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Ancient History HSC Syllabus

Option N: Rome: The Augustan Age 44 BC AD 14
1.0 Establishment of the Principate
1.1 Impact of the death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second
Triumvirate and Civil War
1.2 Consequences and significance of the Battle of Atrium
1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC
1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps
2.0 The Augustan principate
2.1 Augustus and the Senate: role and responsibilities
2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials
2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen
2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious, administrative
2.5 Opposition to Augustus
2.6 Augustus building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis,
Pantheon, Campus Martius
2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas
2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women:
Livia, Julia
2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa
2.10 Death of Augustus
3.0 Augustus and the empire
3.1 Augustus and the army
3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial
3.3 Frontier policy

Introduction

Timeline:
Date

Events

23rd September 63 BC

A born

46 BC

A participated in Cs Triumphs

15th March 44 BC, the Ides of Caesar assassinated, Octavian adopted as son/heir
March
A returned to I to secure claim to throne
Phillipics launched by Cicero Senate allies with A and awards him
consulship
A defeats Antonys army, feels betrayed by Senate who promote Brutus
43 BC
Second Triumvirate established between L/A/Antony and Western E
carved up
42 BC
Battle of Philippi C and B defeated, East regained
Triumvirate provinces reshuffled
40 BC
Pact of Brundisium
Antony married to Octavia
Sextus Pompey blockades I
39 BC
Pact of Misenum armistice with Sextus
36 BC
35 BC
33 BC

Agrippa defeats Sextus P

Lepidus sidelined
Antony marries C

31 BC

Antony divorces Octavia

A elected as consul launches invective against A obtaining Antonys
will from the Vestral Virgins
Senate declares war on C
Battle of Actium Antony and C commit suicide

27 BC

The First Settlement consular and proconsular powers gained

23 BC
18 BC

The Second Settlement proconsular maius imperium and tribunicia

potestas gained
As imperium upgraded to consular (but without having to be consul)

12 BC

A made pontifex maximus

2 BC
AD 9

A named pater patriae

Varus disaster in which 17th/18th/19th legions massacred

Terms and Concepts

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proconsular
imperium

maius

pater patriae

Granted supreme power over entire Empire whilst allowing A to retain imperium
upon entering Rome
Bestowed upon A in 2nd Settlement
Granted him civil authority in Rome with wide-ranging political powers
2nd Settlement
Administer of the grain supply
Gained by A in 22 BC
Supreme control over Empire affairs

auctoritas

Prestige that provided As source of power

pontifex maximus

Chief priest, Lepidus until his death when A superseded him

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

Funerary inscription recording the achievements of A

Consilium principus
Praetors

Augustus committee of advisors

Imperial administrators

Consuls

Constitutional heads of state, diminished in powers under A

Equites

Equestrian class, landed gentry

Vigiles
Pax Romana
spolia opima
paterfamilias

Roman fire brigade

Peace in Rome
Ultimate military spoils which A monopolised
Head of the household

Praetorian Guard

As personal bodyguard

tribunicia potestas
cura annonae

Main Historians/Evidence
Ancient
Tacitus
Cicero
Cassius Dio
Suetonius

Modern
Jones
Shotter
Wallace-Hadrill
Grant
Symes
Mommsen

Scullard
Salmon
Eck
Shuckberg

1. Establishment of the Principate

0.1 Non-examinable Background

Near the end of the 2nd c BC the Republican system began to disintegrate and had
become a corrupt bodytermed the Roman Revolution.
o Rise of private armies and autocratic ambitionsdisregard of tradition in the res
publica.
o Civil war erupted in 49 BC between Pompey and Caesar. By 45 BC Caesar had
emerged victorious.
o Caesar assumed the position of dictator for life.
o

1.1 Impact of death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second Triumvirate and
Civil War
Early Career of Octavian
o Born Gaius Octavius, in 63BC, to Atia, of Julian descent, and the elder Gaius
Octavius.
o Mother, Atia, was Caesars niece, giving Augustus a connection to an old family of
patrician rank, and more importantly Caesar himself.
o Enjoyed a good relationship with great-uncle Julius Caesar.
o Took part in Caesars triumphs of 46 BC and was later elected into the patrician order
by Caesarindication of Caesars favour.
Impact of Caesars death
o Caesar assassinated on 15th March 44BC.
o Upon Caesars assassination (orchestrated by Brutus and Cassius), Mark Antony
assumed leadership of Rome.
o Brutus and Cassius flee.
o Caesars death throws Rome into a struggle for power.
o Cicero wanted to return power to the Senate and save the republic.
o Lepidus was another contender for power.
o Octavian, Caesars great-nephew, however, was named as his principle heir and
intended to be his successor; he promptly returned to Italy upon Caesars death.
o Octavian wanted to avenge his adopted father and also prove himself as a worthy heir.
o He also takes the opportunity to adopt the powerful name Caesar.
o Cicero quotes Mark Antony: You, boy, who owe everything to a name.
Early Politics
o Octavian and Antony quarrelled immediately.
o Antonys position was unstable in Rome, while Octavian gained popularity.
o Antony had the Plebeian assembly grant him Cisalpine Gaul and left to there with his
loyal troops.
o Octavian manipulates the will of the senate:
obtains senatorial troops to march on Antony. They meet at Mutina in 43BC and
Octavian emerges victorious as Antony flees back to Gaul.
o Senate declares Antony an enemy of the state.
o Antony and Lepidus form an alliance.

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o While away at war, the Senate appoint Brutus supreme commander in the war against
Brutus. Octavian felt betrayed, realised best interests lay in allying himself with
Antony.
o Octavian returned to Rome with his 8 legions and demanded consulship.
o He was declared consul in 43BC at age of 20.
o He removed the decree outlawing Antony, and immediately declared Caesars
assasins B & C enemies of the state.
Second Triumvirate
o Octavian set off with 11 legions to seek reconciliation with Antony and at Bononia,
Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed an alliance; the Second Triumvirate
(43BC).
o The three gained powers of imperium(absolute power) for 5 years.
o Divided the western provinces amongst themselves:
Antony: North Italy, parts of Gaul
Lepidus: Spain and parts of Gaul
Octavian: Sicily, Sardinia and Africa.
o Octavian takes the opportunity to deify Caesar, giving him the unique position of a
son of a god.
o To consolidate their powers, they created proscription lists to raise funds and
eliminate influential men of Rome. Cicero is amongst those murdered.
o Shotter: Its real aim was the service of personal and factional ambitions.
Civil War
o In the meantime, Brutus and Cassius had been raising an army in the East and
promised the senate they would restore the republic.
o In two battles at Philippi, Macedonia in 42BC, Brutus and Cassius were defeated
and eliminated.
o Holland: The defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi is traditionally regarded as marking the
end of the Roman empire.
o Sextus Pompeius, another Roman general who had taken Sicily and Sardinia from
Octavian, remained the triumvirs last point of opposition.
o In 40BC, the triumvirate is renegotiated; the Treaty of Brundisium.
Antony: the East
Octavian: the West.
Lepidus: Spain and Africa; however he becomes subordinate
o Octavia marries Antony in a statement of unity.
o Sextus Pompey and his navy seize Sicily and cut off grain supply to Italy.
o 39BC: Pact of Misenum negotiated with Sextus Pompey and he is officially given
control of Sicily.
o 37BC: Triumvirate renewed with Lepidus excluded.
o Lepidus makes a desperate bid for power but is deserted by his troops; he is stripped
of his political powers and instead granted the position of pontifex maximus.
o Marcus Agrippa, Octavians lieutenant, defeats Sextus Pompey at Naulochus in
36BC.
o Octavian now has unchallenged control of the West, but his relationship with Antony
begins to break down.

1.2 The Battle of Actium

OriginsPolitical Unrest
o Antony and Octavian never intended for duel leadership and were on an inevitable
collision course.
o During his sojourn in the East, Antony met the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra.
o Antony marries, and hence aligned himself, with Cleopatra at Antioch in 35 BC. They
produce children.
o Antony began to be orientalised, wearing Oriental dress and practicing Egyptian customs. Thus,
he began to lose the support of the xenophobic Roman populace.
o In 34 BC Antonys Donations of Alexandria declared Cleopatra Queen of Kings and her son
by Caesar Caesarion as King of Kings giving further evidence of where his sentiments now
lay.
o Antony divorced Octavia, further exacerbating tensions between Octavian and Antony.
o In 33BC Octavian became consul again and in his first session of the Senated he launched an
attack on AntonyAntonys orientalism, grants of territory and titles in the East, and betraying
the interests of Rome.
o Both men realised the inevitable and were preparing their armies for battle.
o The lead up to Actium was characterised by a war of propaganda in a bid to win
the hearts of the Roman populace.
o David Shotter: The Battle of Actium was both a physical battle and a propaganda
battle for hearts and minds.
Battle
o Cleopatra, the eastern sourceress, was Antonys most vulnerable point at which Roman
sentiment most easily exploited and swayed. Realising this, Augustus continually vilified the
Egyptian ruler in propaganda.
o He declared war on the Foreign Queen in 32BC.
o The two armies/navies now came together in Greece
o On the 2nd September 31BC, Augustus outnumbered and defeated Antonys navy
on the west coast of Greece at Actium largely thanks to the tactics of Agrippa.
o 30BC: Antony was later pursued and defeated at Alexandria in Egypt.
o 30BC: Antony then fled from his men and committed suicide, believing Cleopatra to have been
captured.
o 30BC: Her cause lost, Cleopatra committed suicide.
o Octavian has Caesarion hunted down and murdered leaving no apparent opposition to his rule.
Consequences & Significance
o Octavian emerged the sole victor and was now hailed as imperator.
o Egypt annexed to Rome and made a Roman province, resulting in a huge influx of wealth and
became the largest supplier of grain for Roman market.
o Spent generously with this newfound wealthincreased his popularity with the people with
games, handing out grain and providing employment through a new building program.
o Upon his return in 29BC, Augustus publicly indicated that peace was restored for the first
time in 200 years of civil war and political upheaval.
o Octavian had Agrippa settle army veterans.
o He returned financial stability to Rome.
o He ended all proscriptions and declared an amnesty.

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o David Shotter: The victory at Actium marked a turning point in the history of Rome the end
of the Republic and the beginning of a new monarchy.
o Augustus had unprecedented individual power as he had eliminated all opponents; he had also
secured his auctoritas.
1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC
o The old system had failed and was in need of reform.
o The control of an individual was needed to retain political stability.
o Tacitus: The rule of a single man was the only possibly remedy for a country in
turmoil.
o Octavian needed to:
Avoid the mistakes of Caesar in disrespecting tradition and appearing as an autocrat
and dictator.
Establish a position simultaneously within and above established convention.
o He developed the principate gradually between 28 BC and 19 BC.
o Augustus political genius allowed him to at every step claim that he was the passive
participant; it was the Senate and the people of Rome who pressured him to accept
his posts.
o He was never elected for life but for fixed terms, giving the illusion of choice.
o Syme: it was a cleverly concealed autocracy.
o Shotter: Not only did Augustus institute his own form of permanent supervision of
government but he lived to develop it over a reign of 45 years.
The First Settlement, 27BC
o Shotter: The first settlement represented a fairly direct way of exercising control.
o To the shock of Rome, in 27BC Octavian announced that the Republic was restored
and renounced all his constitutional powers and provinces to the senate and Roman
people. However, this was merely a symbolic calculated gesture (Eck).
o Eck: Nothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary
manifestations. The ruler had taken counsel with his friends and allies and perhaps
with neutral politicians.
o Octavians announcement was received by plebeian riots and public outcry
demanding his leadership.
o Subsequently, the Senate bestowed a series of legal honours upon Augustus:
Proconsular imperium: Power over all the provinces that required military
defence, came into control of 70% of the Roman legions.
Held consulship each year giving him control over Rome and Italy, the heart of
the Empire.
The senate conferred upon him the title Augustus (revered one) adding to his
auctoritas and dignity.
o Shotter: These powers gave Octavian most of the control that he needed, since
Rome could be governed through consulships, whilst the Empire would be protected
by the armed forces which were stationed in his extended provinces.
The Second Settlement, 23BC
o Several factors meant First Settlement needed to be revised:
Augustus ill health.
Conspiracy of Caepio and Murena.

o
o

o
o

Without consulship he had no power outside his provinces.

Senate was beginning to resent Augustus overbearing political influence due to
his yearly consulship.
Roman population demanded a tighter formula of government in order to
guarantee security and stability for the empire.
In 23BC he relinquished all his powers to satisfy the people and the senate.
Subsequently, the Senate gave him a set of new powers recorded by Cassius Dio:
Proconsular maius imperium: To be renewed every 5 years, more or less gave him
supreme power anywhere in the Empire. Included control over the military, civil
affairs, treasury and foreign.
Tribunicia Potestas: The second half of his supreme powerlegal power; power
to veto legislation; power of tribuneconvened the plebeian assembly(thus the
symbolic leader of the people), convened the senate, presented legislation and through
his right of commendatio he designated whom he wanted elected to magistracies.
These two powers allowed him to remain princeps without having to be elected
consul annually.
Scullard: Thus the authority of Augustus was re-established on two foundations:
tribunicia potestas which gave him civil authority in Rome itself, and proconsular
maius imperium which gave him control of the armies and provinces.

Later Developments
o 22 BCPlebians demanded Augustus be made Dictator for Life. Augustus refused
and instead gained control over grain supply through cura annonae.
o 18 BCAugustus imperium was upgraded to consular (for life without having to
be Consul).
Extent of Augustus auctoritas allowed his powers to transcend any legal
restrictions. Thus his rule was based on personal influence and legally granted
powers.
o Res Gestae: I excelled all in auctoritas, although I possessed no more official power
than others.
o

1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps

Titles and Honours
o Although Augustus had power, titles and honours, he knew it was his auctoritas in the state that
gave him his power.
o The power and prestige held in the title of Augustussacred word shared with the god Jupiter,
superhuman connotations.
o He was princeps (first man in Rome).
o He further was bestowed with the titles of:
o Pontifex Maxiumus (chief priest) in 12BC after the position was vacated by Lepidus death.
Conferred dignity greater than power and was useful in restoring state religion.
o Pater Patriciae (father of the country) in 2BC, perhaps his proudest honour made him analogous
to the position of paterfamilias over his subjects.
Titles & Honours
Princeps
Augustus
Imperator
Consul

Details
(27BC)
(hailed as imperator after Battle of Actium)
(held 13 times)

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Proconsular Maius Imperium
Tribunicia Potestas
Pontifex Maximus
Pater Patriciae

(23BC) Renewed every 5yrs.

(23BC) Held for 37years.
(12BC)
(2BC)

Images
o Depicted in three ways:
In traditional dress (toga), presented him as an exemplar of Roman tradition.
In military uniform as the protector of the state and people.
As the Pontifex Maximus highlighting his religious role and respect for tradition.
o Wanted to be seen as benefactor to all.
o He was given the corona civica (civic crown of oak leaves) presenting him as Romes saviour.
o The golden shield (placed in the Senate house), proclaimed his Roman virtuesassociated with
bravery, clemency, justice and piety.
o He produced the Res Gestae to proclaim and preserve his illustrious image and achievements.

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2. The Augustan Principate

2.1 Augustus and the Senate: roles and responsibilities

o The Senatorial order was the most prestigious rank in the Roman social hierarchy.
Roles/Responsibilities
o Traditionally the Senate was intended to act as a high court, to elect magistrates, conduct public
business and legislate.
o Under Augustus the Senate was gradually turned into a legislative body, but retained most of
its traditional roles.
o Thus it became less influential. According to Jones it was reduced to no more than a rubber
stamp for Augustan political agenda.
o Maintained control over senatorial provinces.
o Continued to present legislation, debate it and pass it on to the Assembly.
o Senators continued to hold illustrious positions in the military and politics eg. army officers,
proconsuls in senatorial provinces.
o Le Glay: His political genius lay in his grasp of the fact that, the better to establish his personal
power, he had to preserve the Republic, even to consolidate the outward appearance of its
institution in order to empty them of their content.
Augustus Reforms to the Senate
o After the Battle of Actium the Senate was in disarray, Augustus needed to address the Senates
respectability and dignity while also preventing clashes between it and himself.
o He introduced several reforms to its roles and responsibilities:
Reduced the number of senators from 1,000 to 600, purging members of dubious standing,
intending to eliminate corruption and inefficiency whilst restoring exclusive nature and dignity
of the Senate.
Senatorial court for cases of treason and cases involving senators.
Controlled the public treasury and controlled the minting of all bronze and copper coinage.
Introduced fines for senators for not attending meetings, prohibiting senators from leaving
Italy without permission.
Introduced requirement for senators to possess property worth one million sesterces.
Disallowed them from marrying freedwomen.
Banned them from attending public spectacles.
Consulship was reduced to 6 months, allowing for greater rotation and responsibility while
also preventing any senator from rivalling Augustus in influence.
Established consilium principis, a small committee of advisors to Augustus.
Senate sessions lowered to meeting just twice a month.
Speakers in debates now chosen at random to encourage participation and argument.
o Essentially Senate was transformed from the chief organ of the State to a subordinate entity.
2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials
o Mostly remained the same but Augustus more clearly defined and limited the powers of each
position.
o Thus eliminated the likeliness of an individual accumulating great power.

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Consuls
o Two elected members of the Senate; traditionally the constitutional heads of state, but their
position diminished as the princeps was now above them.
o Terms were reduced to six months to increase the number of consuls available for public
service.
o Had civil duties in Rome, commanded the military.
o Augustus often allowed talented consuls to govern imperial provinces or direct boards of senators
in specific areas of administration such as grain and water supply.
o Ex-consuls became curators of the water supply, highways and public works and heard appeals
from the provinces.
o There were 4 after 5 BC.
Praetors
o 12 elected.
o Increased importance/responsibility under Augustus.
o Presided over courts, managed public/military treasury, organised games and festivals,
assisted consuls and Augustus, some military posts.
o Ex-praetors were appointed governors of senatorial provinces and administered the military
treasury.
Quaestors
o 20 elected.
o Lost all traditional functions.
o Acted as financial officers in senatorial provinces, officials of the public treasury, and
assistants to consuls.
o One had to be a quaestor to enter the Senate.
Aediles
o 6 elected.
o Repaired streets, jurisdiction over limited number of commercial cases.
o They lost many of their traditional functions and prestigelost position as overseers of the
corn supply and games in 22 BC, the water supply in 11 BC and fire control in AD 6.
Tribunate
o Lost all its powers and became a dead-end office which no one of any talent wished to hold.
2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen
Equestrian Class (equites)
o Traditionally viewed as class of businessmen and financiers.
o Benefited greatly under Augustus, brought into greater prominence.
o Increased from 1,800 to 5,000.
o In creating the principate, Augustus created something of an imperial bureaucracy requiring
the aid of various lower posts in administering the Empire.
o There were not enough magistrates and ex-magistrates to fill these positions, which led to the
equestrian class being promoted to higher posts as minor officials and clerks.
o Traditionally relations between senate and equestrian class were hostile.

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o Auguestus attempted to eradicate tensions by finding positions for them where they would not
compete with the Senatorial class.
o Introduced monetary requirements = 400,000 sesterces.
o Roles:
Military: Acted as prefects of fleets and of Egyptian legions, cohort commanders. Allowed to
enter the Praetorian Guard and Vigiles.
Administration: Appointed in judicial and financial posts in Egypt as well as prefectures of
minor provinces. Also prefecture over Egypt (most important position). Could become officials
of the fire brigade and grain supply and procurators (imperial officials).
Judicial served on juries
Freedmen
o Former slaves manumitted by their masters.
o Could become extremely wealthy and successful, but restricted from certain positions.
o Roles:
Could serve in the Vigiles (fire brigade in Rome).
Permitted to inter-marry with free-born but not senatorial class.
Were often admitted into guilds as artisans and shopkeepers.
Played influential role in religion monopolised priesthoods of non-Roman deities and could
be promoted as the Augustales priests for the worship of the Imperial cult.
Augustus possessed his own personal freedmen who managed his personal household affairs
and finances.
Plebs
o Augustus was extremely popular with the lower classes due to substantial cash and grain
payments he made to them and the many games, festivals and spectacles he financed.
o His rigorous public building program lowered unemployment levels.
o Better policing under the Vigiles and the urban cohorts

Princeps
--------------------Consuls
--------------------------------Senatorial Class
-------------------------------------------------Equestrian Class
------------------------------------------------------------------PlebeiansFreeborn
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PlebeiansFreedmen

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2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious and administrative

o Consolidated his reign through a range of reforms.
o Maintained the newly acquired pax romana.
Political
o Extended administration of Rome and the provinces.
o Made a series of reforms to the senate (see 2.1).
o Made a series of reforms to the various magistracies (see 2.2).
Social
o Controlled grain supply, provided relief in form of free grain to the poor.
o Improved water supply.
o Increase in public games and festivals.
o Addressed unemployment problem through his building program, which provided ample jobs.
o Increased the distinctions between social classes of the Roman social hierarchy.
o He made sure senatorial and equestrian blood was kept untainted by the ban of marriage
with freedwomen and the like. Encouraged marriage within these classes.
o Limited slave manumissions to a gradual flow into the citizen body.
o Suetonius: Augustus thought it important to keep the people pure and uncontaminated by all
corruption of foreign and servile blood.
Moral Reforms
o Augustus made a number of moral reforms aimed at restoring dignity and tradition to a Rome
in moral decline.
o In 18 B.C, he made a sumptuary law (limited expenditure on personal items) to deal with the
issue of extravagance in Roman society.
o He passed the lex Iulia adulteries coercendisprosecuted adultery, protected marriage.
o He passed the lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, which was also extensively modified by the lex
Papia Poppea of A.D 9, to encourage marriage and the procreation of children.
o Hence, population increased considerably under Augustus.
o However, Tacitus wrote that his strict social policies were largely unsuccessful.
o Nor did the Roman public appreciate the State attempting to intervene in public life.
o As an example he failed, hypocritically engaging in adultery himself.
Legal
o Established the rule of law within the Roman Empire.
o Reduced jury service age from 35 to 30 years.
o Created several new courts:
Senatorial high court for treason and cases involving senators.
Imperial court of criminal justice, dealt with a broader range of crimes.
New court for cases of adultery.
Religious
o Deified Caesar.
o Restored over 80 temples (Res Gestae).
o Shifted focus onto cults favoured by Augustus while some such as Jupiter lost popularity.
o Revived the priestly colleges.

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o Allowed development of the Imperial Cult, which worshipped his genius, served propaganda
purposes.
o Discouraged development of foreign cults due to their potentially alienating effect.
Administrative
o Divided Italy into 11 districts and Rome itself into 265 wards with 4 magistrates policing the
city.
o Established Vigiles (fire brigade) in AD 6.
o Built and repaired roads improving transport and movement throughout the Empire.
o Established police force under city prefect.
o Established permanent water board made up of water curators taken from the senatorial class.
o Took over control of grain from the aediles.
Financial
o Established aerarium militaire (military treasurycontrolled by A) and public treasury
(controlled by Senate).
o Divided issuing of coinage between himself (gold and silver) and the Senate (copper and
bronze).
o Set up an imperial mint in Gaul.
o Introduced new indirect taxes to tap new sources of revenue apart from tributes from the
provinces.
o Implemented a fairer tax system through having taxes collected by officials independent of the
governor of each province and accountable to Augustus.
o Took periodic censuses of the people and property throughout the Empire.
2.5 Opposition to Augustus
o Augustus promoted his pax romana through propaganda; hence forming the traditional view his
reign was stable with minimal opposition.
o Augustus did command widespread popularity.
o Accordingly Tacitus argues Opposition did not exist.
o Opposition must, however, have existed, and there is evidence in both Cassius Dio and
Suetonius of discontent in the Senate at times as well as hatred of his ruthless acts in establishing
power.
o The fact there is so little evidence of opposition is most probably due to censorship and
repression of such literature (eg. Cassius Severus books burnt), coupled with Augustan
propaganda, which covered it up.
o Augustus also dealt swiftly and ruthlessly in suppressing all hints of opposition.
o Suetonius: He suppressed a series of sporadic riots and revolts; besides certain conspiracies, all
of them detected before they become dangerous.
Ideological Plots & Conspiracies
Name
Aemilius Lepidus

Plan
Plotted assassination of Augustus to avenge
his father Lepidus..
Caepio and Murena (co- Conspired against Augustus.
consul to Augustus)
Jones: The only serious conspiracy.
Crassus, Proconsul of Declared war against a tribe and claimed
Macedonia
spoils of battle.

Outcome
Maecenas detected plot.
Executed
Augustus denied Crassus his spoils and
political ambitions, dropped out of
limelight.

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Primus, Proconsul
Macedonia
Rufus

of Attacked Thracians without approval

Praetor who wanted consulship in 19 BC.
Plot uncovered, executed
Immensely popular, providing direct
challenge to Augustus.

2.6 Augustus building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Campus
Martius
o Augustus launched an impressive building program in Rome, intending to reflect his new age of
peace and prosperity while also leaving a legacy to the ancient world.
o Cassius Dio quotes the famous words of Augustus: I found Rome in bricks and left it clothed
in marble.
o Shotter describes it as the Golden Age of Roman architecture.
o Peace had allowed funds to be pumped into public works rather than the military.
o Buildings were generally lavish.
o Functioned as propaganda, promoted view of Augustus as the saviour of Rome as well as a
traditionalist.
o He gained the support of the plebs through:
Rebuilding domestic houses and public buildings.
Repairing dilapidated areas of Rome.
Providing employment for lower classes.
o Over 80 temples were reconstructed or built, including the temple to Apollo on the Palatine
o Aqueducts and sewer system refurbished.
o Roads and highways built and repaired to improve transport and trade throughout the Empire.
o He delegated the building program to Marcus Agrippa while he was aedile in 33 BC; he was
responsible for a large portion of works.
o A number of public buildings including basilicas, libraries, granaries, amphitheatres, theatres
and warehouses were constructed.
Notable Constructions
Construction

Purposes and Features

Forum Augustum
(AD 2)

o Served propaganda purposes, depicting Augustus as the victorious conqueror,

bringer of peace and reviver of ancient traditions.
o Included the Temple of Mars the Avengerbuilt to commemorate battle won at
Philippi.
o Included a statue of Augustus, portrayed as a semi-divine, with the etching Father
of his country.
o Luxurious and ostentatious, the prime building intended to be left as a legacy.

Ara Pacis (9 BC)

o In the Campus Martius.

o Depicted Augustus as a continuer of Roman tradition.
o Showed renewed interests in the family and morality, highlighted values of piety
and productivity.
o Hadrill notes it lacked triumphal imagery, reflecting era of peace.

Pantheon (27 BC)

o In the Campus Martius.

o Constructed by Agrippa.

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o Dedicated to traditional pantheon of gods, thus kept in line with tradition.
o Commemorated Actium.
o Luxurious reliefs and works of art.
Campus Martius

o The field of Mars, an open space outside the city boundary to the North of Rome.
o Constituted collection of public buildingsPorticoes, a library, mausoleum for
Augustus and his family, Theatre of Marcellus, the Ara Pacis, Agrippas thermae
(public baths), the Pantheon and several temples.
o Promoted image, eg. at Mausoleum there was a colossal bronze statue of
Augustus.

2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas
Propaganda
o Augustus utilised a wide range of propaganda means in order to promote and justify his regime.
o Included: literature, buildings, statues, Imperial cult, coinage, public games and the Res
Gestae.
o Grant believes it was the basis of his power acting as an iron fist inside a velvet glove.
o Golden Age of Roman literature.
o Censorship of critical works.
o Augustus took an active interest in several poets and historians realising their potential for
propaganda.
o Suetonius: He fostered the talent of his age in every way.
Writer

Works

Virgil

Poet, best known for three major worksthe Eclogues (or Bucolics), the
Georgics and the Aeneid.
The Aeneid particular alludes to Augustus in depicting an ideal Roman exhibiting
virtues of duty, loyalty and piety.

Horace

Lyrical poet and satirist.

His Odes expressed support for Augustan reform.
He praised and glorified the Empire and Augustus throughout his works.
While Augustus stands guard, peace is assured, the peace no power can break

Ovid

Poet
His Metamorphoses predicts a divine future for Augustus.
Proclaims Augustus as Caesar and God.
Banished to Tomis in AD 8 for political reasons.

Livy

Historian who shared a great relationship with Augustus.

Draws parallels in Histories between the great aspects of ancient Rome and the
Augustan Age, also covering the Augustan Age.
All praised Augustus and promoted the Golden Age focusing primarily on themes
of peace, luxury and prosperity.
Role of Maecenas

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o A wealthy equestrian and close friend of Augustus.
o Political advisor to Augustus and possessed a highly influential diplomatic role, particularly
negotiating early treaties with Antony such as the Treaty of Brundisium.
o He also acted as patron of literature and the arts.
o Shuckberg: Maecenas was in effect the emperors minister for propaganda.
o Created an inner circled of talented writers for Augustus, personally introducing both Horace
and Virgil to the princeps.
o He personally sponsored both, supplying Horace with a property and allowing Virgil to write the
Georgics.
2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women: Livia, Julia
Problems of Succession
o Rogerson: His attempts to foster a successor had been hampered throughout by death,
recalcitrance and individual members of his familyTiberius was by no means his first choice
heir.
o Problems of succession stemmed from a wide range of factors:
Unprecedented nature of position.
o There was no protocol in place to determine how succession would take place.
o Due to Roman law he could not simply choose a successor to his titles.
oThus he had to instead aid a potential successor in accumulating the necessary experience,
power and auctoritas in order to take over from him as princeps.
oHe did this through granting constitutional powers and establishing family links with his
potential successors.
Lack of sons.
o Dealt with this through marriage, Livia gave him two sons, and adoption, through marrying
his daughter Julia to potential successors.
Deaths. He outlived most of his potential heirs.
Scandals and individual ambition.

Name
Marcellus

Relationship
Nephew (son of
Octavia) and sonin law

Result
- Participated in Augustus triple triumph of 29 BC.
- Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to Spain.
- Married to Julia.
- Admitted into Senate in 24 BC.
- When Augustus fell ill he was surprisingly not marked out for
succession upon his death most likely due to his lack of experience.
- Died in 23 BC.
Agrippa
Close
adviser, - Intended successor when Augustus fell ill.
accomplished
- Granted proconsular imperium over Eastern provinces.
general.
- Gradually he accumulated a great number of powers, posing a
Son-in-law from potential threat.
21 BC
- Solved this by marrying off to Julia in 21 BC.
- Proconsular imperium renewed and granted tribunicia potestas
for five years in 18 BC.
- Died in 12 BC.
Gaius Caesar Grandson (son of - Elected consul in 6 BC.

18
Julia and Agrippa)
and adopted son
Lucius CaesarGrandson (son of
Julia and Agrippa)
and adopted son
Agrippa
Grandson
Postumus
(youngest son of
Agrippa and Julia)
Tiberius
Stepson (son of
Livia) and son-inlaw

Drusus

Stepson
Livia)

(son

- Died in AD 4.
- Died in AD 2.
- Denied advancement whilst Tiberius was accumulating powers.
- Disowned by Augustus and exiled for unknown reasons.
- Accompanied him in his triple triumph of 29 BC.
- Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to Spain.
- Remained in a subordinate position to Marcellus.
- Married off to Julia after Agrippas death, 12 BC.
- Held second consulship in 7 BC and celebrated his first triumph for
victories in Germany.
- Received tribunician powers for five years.
- Retired to Rhodes in 6 BC (either in outrage according to Dio
Cassius at the public preference shown for the young boys Gaius and
Lucius or in an attempt to prove he was indispensable).
- Returned to Rome in AD 2.
- Adopted as Augustus son in AD 4.
- Received proconsular maius imperium and tribunicia potestas for
ten years in AD 13 as well as extensive administration of volatile
Germany.
-Tiberius control was now co-extensive with that of Augustus.
- Finally succeeded Augustus in AD 14 as emperor.

- Not As first choice, and would have preferred Julian heir rather than
Claudian.
of - Died on campaign in Germany in 9 BC.

Role of imperial women

o Imperial women played an extremely important role in strengthening political connections with
Augustus allies.
o Literature of the period reflects increasing recognition of womens potential.
Octavia
o Augustus sister.
o Promoted as the embodiment of the ideal Roman woman.
o In 40 BC she is married to Antony in a statement of political unity.
o Provided Marcellus, original intended successor.
Livia
o Was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, produced sons Drusus and Tiberius.
o Divorced him and re-married Augustus in 38 BC.
o Well educated, intelligent and had strong influence on Augustus.
o Involved in the repairing of temples and public buildings, several buildings such as the portico of
Livia even beared her name.
o Played public role in society toured provinces with Augustus, accompanied him for religious
celebration and on public occasions.

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o Schemed for her son Tiberius succession, ultimately successful.
o Outlived Augustus, died at age 87 in AD 29.
o Suetonius: Wealth, good looks, intelligence, combined with status of husband made her role
possible.
o Two statues of her in Rome, attested to her respectability.
Julia
o Born to Augustus first wife Scribonia.
o Was successively married off to potential successors to Augstus.
Marcellus in 23 BC.
Agrippa in 21 BC (with whom she produced five children).
Tiberius in 11 BC.
o According to Jones Augustus used her as a political pawn in showing preference for future
successors.
o Exiled for adultery in 2 BC.
2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa
Marcus Agrippa
o Agrippa was a member of the equestrian class and a close friend and advisor of Augustus.
o When Augustus fell ill in 23 BC he showed clear signs that Agrippa was intended to be his
successor.
o Married off to Julia in 21 BC with whom he had five children.
o Died in 12 BC.
Titles
o Successively held consulship, first in 37 BC, then in 31 and 28 BC with Augustus.
o Aedile in 33 BCable to implement Augustan building regime.
o Appointed inspector-general of the Eastern provinces.
o Granted proconsular imperium over all imperial provinces.
o Given maius imperium over senatorial provinces and tribunicia potesta in 18 BC for five
years thus, virtually co-regent with Augustus (and depicted as such on coins from this period).
Military and Naval Achievements
o He was an accomplished naval and military tactician.
o Pivotal role in defeating Sextus Pompey, Battle of Naulochus.
o Pivotal role at the Battle of Actium.
o Successful against trans-Rhine and Aquitanian tribes.
Administrative Achievements
o Responsible for supervising the extensive building program in Rome.
o Constructed new aqueduct and first public baths.
o Built Pantheon.
o Completed many buildings commenced under Caesar.
2.10 Death of Augustus

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Death & Will
o After ruling for almost 45 years he died of old age at Nola on 19 August AD 14, aged 77.
o Ancient sources give varying accounts Tacitus and Dio record that Livia was suspected of
being involved in his death after Augustus had visited his grandson Agrippa Postumus, possibly
thinking of making him his successor.
o Upon Augustus death Tiberius was declared master of the state.
o His will left 2/3rds of his estate to Tiberius and the remaining third to Livia.
o He gave generously to the Roman people40,000,000 for the people, and substantial sums for
members of the military.

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3. Augustus and the Empire

3.0 Assessment of Career

o Brought a period of unity, peace and prosperity to Western Europe, the Middle East and North
Africa.
o Established political stability and was so successful in centralising power that the system of the
Principate endured for almost 200 years.
o Shuckberg: Augustus was the most successful ruler known to us.
o Shotter: Augustus provided the firm and stable basis from which sprang the expansion and
prosperity of the next two centuries, and which enabled Rome and the Empire to withstand the
waywardness of many emperors who came after Augustus.
o Cicero: the young man should be praised, honoured, and immortalised.
3.1 Augustus and the army
o Ultimately allowed him to initially establish power and later maintain control.
o Salmon: The real basis of the Principate was the Emperors military power.
o Soldiers loyalty was ensured through propaganda, bribes and war booty as well
as through making them swear an oath to him.
o His proconsular maius imperium gave him supreme power over the Empire
including control of the military, the military treasury as well as Romes foreign
policy.
o A rigorous training regime ensured the army was of a high calibre.
o He ensured army was busy regularly sending legions out on campaigns rather than
stationing them along the frontier as a defensive garrison force, which increased
stability within Empire.
o Key role in uniting and Romanising the Empire, spreading the Latin language and
Roman culture.
o Also enacted important political role in suppressing his opposition.
Military Reforms
o Disbanded half his legions, from 60 to 28, and professionalised the army aiming to
emphasise upon quality rather than quantity.
o Made the soldiers swear personal oaths of allegiance.
o Fixed terms of service were introduced, initially 16 years but increased to 20 years in
AD 6.
o Standardised legions granting them titles and numbers.
o Established the aerarium militaire (military treasury), which funded soldiers
wages (fixed as 225 denarii/year) and offered a pension.
o Created veterans colonies.
o Established Praetorian Guard, personal guard of most talented troops to
accompany himself on campaigns.
o Augustus personally appointed commanders of legions, often they were members
of his own family to ensure allegiance.
Composition of the Army
o The military was recruited from Roman citizens and freeborn inhabitants of the

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provinces.
o He established a force of the Praetorian Guard and 28 legions, which were
supplemented by auxiliary units.
Force

Divisions

Roles & Responsibilities

Praetorian Guard

9 cohorts of 1000
men each

-Service: 16 years
-Consisted of talented and upstanding citizen soldiers selected
exclusively from Italy.
-Served as Augustus personal bodyguard, stationed in Rome
and accompanied the princeps when he left Rome.
-When not fighting they were involved in public works such
as roadwork.
-Paid generous salary in order to ensure support = 375 denarii
according to Cassius Dio.

Legions

28 Legions
(25 by AD 9 after
the Varus
Disaster)

-Service: 20 years
-Swore oath of allegiance.
-Paid 225 denarii and assured of pension and future settlement
in a colony.
-Maintained provincial order and defended frontiers.
-Took part in public works when not fighting.

Auxiliary Units

Organised into
cohorts of 500

-Service: 25 years
-Non-citizen wing of the army recruited from the areas in
which they served, generally raised when needed and
subsequently disbanded.
-Received citizenship upon retiremen

3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial

o Empire was divided into a number of senatorial and imperial provinces.
o Augustus regularly went on tours of inspection to ensure provinces were being
properly managed.
Imperial Provinces
o Under the control of Augustus.
o 2/3 of the Empire.
o Mostly volatile, unstable areas or those recently annexed.
o Contained the majority of the legions.
o Administered by legates and financial administrators (procurators) chosen by
Augustus himself. These were ex-consuls or ex-praetors or in Egypt a member of
the equestrian class.
o Legati were granted long terms of service (three years) in order to implement farreaching reforms and stabilise administration within each province.
o They were also paid a substantial salary by the State rather than relying on
plundering the provinces coffers which had systemised corruption.
Senatorial Provinces
o Under the control of the Senate.
o However, proconsular imperium allowed Augustus to interfere in these provinces

23
when necessary.
o Mostly provinces that had been under Roman control for a prolonged period of time,
17 in total.
o Did not contain legions except in Africa.
o Under control of a proconsular senator, selected by lot.
3.3 Frontier policy
o Role of army in later years turned to protecting Empires frontier and pacifying annexed lands
and provinces to maintain peace.
o Throughout Augustus reign the situation in several provinces remained volatile.
o Expansionist policy was adopted marking the largest expansion of the provinces of the
Roman Empireterritory expanded in Germany as well as to a limited extent in the East.
o However, after the Varus disaster of AD 9 Augustus mostly concentrated on fortifying
Empires borders.
o Salmon: The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the Empire had reached the
limits of its military resources and therefore of its territorial expansion. In Augustus judgement it
was time to call a halt.
o Jones views guarding of borders as ultimately successful under Augustus and establishing set
borders which would remain unchanged for centuries to come.
o Natural boundaries were utilised.
o Large fortified camps were built at strategic points along the border.
o Road networks throughout the Empire allowed for the rapid movement of troops.
Frontier

History

Spain

Agrippa eventually pacified Spain by 19 BC and divided it into three provinces.

Gaul

Divided into four provinces in 26 BC.

Egypt and the East

Mostly followed a policy of non-aggression and non-expansion.

Rome relied on its natural resources and it was strategically important in acting as
gateway to Eastern regions.
Frontier was, however, extended to First Cataract by Augustus in 22 BC.

Parthia

Roman control re-affirmed in 20 BC by Tiberius

Judaea

Annexed in AD 6 by Augustus

Rhine

o Most problematic area of the frontier.

o Germanic tribes made raids into the province of Gaul during years 29, 17-17
and 12 BC.
o Augustus moved boundary back to the Elbe River, from 12-9 BC Drusus
conquered this area but died in 9 BC.
o Tiberius continued consolidating territory in Western Germanica.
o Rhine Frontier was relatively peaceful until AD 9 when Varus was appointed
commander of the Rhine.
o Varus Disaster (AD 9): 17th, 18th and 19th legions massacred in the Battle of
Teutoberg Forest and Varus committed suicide.
o The Varus Disaster is often seen as Augustus biggest failure.
o Salmon: The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the Empire
had reached the limits of its military resources and therefore of its territorial
expansion.

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o Tiberius successfully re-established the Rhine Frontier.

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HSC ESSAY PLANS