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LettertoSamuelKercheval
ThomasJefferson
June12,1816

SIR,IdulyreceivedyourfavorofJunethe13th,withthecopyofthelettersonthe
callingaconvention,onwhichyouarepleasedtoaskmyopinion.Ihavenotbeeninthe
habitofmysteriousreserveonanysubject,norofbuttoningupmyopinionswithinmy
owndoublet.Onthecontrary,whileinpublicserviceespecially,Ithoughtthepublic
entitledtofrankness,andintimatelytoknowwhomtheyemployed.ButIamnow
retired:Iresignmyself,asapassenger,withconfidencetothoseatpresentatthehelm,
andaskbutforrest,peaceandgoodwill.Thequestionyoupropose,onequal
representation,hasbecomeapartyone,inwhichIwishtotakenopublicshare.Yet,ifit
beaskedforyourownsatisfactiononly,andnottobequotedbeforethepublic,Ihaveno
motivetowithholdit,andthelessfromyou,asitcoincideswithyourown.Atthebirthof
ourrepublic,Icommittedthatopiniontotheworld,inthedraughtofaconstitution
annexedtotheNotesonVirginia,inwhichaprovisionwasinsertedfora
representationpermanentlyequal.Theinfancyofthesubjectatthatmoment,andour
inexperienceofselfgovernment,occasionedgrossdeparturesinthatdraughtfrom
genuinerepublicancanons.Intruth,theabusesofmonarchyhadsomuchfilledallthe
spaceofpoliticalcontemplation,thatweimaginedeverythingrepublicanwhichwasnot
monarchy.Wehadnotyetpenetratedtothemotherprinciple,thatgovernmentsare
republicanonlyinproportionastheyembodythewilloftheirpeople,andexecuteit.
Hence,ourfirstconstitutionshadreallynoleadingprinciplesinthem.Butexperience
andreflectionhavebutmoreandmoreconfirmedmeintheparticularimportanceofthe
equalrepresentationthenproposed.Onthatpoint,then,Iamentirelyinsentimentwith
yourlettersandonlylamentthatacopyrightofyourpamphletpreventstheir
appearanceinthenewspapers,wherealonetheywouldbegenerallyread,andproduce
generaleffect.Thepresentvacancytoo,ofothermatter,wouldgivethemplaceinevery
paper,andbringthequestionhometoeverymansconscience.

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ButinequalityofrepresentationinbothHousesofourlegislature,isnottheonly
republicanheresyinthisfirstessayofourrevolutionarypatriotsatforminga
constitution.Forletitbeagreedthatagovernmentisrepublicaninproportionasevery
membercomposingithashisequalvoiceinthedirectionofitsconcerns(notindeedin
person,whichwouldbeimpracticablebeyondthelimitsofacity,orsmalltownship,but)
byrepresentativeschosenbyhimself,andresponsibletohimatshortperiods,andletus
bringtothetestofthiscanoneverybranchofourconstitution.
Inthelegislature,theHouseofRepresentativesischosenbylessthanhalfthepeople,
andnotatallinproportiontothosewhodochoose.TheSenatearestillmore
disproportionate,andforlongtermsofirresponsibility.IntheExecutive,theGovernoris
entirelyindependentofthechoiceofthepeople,andoftheircontrolhisCouncilequally
so,andatbestbutafifthwheeltoawagon.IntheJudiciary,thejudgesofthehighest
courtsaredependentonnonebutthemselves.InEngland,wherejudgeswerenamedand
removableatthewillofanhereditaryexecutive,fromwhichbranchmostmisrulewas
feared,andhasflowed,itwasagreatpointgained,byfixingthemforlife,tomakethem
independentofthatexecutive.Butinagovernmentfoundedonthepublicwill,this
principleoperatesinanoppositedirection,andagainstthatwill.There,too,theywere
stillremovableonaconcurrenceoftheexecutiveandlegislativebranches.Butwehave
madethemindependentofthenationitself.Theyareirremovable,butbytheirown
body,foranydepravitiesofconduct,andevenbytheirownbodyfortheimbecilitiesof
dotage.Thejusticesoftheinferiorcourtsareselfchosen,areforlife,andperpetuate
theirownbodyinsuccessionforever,sothatafactiononcepossessingthemselvesofthe
benchofacounty,canneverbebrokenup,butholdtheircountyinchains,forever
indissoluble.Yetthesejusticesaretherealexecutiveaswellasjudiciary,inallourminor
andmostordinaryconcerns.Theytaxusatwillfilltheofficeofsheriff,themost
importantofalltheexecutiveofficersofthecountynamenearlyallourmilitaryleaders,
whichleaders,oncenamed,areremovablebutbythemselves.Thejuries,ourjudgesofall
fact,andoflawwhentheychooseit,arenotselectedbythepeople,noramenableto
them.Theyarechosenbyanofficernamedbythecourtandexecutive.Chosen,didIsay?
Pickedupbythesherifffromtheloungingsofthecourtyard,aftereverythingrespectable
hasretiredfromit.Wherethenisourrepublicanismtobefound?Notinourconstitution
certainly,butmerelyinthespiritofourpeople.Thatwouldobligeevenadespotto
governusrepublicanly.Owingtothisspirit,andtonothingintheformofour
constitution,allthingshavegonewell.Butthisfact,sotriumphantlymisquotedbythe
enemiesofreformation,isnotthefruitofourconstitution,buthasprevailedinspiteof
it.Ourfunctionarieshavedonewell,becausegenerallyhonestmen.Ifanywerenotso,
theyfearedtoshowit.
Butitwillbesaid,itiseasiertofindfaultsthantoamendthem.Idonotthinktheir
amendmentsodifficultasispretended.Onlylaydowntrueprinciples,andadhereto
theminflexibly.Donotbefrightenedintotheirsurrenderbythealarmsofthetimid,or
thecroakingsofwealthagainsttheascendencyofthepeople.Ifexperiencebecalledfor,
appealtothatofourfifteenortwentygovernmentsforfortyyears,andshowmewhere
thepeoplehavedonehalfthemischiefinthesefortyyears,thatasingledespotwould
havedoneinasingleyearorshowhalftheriotsandrebellions,thecrimesandthe
punishments,whichhavetakenplaceinanysinglenation,underkinglygovernment,

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duringthesameperiod.Thetruefoundationofrepublicangovernmentistheequalright
ofeverycitizen,inhispersonandproperty,andintheirmanagement.Trybythis,asa
tally,everyprovisionofourconstitution,andseeifithangsdirectlyonthewillofthe
people.Reduceyourlegislaturetoaconvenientnumberforfull,butorderlydiscussion.
Leteverymanwhofightsorpays,exercisehisjustandequalrightintheirelection.
Submitthemtoapprobationorrejectionatshortintervals.Lettheexecutivebechosenin
thesameway,andforthesameterm,bythosewhoseagentheistobeandleaveno
screenofacouncilbehindwhichtoskulkfromresponsibility.Ithasbeenthoughtthat
thepeoplearenotcompetentelectorsofjudgeslearnedinthelaw.ButIdonotknow
thatthisistrue,and,ifdoubtful,weshouldfollowprinciple.Inthis,asinmanyother
elections,theywouldbeguidedbyreputation,whichwouldnoterroftener,perhaps,
thanthepresentmodeofappointment.InoneStateoftheUnion,atleast,ithaslong
beentried,andwiththemostsatisfactorysuccess.ThejudgesofConnecticuthavebeen
chosenbythepeopleeverysixmonths,fornearlytwocenturies,andIbelievetherehas
hardlyeverbeenaninstanceofchangesopowerfulisthecurbofincessant
responsibility.Ifprejudice,however,derivedfromamonarchicalinstitution,isstillto
prevailagainstthevitalelectiveprincipleofourown,andiftheexistingexampleamong
ourselvesofperiodicalelectionofjudgesbythepeoplebestillmistrusted,letusatleast
notadopttheevil,andrejectthegood,oftheEnglishprecedentletusretainamovability
ontheconcurrenceoftheexecutiveandlegislativebranches,andnominationbythe
executivealone.Nominationtoofficeisanexecutivefunction.Togiveittothe
legislature,aswedo,isaviolationoftheprincipleoftheseparationofpowers.Itswerves
themembersfromcorrectness,bytemptationstointrigueforofficethemselves,andtoa
corruptbarterofvotesanddestroysresponsibilitybdividingitamongamultitude.By
leavingnominationinitsproperplace,amongexecutivefunctions,theprincipleofthe
distributionofpowerispreserved,andresponsibilityweighswithitsheaviestforceona
singlehead.
Theorganizationofourcountyadministrationsmaybethoughtmoredifficult.Butfollow
principle,andtheknotuntiesitself.Dividethecountiesintowardsofsuchsizeasthat
everycitizencanattend,whencalledon,andactinperson.Ascribetothemthe
governmentoftheirwardsinallthingsrelatingtothemselvesexclusively.Ajustice,
chosenbythemselves,ineach,aconstable,amilitarycompany,apatrol,aschool,the
careoftheirownpoor,theirownportionofthepublicroads,thechoiceofoneormore
jurorstoserveinsomecourt,andthedelivery,withintheirownwards,oftheirownvotes
forallelectiveofficersofhighersphere,willrelievethecountyadministrationofnearly
allitsbusiness,willhaveitbetterdone,andbymakingeverycitizenanactingmemberof
thegovernment,andintheofficesnearestandmostinterestingtohim,willattachhim
byhisstrongestfeelingstotheindependenceofhiscountry,anditsrepublican
constitution.Thejusticesthuschosenbyeveryward,wouldconstitutethecountycourt,
woulddoitsjudiciarybusiness,directroadsandbridges,levycountyandpoorrates,and
administerallthemattersofcommoninteresttothewholecountry.Thesewards,called
townshipsinNewEngland,arethevitalprincipleoftheirgovernments,andhaveproved
themselvesthewisestinventioneverdevisedbythewitofmanfortheperfectexerciseof
selfgovernment,andforitspreservation.Weshouldthusmarshalourgovernmentinto,
1,thegeneralfederalrepublic,forallconcernsforeignandfederal2,thatoftheState,for
whatrelatestoourowncitizensexclusively3,thecountyrepublics,forthedutiesand

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concernsofthecountyand4,thewardrepublics,forthesmall,andyetnumerousand
interestingconcernsoftheneighborhoodandingovernment,aswellasineveryother
businessoflife,itisbydivisionandsubdivisionofdutiesalone,thatallmatters,great
andsmall,canbemanagedtoperfection.Andthewholeiscementedbygivingtoevery
citizen,personally,apartintheadministrationofthepublicaffairs.
Thesumoftheseamendmentsis,1.GeneralSuffrage.2.Equalrepresentationinthe
legislature.3.Anexecutivechosenbythepeople.4.Judgeselectiveoramovable.5.
Justices,jurors,andsheriffselective.6.Warddivisions.And7.Periodicalamendmentsof
theconstitution.
Ihavethrownouttheseaslooseheadsofamendment,forconsiderationandcorrection
andtheirobjectistosecureselfgovernmentbytherepublicanismofourconstitution,as
wellasbythespiritofthepeopleandtonourishandperpetuatethatspirit.Iamnot
amongthosewhofearthepeople.They,andnottherich,areourdependencefor
continuedfreedom.Andtopreservetheirindependence,wemustnotletourrulersload
uswithperpetualdebt.Wemustmakeourelectionbetweeneconomyandliberty,or
profusionandservitude.Ifwerunintosuchdebts,asthatwemustbetaxedinourmeat
andinourdrink,inournecessariesandourcomforts,inourlaborsandouramusements,
forourcallingsandourcreeds,asthepeopleofEnglandare,ourpeople,likethem,must
cometolaborsixteenhoursinthetwentyfour,givetheearningsoffifteenofthesetothe
governmentfortheirdebtsanddailyexpensesandthesixteenthbeinginsufficientto
affordusbread,wemustlive,astheynowdo,onoatmealandpotatoeshavenotimeto
think,nomeansofcallingthemismanagerstoaccountbutbegladtoobtainsubsistence
byhiringourselvestorivettheirchainsonthenecksofourfellowsufferers.Our
landholders,too,liketheirs,retainingindeedthetitleandstewardshipofestatescalled
theirs,butheldreallyintrustforthetreasury,mustwander,liketheirs,inforeign
countries,andbecontentedwithpenury,obscurity,exile,andthegloryofthenation.
Thisexamplereadstousthesalutarylesson,thatprivatefortunesaredestroyedby
publicaswellasbyprivateextravagance.Andthisisthetendencyofallhuman
governments.Adeparturefromprincipleinoneinstancebecomesaprecedentfora
secondthatsecondforathirdandsoon,tillthebulkofthesocietyisreducedtobe
mereautomatonsofmisery,andtohavenosensibilitiesleftbutforsinningandsuffering.
Thenbegins,indeed,thebellumomniuminomnia,whichsomephilosophersobserving
tobesogeneralinthisworld,havemistakenitforthenatural,insteadoftheabusive
stateofman.Andtheforehorseofthisfrightfulteamispublicdebt.Taxationfollows
that,andinitstrainwretchednessandoppression.
Somemenlookatconstitutionswithsanctimoniousreverence,anddeemthemlikethe
arcofthecovenant,toosacredtobetouched.Theyascribetothemenofthepreceding
ageawisdommorethanhuman,andsupposewhattheydidtobebeyondamendment.I
knewthatagewellIbelongedtoit,andlaboredwithit.Itdeservedwellofitscountry.It
wasverylikethepresent,butwithouttheexperienceofthepresentandfortyyearsof
experienceingovernmentisworthacenturyofbookreadingandthistheywouldsay
themselves,weretheytorisefromthedead.Iamcertainlynotanadvocateforfrequent
anduntriedchangesinlawsandconstitutions.Ithinkmoderateimperfectionshadbetter
bebornewithbecause,whenonceknown,weaccommodateourselvestothem,andfind
practicalmeansofcorrectingtheirilleffects.ButIknowalso,thatlawsandinstitutions

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mustgohandinhandwiththeprogressofthehumanmind.Asthatbecomesmore
developed,moreenlightened,asnewdiscoveriesaremade,newtruthsdisclosed,and
mannersandopinionschangewiththechangeofcircumstances,institutionsmust
advancealso,andkeeppacewiththetimes.Wemightaswellrequireamantowearstill
thecoatwhichfittedhimwhenaboy,ascivilizedsocietytoremaineverunderthe
regimenoftheirbarbarousancestors.Itisthispreposterousideawhichhaslately
delugedEuropeinblood.Theirmonarchs,insteadofwiselyyieldingtothegradual
changeofcircumstances,offavoringprogressiveaccommodationtoprogressive
improvement,haveclungtooldabuses,entrenchedthemselvesbehindsteadyhabits,
andobligedtheirsubjectstoseekthroughbloodandviolencerashandruinous
innovations,which,hadtheybeenreferredtothepeacefuldeliberationsandcollected
wisdomofthenation,wouldhavebeenputintoacceptableandsalutaryforms.Letus
follownosuchexamples,norweaklybelievethatonegenerationisnotascapableas
anotheroftakingcareofitself,andoforderingitsownaffairs.Letus,asoursisterStates
havedone,availourselvesofourreasonandexperience,tocorrectthecrudeessaysof
ourfirstandunexperienced,althoughwise,virtuous,andwellmeaningcouncils.And
lastly,letusprovideinourconstitutionforitsrevisionatstatedperiods.Whatthese
periodsshouldbe,natureherselfindicates.BytheEuropeantablesofmortality,ofthe
adultslivingatanyonemomentoftime,amajoritywillbedeadinaboutnineteenyears.
Attheendofthatperiod,then,anewmajorityiscomeintoplaceor,inotherwords,a
newgeneration.Eachgenerationisasindependentastheonepreceding,asthatwasof
allwhichhadgonebefore.Ithasthen,likethem,arighttochooseforitselftheformof
governmentitbelievesmostpromotiveofitsownhappinessconsequently,to
accommodatetothecircumstancesinwhichitfindsitself,thatreceivedfromits
predecessorsanditisforthepeaceandgoodofmankind,thatasolemnopportunityof
doingthiseverynineteenortwentyyears,shouldbeprovidedbytheconstitutionsothat
itmaybehandedon,withperiodicalrepairs,fromgenerationtogeneration,totheendof
time,ifanythinghumancansolongendure.Itisnowfortyyearssincetheconstitutionof
Virginiawasformed.Thesametablesinformus,that,withinthatperiod,twothirdsof
theadultsthenlivingarenowdead.Havethentheremainingthird,eveniftheyhadthe
wish,therighttoholdinobediencetotheirwill,andtolawsheretoforemadebythem,
theothertwothirds,who,withthemselves,composethepresentmassofadults?Ifthey
havenot,whohas?Thedead?Butthedeadhavenorights.Theyarenothingand
nothingcannotownsomething.Wherethereisnosubstance,therecanbenoaccident.
Thiscorporealglobe,andeverythinguponit,belongtoitspresentcorporealinhabitants,
duringtheirgeneration.Theyalonehavearighttodirectwhatistheconcernof
themselvesalone,andtodeclarethelawofthatdirectionandthisdeclarationcanonly
bemadebytheirmajority.Thatmajority,then,hasarighttodeputerepresentativestoa
convention,andtomaketheconstitutionwhattheythinkwillbethebestforthemselves.
Buthowcollecttheirvoice?Thisistherealdifficulty.Ifinvitedbyprivateauthority,or
countyordistrictmeetings,thesedivisionsaresolargethatfewwillattendandtheir
voicewillbeimperfectly,orfalselypronounced.Here,then,wouldbeoneofthe
advantagesofthewarddivisionsIhaveproposed.Themayorofeveryward,ona
questionlikethepresent,wouldcallhiswardtogether,takethesimpleyeaornayofits
members,conveythesetothecountycourt,whowouldhandonthoseofallitswardsto
thepropergeneralauthorityandthevoiceofthewholepeoplewouldbethusfairly,fully,
andpeaceablyexpressed,discussed,anddecidedbythecommonreasonofthesociety.If

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thisavenuebeshuttothecallofsufferance,itwillmakeitselfheardthroughthatof
force,andweshallgoon,asothernationsaredoing,intheendlesscircleofoppression,
rebellion,reformationandoppression,rebellion,reformation,againandsoonforever.
These,Sir,aremyopinionsofthegovernmentsweseeamongmen,andoftheprinciples
bywhichalonewemaypreventourownfromfallingintothesamedreadfultrack.Ihave
giventhematgreaterlengththanyourlettercalledfor.ButIcannotsaythingsbyhalves
andIconfidethemtoyourhonor,sotousethemastopreservemefromthegridironof
thepublicpapers.Ifyoushallapproveandenforcethem,asyouhavedonethatofequal
representation,theymaydosomegood.Ifnot,keepthemtoyourselfastheeffusionsof
witheredageanduselesstime.Ishall,withnotthelesstruth,assureyouofmygreat
respectandconsideration.

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