Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Current habits
Permanent situations and states
The teft-hand side of the brain controls the righthand sideof the body.
I don't always go to lectures that are early in the morning!
WNS
Newspaper headlines
HAWKING
The
You turn left atthe end of the road and the school is up ahead.
Too many cooks spoil the broth.
filn ends
NOBEL PRIZE
t'tt
be so relieved when
or
not.
To emphasise contrast
Adam doesn't know much about psychiatry but he does know quite a lot
about psychology.
simple
always/usualty/generalty/often/sometimes/rare,lylseld,om./never./whenever/nowadays/thesedays/frornfrmeto
time / every naw and then / mosVmuch of the trme / tt's/That's the lasf tlme
The boys
now.
We aren't having any exams while the lecturers are stilt on strike.
More and more people are recognising the advantages of being able to speak
a foreign language.
Dan's always
A man goes to see his psychiatrist. He's carrying a bag futl of honey ...
t'tl probably be
w"iJ. ,iO
a bit
scared when
the exam
nent/forthetimebeing/atpresent/today/thisweek/etc/
ta
to start.
j
i
Present
time Unit
up
to now
/'ve
--e
lYords and phrases often used with the pre$ent perfect simple
I
=-te/for/ttsthefirst&econd/etctime/before/akeady/yetlever/just/sftll/recently/uptonow
,a) until nawl so far
-E*ffiGtu**"t
.
,
^bf
ln informalAmerican English, gotten is sometimes used as a past participle instead of gotwhen it means'obtain',
'become' or'move'.
UK: I haven't got the books yet.
US: I haven't gotten the books yet. ( = I haven't bought the books yet.)
We've all been wondering what to get Tony for his birthday and we just
can't decide.
I won't take my driving test unti/
,/
-tf+rds and phrases often used with the present perfect continuous
.::=e / for / iust / all day/weel</etc
,r,hen certain verbs are used
to describe states, they are generally used in simple tenses rather than continuous tenses.
be, extst
adore, appeal, appreciate, desire, despise, detest,
mind, need, pity, prefer, safisf-y, trust, want, wish
r
-= ationships between
appear, hear, look. noilce. recognise, resemble. see, seem: smell, sound, taste
belong, concern, consist, contain, cost, depend, equal, fit, have, include, involve, lack, measure, owe,
own, possess, suit, weigh
- --er
deserve
=:ception
:: ssession
C'
!=
and
Many of the verbs above can also be used in continuous tenses when they describe actions rather than states. These
verbs include: appeal, be, consider, depend, feel, have, include, look, mean, mind, see, sme/I, taste, think, weigh
I think it's important to know how to use a computer. (state: think = believe)
,/ l'm thinking about going on a computer course. (action: think = consider)
ItTrrIII
Single completed
Past time
actions
past
states
story
time,
Oia tne ancient Egyptians have more advanced technology than other civilisattons?
I
|
Perhaps our grandparents didn'thave e-mail, butthey did have the telephone and
telegrams.
u,
to refer to periods of time or moments which are finished. The present perfect is used to
periods
which
refer to
of time
continue up to the present.
The nineteenth century saw many technological advances, such as the camera and the electric light bulb.
,/ There have been many technological advances in recent years, the most important being the spread of the lnternet.
The past simple is used to refer to events at a specific time in the past. The present perfect is used when the specific time
something happened isn't important or relevant, or when the present result of a past event is important.
I sent my first e-mail six months ago.
,/ Have you ever sent an e-mail before?
ln general, the past simple is used
&tu
At
my internet provider so t
to
When she was young, Tina was always taking things apartto see how they worked.
It was raining outside and people were making thek way home after work.
sentences)
(see Unit 11 for more information)
The present and the future (after wish,
it's time, would rather, etc)
(see Unit 13 for more information)
with
decided
change.
Past
time Unit 3
'/
to describe background events in progress and the past simple for the main events.
we were talking about MP3s when Andrea mentioned her new music website.
We normally use the past simple to describe regular or repeated actions in the past, not the past continuous.
./ When I was a child, lvisited my grandmother every week.
ln general, the past continuous is used to refer to actions in progress during periods of time or at moments which are
finished. The present perfect continuous is used to refer to actions in progress during periods of time which continue up to
the present.
We
of entertainment.
By the ilme of his death, Thomas Edison had invented a number of things that
a hit.
EE
E =Er
@4!1
She'd been writing computer games for over ten years before she finaily had
Would can also be used with a continuous infinitive when we are referring to a habit involving actions in progress.
Whenever lwent to James's house, he would usually be playing on his computer.
.,:,
4t
broke down?
clt
it
Remember that used to is not the same as be used to. Be used to refers to a situation that is now familiar or
no longer strange.
At first, people found it strange sending messages by mobile, but now everyone's used to it.
we use get used to to refer to the process of becoming familiar with a situation.
lt's surprising how quickly people in the nineteeth century got used to travetling by train.
&,5
ilrusrrr
=GIiI
ffi
Future time
/
I
*
*
Predictions
Future facts
The factory
0ffers
Promises
Requests
Refusals (won't)
will open
in JulY.
No,
For offers and suggestions in the question form, with Iand we, we use shallnot will.
Shatt thelp you with the advertising campaign? (offerl
,/ Shall we discuss this in the morning? (suggestion)
polite than will and can.
For requests, we can also use would, could or can. Would and could are more
,/ Would/Coutd/Can you give a presentation on the sales figures?
For refusals, we can also use couldn'tor can't. Couldn'tis more polite than won'tand can't'
,r No, I couldn't/can't give a presentation on the sales figures.
--'-l
rffirsffictarn*
I
I
gritish English,
shall
Jllol
LilE,l)ll,
lllDIILI)il
ln
1/
lntentions
Arrangements
lntentions
a
a
ffi
38
usually used
Both be going to and present continuous can be used for intentions. However, present continuous.is not
day.
I
I
I
Future
Fixed future
events
The shop
This time next month, l'll have been working at the company for exactly
25 years.
in the future
Afta,
time Unit 5
It looks as
if
lost
his
be arriving on Thursday.
tthink that, in the future, more and more people will be commuting to work
by plane.
We use:
,/ l'lt give you a pay rise when yau staft working harder!
simple
give you a pay rise once you're bringing in three new customers a week.
present continuous /
present perfect simple / I'll give you a pay rise as soon as you've proved you're a hard worker.
present perfect continuous / I won't give you a pay rise until you've been working here for three years.
present
t'tl
be (iust) about to
be due to
be to do
for obligations
for formal announcements
other modals
to express certaintY,
possibiliiy, etc
I might
is going to
become was goingto, etc. Tenses such as present simple also change, by going back one tense'
will
would
present simple
past simple
3g
-T
I
ffi - P,56r,irtes, and causatives
,
use on UK roads.
plenty of
The xL50O was designed with young families in mind, so there's
room in the boot.
This type of submarine was developed during the Second world war by the
Americans.
long weekend.
(Mo"re natural ihan The number of peopte trying to leave the city for
the tong weekend surprised us.)
All passengers are required to present their ttcketto the inspector'
Form
Common verbs
Example
perfect tnfinitive
people trying
to
for the
S.r. ,.rbr
;;il.,ffi; ,ii,,iii,
ave the
tickets to Jill.
t
!s
,r
x
,/
54
The passive is not normally used with verbs in the present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, future continuous or
future perfect continuous tenses. Various prepositional phrases are used to avoid the passive in these tenses, including the
following.
xPreBaratts*sJerlheW
tn progress
,/
in progress
in training
on display
under construction
/ Vintage cars have been on display in the town centre allthis week.
x
/ By the time they came to a decision, the problem had been under consideration
x@@arffiow/ The new railway statlon has been under construction for two years now.
under consideration
*
*
e+ine
for some time.
Some verbs are not usually used in the passive. They include intransitive verbs such as appear, arrive, die, etc.
ManY verbs used statively are also not usually used in the passive. They include conslst, deserve, fit, have, tack, look,
mind, realise, resemble, seem, suit, etc,
in the passive when it means 'allow', although phrasal verbs with let can be used in
the passive.
,/
Some verbs can be followed by the bare infinitive (without to) in active sentences. They are followed by the full infinitive
in passive sentences. These verbs include hear, help, make and see.
We heard Jim say he was going to Albania. (active)
,/ Jim was heard to say he was going to Albania. (passive)
In general,
We can use other verbs instead of get and have with a causative meaning. They include need, want and would tike.
The structure get sth done can also mean 'finish doing something'.
We'llset off as soon as l've got the car fixed.
E
!3
e!
tit
Most of the time, we do not show who does/did an action (the 'agent') in a passive or causative sentence. When we do
want to refer to the agent, we use by.
,/ We should get the car looked at by a professional.
When we want to refer to materials or instruments used in a passive or causative sentence, we use wrth.
The engine is starfed with a special electronic card instead of a key.
"/
M*/
We use other prepositions after some past participles that are used like adjectives.
:::i-::-:::11.airl:*
Unit ?
tillmnmr ra
u
J
afi*semi
o-aals
Semi-modalshavesimilarmeaningstomodals.Theyinclude: need(to),oughtto,hadbetterandhave@ot)to'
person, Others, such as have (got) to, do'
Some semi-modals, such as had better, do not change tense or
have to.
can be used in combination with modals, producing phrases such as might
Some semi-modals
:liTl
[Iil
Real abrlity
can, can't
Past ability
could, couldn't
Future ability
will/won't be able to
could, couldn't
could, couldn't
could have,
couldn't have
t3
al
I can
get you
be alE
to:g!
an!
*r!e'
can't
cant I No,y9u ca L
cit
mtrf;Wffi
.YAil"fml:
Askingforandgivingadvice|should,shouldn't,oughtto,ouc
I
t5
CE$
Hadn't you belter check that these f acts are actually true?
This suggests that, although the suggestion
We can also use might/may as we/ito give advice and make suggestions.
is not perfect, there is no better option.
me you were
going to be late!
will
would
a?
b
R
ffi =
to suggest criticism.
I might as well be dead for all you care.
Future obligation
don't/won't have to, haven't got to, l'm glad we won't have to write any more
needn't, don't/won't need (to)
essays on this course.
had to, needed (to)
We had to come up with three questions each.
didn't have to, didn't need (to),
ln the past, politicians didn't have to deat with
needn't have
being in a 24-hour media spoilight.
Past obligation
A lack of past obligation
6
CT
6
!r,
We are more likely to use musf for personal obligation (making our own decision
about what we must do) and
for external obligation (someone else making a dlcision about what we must do).
Uslng mustfor questions is extremely formal. We usually use haye to.
Do you have to have a degree to be a journatist?
Mustn't is used for prohibition. Don'thave to is used for a lack of obligation.
have to
to and didn't need to for things that we did or didn't actually do. However, we only use needn,t
have done for things that we actually did but weren,t obliged to do.
it yet.'
a
g
TE
time
to
get
to
the library
before it c/oses.
e-mait
yet.
y'
that. /
?3
llBit
ttlll
lf we continue to
t
ta
{E
fre might
(t
!t
it!
if
:
.I
ltt
A lot more people would have been traiieid by the ftood if there hadn't
gambling'
You might not be in so much trouble if you hadn't stafted
Pauta
Gonditionals
,/ Had we not
C9
G.
When the if clause comes before the result clause, we usually separate the two clauses with a comma. When the
=
ffi
d/P r ovidin
P r ovide
(th
at)
0n conditton (that)
Suppose/Supposing
lf it wasn'Vweren't for + noun
Were it not for
Butfor +
+ noun
noun
it
to work.
We'll go up
As/so long as
Had
Should the drought continue, many people willbe forced to leave their villages.
( = lf the drought should continue ... / lf the drought continues ... )
Were we to stop using fossil fuels tomorrow, it would strll take decades for the
planetto recover. ( = lf we were to stop ... lf we stopped ...)
Had Charles Darwin not visited the Galapagos /slands, he night never have
developed his theory of evolution. ( = lf Charles Darwin hadn't visited . . . )
E
a
Unit
+ noun
lf .. . Ghould) happen to
lf ... should
lf .. . happened to
lf .. . were to
lf so/not
Supposing the price of oiltripled tomorrow. What do you think would happen?
I think l'd be quite lonely if it wasn't/weren't for my dog, Buster.
Were it not for my dog, Buster, lthink l'd be quite lonely.
But for your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
lf it hadn't been for your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
Had it not been tor your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
lf you (should) happen to see Davina, ask her whether she would look after
the cats this weekend.
lf you should see Davina, ask her whether she would look after the cats this weekend.
lf you happened to see sorneone drop lilter in the street, what would you do?
Are
if
the government
lf
so,
in
joining Greenpeace.
Unless
You should have your air conditioner serviced, otherwise you'll waste a lot of energy.
Unless governments act now, the environment is really going to suffer.
ln case of + noun
ln case of fire,
ln case
lf you were at the meetrng, why didn't you raise the issue of recycling?
lf you'llfollow me, l'll show you into the park manager's office.
lf you like zoos, the one in Singapore is fantastic.
Otherwise
s7
11
:,i::.':):.:-.:.!:tIi
a,-,:
;::. l
Sometimes we use the past simple and continuous to refer to the present, the future or a general situation.
Sometimes we use the past perfect simple and continuous to refer to a hypothetical past that didn't actually happen.
{!
CI
tG'&
ffi
For all of the situations below with the past simple and past continuous, with the verb to be after I and he/she/it, there
,/ I wish lwere rich.
lwish lwas rich.
is a choice of was or
Both was and were are common in informal English but were is sometimes more appropriate in formal, written English
and is always used in the phrase lf lwere you ...
were. /
I wouldn't accept a job unless lwas absolutely sure what the salary was.
lf you were travelling to Russia, would you get roubles before you left or
Supposing you were given ten million euros, what would you spend it on?
What if you were walking down the street and you suddenly found
a wallet? Would you hand it in?
Suppose you had won the lottery last night. What would you have done?
tmagine you'd been working there for 40 years. What kind of pension
would you have got?
or general situations
To consider hypothetical or unllkely past situations
'.@:
ia
alt
.t.
H#
We can also use a present tense instead of past simple or past continuous after these words and phrases. This
./ Supposing
,/
comparisons
For past untrue, hypothetical comparisons
;ffi;,.rO-O.t"r. ,,r,rt noufils in a present or present perfect tense, we only use a past tense for comparisons
true.
rs6
Unreal
time Unit
er,
13
lwenthome. /
G
rather/sooner we bought a house than carried on renting.
you
rather/sooner I was begging in the streetsT
Would
We'd rather/sooner you hadn't lent Kurdip the money.
Jan woutd
g
I
*t
+ past simple/continuous is only used to talk about preference regarding someone else' When
thereisno.'hung.of subject,weuse wouldrather/sooner+ bareinfinitive, orwouldprefer+full infinitive.
r' She,d rathei not boriow any money from you. She'd prefer not to borrow any money from you.
Woutd rather/sooner
Do
G
]G=
or
When wish is in the past simple, it is still followed by the past simple or past continuous for current, future
general wishes.
Si*o, dearly wished that he had a bigger house. ,/ I sat there and wished I was earning a reasonable salary.
it
for a situation
lf only + would
/
Wish /
lf only + could
Wish
to be different
a
Wish
I wish
Msh + noun
To wish someone
luck/happiness/success/etc
x#,@
manager.
x Pete-wrsh,es-he'lva-d'#arffire:
We do not use wish
future. /
Pete wishes he
arrives tomorrow.
107
noun
Before a
Deluredlluull
11
CI
qt
followed by adverbs
The verbs in the table above are not normally followed by adverbs. However, some of them can be
when the verb refers to an action.
She looked angW at the man behind the counter.
After as, how, so, this ( = so), that ( = so) and too, adjectives come before the article.
I couttd never live in as crowded a city as Tokyo. ,/ Tokyo's so/that crowded a clty that I'd hate to live there.
t could never live in Tokyo - it's too crowded a city.
How crowded a city is
a-, such as
Some adjectives only appear after a verb and not before a noun. These include adjectives beginning with
etc
awake,
afraid, aghast, alike, alive, alone, asleep,
A boy was asleeP in the
I
/
Tokyo?
street.
To refer
To refer
To refer
to some nationalities
p!$gt-..-
xW
/
./
,/ |m rarety
/
/
(n
e a r ly
not hearly/quite)
..
. as
as/so ... as
3!
as
diamond.
the...,the...
a
IE
far
to live in.
ra
Unit
as strong as plastic. (large difference between the thlngs being referred to)
Gold is not guite as valuable as it was last month. (small difference between the things being referred to)
q+4Ff-6
Ungradable adjectives describe qualities which are extreme and which cannot be 'more' or 'less', eg
amazing, dead, exhausted, fantastic, helpless, impossible, incredible, necessary, pertect, porntless, right, splendid,
unacceptable, wonderful, wrong, etc.Other adjectives are gradable.
if iers with un grada ble adjectives : ab solutely, completely,
quite, totally, utterly, ehc
After working on the building site all day, Tim was absolutely
Pete was a bit tired after working on the building site all day,
but it wasn't too bad.
Mod
(!'l
g
IE
*,
?ffi.
exhausted.
quite,
When quite is used with gradable adjectives, it means'rather, fairly'. When guite is used with ungradable adjectives,
it means'absolutely, completely'.
Some words have the same form as an adjective and as an adverb and some also form adjectives with -ly. The different forms
can have different meanings. These include:
fair
free
late
short
fast
hard
near nearly
fine
hilh
right
wetl
wide widely
/ freely
/ shortly
/ fakly
/ lately
straight
/ finety
/ hiehly
/ rilhtly
./ Hit it too hard and you'll break it.
/ Sandstone is not a very hard material.
y
+^^ h^rAh, ^^A t,^, t'll L\y^^1,
/ I could hardly hear the music.
rJi+ ;+
..q.
e,,
u'
'v
tvu
vt vut\
/ hardly
/
i+
tlt
GI
Some adjectives end in -ly, eg costly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely.
They do not form adverbs, but we often use a phrase such as in a ... way to describe how something is done.
6
!E
EI
She looked at me
tsfffiilG$
T??
15
:rT
who
which
whom
a formal word
There are
that
when
where
why
This is
whose
what
=!B
,r
t
G
Which can re{er to the whole preceding clause, rather than just the preceding noun.
She announced that she wanted to be a pathotogist, which reatly shocked us. ( = the announcement shocked us)
of who/which/etc. This
is
ol who/which/elc.
more informal,
That's the doctor that did Karen's operation.
,t
,/
t3&
is 50 years old.
Hartey Street, where she was born, is famous for its clinics'
as some, none,
whom.
much and many before of which or of
,t t bought some drugs, some of which were expensive.
Clauses
She was the nurse looking after the patlents at the time. (who was looking)
The boy taken to hospitalwas 13 years old. (who was taken)
for something
Unit
Being frightened of needles, Tony was not looking forward to the injection.
Ali wasn't particularly nervous this time.
Sitting in the waittng room, I could hear the sound of the denttst drilling.
Having found an opttcian close to the office, I made an appointment for that evening.
Given an aspirin,
Given the chance, l'd definitely study pharmacology. (if I were given the chancel
began
aspirinl
-{t
When the participle clause doesn't have its own subject, the clause and the rest of the sentence must both refer
ll
G
/
f
.(
To start a sentence
although
in splte of
though
My
even though
while/whereas
While antibiotics are effective against bacteria, they do not work against viruses.
Bacterial infecttons can be cured with anttbiotics, whereas viruses cannot.
however
/ despite + -ing, both parts of the sentence must refer to the same subject.
fl
With ln spite of
Even if is used to emphasise that it doesn't matter if something happens or is true, another situation remains
the same.
Even it they found a cure for cancer tomorrow, it would take several years before it was available.
Even if is used to suggest that something may or may not happen, whereas even though suggests that the action
actually takes place.
Even if she tried to give her an injectron, she couldn't. ( = She probably hasn't tried yet.)
,/ Even though she tried to give her an injection, she couldn't. ( = She tried and was unsuccessful.)
13S
17
Ergg
hardly ( ... when)
...
than)
only
only after
only when
not until
at no ilme/potnt/stage
in no way
little
Hardly had the new raw been introduced when the mistake was rearised.
scarcely had I opened the front door when I heard a noise from the kitchen.
Barely had we solved one problem when another one arose.
No sooner had the alarm gone off than the police arrived.
Only in an emergency should you dial 999.
only atter I had checked that the burgrars had reft did r catt the porice.
only when we agree what measures are needed will we be able to solve
the problem.
Not until the next election will we know how the pubtic feet about
this news;.
not
Not only has thls government faited but it has also sto/en ldeas from
other parties.
On no account should you try to tackle a burglar yourself.
Rarely do the newspapers present a balanced view of currenteyents.
on no account
rarely
seldom
under no circumstances
a
Cf
*=-
under no circumstances
with not until and only (when/after), you have to be careful to invert
the verb and subject in the main clause.
Not unfil / Only when this government reallses what a mistake it is
making willthings
change.
here
there
adverbial phrases
participle phrases
'Did you?
I am very
So did l.'
inii
rn conditional sentences
(see Unit 11)
cause
Had I known about the crime probrem, t would never have mioved here.
154
Complex sentences
all (that)
To get
... thing
the
day/elc when/that
the day/ehc
onln/at
which
what happens/happened
What happened was that a witness saw the man leave the house.
what
is/was ...
C}
'g
G
trE:
ffi
With
./
so
itislwas ...
in cleft sentences, there are two possibilities when the subject is a pronoun. They differ in formality.
/t was so terrible a crime that the judge sentenced him to life in prison.
Ihere is so much crime around here that l'm thinking of moving.
such
l,
This problen has gone on for such a long ttme that I don't think they'll ever find a solution.
It was such a terrible crime that the iudge sentenced him to life in prison
There is such a lot of crime around here that l'm thinking of moving.
too
his face.
This problem seems to be too difficult for them to so/ve.
The police responded too slowly to have any chance of catching the burglar.
IE
So and such can also be used in various ways without a that clause.
Po/itics is so boring!
There's so much crime around here these days.
u*
ffi
to describe something that is more than necessary and which has a negative effect. lt is not the
x
Enough usually comes before nouns and after adjectives and adverbs.
Unit
t9
.
,
over-achievers.
With organisations and groups of people @g group/team/etd, it often makes no difference whether the verb is singular or
plural. ./ The government is/are not doing anything to help the arts.
With some countable nouns, when we want to refer to a group, we use certain phrases ending in of. These include: a flock of
bids/sheep, a herd of cows/elephants, a pack of cards/dogs, a bunch of flowers/grapes/keys, a set of encyclopaedias/keys
Plural uncountable nouns only have a pluralform. They onlytake verbs in the plural..r The scissors aren'tonthetable.
Plural uncountable nouns include: arms, binoculars, cattle, c/othes, congratulations, earnings, glasses, goods, groceries,
jeans, odds, pants, pliers, premises, pyjamas, regards, remains, savings, scales, scissors, shorts, surroundings, thanks,
tights, trousers, valuables
With plural uncountable nouns, we can sometimes use a pair of, usually when we see something as having two parts/egs/etc
e
E
E.
t!
bi n o c ul ar
o r
s/ etc.
Some uncountable nouns end in -s but are singular, eg diabetes, news, physics, politics.
Many nouns are countable with one meaning and uncountable with another meaning. These include: cake, chicken,
chocolate, damage, glass, hair, paper, time, wood, work
,/
Some nouns which are usually uncountable are used as countable nouns in certain expressions, eg a knowledge of , a
great help.
g#
A
a
.il:,
T?O
g a p air of
alittle+
all (of)
bf
Noun phrases
rP*
s
.a
We use a before a consonant sound, and an before a vowel sound. lt is the sound and not the spelling that is important
m*
We use
s.lHffi
a/anto show what group someone or something belongs to, or to classify lt/him/her.
Liz is
a modernist.
being specific
Ihe
being specific
talking generally (formal)
being specific
Is that
We often use the with physical things that are unique (eg the moon, the Queen).
We often use the with superlatives (eg fhe bes0 and cardinal numbers {eg the first).
talking generally
talking generally
rF
o
att
Time
in an hour, in a second
the afternoon
the King, the Principal, the President,
the British
job, work as a
People and
have
work
Places
Public buildings
Entertainment
and sport
Organisatrons
Education
Travel
Health
have a cold
/cough/
headache/toothache/
stomach ache
hav
go to school/hospital/prison (as
a stu d e nt/p att ent/p r i s o ner)
hospital/prison/school (as a visitor)
play
play the guitar, the media, on the
tennis, play guitar,listen to
go
N
music,
on television, watch N
watch
the
to the cinema,
radio,
NATO
the BBC, the police, the emergency
services, the United /Vations
geography, be in class/year/form 5
be in the fust year
t,
l
Unit
21
admit
adore
advocate
appreciate
avoid
help
can't
,tt
aC'
G'
I carry on
I compare
I consider
I contemplate
I delay
I deny
discuss
dislike
end up
endure
enjoy
to meeting your
mind
resent
miss
resist
postpone
risk
practtse
suggest
put off
recommend
take up
brother.
The verbs feel, hear, see, notice, overhear and watch can also be followed by an object + the bare infinitive
(without to).
(=lsaw allof
escape I give up
face
I include
fancy
I involve
feellike I justify
finish
I keep (on)
foresee I mention
detest
it) {
make it clear.
Do
They caught
Can
afford
attempt
agree
beg
aim
cease
appear
choose
apply
claim
arrange
come
aspire
dare
decide I help
demand I hesitate
deserve I hope
desie
I learn
expect I manage
fat
I need
happen I neglect
offer
opt
I resolye
I rush
I seem
plan
prepare I strive
pretend I tend
promise I undertake
refuse
I volunteer
vote
wait
want
work
yearn
ask
choose
desire
asslgn
command
employ
expect
force
free
help
assist
compel
empower
hire
authorise
convince
enable
advise
CAUSC
decide
allow
challenge
defy
dare
18fi
intend
I invite
I lead
I motivate
ti
move
order I raise
permit I recommend
persuade I recruit
pick
I remind
preoare I reouest
promot I select
inspire
tnstruct
I need
I nominate
signal
teach
tell
tempt
trust
want
warn
Verbal complements
*
*
I was made
to apologise to my
sister.
The verbs dare and need can be used as modals, in which case they are followed by the bare infinitive.
You needn't invite Ralph if you'd rather not.
I don't dare tell Simone what happened.
consider/
imagine
forget
$O
llnit 23
On
like
mean
regret
remember
think about
continue
How can you go on living with Michael?
enjoy
intend
l'm sure Rania didn't mean
involve
to upset
you.
stop
stop an action
Will you please just stop telling me what to do?
try
opinion.
With some verbs, such as find, think or consider, it is often possible to use it as a preparatory object.
,/ I consider it
The subjunctive is a verb form which does not take -s in the third person singular.
It is possible to use the subjunctive in thatclauses after words suggesting that something is necessary or preferable.
./
work. /
rg7
:zS
"?i{...i
the tense ot
*n't
',i*
r,.
Direct
present simple: Sam doesn,t ptay hockey very
often.
present continuous: l'm winning!
present perfect simple:
trophy before!
l've
past simple: Fiona said that Sam didnt ptay hockey very
often.
past continuous: Carol shouted to us that she was winning.
past perfect simple: Paul said that he,d never been given
a trophy
before.
past perfect continuous: She to/d us that they,d been playing
for
four hours.
until
half-time.
a
=
g
a
.
when something is still true, we can change tense but we don't have
to.
The arttcle said that fishing is/was the host popular sport in Britain.
/
/
&
=
=
Direct
speech
Keporteo
13
!h9.n
&
speech
will/shatt
can
rnust
have to
don't/doesn't have to
would
could
rnust
had to
be to
should
had to
didn't have to
mustn't
may
amls/are going to
mustn't
might
was/were going to
be not to
shouldn't
speech.
to had to, be to
or
shouldin reported
l'You mustn't
202
were to
shoutd
Dave.
Reporting Urut
25
speech
my: lt's my turn.
Direct
I Reported speech
I his/her: Eddie pointed out that it was his turn.
this/that + noun: I boughtthis fishing rod yesterday. I the/that: Linda said she'd boughtthe fishing rod the day
this/that + verb: Ihis is a great game!
| iVthat: Tony said it was a great game.
these/those + noun: Look at these baseball gloves! I the/those: Alison told us to look at the baseball gloves.
these/those +verb: Theseare thebestbaseball I they:She saidtheywerethebestbaseballgloves
gloves I've ever seen.
I she'd ever seen.
(without
uerb + these/those
an object): I've had these I them; She said she'd had them for years.
We do not need
'{f
/'l'll
.E
ffi
see
before.
to change time words/phrases when the information is still true at the moment of speaking/writing.
ln narratives, writers often use direct speech time words and phrases for dramatic effect.
,/Carlo turned to Fraser and said that, here, now, they would decide who the champion was once and for all.
Reported speech
now, atthe moment
next week/year/etc
that night
last week/year/elc
ago
there
*
*
With reported questions, we make the same changes regarding tense, pronoun and time and place word,/phrases as we
do with reported speech.
ln reported questions we don't use the question form or question marks.
Direct speech
Questions beginning with the verbs have, do, be and modals
'Do you wantto play Monopoly?'asked Cheryl.
Questions with what, who, which, when, where, why and how
'What fime did the match start?' asked Jimmy.
g,
g
6
The structure question word + infinitive is very common with reported questions.
!e!fit#{}
Commands
'Put the cricket bats away!' said Alex.
Requests
tell/
Alex
Different reporting verbs take different grammatical patterns, Some verbs can take more than one pattern, eg deny doing,
Common reporting verbs include: accuse, agree, apologise, ask, beg, claim, command, cry, deny, explain, instruct, order,
promise, refuse, reply, respond, say, shout, state, suggest, tell, whisper
?ft?