38

ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Lun Wu l, Nailiang Wang l, Mukang Han l, Fuhu Ren 2 and Youcai Chen 1

Methods and applications of a geomorphological GIS: a case

study in the Ordos region of China *
An information system designed for geomorphology has been established employing GIS tools, statistics, fuzzy mathematics, digital image processing and finite element analysis. In addition, we have reorganized and proposed a series of
quantitative geomorphic analysis modules (quantitative analysis, information compound, division and assessment, dynamic
simulation and prediction), and developed new technology in computer-aided geomorphic mapping.
Then, by the methods mentioned above, we have made a quantitative analysis in a case study and worked out a map
series which consists of about 100 maps on morphotectonics in the Ordos region in China.
This work contributes to the development of geomorphology, the theory and applications of GIS, and research on
regional morphotectonics, which shows that a GIS-based approach to geomorphic modelling has distinct advantages over
traditional methods.

1. Introduction
Quantitative research is essential to the development of m o d e r n geomorphology. Currently,
however, for many reasons such as the complexity
of geomorphic phenomena, the enormous volume
of spatial data on landforms and the obsolete research methods, the level of quantitative research
in geomorphology is relatively low, especially in
the field of regional geomorphic research. On the
other hand, geomorphological mapping is an important research field and is a necessary link between geomorphology and its applications.
The combination of geomorphological theories,
mathematical models and GIS should significantly
improve earlier geomorphic quantitative analysis
and mapping methods (Cheng, 1986; Li, 1991).
Due to its effective functions, such as data management, calculation and analysis, GIS provides
strong support to quantitative research. GIS has
been extensively developed and applied in many
fields of the geosciences, especially in the field of
m a n a g e m e n t and the evaluation of resources and
the environment. However, the link between GIS
I Department of Geography, Peking University, Beijing, RR.
China.
2 Institute of Remote Sensing Application, CAS, Beijing, ER,
China.
*Sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China.

and geomorphological research is still weak (Mao

et al., 1990). Undoubtedly, an important and effective direction for the development of quantitative
geomorphological research is the establishment of
a geomorphological GIS, firmly connected to GIS
tools. The concrete steps to achieve this would be
as follows:
(a) A study of the content of geomorphic information and the characteristics of geomorphic
systems.
(b) Connect (a) with GIS tools and establish a
thematic analysis system according to geomorphic
information analysis methods.
(c) Using the support of the geomorphological
GIS, set up quantitative geomorphic analysis models and utilize all kinds of available information
sources. The features, substance composition, genetic mechanism and distributive characteristics o f
landforms, the rules of their processes and development as well as their environmental and societal
influences should be studied.
(d) Develop a computer-aided mapping system
as the output module of the geomorphological
GIS. T h e analytical data should then be transferred
into planar or 3-D geomorphological maps.

2. Analysis of geomorphic information

A landform is a three-dimensional surface
which is formed by the combined effects of in-

ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 48(6): 38-45

0924-2716/93/$06.00 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

39

Volume 48, number 6, 1993

ternal and external forces and the characteristics

of the medium and time. It can be expressed as
follows:

search because of space-time differences, such as

diversified forces, a heterogeneous medium, unsteady processes and even undetermined primary
conditions (e.g. the initial elevation distribution
may not be described by a concrete function.).
However, we can utilize methods of finite elements and finite differences to divide the whole
regional landform into a series of micro-elements
(defined as geomorphic body elements with their
top surfaces defined as geomorphic surface elements; see Fig. la). In an element, we can replace
the curved surface with a plane. Finally, we can set
up general analysis models for the whole region to
calculate all kinds of spatial geomorphic indexes
(such as slope, aspect, etc.) and study the complex
geomorphic process. Discrete data could result,
with the characteristics of quantitative and systematic analysis of regional geomorphic information
obtained with the expected precision.
Using the law of conservation of mass we can
deduce the elementary equation of geomorphic
system evolution (see Figs. lb and lc).
Supposing the substance flow density in a region is q(x, y), it can then be divided into qx (along
the x axial direction) and qy (along the y axial direction). For any geomorphic body element, during
time At:
the mass inflow through margin A B (along the x
axial direction) and through margin A D (along the
y axial direction) is

M = F(x, y , z , Fi, Fe, m, t)

M = landform; F = effect on surface due to
internal and external forces; x, y, z = spatial
coordinates; Fi = internal force; F~ = external
force; m = medium characteristics (lithology and
tectonics); t = time.
Different combinations of intensity of internal
and external forces, medium characteristics and
time directly influence the landform characteristics
and their distribution. There is characteristic geomorphic information which belongs to different
internal forces, external forces and developmental
stages. A series of characteristic indexes can be
drawn from each aspect of a landform to allow
compound analysis and can result in a comprehensive evaluation.
A geomorphic system is an open, dynamic, and
complex system with transmissions of mass, energy
and information flowing between its sub-systems
and the external environment. The generation, development and evolution of the landform is a complex transmission process of material flow, in which
the surface materials, as a factor of the landform,
are affected by internal and external forces and
undergo a process of deformation, displacement
(tectonic uplift, subsidence, etc.), separation and
combination (erosion, transportation, deposition,
etc.).
Although some models have been set up by
means of mathematical/physical formulae to simulate the process mentioned above (Scheidegger,
1961, 1992; Clifford et al., 1979), it is very difficult
to use them in a regional study. In fact, a regional
geomorphic system is too complex and enormous
to deliver accurate solutions by quantitative re-

(qx)xAyAt + (qy)yAXAt
the mass outflow through margin C D (along the x
axial direction) and through margin BC (along the
y axial direction) is
(qx)x+zxxAyAt d- (qy)y+AyAXAt
Thus, the substance increment in the geomorphic body element during time At is:

o \.___.c
--

Ca)

\\

(b)

~'~
Ax

Px

Figure 1. Discrete analysis on a regional landform.

q:,

(e)

ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetty and Remote Sensing

40

[(qx)x+xAyAt + (qy)y+AyAXAt]
-- [(qx)xAyAt + (qy)yAxAt]
According to the law of conservation of mass,
the increment (AM) is equal to the substance accumulated into or eroded from the body element.
AM = pAxAyAH
p A S A H = -(Oqx/OX). A S A t - (Oqy/Oy). A S A t
where AS = Ax - Ay and p(x, y) is the medium
density of corresponding space. So, we can deduce
the elementary equation:

GIS that can manage the enormous and complex

geomorphic spatial data and make a quantitative
analysis and comprehensive assessment.
3. Composition of a geomorphological GIS

A geomorphological GIS, designed according

to the characteristics of geomorphic information
and its methods of analysis, is the result of the
combination of GIS tools, a geomorphic analysis
software package and the knowledge of geomorphological experts, It not only has the basic functions of a general GIS, but also has some analytical
abilities of geomorphotogists (see Fig. 2).

6H/~t = - ( 1 / p ) V . q
If there is tectonic uplift or subsidence, then:
6H/~t = - ( 1 / p ) V . q + V
where V is the vertical neotectonic movement rate.
The spatial distribution of q is determined by
the characteristics of the external force. Empirical
formulae can be established by field measurement
and theoretical deduction.
The neotectonic movement rate can be obtained from field investigation (terrace deformation and land deformation) or from the calculation
of ground displacement by means of finite element
mechanics.
The geomorphic importance of the abovementioned elementary equations is that the altitude change of any landform body element is equal
to the algebraic sum of the erosion (or deposition)
rate caused by the external force and the uplift
(or subsidence) rate caused by the internal force in
the same element during a given unit of time. The
assemblage of all elements reflects the regional
geomorphic process and evolution.
Landform is a function of tectonic movement,
process and time. The quantitative indexes and
substance composition of an extant landform reflect the sum of common effects caused by internal
and external forces in the geomorphic system. The
geomorphological GIS draws characteristic factors
from all aspects of the geomorphic system and then
uses systematic analytical methods in order to gain
the comprehensive knowledge of how the regional
landform develops. Developments in software and
hardware and of GIS tools in particular have allowed the establishment of a geomorphological

3.1. Subsystems of the geomorphological GIS

3.1.1. Input subsystem
By means of digitization, coding and communicating, related information including topographic
maps, thematic maps, field and remote sensing
data can be input. Topographic maps are the most
important basic data source. They contain abundant landform information and are the compound
reflection of all kinds of geomorphic processes.
Thematic maps, especially geological and climatic
maps, reflect the mass composition of landforms
and the action of endogenetic and exogenetic processes. The actual geophysical, drilling and stressstrain data can supply much inner crustal and
deep-layer tectonic information. Remote sensing
data can provide plentiful earth surface information from real-time imagery.
3.1.2. Geomorphic database management subsystem (GDBMS)
GDBMS has the functions of defining and managing the spatial data. It can be used to manage
the digital maps, non-geometric attributions and
remote sensing image data.
It mainly consists of the following modules.
(a) Image processing, This includes the following sub-functions: transformation of data format,
geometric transformation (roam, zoom and rotation), mathematical transformation and overlay.
(b) Database management of the attributes.
Setting up and modifying the structures of the
attributes, editing and searching the data of the
attributes and making statistical calculation.
(c) Spatial information searching.

Volume 48, number 6, 1993

41

i GeographicInformationSource]

I
I

t,

Inputand VerificationI
t

II

Information Acquisition

GcomorphicSpatial DataBaseManagement j
I

[Digital
MapsManagement
i [Attribute
DataBase
Managcrncnt
] [ImageProcess
]
InformationManagement
'

'

GcomorphicInformationAnalysis j

InformationAnalysis

[Thematic Maps ]

ITable and Text j

InformadonOutput
Figure 2. The flowchart of GeomorphicInformationSystemanalysis.

3.1.3. Geomorphic analysis softwarepackage

The geomorphic analysis software package is
composed of four related analysis modules which
belong to different levels. Each module consists of
a series of analysis models. The quantitative analysis module is used to draw out characteristic landform indexes of each aspect which are reflected by
the ground surface shapes; the information compound module is used to make various meaningful
integrations of the geomorphic information and
the thematic information of the external environment; the division and assessment module is used
to make thematic zoning and evaluation with the

data obtained from the above-mentioned modules;

the dynamic simulation and prediction module is
used to analyze, interpret and simulate the endogenetic and exogenetic mechanisms of the geomorphic patterns and landform features on the basis of
genetic analysis and to forecast landform development trends by means of theoretical and statistical
models.

3.1.4. Output subsystem~computer-aided mapping

Computer-aided geomorphological mapping
allows the transformation of geomorphic spatial
indexes and the comprehensive classification re-

42

suits obtained by calculation and analysis into the

control codes of plotters and then arranges the output symbols (size, shape, pattern, colour, etc.) to
express the geomorphic information on the maps.
These maps, of course, should be compatible with
geomorphological mapping traditions and suitable
for geomorphic analysis.
The cartographic representation of geomorphic
information can include discrete rulings, isolines,
point symbols, hypsography and stereoscopic perspectives.
In this subsystem, planar and stereoscopic geomorphological maps can be produced. Legends,
symbols and words can be easily added to the
maps. This subsystem can support various output
instruments, such as plotters and dot printers.

3.2. Landform analysis by the geomorphological

GIS
The general process of landform analysis by
means of a geomorphological GIS is as follows.
(a) Define the research objectives.
(b) Select data items; gather, input and adjust
data.
(c) Through theoretical analysis, determine the
analytical methods and select reference factors to
form the test functions.
(d) Operate the system to extract characteristic
landform parameters and other related thematic
information.
(e) Choose suitable models to make a comprehensive analysis.
(f) Return the geomorphic meanings of the
results of the analysis back to step (c), adjust the
analysis models until they satisfy the check target;
finally, output the results.
4. A case study on morphotectonic mapping in the
Ordos region in China

The extent of the mapping area is 34-4140'N,

105-111E (more than 0.4 million km2). The main
body of the loess plateau and the Ordos boundary
active fault zones are located in this region. The
phenomena of quaternary geology, landform and
neotectonics are very abundant and distinctive.
Large-magnitude earthquakes are very frequent.
Morphotectonic mapping is a meaningful task for
regional research and exploitation.

ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

4.1. Extracting fundamental map data from original

materials
The original materials included eight topographic maps, eighteen thematic maps (isoline
maps of quaternary deposition thickness, crustal
thickness and recent vertical deformation, etc.) and
a CCT tape (data format: l B) of NOAA-AVHRR.

4.1.1. Inputting and pre-processing of the original

maps
By digitizing, windowing, mosaicing, interpolating and projection translating, etc., six gridstructured basic maps were produced of the unified
area (grid size 1508 934 pixels), where each pixel
represented a square of 540 m x 540 m in the terrain. The six products were a DEM, digital maps
of quaternary deposition thickness, vertical ground
deformation, crustal thickness, lithologic zoning
and neotectonic distribution, respectively.
4.1.2. Pre-processing of the remote sensing data
The CCT tape of the whole orbit of the NOA_A
satellite was windowed and four images of 512 x
512 pixels were read out. Geometric corrections
and projection translations were applied and the
data mosaiced to form digital images of bands 14 for the mapping region (image size 754 x 467
pixels; pixel size 1.08 km x t.08 km on ground).
4. 2. Deriving other maps"from fundamental map
data
Other map data for the map series can be
gained by calculating and synthesizing the above
mentioned digital maps and images.

4.2.1. Deriving DTM series.from DEM

Using the quantitative analysis (morphometry)
module of the geomorphic GIS, other terrain indexes of the DTM (Digital Terrain Model), such as
aspect, slope, relief, graded elevation and landform
enveloping surface, etc., can be obtained.
4.2.2. Derived maps from the inlbrmation
integration of DTM
By using the above-mentioned information, the
compound module and division and assessment
module, we can use the information integration of
DTM to derive further products such as a map of
erosion amount (compound of enveloping surface
and DEM), and a map of landform types (fuzzy

Volume 48, number6, 1993

43

~Relief
Slope
Slope exposure
Envelop surface
of land.form

[Topograph~

Lrmdforrn type
Erosion
VhrMGradeof VINrM*
Contract of VNM"
~ Morphot~ctonic map ~ - - ~
:~ Division map of teCton-~__~
[ ic landform
[
[

[Q thicknessI

J Digitizing and trans-l,

porting or interpolating Other
~ from vector to raster ~
land.fo.,-'mmap]

IGrotmd deformation
[Lithology]

J Superposed map withl

Remote Sensing and
"[thematic information [

lCrustal thickness I--.--]Neotectonic data1

[NOAA-AVHR.R (CCT)]

Figure 3. Mappingprocess for the case study (*VNM = VerticalNeotectonicMovement).

assessment of DEM, grade of slope and grade of
undulation).

a much more comprehensive and in-depth knowledge of morphotectonics (Ren and Wu, 1990).

4.2.3. Derivative maps from the combination of the

DTM and other thematic information
By integrating the DTM (e.g. landform enveloping surface) with other thematic information (e.g. quaternary deposition thickness), other
maps such as a map of vertical neotectonic movement can be produced, from which gradient, contrast intensity and tilt direction of vertical neotectonic movement can be calculated. Furthermore,
three-dimensional landscapes can be displayed by
using a stereoscopic compound model (Dan et
al., 1992).

4.2.5. Compiling a morphotectonic map with

multiple factors
The required factor layers are drawn out and
graded divisions are made according to neotectonic characteristics and active levels. The result is
overlaid on landform types and fuzzy classification
is performed to form a comprehensive map of the
morphotectonics. Tectonic activities are an important aspect of this map and their importance in
morphotectonics was emphasized recently (Wang
and Han, 1984).

4.2.4. Combination of remote sensing and thematic

geomorphic information
After synthesizing thematic information and remote sensing images by means of false colour synthesis and digital image processing, we can obtain

4.3. Comprehensive analyses of the maps

Relief profiles and the morphotectonic pattern

can be obtained from the map of the graded elevation. The characteristics of this pattern can be
represented as a circular assemblage structure: the

44

1SPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Figure 4. From left to right the upper four pictures are: landform, relief, degree of undulation and erosion ampount, respectively.
The other one is a three-dimensional landform map in the Ordos region.

centre of the circle is the vast and nearly rectangular Ordos block, and its verge is surrounded by
a "downfaulted basin and extrabasinal mountain
system" and a "faulted and folded mountain-basin
zone".
The former belongs to the border of an
extensional-shear downfaulted zone which occurs
at the northwest, north, east and south borders of
the Ordos block; the latter belongs to the border of
an obduction zone and only occurs at the southwest
border of the block. In the map of crustal thickness,
we find that the crustal thickness is asymmetrical
in the basins which are located at the verge of the
Ordos block. The crustal thickness is less near the
extrabasinal mountains than at the inner parts of
the basins. The map of quaternary thickness indicates that quaternary thickness is greater near the
extrabasinal mountains than at the inner parts of
the basins. According to the analysis of the map of
neotectonic movement, we find that the peripheral
basins express neotectonic subsidence and most areas of the Ordos block express neotectonic uplift.

The map of recent vertical ground deformation indicates that the main body of the Ordos block is
uplifting and the profiles of recent vertical ground
deformation and the relief are very similar which
indicates that the recent tectonic movement is the
inheritance of neotectonic movement.
After enhancing the compounded images of
remote sensing and thematic information, using
marginal extraction and calculating the geometric characteristics, we find that the steep variation
zones of neotectonic movement rate almost superimpose the active fault zones and are highly
spatially coherent with the distribution of ancient
earthquakes. Furthermore, we also find that the
structures and distributions of the water and mountain systems are very distinct in this region. In addition, we find that the uplift zone of the Liupanshan
Mountain is composed of two broom structures
with a common handle. This is a new discovery
in the south section of the Liupanshan Mountain,
where little research has been done. Another new
discovery is that there is a moderately active tec-

Volume 48, number 6, 1993

tonic zone along the N E E direction in the middle of

the Ordos region.
Based on the analysis of the above maps, we see
that the highly spatial coherence of many aspects
such as relief, geomorphic features, distributions of
neotectonic m o v e m e n t and recent vertical ground
deformation, profile of infrastructures, deposition
distribution and drainage pattern express the basic morphotectonic skeleton in the Ordos region
clearly.
5. Conclusions
(1) T h e geomorphological GIS supplements
and develops the theories and methods of traditional geomorphology.
(2) The quantitative analysis module is the core
of the geomorphological GIS. However, this module is still incomplete and needs further improvements.
(3) T h r o u g h the case study in the Ordos region
in China, we find that a geomorphological GIS is
a very effective aid to the study of landforms in a
large region. It can be used to obtain new regional
recognitions and to p e r f o r m some work which is
very difficult or even impossible for traditional
methods to accomplish.

45

References
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Clifford, E. and John, T., 1979. Processes in Geomorphology.
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Dan, H., Wu, L., et al., 1992. Three-dimensional display of
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Li, J., 1991.-Classificationof fundamental morphological types
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Mao, J., et al, 1990. Advanced GIS and brief introduction of
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Ren, E and Wu, L., 1990. Two applications of the integration
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(Received April 12, 1993; revised and accepted June 30, 1993)