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Monday 26/09/2016

BS2050 Human Physiology Endocrine Systems I: Regulation of Hormone


Release
*Review thyroid and digestion & heart

All hormones go by the blood stream. Its secreted by one organ and
transferred into the blood by endocrine gland.

The endocrine system is a body wide system.


Examples:
- Homeostasis (maintain glucose level)
- Respond to external stimuli (flight or fight)
- Cyclical and developmental changes (growth, circadian rhythm,
menstruation, pregnancy)
- Brain function

What makes hormones?


1. Humoral stimuli: Secretion in direct response to changing blood
levels of ions and nutrients
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

-Secreted by the parathyroid glands in response to decreased


plasma Ca2+ ion concentration [*Ca is important for heart regulation.
Its required for cell signaling and nerve transmission.]
-In case of low Ca2+ level,
Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidney
Bone resorption (risky in long term)
Ca2+ uptake in the gut (indirect)
-Resulting increase in plasma Ca2+ concentration removes stimulus
2. Neural Stimuli: Secretion in response to neural input
Adrenaline/Noradrenaline

-Adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion (flight or fight


response)
-Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system fibres stimulate
catecholamine* release
*Catechlamine is any of a class of aromatic amines which includes a
number of neurotransmitters such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and
dopamine.
-Secretion of insulin and gastrointestinal hormones are stimulated
by parasympathetic and inhibited by sympathetic activity
(production of gastrointestinal hormones before the food intake but
recognition of it)

3. Hormonal Stimuli: Secretion in response to hormones produced by


other endocrine organs (no direct effect but chain effect; this is
called to be tropic)
The Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis

-Hypothalamic hormones stimulate or inhibit the release of


hormones from the anterior pituitary gland (different from posterior
pituitary)
-In turn, anterior pituitary hormones stimulate other endocrine
glands to secrete other hormones that affect downstream target cell
-the hormonal stimuli brings secondary effects from pituitary gland

The Pituitary Gland: Pea-sized gland situated in the sella turcica

MR SCAN OF NORMAL ADULT HUMAN PIT

Posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain but anterior is completely


different. Anterior pituitary would need hormones to communicate with
the brain.

There are only TWO pituitary hormones and they are NOT tropic. These
are:
-Oxytocin
-Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin).
These hormones are synthesised in hypothalamic nuclei. They are then
transported in vesicles down the axon into the posterior pituitary.
Storage takes place at termini and varicosities. Release of these are
caused by build up of action potentials into the blood streams.
Oxytocin: main function is lactation and ejection during childbirth
It does not increase milk production but act on smooth muscle cells
surrounding mammary glands. Role arent known clearly in male.
ADH

Release is triggered by action potentials.

Inhibition of ADH normalise the blood osmolality.


Action potential are released directly from the brain. ADH causes
vasoconstriction (Arterial smooth muscle contraction) to increase water
uptake. It also acts on P cells surrounding collecting duct and binds
basolateral type 2 receptors. As G protein is coupled cAMP/Protein kinase
A activity increases. This p Promotes fusion of vesicles carrying aquaporin
2 to theapical surface.

The Anterior Pituitary: regulates activity of other endocrine glands


- Secretes
- Most secrete one hormone except gonadotrophs; able to produce
more than one hormone
Hypothalamic hormone release is controlled by hypophysiotropic
hormones. Hypophysiotropic hormones can stimulate or inhibit the release
of anterior pituitary hormones.

Hypophysiotropic hormones are all peptides except dopamine that is


catecholamine.
The production of prolactin is a balance of dopamine & somatostatin
inhibition and thyrotropin stimulation. The growth hormone is a balance
between growth hormone stimulation and somatostatin inhibition.
The anterior pituitary hormone secretion is regulated by hypophysiotropic
hormones produced by the hypothalamus. These regulation hormones are
synthesised in the cell bodies in the median eminence and transported to
termini in the median eminence, released by action potentials to enter
hypothalamo-pituitary portal vessels. Later they are carried to the anterior
pituitary and act on the target endocrine cells lining the blood sinusoids
and regulate hormone release from anterior pituitary endocrine cells.
Released hormones enter the same capillary bed and leave via venous
system for distribution.
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Somatotropic Hormones
Prolactin:
-promotes growth and maturation of mammary glands during
pregnancy
Growth Hormone:

-affects the growth and metabolism of all tissues except the


CNS
-overproduction would result in gigantism or acromegaly;
swelling-like symptoms
-deficiency would result in dwarfism
Growth hormone has both direct and indirect effects. Direct effects :
-Promotes cartilage formation by chondrocytes
-Stimulates DNA/RNA/protein synthesis and cell division.
Indirect effect would promote insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) by the
liver and other cell types.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Its also know as Corticotropin and it regulates glucocorticoid
production (primarily cortisol) by the adrenal cortex in response to
stress.
Corticotropin-Related Hormones
--Endorphin:Analgesic
--Lipotropin:Energy mobilisation from fat
--Melanocyte-stimulating hormone: Melanin production
Trophic means it makes the target tissue grow. Its different from tropic.
Glycoprotein Pituitary Hormones
Tropic action: maintain the target tissue as well as regulate
secretions
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Gonadotropic hormones
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
*Together:
Regulate cyclical activity of the ovaries and spermatogenesis
Sex steroid production
Negative and positive feedback

GH: Growth Hormone


PRL:
TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Turning down of hypothalamus and reduce sensitivity of anterior pituitary.

Prolactin has indirect effects. More prolactin in the blood system means
more dopamine.

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