as charts, tables; summary overheads
vitamin A capsules or leafy green vegetables to help you communicate your argument; as
should be explored before introducing a bio-en- well as any additional presentation devices to
gineered food. add interest and support your proposal.

582 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

Part A: Research the Issue
1. Define the term “Frankenfood” and explain
how the term is used in the debate on
genetically modified foods.
2. In a consequence map, show all the differ-
ent points of view that exist on the issue
of genetically modified foods.
3. Research the development of “golden rice”
and analyze the social and economic im-
pacts of your findings, using a PMI chart.
Part B: Analyzing the Data
4. What methods of experimentation did
Potrykus use to create golden rice?
5. Using diagrams and charts, show who is
most affected by vitamin A deficiency
around the globe.
6. Plan and propose a method of testing the
long-term effects of “golden rice.”
Part C: Perspectives
7. Evaluate Potrykus’ golden rice in relation
to safety, cost, availability, and impact on
everyday life and the environment.
8. How do the media affect our thinking on
genetically modified foods. Give examples.
9. Compare and contrast the points of view of
different cultures around the world on
this issue.
10. Should economics influence the implemen-
tation of solutions to world problems like
vitamin deficiency? Explain.
Part D: Summary Sheet
11. Create a summary sheet (1–2 pages maxi-
mum) which outlines the important features
of your research from Part A and from your
presentation. Your summary sheet must
include a bibliography of the sources used.
Attach your PMI chart to the summary
sheet.
A C H I E V E M E N T TA S K 583
UNIT 5 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 9. The technique of growing many identical plants from a
small group of cells is called
1. The process mainly responsible for water movement up a) grafting
vascular plants occurs in b) cloning
a) roots c) artificial selection
b) stems d) cross-pollination
c) soil
d) leaves 10. The plant “part” that serves as the main food supply for
humans is the
2. Maple sap is “tapped” in early spring because a) seed
a) sugars are manufactured in the leaves as soon as b) root
the weather gets warm c) stem
b) sugars are being transported to the roots d) fruit
c) stored sugars are being moved from the roots to the
tops of the trees 11. The property of water molecules being strongly attracted
d) in winter the snow is too deep to get to the trees to each other is called
a) adhesion and is essential in the transport of
3. Which of the following fertilizers release their nutrients sugars
into the soil fastest? b) cohesion and helps explain the rise of water to the
a) sheep manure tops of plants
b) fish meal c) cohesion and explains root pressure
c) 10-6-4 d) adhesion and is essential for transpiration to take
d) cow manure place

4. Negative gravitropism is demonstrated by 12. The choosing of a particular plant variety to cultivate as
a) roots a crop is an example of
b) stems a) monoculture
c) seeds b) natural selection
d) leaves c) artificial selection
d) phytoremediation
5. Plant hormones are used commercially as
a) fertilizers 13. Which of the following is not an effect of auxin?
b) insecticides a) stimulates stem and root cell elongation
c) weed killers b) stimulates lateral growth of branches in shrubs
d) all of the above c) prevents leaf abscission
d) stimulates growth toward light
6. Which of the following is designed to prevent water loss?
a) cuticle covering of leaves 14. A growth response to contact is known as
b) leaves with small surface area a) thigmotropism
c) leaves that are needles b) gravitropism
d) all of the above c) turgor response
d) phototropism
7. Plants that bloom early in the spring and then are “gone”
until the next spring do so because 15. The ability of plants to re-grow missing parts is the basis
a) they usually grow in dense forests and would be of
shaded from light by trees all summer a) hybridization
b) the soil is richest in nutrients after the snow melts b) grafting
c) they grow best in a cool, wet environment c) artificial selection
d) they require frost at night during their growing d) cloning of cuttings
period
16. In steep, mountainous terrain, clear-cut logging of forests
8. Each stage in succession generally creates an is thought to increase the chance of landslides. When
environment landslides occur, most of the topsoil and loose rock frag-
a) less suitable for itself ments are washed away. When succession occurs, would
b) less suitable for the next stage you expect it to be faster or slower than the succession
c) ideal for the conifers that occurs in a nearby abandoned (agricultural) field?
d) ideal for pioneer plants Explain.

584 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

17. Name the biomes found in Ontario. For each one,
identify
a) a representative plant
b) a major climatic characteristic

18. Many plants that grow in the tundra reproduce asexu-

ally. Suggest several reasons why plants that must
survive in such a harsh environment do not rely on
sexual reproduction as do most plants.

19. Once water moves into the vascular cylinder in the root,
it cannot move back into the tissues it came from. Explain
a) what the significance is of this fact for the plant and
b) the reason(s) why water cannot move back. FIGURE 1

20. Discuss the non-conducting role(s) of vascular tissues in
angiosperms. In your answer, refer to specific tissues by
name when discussing their role(s).
21. a) Name the two main types of stems found in vascu-
lar plants.
b) Outline three differences between the stem types.
c) Provide three common examples of plants with each
stem type.
22. Relate two structural features of typical angiosperms of
the temperate deciduous biome that help reduce water
loss. Explain how each one helps the plant conserve
water.
29. Explain briefly how the structure of a guard cell is
related to its function.
30. Describe the process of water transport into sieve-tube
cells.
31. Name the three processes responsible for the movement
of water and minerals up plants.
32. Explain how the same auxin can produce the opposite
growth effect in a root as in a stem.
33. Provide several reasons why the practice of monoculture
in forest replanting leads to a decrease in biodiversity.

23. Explain clearly the difference between a parasitic and 34. Name three carnivorous plants that grow in Canada.
a carnivorous plant. Identify an example of each that Explain what nutrients are extracted and the reason
grows in Canada. why these plants need to “eat” insects.

24. The average height of a row of corn plants in a field about

half way through the growing season was 0.8 m. Another
row of plants that was sprayed with a particular plant
hormone had an average height of 1.4 m.
a) Determine what hormone was most likely applied
to the corn plants.
b) Explain what effect this hormone has on the tissues
of the plants.
25. Explain why leaf mesophyll tissue must be constantly
moist.
26. Describe briefly how water gets from the soil to the pho-
tosynthetic tissues of mosses and liverworts.
Applying Skills of Inquiry and
Communication
35. A person buys several identical house plants but gets dif-
ferent advice with respect to how frequently they must
be watered. Outline the steps of a simple experiment that
could be done at home to determine an appropriate
schedule for watering the plants.
36.

27. The photo in Figure 1 shows nodules on the roots of a

bean plant. These nodules are also found on the roots
of alfalfa. Explain what function they serve.

28. Compare heartwood and sapwood tissue with respect to

a) structure of the cells in each tissue and b) function of
the tissue.

FIGURE 2

Unit Review 585

UNIT 5 REVIEW (continued)
Examine the photos in Figure 2. Describe the arrange-
ment of vascular bundles that would be observed in a
cross section of the root of each of these plants. Explain
your reasoning.
37. If a plant is pulled out of the ground and re-planted, it
will often die even though the roots appear to be in-
tact. Describe what damage likely occurred and
explain why the plant does not survive.
38. Predict the likely effect of excess inorganic fertilizer ap-
plication on a) the germination of a seed and b) the
growth of a mature plant such as a geranium. Explain
each of your answers.
39. Horticulturists growing flowering plants in greenhouses
must be able to produce plants with flowers at any
time of the year even though these times may not be
when the plant normally flowers. Suggest how this is
accomplished.
40.
light
tip separated tip separated
by gelatin by glass wafer
block
FIGURE 3
The diagram in Figure 3 illustrate the results of an ex-
periment to show growth responses of seedlings to light
under three different conditions.
a) Interpret each of the experiments.
b) Based on your knowledge of plant hormones,
account for each of the experimental results.
41. Look back at Table 15.4 on page 527. Predict what types
of trees would likely be found in this field after 100 years
in this Windsor location. If the field were located near
North Bay, would there be different tree species present?
Explain.
42. You are provided with slides of root and stem cross
sections of a plant. Explain how you would be able to
classify what type of plant you are examining from the
slides.
586 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions
43. Discuss the idea that plants such as trees can live for-
ever because their living tissue is always young. Provide
evidence for your answer
44. In the fields in which parasitic wasps are used as a bio-
logical control for the alfalfa weevil, farmers avoid using
chemical pesticides and herbicides. Outline at least one
reason why each of these chemical controls is not used.
45. Humans have used selection to modify many species in-
cluding plants like corn and animals like dogs. Select one
agriculturally important domestic plant species and write
a report showing how it has been altered from its “wild”
state.
46. Integrated forest management allows for animal diversity
to be maintained. Explain what is meant by this statement.
47. The seeds of most plants in temperate climates do not
germinate until they have gone through a dormancy pe-
riod. The time they remain in dormancy varies from a
few weeks to years. However, there are some temperate
plants in which the seeds germinate as soon as they
fall upon soil. Predict
a) what types of plants you would expect to produce
seeds that germinate immediately after being re-
leased and
b) in what environments you would expect to find such
plants
Provide reasons for your answers.
48. Erecting buildings in the tundra is difficult because the
footings or foundations upon which the building rests
cannot be properly built in tundra soil. Discuss the fea-
tures of the tundra soil that hinder the construction of
buildings.
49. Leaf fall (abscission) is very important in the harvest-
ing of cotton. Research the reasons for its importance
and how growers artificially influence the process.
50. Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles known as
plastids. Research plastids and summarize your findings
in the form of a chart. In your chart, indicate the roles
of each type of plastid and the functions of some of the
molecules found in the plastids, both for plants and an-
imals that eat them.
51. Table 1 contains data from the Canadian Pulp and Paper
Association, showing total sales of Canadian forest prod-
ucts and direct employment in the forest products
industry from 1994 to 1998.
a) Produce a bar graph using the data provided.
b) Try to obtain the latest data to determine if there
are any trends of sales and employment in Canada’s
forest products industry.
TABLE 1 Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Sales 57. As of 2000, over 40 transgenic crop varieties have
been approved and are currently grown in North
Year Total sales Direct employment America. GM potatoes, tomatoes, and squash are on the
(millions of dollars) grocer’s vegetable counter. GM grains such as corn are
1994 44 329 242 500 also used in commercial products such as cereals and
snack foods. Often these grains are used in small quan-
1995 53 959 246 800 tities in these products. There has been a call for labelling
1996 51 170 251 700 of all GM foods and products containing them both in
1997 52 340 253 700 North America and Europe. The American Medical
Association (AMA) has stated in a December 2000 re-
1998 52 602 253 600 port that there is no justification for specific labelling of
GM foods. The organization says that without “focused
52. Select one example of a carnivorous plant native to consumer education” there is no point to labelling
Canada. Research the plant and prepare a brief report such products. Based on your knowledge of the types
covering the following topics: habitat, a simple overview of characteristics scientists are modifying in agricultural
of the mechanism use to trap its prey, method of killing plants, discuss the following:
its prey. a) What the AMA means by “focused consumer
education.”
b) What pros and cons of labelling GM foods the
AMA probably examined before reaching their
Making Connections
conclusion.
c) Do you think products that contain GM foods should
53. For any four of the following drugs, construct a chart
be labelled? Provide reasons for your opinion.
showing name of drug, plant it is derived from and use
or effect on humans: digitalis, quinine, salicylic acid,
58. In 1997, it was estimated most prairie farmers spent
opium, caffeine, atropine.
about $8000–$9000 per year on pesticides. With in-
creased use of insect-resistant GM crops and biological
54. There are companies, some on the Internet, that sell live
control methods, one would expect that farmers are
organisms to control garden and agricultural insect pests.
spending less on pesticides. Prepare a brief report on
For example, a company will sell praying mantis (a car-
Western farmers’ pesticide costs using the most up to
nivorous insect) cultures to use in a home garden to
date information you can obtain. In your report, if pos-
kill plant-eating bugs. Describe some of the benefits and
sible, include a bar graph showing pesticide costs over
some of the potential drawbacks the average gardener
the years.
would face in using a biological control such as this.
59. Acid precipitation likely causes more serious damage to
55. It has been discovered that some plants release chemi-
plants in the boreal coniferous forest than in the other
cal substances into the air when they are attacked by
two Ontario biomes. Using your knowledge of the envi-
insects. These substances can be detected by certain
ronmental conditions of this biome, explain why.
predatory insects in the area. The predators are attracted
Research current status of acid precipitation in Ontario.
to the plant and proceed to eat the plant-eating insects.
Scientists are trying to identify the molecular structure
60. It is likely that the biome most affected by global warm-
of these chemicals and the genes that are responsible
ing will be the tundra. Some scientists have estimated
for their synthesis. Assume a gene for one of these chem-
that the temperature in this biome could rise as much
icals that attracts predatory insects has been isolated
as 10°C. Predict what changes in plant and animal life
and can be used by scientists. Propose a plan that will
will take place as a result of global warming. Decide if
benefit agriculture using this technology.
any species, including humans, would benefit from or
would be harmed by this temperature change.
56. Ethanol, a component of gasohol, is produced from
wastes of agricultural crops. Currently, in the U.S., gaso-
61. Phytoremediation is a form of the technique known as
hol makes up only about one percent of the automobile
bioremediation, in which living organisms are used to
fuel market. The costs of bringing gasohol to market are
clean up environmental contaminants. Research the his-
higher than that of gasoline, even though gasohol re-
tory of bioremediation and prepare a summary report.
duces air pollution significantly. Using corn as an ex-
Include its benefits and its drawbacks in terms of cost
ample, try to identify as many of the costs associated
and impact on the environment.
with the final production of gasohol as you can. Start
with the cost of buying the corn seed. Propose a plan
to significantly reduce the cost of producing ethanol from
plant material so that gasohol can become a more
common fuel source.

Unit Review 587

Appendix

A Science and Safety 590

B The Inquiry Process 594

C The Decision-Making Process 599

D Using Graphic Organizers 602

E Problem-Solving 605

F Graphing Techniques 606

G Periodic Table of the Elements 609

589
 A. Science and Safety
Doing science and learning science occur in the classroom, in the laboratory,
and in the field. Safe practices are essential when students are actively
learning science in all environments. Familiarity with the potential hazards
makes it possible to take proper precautions and develop a safe learning
environment.
Before every investigation, you should review all safety precautions and
understand their importance. If you are unsure of any procedure or safety
instructions, ask your instructor before you proceed.
The Canadian Hazardous Products Act requires chemical manufacturers
to include all hazard symbols and the degree of hazard. You may recognize
the household product symbols shown in the photograph. These symbols
provide a statement of hazard(s), precaution, and first-aid treatment.

Hazardous Product and WHMIS

Symbols
The household hazardous symbols indicate the type
of danger and the degree of danger. They appear in
either a triangle (which means “caution”), a
diamond (which means “warning”), or an octagon
(which means “danger”). Below are some of the more
common symbols.

Flammable Explosive Hazard: Toxic Hazard: Corrosive Hazard: Biological Electrical Hazard:
Hazard: Materials The materials or The material is The material may Hazard: Be alert to the
could ignite equipment could very poisonous corrode (“eat Be alert to the possibility of an
(catch on fire) if explode. and could have away at”) cloth- possibility of electric spark or
exposed to immediate and ing, skin, or other poisoning or shock.
flames, sparks, or serious effects. materials. infection from
friction. microscopic and
other organisms.

590 APPENDIX A
 Many of the chemical products used in Canadian schools are manufac-
tured in the United States. To standardize the labelling systems, WHMIS
(the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) was developed. The
symbols belonging to this system appear on materials and products used both
in workplaces and our schools.

compressed dangerously oxidizing poisonous flammable biohazardous corrosive poisonous

gas reactive material and and infectious material and
material infectious combustible material infectious
causing material causing
immediate other toxic
and serious effects
toxic effects

Laboratory Safety
Approach all investigations, especially in the laboratory, with maturity. As a
prelab activity, read all instructions for the lab experience, noting all safety
precautions. In addition, your teacher may provide other safety reminders
and rules pertaining to the laboratory activity. It is your responsibility to
inform your teacher of any medical issues
you may have, such as wearing contact
lenses, or allergies to materials used (such
as plants, plant products, and latex) or
by-products of the activity.

1. Precautions and Safety Equipment

a) Identify all safety equipment in the
laboratory.
b) Know the location of and how to op-
erate safety equipment, including the
fire extinguisher, fire blankets, eye-
wash fountains, sand, and the first-
aid kit.
c) Wear appropriate laboratory ap-
parel, which includes safety goggles,
rubber gloves, and lab aprons.

2. Precautions with Burners or Hot Plates

a) Never leave any burner or hot plate
unattended.
b) Before connecting a burner, make
sure the gas supply valve is com-
pletely closed. Open it only slightly
just before lighting the burner.

APPENDIX A 591
 c) If the flame keeps going out, turn off the gas before you seek your
teacher’s help.
d) Ensure the use of Borosilicate (e.g., Pyrex) for heating substances.
e) Use tongs or holders to handle hot glassware or objects.

3. Precautions with Glassware

a) Check for any chipped, cracked, or
broken glassware.
b) Ensure the glassware is clean before
and after use.
c) Use only equipment specified in the
laboratory instructions unless ad-
vised by your teacher.

4. Precautions with Chemicals

a) Never smell, touch, or taste sub-
stances in the laboratory without
your teacher’s instruction.
b) Do not inhale fumes directly.
Instead, wave the air above the sub-
stance toward your nose.
c) Take materials only from labelled
containers.
d) Dilute acids by adding only ACID
to WATER.
e) Never return unused chemicals to
stock bottles or containers.

5. Precautions with Live or Preserved Specimens and Microorganisms

a) Treat all animals (invertebrates and vertebrates) gently.
b) Put on rubber gloves and mount all specimens before dissection.
c) Always cut specimens away from you.
d) Dispose of all dissected specimens as instructed by your teacher.
e) Follow all instructions for cleaning the microbiology lab. Use aseptic
techniques. When finished, use disinfectants and paper towels, and
wipe your lab bench surfaces.
f) Ensure you wash your hands and the lab surface with proper disin-
fectants.

6. Precautions with Plants, Soils, and Animals

a) Follow all instructions for touching or smelling any substances under
investigation.
b) Always wash your hands before and after handling plants, soils, and
animals.
c) Never put plants or soil in your mouth.
d) Do not handle microorganisms or compost.

592 APPENDIX A
7. Precautions with Electrical Sources
a) Do not use 110-V AC equipment if it has a damaged plug (e.g., miss-
ing the ground pin) or a frayed cord.
b) Keep water and wet hands away from electrical cords.
c) Do not touch a person in contact with live electrical currents.
Disconnect the power source first. Then give artificial respiration, if
necessary, and treat burns.
d) When unplugging an electrical device, always disconnect the cord
from the socket by pulling the plug, not the cord, and make sure elec-
trical cords are not placed where someone could trip over them.
e) Never attempt to recharge a non-rechargeable battery. Always ex-
ercise, caution in handling any batteries: allowing them to discharge
quickly, through a short circuit for instance, can generate dangerous
amounts of heat in the wires and in the batteries themselves, and
some kinds of batteries could even explode.
f) Never cut open batteries. Their contents can be corrosive and
poisonous.

8. Other Precautions and Accident Procedures

a) All accidents (including breakage and spillage) or injuries must be
reported to your teacher.
b) With your teacher’s help and supervision, clean up all spills and bro-
ken glassware.
c) If a chemical splashes into your eyes or on your body, wash at the
eyewash for several minutes or add copious amounts of cool water
immediately. Ensure your teacher is notified.
d) At the end of all lab activities, ensure the lab bench is clean.
e) Put all cleaned apparatus away.
f) Ensure your hands are washed before you leave the lab.

For any independent investigation:

Before you begin, obtain approval from your teacher for all procedures .
Carefully discuss the apparatus and the procedure with your instructor. Learn
the appropriate safety measures for your work. Never work without your
teacher’s supervision and never work alone.

APPENDIX A 593
 B. The Inquiry Process
Initiating and Planning
Notice a scientific problem or issue, ask a question, and formu-
late a plan to solve it.
I wonder if? I wonder why?
How can I find out?
Applying Technical Skills
Use your skills to put your plan into action.
Did I give all the plants the same amount of water?
Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment
Use suitable tools and materials appropriately.
Would an elodea plant be more suitable
than a bean plant?
Conducting and Recording
Conduct your study in a controlled manner and observe/record
appropriate results.
Did I control all of the variables?
Are my results recorded clearly and accurately?
Analyzing and Interpreting
Use various tools to analyze results and figure out what they
mean.
Should I use a graph or a calculation to examine these results?
What do my results mean?
Concluding and Communicating
Make a decision about the experimental results and
communicate them.
Do my results support my conclusion?
Will others be able to understand my work?
Would they be able to repeat my work?
594 APPENDIX B
Why do apples fall from trees? What causes foot-
and-mouth disease? Why do different types of wood
burn to produce different amounts of heat? What
causes leaves to change colours? How can I cap-
ture an image on film? Why did the bacteria die
in this Petri plate?
All of these are questions asked by scientists as
they observe parts of the world around them. While
an answer to the last question might be “Let’s just
throw out this plate’s results,” a scientist named
Alexander Fleming might have asked, “What
factors existed in this culture plate to kill these bac-
teria?” It turns out, Fleming had discovered a
mould, called Penicillium notatum, that has a lethal
effect on many harmful organisms. As a result of
his discovery, Oxford researchers Howard Florey
and Ernst Chain were able to isolate the active prin-
ciple penicillin. Today, penicillin is produced by
drug companies to help fight infections and dis-
eases.
Fleming approached the problem from a sci-
entific perspective, using a structured approach to
examine the world and answer his questions.
This approach is called the Inquiry Process. It is
a logical reasoning process used to solve problems
through observation and measurement, experi-
mentation and research, and analysis and dissem-
ination. It attempts to explain phenomena by
examining cause and effect in a controlled situa-
tion. Scientists use experiments as a key part of
their scientific work. Working scientifically involves
being precise and accurate when making and in-
terpreting observations and formulating conclusions
from them. It is also important to communicate the
results of experimental work clearly to other sci-
entists. The flowchart on this page outlines some
of the steps involved in the inquiry process.
Initiating and Planning
A scientist notices an event or occurrence and
attempts to explain it. If a reasonable explanation
does not exist, the scientist may take further steps.
He or she will develop a question that can be an-
swered through various means. The question should
point to a structured approach to finding the an-
swer or explanation through an experiment, a
model, or research. The scientist will make a pre-
diction (hypothesis) of the answer based on his or
her scientific knowledge and experience. A plan
must then be devised in order to gather information and draw appropriate
conclusions.

Question: What factors affect the growth of plants?

Hypothesis: Plants require sunlight to grow.

One scientific plan would be to conduct an experiment. A sequence of

steps (method) must be determined to describe how the experiment is to be
conducted. The design of the method is essential to ensure that consistent
and valid results are obtained. The method should be geared toward
collecting data specific to the hypothesis and should identify what tools, equip-
ment, and materials would be necessary. Care should be taken to control as
many variables as possible, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret
correctly. Any safety considerations should also be included in the method.
In addition, the method should be written to allow others to reproduce the
experiment.

Method

1. Select 6 equal-sized bean plants, numbered accordingly, for the

experiment.
2. Choose dark and sunlit locations for each set of plants. Ensure that
the temperature in each location is the same.
3. Place plants 1–3 in the sunlit location and plants 4–6 in the dark
area. Water the plants with 50 mL of water every second day.
4. Measure the height of the plants, from the soil level to the tip of
the stem, daily for 4 days.

To ensure reliable results, the method should also clarify the number of
plants used, the frequency and length of data collection, and the difference
in the amount of light used. All of these factors should be reflected in the pro-
cedure for the experiment.

Applying Technical Skills

To conduct an experiment on distinguishing plant growth, for example, you
would need to control a number of variables that may affect the results. The
type of plant, amount of water, type of soil, and temperature may all affect
plant growth. So it is important to use proper technical skills in applying your
method, to ensure that the variables are indeed controlled and that the data
obtained are valid. Determining the best way to observe results is also a tech-
nical decision that could affect the accuracy and interpretation of the data.

Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment Materials

In a laboratory, using tools, materials, and equipment safely and correctly is
essential to ensure a secure environment for all. Safety is everyone’s – 6 equal-sized bean plants
responsibility. If you see a fellow student struggling to use equipment prop- – ruler
erly, it is your responsibility to offer assistance or notify the lab supervisor
(your teacher). A review of specific safety considerations and proper use of – dark location
apparatus may be necessary at the onset of an experiment. Working – sunny location
responsibly includes knowing what to do and when to ask for help.

APPENDIX B 595
 Conducting and Recording
While performing an experiment, use your scientific and technical skills to
follow the identified method, gathering and recording both qualitative and
quantitative observations in your lab notes. The critical functions of lab notes
are to state what was done and what was observed. The greatest flaw
found in lab notes, even with experienced scientists, is that they are often
unreadable. Hard as it is to believe, even the author of a notebook often can-
not understand his or her own notes after a few years. The problem is not
usually one of legibility, but rather of poorly labelled entries and incomplete
descriptions. Writing in complete sentences, indicating units of measurement,
and noting possible sources of error are excellent ways to ensure a
high-quality record of the experiment.
A table is one method to present results; it offers an organized structure
to present experimental results/data. For the plant growth example, a quick
analysis of the quantitative observations shows that the plants kept in a sun-
lit location appear to have grown taller than the plants kept in a dark loca-
tion. The data can be manipulated through graphing or calculations to find
further relationships.

Observations

The plants that were selected each had a starting height of 5.0 cm.

Daily results were recorded in Table B.1. Qualitative observations were

recorded in Table B.2 on the last day.

Table B.1: Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions

Environment Plant # Daily Plant Height (cm)

1 2 3 4

Sunlit 1 5.2 5.5 5.9 6.2

2 5.5 5.7 6.1 6.4

3 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.5

Dark 4 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.2

5 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2

6 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3

Table B.2: Plant Appearance After 4 Days

Environment Plant Appearance

Sunlit – Bright green colour

– Strong, straight stems
– Large leaves

Dark – Faded green colour

– Weak, bent stems
– Small, wilted leaves
596 APPENDIX B
Analyzing and Interpreting
A collection of numbers or a list of observations is not sufficient to address
your hypothesis. It is necessary to use appropriate analysis tools to find mean-
ing in your experimental results. The tools may include a graphical repre-
sentation of results, a calculation, a comparison to known data, and an
identification of patterns or trends. Often visual representations of data
simplify the identification of relationships that exist in data.

Analysis

The qualitative observations show that the plants in the sunlit

environment were generally healthier than the plants in the dark
environment. The average growth was calculated for each day (Table B.3);
the data were then graphed and a line of best fit was drawn for each
set (Graph B.1).

Table B.3: Average Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions

Environment Daily Plant Height (cm)

1 2 3 4

Sunlit 5.4 5.7 6.1 6.4

Dark 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2

Graph B.1: Average Daily Plant Growth

Sunlit Dark
6.6
6.4
Plant Height (cm)

6.2
6.0 The data, as illustrated, show a clear trend
5.8 within each plant group. The plants in the
5.6 sunlit environment grew significantly taller than
5.4 the plants in the dark environment.
5.2
5.0
1 2 3 4
Day

Concluding and Communicating

Use your completed analysis to draw conclusions that support or refute
your hypothesis. Your conclusion should be written in such a manner that it
is clearly linked to your analysis and results. Any errors noted should be
addressed, indicating their effect on the observed results.
Your overall inquiry process should be organized in order to communi-
cate your results. Regardless of the form they take, the information and ideas
should be communicated with a high degree of clarity and precision, using
the correct terminology, symbols, conventions, SI units, and number of sig-
nificant figures. It may be necessary to use technology to support the com-
munication of your inquiry process; you may choose to use computers, or
media tools to enhance your work.

APPENDIX B 597
 Conclusions

The amount of sunlight available to plants is one of the factors

affecting their growth. The qualitative and quantitative data collected
in this experiment clearly show that plants receiving inadequate sunlight
show poor growth, are wilted, and have unhealthy plants and stems.

You can use the following Inquiry Process Checklist to guide your work.

Inquiry Process Checklist

Purpose
 poses a question
 question can be answered by following an inquiry process
Hypothesis
 hypothesis specifically predicts the answer to the question stated in the
purpose
Method
 written in logical steps
 reproducible by other scientists
 data collected is connected to the hypothesis
 variables controlled where necessary
 diagram included where appropriate
Inquiry Skills
 demonstrated knowledge of proper use of tools, materials, and
equipment
 used apparatus properly
 used apparatus safely
 helped others to work safely and properly
Conducting and Recording
 followed method
 qualitative observations written with adequate detail
 quantitative observations include appropriate units and significant figures
 used table, chart to organize results
 errors or discrepancies noted
Analyzing and Interpreting
 included a visual representation of results
 calculations where necessary; clearly organized, units shown
Conclusion
 stated to link hypothesis with results
 hypothesis supported or refuted
 error analysis
Overall
 spelling and grammar correct
 written in clear, precise language
 scientific terms used correctly
 neat presentation
 technology used where necessary

598 APPENDIX B
C. The Decision-Making Process
Adam Nash was born on August 29, 2000 because
of his genetic make-up. His parents had used preim-
plantation genetic diagnosis during in vitro fertil-
ization. The Nashs chose the healthy embryo that
became Adam so that he could donate compatible
blood cells from his umbilical cord to his sister.
Adam’s sister has fanconi anemia, a bone-marrow
disorder, with a survival rate that increases signif-
icantly with donations from a brother or sister.
The unusual circumstances surrounding
Adam’s birth typify the many different issues fac-
ing science and scientists today. Some of these is-
sues are ethical in nature, requiring analysis of one’s
beliefs and values. Others require a consideration
of safety issues. This type of issue and the ques-
tions it raises require an informed decision to be
made. Some decisions are easier than others. How
does one make an informed decision and analyze
its validity? Scientists often use an approach called
the Decision-Making Process as they strive to make
prudent choices. The flowchart on this page out-
lines this process.
Defining the Issue
The issue should be articulated using a brief state-
ment or question. For example, in vitro genetic
screening is the issue from the above example and
the broad question might be: “Should parents and
scientists be permitted to use this process in fer-
tility practices?”
Developing Assessment Criteria
As a means to an end, assessment criteria should
be established prior to the in-depth research and
analysis of the issue; this will facilitate an objective
decision-making process. Some possible criteria in-
clude cost, societal implications, precedents, norms,
environmental impact, and/or feasibility. In this ex-
ample, one might base a decision on the costs
versus benefits to support or refute in vitro genetic
screening.
Researching the Issue
To make an informed decision, all related factors
must be identified and described. A researcher
might consult journals, articles, the Internet, ex-
perts, available data, past practice, or precedents
Defining the Issue
Identify an issue and its context.
Is this ethical? Is this acceptable?
What are the options and which one is better?
Developing Assessment Criteria
Establish criteria to use as the basis for making a final decision.
On what criteria will I base my decision?
What factors are important in making this decision?
Researching the Issue
Find as much information as possible to make an
informed decision.
What sources of information can I use?
Have I considered all aspects of the issue?
Analyzing Data and Information
Select the relevant information, organize it, manipulate it,
and examine it.
How can I best present the information?
What method should I use to analyze the data?
Proposing a Course of Action
Make a decision.
Have I considered all of the relevant factors?
Have I seriated the possible courses of action?
Justifying the Course of Action
Determine whether the information supports your decision.
Is there enough support for my decision to allow others to
reach the same conclusion?
What will I do if my course of action is turned down?
Check for the consequences or impact of the decision.
What are the consequences of this decision?
Have I weighted the consequences in an appropriate way?
Communicating Your Proposal
Decide how you will communicate your findings.
Who is my intended audience?
How will I communicate my findings?
What visuals will I include in my work?
APPENDIX C 599
 to find information, impacts, factors, norms, and connections to other
fields. Relevant ethical, moral, and social perspectives should be noted. If rel-
evant information is overlooked, the wrong decision may be reached. For
example, the following questions may arise in the case of Adam Nash:

• non-natural fertility techniques: Should scientists be tampering with nat-

ural reproduction?
• genetic screening: Should potential parents have the right to “design”
their offspring?
• genetic engineering for organ/tissue harvesting: When does an individ-
ual have the right to refuse or choose their cells being used?
• cost versus benefit to individuals/society: Are too many funds being
allocated for too small a gain?
• rights of the unborn child and children: Should children have to donate
cells based on their parents’ decisions?
• accessibility to the general public: Is this technology only available to a
certain social class?

Analyzing Data and Information

The information must be organized in a structured manner to facilitate anal-
ysis. Methods for organizing information might be a chart comparing pros
and cons, a cost-benefit analysis, a chart of consequences or responsibilities,
a statistical analysis, a graphical representation, or a flowchart to illustrate
the issue.
Once organized, information can be easily analyzed using the assessment
criteria. During analysis, one should consider the relative importance of the
factors and how each affects the outcome of the decision in order to weight
them accordingly within the decision-making process. For example, the rights
of the unborn child and genetic screening factors may carry more weight in
a decision than the cost versus benefit factor.

Proposing a Course of Action

Taking into account all available research and its analysis, an objective course
of action must be chosen. For example, an ethics committee has rendered its
decision that pre-implantation genetic screening may be used in applications
of fertility practices for medical reasons only.

Justifying the Course of Action

Your course of action should be directly supported by your analysis of the
research. To justify your course of action, it is necessary to evaluate its ef-
fect or impact on society. The evaluation can be conducted from two per-
spectives:
1) the validity of the decision in comparison to the data and criteria (Did
you make the best decision possible with the available information and
financial resources?)
2) the impact and effect of a decision over an extended period of time (How
has the course of action affected a population? Were there unforeseen
consequences?)

600 APPENDIX C
This analysis could be accomplished through public polls, expert analysis, or
a study of success rates. The method of analysis will depend on the scope of
the issue. The argument presented should appeal to the reader’s intellect
through logic and reason.

Communicating Your Proposal

Any good research project requires clear communication of the work and re-
sults. The communication should summarize the goal, the process, and the
recommendations of the work in a succinct and concise manner. Regardless
of the form used for communication, there are key components to include:
an introductory statement of the issue, an accurate and precise description
of relevant background information and the research undertaken, an analy-
sis of the information, and a conclusion clearly supported by the analysis.
There are various ways to communicate your work, both orally and in writ-
ten format. A number of forms of communication are outlined in the table
below. The form used should be supported by visual aids to enhance the com-
munication. In addition, the tone and perspective of the work should be
matched to its intended audience. For example, an editorial may contain more
personal views than a news report.

Forms of Communication
Oral Written

debate editorial
presentation (e.g., town meeting, school council) position paper
radio spot poster
TV spot pamphlet or brochure

You can use the following Decision-Making Process Checklist to guide your
work.

Decision-Making Process Checklist

Issue
 clearly articulated as a statement or question
Assessment Criteria
 clearly identified
 enables objective, fact-based decision making
Research
 relevant factors identified
 factors described in detail and seriated
 a variety of sources used
Analysis
 appropriate method(s) used
 easily interpreted
 weighted according to relative importance 

APPENDIX C 601
 Decision
 objective course of action chosen
 supported by data
 predicted possible impact or consequence of decision
 checked validity of decision with respect to data
Evaluation
 predicted possible impact or consequence of decision
 checked validity of decision with respect to data
Communication (Overall)
 information presented clearly and precisely
 spelling and grammar correct
 scientific terms used correctly
 approach appropriate to intended audience
 content appropriate to intended audience
 structure of content appropriate to communication form
 use of technology enhances presentation

D. Using Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are effective tools that can help you learn. They enable you
to problem solve and think critically through analyzing similarities and differ-
ences, inferring sequences, and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
They generate discussion and negotiation of ideas, extend comprehension of
a concept, theme, or topic, and lead to organized representation and presen-
tation of understandings. You can use them to brainstorm, demonstrate what
you know, and organize your thoughts before writing a report or essay or plan-
ning a presentation. The following chart outlines a number of graphic orga-
nizers, their intended purposes, and how to use them as you study science.

Type of Graphic Organizer Purpose Method

Concept Map • Used to clarify relationships and Brainstorm ideas and link together
linkages between concepts, from “big to small” with arrows and
events, or ideas linking words.

602 APPENDIX D
Type of Graphic Organizer Purpose
Venn Diagram • Used to visualize similarities and
differences between two or more
ideas, topics, or concepts
Web Diagram • Used to clarify concepts and
ideas by clustering them
Pie Chart • Used to estimate the relationship
of parts to the whole
Flowchart/Sequence Chart • Used to map out your thinking
about an issue or to organize
ideas for an essay or report
Ranking Ladder • Used to rank ideas in order of
importance
Method
Brainstorm similar traits to both
topics and list in the overlapping
section of the two circles. Repeat for
unique traits and list in the non-
overlapping sections.
Cluster words and/or information
around a central object, concept, or
idea.
Estimate/research the importance
or amount of proportionate time of
each aspect of an event in relation
to the whole.
Brainstorm aspects of the whole
event. Select important aspects and
put them into sequential order.
Brainstorm ideas and rank them in
order from most important (bottom
rung), to least important (top rung).
APPENDIX D 603
 Type of Graphic Organizer Purpose
Fishbone Diagram • Used to identify cause-and-effect
relationships
Right-Angle Diagram • Used to explore the implications
of ideas and reflect on
applications of those ideas
Target Diagram • Used to weigh the importance of
facts and ideas
Agree/Disagree • Used to organize data to support
Chart a position for or against an idea
or decision
PMI (Plus, Minus, • Used to summarize the positive
Interesting) Chart and negative aspects of a topic
or issue, as well as identify
interesting aspects of the topic
for possible further research
• Used to make distinctions
between ideas or events
Gathering Grid
• Used to identify and sequence
Concept Hierarchy Diagram the subordinate concepts
needed to understand a higher-
order concept
604 APPENDIX D
Method
Identify a problem to be solved. List
the “effect” at the head of the fish.
Brainstorm “possible causes” in
each bone. Rank the causes and
circle the most probable ones with
justification.
Identify an event and show it on the
horizontal arrow. Brainstorm traits
and list them to the right of the
horizontal arrow. Expand on one trait
and list details about it along the
vertical arrow. Describe social
impacts of that trait below the
vertical arrow.
Brainstorm facts and ideas. Rank
their importance and place the most
important facts/ideas centrally and
the least important ones toward the
outer ring.
List a series of statements relating
to a topic or issue. Survey
agree/disagreement before
discussion. Survey again after
discussion/research.
Sort ideas or information about a
topic or issue in a three-column
chart that has the following
headings: Plus (+), Minus (-), and
Interesting.
Gather information on a number of
ideas or events and arrange it on a
grid. Each idea or event is assigned
to a separate row. Analyze the
information according to selected
criteria in each specific column.
Place the higher-order concept at
the top of a page. Then consider the
question, “What concepts need to
be understood before the higher-
order concept above can be
grasped?” The same question is then
asked for each of the subordinate
concepts identified and a hierarchy
of connected concepts is created.
E. Problem Solving

Solving Conceptual Problems

Have you ever been curious about an idea that you have discussed in class?
Have you ever questioned an assumption that you or a fellow student have
made while examining an idea? Have you ever wondered on what basis a
newspaper journalist has stated his or her position on a science topic?
Have you ever tried to determine the difference between factual information
and opinion?
These are questions that are important to scientists. The ability to an-
swer such conceptual questions is important to solving problems in science.
As you study science using this text, you will discover that your attitudes, be-
liefs, and feelings about what science is and what it should accomplish will
influence how you learn. You will discover that science is much more than
finding the right answers, and that “doing” science is much more exciting
than “memorizing” the facts.
As a scientist, you will find that your explanations about what happens
in the world come partly from what you observe and partly from what you
think. Sometimes you may have different explanations for the same set of ob-
servations, and your assumptions may change, or your conclusions may vary.
In the end, you will experience that scientific knowledge is subject to modi-
fication as new information is gathered and new problems are solved.

In order to solve a conceptual problem, you need to do the following:

1. Identify the problem and describe it in a way that can be understood.
2. Determine what the outcome of solving the problem might be.
3. Explore possible solutions and apply them to the problem.
4. Evaluate the possible solutions and revise solutions if they do not pass
the test in other similar situations.

As you work through this text, you will have numerous opportunities to
apply your problem-solving skills through
• applying biological concepts to solve new problems
• conducting investigations on well-defined testable questions of your own
design
• designing your own investigations
• evaluating experimental designs
• collecting quantitaticve as well as quantitative measurements
• analyzing qualitative data for specific as well as general patterns
(Quantitative data analysis frequently includes numerical calculations to
produce graphs that are appropriate to represent the data.)
• interpreting experimental data in light of your original question
and justifying your interpretations using evidence to support your
inferences

APPENDIX E 605

Step 1: Identify the Given Data
Read the problem carefully, extract the data, represent physical
quantities with appropriate symbols and units, and write the data
in standard form to the correct number of significant figures.
Step 2: List What Is Required
Identify what the problem is asking you to do and identify the
units of the final answer.
Solving Numerical Problems
As mentioned above, the quantitative analysis of
data in investigations frequently includes numeri-
cal calculations. The following flowchart outlines
steps used in solving numerical problems. This ap-
proach to solving numerical problems is called
the GRASS approach. The steps are easy to re-
member and apply because the first letters of the
key words spell GRASS.

Step 3: Analyze the Problem

Draw a sketch, write down possible relationships, list
assumptions, look up any constants needed, identify any
inconsistent units, and look up any unit conversions required.

Step 4: Work out the Solution

Perform the necessary unit conversions, substitute appropriate
data into the relationship, simplify the results, check the math
calculations, and check the significant figures of the final answer.

Step 5: Write the Concluding Statement

Write the answer to the original problem in a complete sentence.
Check that the original problem has been answered.

F. Graphing Techniques
Biologists make extensive use of graphs to convey information and to help
determine how one physical quantity is affected by another. To review sim-
ple graphical analysis techniques, we will use the data for an experiment
recently performed to compare the bioavailability of intraveneous and oral
administration of hydrocortisone on patients (Charmandari, et al.). The ex-
periment was designed to answer the question, “Does orally administered
hydrocortisone provide adequate concentrations of the drug in a patient’s
bloodstream?” The research group used 16 patients and administered hy-
drocortisone both orally and intravenously. The total cortisol concentration
in their bloodstream was measured over a period of 6 h and the median of
these concentrations was then determined.

606 APPENDIX F
The Data Table TABLE F.1 Total Cortisol
Concentrations in Patients over a
A data table is the most practical way to record quantitative data. Table F.1 Period of Time
shows the data from an experiment similar to that obtained by the research
group. Note that the name of each variable, the symbol, and the unit of mea- Time Concentration of
nmol
(min) Cortisol ( L )
surement are recorded at the top of each column. The unit is enclosed in
round brackets. Oral Intraveneous
0 0 0

The Title of the Graph 10 1760

20 315 1400
Figure F.1 shows a sample graph for the hydrocortisone experiment. Every
graph needs a title to describe what it is about. We place the title at the top 30 1200
of the graph or in a box on a clear area above the graph. 40 625 1050
50 1100
Graph of Concentration of Cortisol vs. Time
60 550 900
2000
70 890
Intravenous
80 500 875
Oral
90 800
)

1500 100 550 815

nmol
L

110 700
Concentration of Cortisol (

120 505 650

160 400 520
1000 200 390 390
240 260 270
280 130 135
320 100 115
500
360 50 110

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Time (min)

FIGURE F-1 Median total cortisol concentrations in patients following oral and intravenous
administration of hydrocortisone in the morning

The Axes of the Graph

In graphing, we plot the independent variable on the horizontal x-axis and
the dependent variable on the vertical y-axis. The variable that we change
intentionally is called the independent variable. Time was the independent
variable in Charmandari’s experiment, since the research group chose the
intervals of time over which they would measure total cortisol concentrations.
The variable that the experimenter observes and measures is called
the dependent variable. This experiment measured the total cortisol
concentration in a patient’s bloodstream at a given time, thus making it the
dependent variable.
We label each axis with the name, symbol, and unit of the variable being
plotted, as shown in Figure F.1. The graphs in this text have origins of (0, 0).
Scales are chosen for each axis to spread the measured values across the

APPENDIX F 607
 graph paper without making the plotting difficult and without wasting too
much graph paper. The scale on each axis usually has equal divisions and
each division represents a whole number.
The maximum value of the total cortisol concentration in Figure F.1 is
1760. Each major vertical division has been made to represent 500. The max-
imum time value in Figure F.1 is 360 min. The horizontal axis has been di-
vided into 12 divisions in order to show 30-min intervals.

Plotting the Data

Use a pencil to plot the data points. Mark the data points with a small visi-
ble dot. In this text, we assume that all measured quantities have an error
no larger than plus or minus one-half of the smallest division on the mea-
suring instrument. In Charmandari’s experiment, the researchers measured
the time to the nearest whole minute. The error here is plus or minus
0.5 min. Similarly, the error in the cocortisol concentration is plus or minus
0.5. Then the error is no larger than plus or minus 0.5 mm. With experience,
people can read instruments to plus or minus a tenth of the smallest division.
Figure F.2 shows this for a ruler calibrated in centimetres.

Drawing the Line of Best Fit

Once all of the data points have been plotted, a line of best fit or a curved line
is drawn where appropriate. It is important to consider the data set in
order to determine what type of line should be drawn through all the data
points. A line of best fit is a line that shows the trend of the points. Do not
try to have the curve or straight line go through all the dots since most data
points have some error. The scatter of the data points from the smooth line
indicates the extent of the errors in the data.
Where a point is far off the line, a serious error may have been made. If
this occurs, measure the data for that point again. If the same result is ob-
tained, a factor other than those under investigation may be the cause.

Interpolating from the Graph

Interpolation is the process of finding intermediate values between the known
or measured points. To interpolate, locate the given value of the variable on
its axis. Draw a straight line perpendicular to this axis to intersect the graph.
Draw a line at the intersection point perpendicular to the second axis. Read
the value of the second variable from this axis.
There is some risk of inaccuracy involved in interpolation, since it is as-
sumed that the trend of the line continues between the measured points. This
assumption is not always valid. Figure F.1 shows an exponential decrease
in cortisol levels; however, data was not recorded at all times. From the graph,
could you interpolate the cortisol level after 45 min had elapsed?

Reference

Charmandari, E., et al. 2001. “Bioavailability of oral hydrocortisone in patients with

congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency.” Journal of
Endocrinology 169, 65–70.

608 APPENDIX F
 G.

1 Atomic number 81
IA 2 Alkali metals Noble gases 0
11 8 Electrons in each
1 2
1 1 energy level Alkaline earth metals Halogens 2

H Na Element symbol Other main group metals Other nonmetals He

Hydrogen
s block

Element name Lanthanoids and actinoids Helium

2 41 51 61 71
Transition metals
31
1.01 II A Sodium III A IV A VA VI A VII A 4.00
2 2
22.99 Average atomic mass 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 4 Semimetals or metalloids 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 (For unstable elements a value 3 4 5 6 7 8
for the longest lived isotope is
Li Be shown in parentheses.) B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.94 9.01 Synthetic element 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

11 2
8
12 2
8
Tc 13 2
8
14 2
8
15 2
8
16 2
8
17 2
8
18 2
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 11 21
22.99 24.31 III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B IB II B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
19 20 8
21 8
22 8
23 8
24 8
25 8
26 8
27 8
28 8
29 8
30 8
31 32 8
33 8
34 8
35 8
36 8
8 8
8 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
37 38 8
39 8
40 8
41 8
42 8
43 8
44 8
45 8
46 8
47 8
48 8
49 50 8
51 8
52 8
53 8
54 8
8 8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
8 8 9 10 12 13 13 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
Rb 1
Sr 2
Y 2
Zr 2
Nb 1
Mo 1
Tc 2
Ru 1
Rh 1
Pd Ag 1
Cd 2
In 3
Sn 4
Sb 5
Te 6
I 7
Xe 8
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (97.91) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
55 56 8
71 8
72 8
73 8
74 8
75 8
76 8
77 8
78 8
79 8
80 8
81 82 8
83 8
84 8
85 8
86 8
8 8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Cs 8
Ba 8
Lu 9
Hf 10
Ta 11
W 12
Re 13
Os 14
Ir 15
Pt 17
Au 18
Hg 18
Tl 18
Pb 18
Bi 18
Po 18
At 18
Rn 18
Cesium 1 Barium 2 Lutetium 2 Hafnium 2 Tantalum 2 Tungsten 2 Rhenium 2 Osmium 2 Iridium 2 Platinum 1 Gold 1 Mercury 2 Thallium 3 Lead 4 Bismuth 5 Polonium 6 Astatine 7 Radon 8
132.91 137.33 174.97 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.18 207.2 208.98 (208.98) (209.99) (222.02)
2 2
87 88 8
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
8
18 18
Periodic Table of the Elements

32 32
Fr 18
Ra 18
Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt *Uun *Uuu *Uub *Uuq *Uuh *Uuo
Francium 8 Radium 8 Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium Ununquadium Ununhexium Ununoctium
1 2
(223.02) 226.03 (262.11) (263.11) (262.11) (266.12) (264.12) (265.13) (268.14) (272.15) (272.15) (277) (289) (289) (293)
*Name not officially assigned.
s block d block p block
Lanthanoids
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
57 8
58 8
59 8
60 8
61 8
62 8
63 8
64 8
65 8
66 67 8
68 8
69 8
70 8
8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
18 19 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32
La 9
Ce 9
Pr 8
Nd 8
Pm 8
Sm 8
Eu 8
Gd 9
Tb 8
Dy 8
Ho 8
Er 8
Tm 8
Yb 8
Lanthanum 2 Cerium 2 Praseodymium 2 Neodymium 2 Promethium 2 Samarium 2 Europium 2 Gadolinium 2 Terbium 2 Dysprosium 2 Holmium 2 Erbium 2 Thulium 2 Ytterbium 2
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (144.91) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04

Actinoids
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
89 8
90 8
91 8
92 8
93 8
94 8
95 8
96 8
97 8
98 99 8
100 8
101 8
102 8
8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Ac 18
Th 18
Pa 20
U 21
Np 22
Pu 24
Am 25
Cm 25
Bk 27
Cf 28
Es 29
Fm 30
Md 31
No 32
Actinium 9 Thorium 10 Protactinium 9 Uranium 9 Neptunium 9 Plutonium 8 Americium 8 Curium 9 Berkelium 8 Californium 8 Einsteinium 8 Fermium 8 Mendelevium 8 Nobelium 8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(227.03) 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237.05) (244.06) (243.06) (247.07) (247.07) (251.08) (252.08) (257.10) (258.10) (259.10)

f block

APPENDIX G
609
The final edition will include:
Glossary
Answer
Index

1
2
CREDITS
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Unit 5: Plants
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Credits 5
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Illustration Credits
Krogh, D., BIOLOGY: A Guide to the Natural World, © 2000.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458:
p. 6 Fig 1.2; p. 7 Fig 1.3; p. 8 Fig 1.7; p. 9 Fig 1.9; p. 10 Fig
1.1; p. 10 Fig 1.10; p. 11 Fig 1.2; p. 12 Fig 1.13; p. 14 Fig 1.17;
p. 15 Fig 1.18; p. 17 Fig 1.20; p. 18 Fig 1.21; p. 19 Fig 1.23; p.
20 Fig 1.24; p. 23 Fig 1.27; p. 23 Fig 1.28; p. 24 Fig 1.29; p. 26
Fig 1.30; p. 29 Fig 1.34; p. 34 Fig 13.27; p. 36 Fig 2.1; p. 39
Fig 2.4; p. 41 Fig 2.5; p. 42–43 Fig 2.6; p. 44 Fig 2.7; p. 46 Fig
2.9; p. 49 Fig 2.11; p. 50 Fig 2.13; p. 51 Fig 2.14; p. 53 Fig 2.16;
p. 54 Fig 2.17; p. 55 Fig 2.18; p. 66 Fig 3.3; p. 68 Fig 3.4; p. 69
Fig 3.5; p. 70 Fig 3.6; p. 72 Fig 3.8; p. 74 Fig 3.9; p. 76 Fig 3.11;
p. 77 Fig 3.12; p. 77 Fig 3.13; p. 78 Fig 3.14; p. 88 Fig 4.2; p.
91 Fig 4.5; p. 93 Fig 4.6; p. 99 Fig 4.11; p. 120 Fig 5.2; p.
124–125 Fig 5.7; p. 126 Fig 5.9; p. 132 Fig 5.16; p. 134–35 Fig
6 Credits
dle centre © Herman H. Giethoorn/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 mid-
dle right © V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 bottom © Len
Silverman; p. 567 left © Corel; p. 567 right © Francois
Morneau/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 569 © Len Silverman; p. 570 bot-
tom © Corel; p. 570 top © Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited; p.
571 © E.R. Degginger/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 572 bottom
© Pam Hickman/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 573 top left © David
Sieren/Visuals Unlimited; p. 573 top right © David Sieren/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 573 bottom © Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p.
581 © Steve Skjold/Photo Edit, Inc.; p. 582 © Owen Franken/
CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 585 top © John D. Cunningham/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 585 bottom left © Corel; p. 585 bottom right ©
Corel.
5.18; p. 138 Fig 5.22; p. 140 Fig 5.24; p. 156 Fig 6.5; p. 159
Fig 6.7; p. 168 Fig 6.14; p. 175 Fig 6.21; p. 190 Fig 7.5; p. 196
Fig 7.13; p. 198 Fig 7.17; p. 198 Fig 7.18; p. 199 Fig 7.20; p.
202 Fig 7.26; p. 215 Fig 7.36; p. 217 Fig 7.38; p. 223 Fig 7.45;
p. 229 Fig 7.48; p. 257 Fig 8.7; p. 259 Fig 8.9; p. 261 Fig 8.4;
p. 262 Fig 8.15; p. 264 Fig 8.17; p. 268 Fig 8.21; p. 282 Fig 8.34;
p. 290 Fig 9.4; p. 292 Fig 9.10; p. 297 Fig 9.16; p. 312; p. 318
Fig 10.2; p. 319 Fig 10.3; p. 325 Fig 10.9; p. 326 Fig 10.10; p.
329 Fig 10.13; p. 354 Fig 10.38; p. 372 Fig 11.17; p. 377 Fig
11.12; p. 377 Fig 11.13; p. 378 Fig 11.14a); p. 378 Fig 11.14b);
p. 380 Fig 11.16, Fig 11.17; p. 395 Fig 12.7; p. 400 Fig 12.13;
p. 402 Fig 12.16; p. 430 Fig 13.18; p. 430 Fig 13.19; p. 433 Fig
3.26; p. 435 Fig 13.28; p. 439 Fig 13.38; p. 440 Fig 13.40; p.
441 Fig 13.42; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p. 530 Fig 16.3; p. 537 Fig 16.14;
p. 541 Fig 16.19; p. 549 Fig 16.30; p. 568 Fig 17.23
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 ADDISON WESLEY BIOLOGY 11
Unit Opener
Overall Expectations
Headlines
Achievement Task Preview

Chapter Opener
Specific Expectations
Discovering Biology
Checkpoint

ey Understandings
K
Examples
Investigations Sub-Sections
Problems Sections Then & Now
Discovering Exploring
Word Origins
Careers
Case Infobits
Weblinks Studies
Secti on Review
Chapter Summary
Key Terms, Key Equations
Essential Understandings
Consolidate Your Understanding
Chapter Review

Achievement Task
Unit Review

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 Addison Wesley Biology 11
Student Book Features
UNIT OPENER • The anecdotal approach to content in the two-page unit
opener puts information in a student context and sets
the stage for student understanding of content.
• The Unit Opener answers the question "Why are we
studying this?"
• The Unit Opener also models the development of
content in the book as a whole by integrating STSE into
the main text.

OVERALL EXPECTATIONS • The Overall Expectations are taken directly from the
beginning of each course strand in the curriculum
document.
• Teachers, students, and parents can see that the
curriculum defines each unit of study.

HEADLINES • Headlines highlight examples of how the unit of study

relates to current issues. This helps students to connect
content to STSE.
• Headlines focus on matters of current importance to
society – not single news stories.
ACHIEVEMENT TASK PREVIEW • This preview gives students a look at the Achievement
Task they will complete at the end of the unit. It
encourages students to think about how the concepts,
skills, and connections they study in the unit will come
together as they demonstrate their learning in the
Achievement Task.

CHAPTER OPENER • The two-page Chapter Opener builds on the Unit

Opener, focusing students’ attention more specifically
on the content in this chapter.
• Again, the opener places content in context to engage
students’ interest and prompt genuine purposes for
learning.

SPECIFIC EXPECTATIONS • The Specific Expectations are taken directly from the
curriculum document so that teachers, students, and
parents can easily see what is covered in the upcoming
chapter.
• One or more Section references accompany each
expectation so that students can quickly find the
information they need. This listing functions as a
built-in study guide.

DISCOVERING BIOLOGY • Each chapter begins with a short, hands-on or minds-on

activity that can be used to introduce concepts in the
chapter.
• A variety of Discovering activities can also be found
throughout the student text. These are used to
demonstrate or consolidate a scientific concept and to
enhance student understanding and inquiry skills.
CHECKPOINT • This diagnostic tool begins each chapter. Checkpoints
are questions designed to help teachers and students
assess students’ prior knowledge relative to chapter
content.
• Teachers can focus their teaching/reteaching in
response to students’ individual needs.
• The Teacher’s Guide provides reteaching support.

KEY UNDERSTANDINGS • The Key Understandings that begin each numbered

section help focus students on key elements of the
content within the section.
• To improve accessability, Key Understandings restate
specific expectations, from the curriculum, in student
language.
• Key Understandings may represent clusters or portions of
specific expectations.

NUMBERED SECTIONS • Numbered sections are presented with student

accessibility in mind. Sections present the development
of content in manageable chunks.
• Sub-headings within Sections help students orient
themselves to specific content and locate key concepts
when reviewing.
• Content is supported with informative photos, graphs,
charts, illustrations, and diagrams.
• New vocabulary is in bold face and included in the
Glossary.
• Acquisition of new vocabulary is further supported by
Key Terms in the Chapter Summary.
• Word Origins in the margin assist in language learning
and in gaining confidence in the language of science.
WEBLINKS • Weblinks appear where appropriate in every chapter.
• Students are directed to the Pearson website, where
links are routinely monitored and updated.
• Weblinks provide research tasks and give students
meaningful opportunities to use the Internet.
• A simulation icon will identify Weblinks that lead to
simulations on the Web.

INFOBITS • Infobits offer interesting, relevant information, related

to the Section content.
• Infobits enhance student accessibility to content by
providing additional, lateral connections.

EXAMPLES AND PROBLEMS • Numerous examples provide students with models for
how concepts are applied. These models systematically
follow the GRASS method of problem solving – Given,
Required, Analysis, Solution, Statement. Support for the
GRASS model can be found in the Appendix.
• Examples focus on numerical problems. Each example
is accompanied by a Practice Problem that gives
students an opportunity to apply the model in the
example.
• Examples are numbered across a chapter for ease of
reference for both teacher and student.

THEN & NOW • These engaging features give students a picture of the
human side of scientific endeavour and highlight the
nature of science.
• Then & Now features may be historical, or they may
relate stories from the "cutting edge," or they may tell
how a single concept or technology has changed over
time.
EXPLORING CAREERS • This unique feature engages students in career
investigation, skills development, and career preparation,
often using technological tools.
• The emphasis in Exploring Careers in on the students
and their future, not on mini profiles of interesting
people.
• This feature has been designed to meet the curriculum
guidelines for career exploration and the development
of employability skills.

CASE STUDIES • Case Studies engage students in thinking about real-

world issues and content related to the course
expectations. Students learn to appreciate varied
perspectives on issues and to develop the skills of
informed decision making in an STSE context.
• Each Case Study is accompanied by a Skills Menu that
highlights skills especially developed in the study.
• The Skills Menu is based on the course expectations
and the Making Connections section of the Achievement
Chart.

INVESTIGATIONS • Two Investigations are provided for each chapter in the

Student Text and an additional two Investigations are
provided in the Teacher’s Guide – four Investigations
for every chapter.
• Investigations offer a balance of directed and open
labs – two of each kind for every chapter – so that
teachers can tailor this part of the course to their own
teaching styles, to student needs, and to the availability of
resources.
• The Inquiry Skills Menu with each Investigation
presents skills in the course expectations and the
Inquiry section of the Achievement Chart.
• Many Investigations include Extensions that lead to
meaningful uses of technology, such as data loggers and
computers.
• A correlation to alternate investigations using Vernier
and Pasco probeware is provided in the Teacher’s
Guide.
INVESTIGATIONS • All Investigations are provided in blackline master
(CONTINUED) format in the Teacher’s Guide for maximum flexibility.
Students do not need to use the Student Text while
conducting the Investigations.

INVESTIGATION ICONS • Investigations appear at the end of each chapter so that

they don’t interrupt the flow of the text and so that
teachers have maximum flexibility in when they
introduce Investigations.
• Investigation Icons appear in the margin of the student
text with page references to the actual Investigations.
The icons indicate where it would be appropriate to
conduct the Investigation.

SECTION REVIEWS • Section Reviews provide questions directly related to

the Key Understandings at the beginning of the Section.
• Section Review questions are labelled to correspond to
the organization of the expectations in the curriculum.
Understanding Concepts questions appear in every
section. Applying Inquiry/Communication Skills and
Making Connections questions use depends on the
content focus of the accompanying Section.
• Section Reviews are boxed and screened so that they
can be easily identified for student practice, homework,
and review.

CHAPTER SUMMARY • The Chapter Summary serves as a valuable study tool

for students.
• Key Terms are listed to focus students on review of
terms and definitions.
• Summary Tables are presented, as appropriate, to
consolidate information for students.
CHAPTER SUMMARY • Key Equations are presented, as appropriate, to help
(CONTINUED) students review and revise their own notes and
understanding.
• Essential Understandings restate the Specific
Expectations for the chapter in student language.
• Consolidate Your Learning revisits the Checkpoint
question that began the chapter. Students are now
asked to take the question a step further and are
presented with a task that involves high order thinking.

CHAPTER REVIEW • An extensive Chapter Review guides students through

the chapter content.
• Review questions are labelled to correspond to the
organization of the expectations in the curriculum:
Understanding Concepts, Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills, and Making Connections.

ACHIEVEMENT TASK • The Achievement Task at the end of each unit offers an
opportunity for performance-based assessment.
• Each Achievement Task offers Background Information,
a Scenario, and structured guidance.
• The Teacher’s Guide provides a rubric for each
Achievement Task, following the categories of the
Achievement Chart.
• The Pearson website offers two additional Achievement
Tasks per unit in a parallel format that facilitates the use
of the Internet. Rubrics that follow the categories
in the Achievement Chart are also provided for each
task.

UNIT REVIEW • An extensive Unit Review provides students with

questions to guide review and practice.
• Review questions are labelled to correspond to the
organization of the expectations in the curriculum:
Understanding Concepts, Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills, and Making Connections.
 Addison Wesley Biology 11
Program Components
STUDENT TEXT
See the full color pre-publication Addison Wesley Biology 11 Student Text
on this CD-ROM!

TEACHER’S GUIDE
HIGHLIGHTS:
• Unit Preparation Planning Charts
• Assessment Guide
• Assessment Rubrics and Checklists
• Essential Teaching Notes: misconceptions, teaching suggestions, lab notes, and more
• Resources and Background Information
• Blackline Masters: extra activities, labs, and rubrics
• Chapter and Unit Tests
• Answers to Questions

ASSESSMENT BANK
Over 1500 questions and answers in an easy-to-use, electronic format
• Multiple Choice, True & False, Short Answer, Performance Asessment

TRANSPARENCIES
Full colour support for key visual information

COMPANION WEBSITE
See the Companion Website Preview on this CD-ROM!
• Additional Science Issues for discussion, debate and assessment
• Student Edition Weblinks
• Weblinks relating to animations and simulations

INSERVICE
Pearson is fully committed to providing the support you need for successful
implementation!
 PEAR SO N B RIN G S YOU
TEACHER’S GUIDES YOUR WAY
Science Biology 11, Chemistry 11, Physics 11

It’s year three of the new secondary curriculum, and you’ll see that Pearson has been learning from you.
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