eg OS Unit 1 Topic 1: Chapter 1.1 page Tt . 1 ‘The surface arca of skin is not large enough in comparison with the volume of the animal (surface area to volume ratio too small) 9 supply all that the animal nests within fes body by diffusion, (Skin is also adapted for prosection not diffusion, so itis thick and diffusion is relatively slow through it) «aie sacs and the many blood wessels surrounding them g! 2. ‘The thousands of tin: rea for diffusion, ‘Viny air sacs are porticulay important fe ingrcase the surf surface area, blood vessels also help maintain conce ation gradient page 13 1 Hydeogen bonds are formed between a slightly positive hyde: nd a slightly negative oxygen atom in another water m sen mom in one seule. This water molecule inereases the attra to separate the molecul: substances of similar moh of liquid water. s, so that more energy is needat tion bersveen water molecu and 50 reach the melting o¢ boiling point tha surface teasion at the surface onthe und the body exchanging su 4 part of blood that travels 5 itis 2. Plasma is the Ii with body cells. $ polar substances around the body ay adapied ice plasana is mostly wat Cytoplasm is the parc of the ell where many reactions bappen, Many of thes that react are fonie or polar, and so dissolve im the water of the eyiaplsm. Bur some : Rubstances, such a$ many proteins, ae non-polar, an ese form oxtodds with ¢ i in the eytoplasm and can move throughout the eytoplen the body-exchanging substances with body cells ‘The red an! wh jpended in the plasms, each of wh in in susp Blood teavels around blood cells, and platelets, are sus na cannot carry out. They rer as the Mo is role to play that the plasm and this enables them to be transpexted easily constantly mor lod in the plasesa, Th, centration of red bloost cells jo the laege com haemoglobin they contain. athagens at have ent them, Theg also prod.ee i blood culls actively protect the body agai fing then or by making antibodies to I poisons preuced by pathogens. The Pi mage has oO 2 The white either by engull antioxins to destroy Gibsinogen in the plasma hel clots to block any Keaks from Mood vessels, White blo’ eels, plats re areas wh Jp 19 protect the body afte e they are needed in the Noo. tansyTIER kok 3 Asred blood cells do not have a nucleus, they have more space within the cell membrane and so can contain more haemoglobin. ‘This makes them more effectiv cattiers of oxygen to cells, The nucleus contains the instructions for the cul, inclu maintenance if it gets damaged. Without a nucleus, there are no instructions for blood cells, so they have a shorter life-span than other cells. poge 17 1 Inthe lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the red blood cells andgplasma ind 1» gradient into the alveoli, and oxygen difses from 3. In capillaries down a concentra the alveoli down a concentration gradient into Ure red blood cells in the capil red blood cells in the capillaries down, , oxygen diffuses out o the rest of the bo. dient into the cells, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells a concentration gr in the capillaries. down a concentration gradient into the plasma and red blood ee Jy after damage to blood vessels, so bleeding fréim the 2 Failure of blood to clot prop i can lead to death wound continues. ‘This leads to severe bruising from a small Knock ernal damage. from loss of blood from a relatively small cut oF inte page 21 1 Because fish only have a single circulation, where the bleed passes through the lly to the rest of the body. High pressu n their body delicate tissues of the gills before going & would damage the gills. This doesn't temperature above that of the environment, so theie rate of metabolism is lower than. need less oxygen and produce Tess cer because fish do not maint js. Asa result, their that of mammals and carbon dioxide. to provide the energy needed for sed t0 sup need a higher rate of meiaboli against gravity and to provide heat. They ntain a higher rate of respisation (and carbon 2. ‘These anima rapid movemie of oxygen faster to body cells to dioside needs removing from body cells faster too 0 it does not build up and become aans that the pressure of Blood sent around the body sly plenty toxic), A double circulation 1 ‘can be higher than that to the lungs. So the delicate tissue of the lungs don"t damaged but oxygen is delivered to bady cells (and carbon dioxide removed) more effectively being pushed away from the heart by the pressure v 3. ‘The blood in arteries is constant ing out of the heatt and by the elas is no backflow in arteries. In veins, blood pressure is much lower, the foree of 1d the blood is mustly owing against the force reries thet ¢ recoil of the 3 So ther blood leaving the heart has little effect of gravity wp the body to the heart, As a result backflow is much more likely. Valves the veins prevent this by closing as blood tries to Mow backwards, ccnsen and Avsoent ide be Haacats al Tostagsone Parent nates Peed 203HMA SLES ne nent 4 ‘The graph shows that blood pressure is highest in the arteries, drops rapidly in the the capillaries, and remains low in the venules and vtins. ‘The velocity les and falls to a fow level anterioles and of the blood is highest in the arteries, decreases in the art in the capillaries, then increases again in the venules and veins. The total surface area * of blood vessels is low in the arteries, increases in the arterioles to its highest level the capillaries, then deceeases again theough the venules to a Hay eve in the veins | fet which cunises frietion (rodtance to fos i Veéocity is inversely rete to suave So itis greatest in the artcrcs whove blood pressuce is prcstest and sutve ares the largest surface area snd so gett | lowest, lowest in the capillaries where there + again in the veins where increases ag face are resistance to Mow, and Er though not as great as in arteries because blood pressure is lower. | page 23 1. Fibrinogen is needed for the formation of blood elots, ‘The mutant re dida’t i dida’t make clots in the blood vessels in their tumeu x mice, but és! bind tw ths produce fibrinogen, 80 th As the peptide dido't bind to the tumours in the muta tumours in the nor inship between peptide il mice, this showed the relat 2. ‘They make it much easier to identify cause and effect Any sppropriate ethical argument, cher fer or against, supported by sitse justification fe eaerying out reactions al cells, so 3. They grow faster than no. apid rate of respiration nocd ¢ faster supplies of ox carbon dioxide, | HAA AG hea gy Imphonntin and Ancact Ci be Tent and Tatoation «Penne Fane 094” ee page 29 1. Blood pressure is high and vaties quite widely pecause this is caused by the forceful contraction ofthe ventricles the heave, As the blood passes through arteries and artes, blood pressure drops duc + to friction with the blood vessel wall, and the pulsing rrduces because the elasticity of the artery walls absorbs some ef the puss and smooths out the fw, In the eastaves, blood pressure drops even further because of the fstion from the capillary wat, loot ‘venules and veins, AB the Wood is Mocing quite sol is ttle friction with the Han vessel walls so proses does uecring of the bege muscle blocks of th: body the ateries closest to the heart pushing bloat out of pressure remains Tow in the Uarough these vessels, ther hot fall further, ‘This is helped by the 5 singe bood 2 To measure the pressure of blood in the heart as accurately as possible, pressure decreases in arteries as they get further front the heart 3 Ieis quick, easy and non-invasive (desn’t require geting into the WoHs); His #89 8 F the general state of healt of the eieulatoey syste x of prob! ‘good indicator of aed can to identify if further Kinds of test are nected for a page 31 nage 10 the crxdshelial ini 1 Plaque formation cen be caused by dae ely so more Plogy ressure making furth damage increases blood p\ and so on, Increased Blood pressure can result ia» jow through art es aneurysms, Decreased blood fh dhe brain where it mas cues and brain, as well with plaques is dangerous in the coronary arte damage to tissue beyond the blockage, Clots may form cs 4 which ean be catastrophic soatplete block of the blood vessel how plaques sr¢ formed, Wow ure, and what the resus of 2. Plan that presents the key information of reduced blood flow and increase blood Px ple and clear way that is appropriate for in asi young peor" page 33 1 Damage te the endothelia! fining ‘ase of thromboplastin which <2 ayses the formation of fibrin fo tracts platelets that 2 alyses th from the 1 prothron “The fibrin produces «mesh th thea blockea blood vessel cat heart attack; in the brain this may cause 2 stroke. bvrinogen iit th in, anid that forms a chet. ‘The ra taps red Blo cells 2 this can hs 0 a thonbusis, [aa coomary arter esis) or the Senmation 09 a blond clot (thio wath may be fatal oe eau: 2. Similarities: boils may be caused by atheroma, or a combination of both; b hrealth, Differences: heart extack produces chest psin amy ough the damage caused dan Wg may be triggered by ars stroke may affect many parts of the body We to the brain ant nay also be caused bby bleeding in the brain after an ancarysma bursts Feb AC icteg kinein ad noo Ge be Teor ant Tete § Par kata Ln NS eS { \ i i |Chapter 13 . — page 35 1. Rats fed on pure macronutrients had limited growth, When’ milk was added, growth increased dramatically. When milk was removed and only macronutrients given, is indicated that milk contains substancels beyond the basic th and development, growth slowed down, T * macronutrients which were important for normal geov 2 Vitamin C plays an important rote in maintaining healthy connective tissue. ‘This suggests that low vitamin C levels might mean that the endothelium liaing the blood! vessels is more easily damaged, and damage to these linings is the fist step in the Jopment of atheroscleronna, ete. [eas for investigations could include: + large-scate studies on blvod vitamin C levels in patients with known CHD ation to sce if low fruiv + large-sca!s investigation into dietary habits of pop vegetablz vitamin C consumption linked to greater risk of CHID -ver carried out, to check vitamin C levels and state animal erode! experiment with dieis containing different levels of vitamin C. Look for evitence that stutents recognise the type of evidence that is needed 10 move correlation page 39 n and loss of one mélecule of water to form a glycosidic fon react = helpful) 1 By ace bond. 2 They are op pesite reactions. Glycosidic band formation results in the loss of a molecule one molecule from two, hydrolysis is the addition of a molecule of water of water t srolecule in twa, (diagram helpful) 2d from amylose which is a straight-chain molecule, and amylopectin he nis a branched-chain molecule. Branched 3. Starch chain molecule. Gly n be brok for enzymes to work on. S. piration, th so a slower, more sustained provision of energy a down more rapidly than straight-chain molecules as there glycogen rel chain pol nore 23 glucose more readily, for a Fr ean provide both a rapid arnt y from r + of glucose a slower £2! fe compact and can be stored in eels without affecting the water relations 6f the cellas they ot affect osmosis 18 SA en rpenoaanpage at 1A saturated lipid contains fatty acids that only have sing wns fn the chain, An unsaturated ipid contains faty acids that have one chain. This means that soivrated lipids are more In the body’ seturated and wnsotursted lipids ds in the diet see-more likely 0 Head 19 fe bonds beuveen the carbon ator oe mare double bonds within their carbon * likely to be solids at room temperature . have different eflects,€g saturated fatty ac plague forming in arteries fons betwees one glycerol nietovule ant 2. Triglycerides are formed by condensation r diwee fatty acide, As each ofthe tree ester bond He formed, one tmakecls of waer is lost. (diagram helpful) page 45 1 The structure of a protcin is determibned by a vari within the polypeptide chains. Differeat amino acids ean form é (such as hydrogen bonds, sulfide boats and Fonte bods) wis cer amino depending on howy they are place protein, The bonds determine the secondary, t So fs change in a single amino bonds iy of bonsts .d in the amino acid chain of ¢ and (possibly) quaternary smu id can aker the structure of the ws! cof provein, 2. There are many more of them because they can form benwecr Aypeptide chalgs with saze cross : 3. a Fibrous proteins are formed from tongs paral pst Tinkages. that form the fies. This makes them tough an insble in wa . are good structural molecules. } b Globular proteins have oamplex sractures that form global shapes. ‘This | them lees soluble in water, 50 they form colloids which axe gas! for mar 4 . structure of-the cytoplasm. | ‘group which jon by pro: Glycoproteins have » carbohydrate prose esist dige means they make good lebvicants aad re podly are often deper .od by the weak bonds between aming bby changes in conditions such as 4. ‘The tasks that proteins canny ou in Gimensional shape, This shape i8 ens the protein. These bonds may be affected itl change how well the prots nce go be kept stab wots. Se for ed temperature and pH, which 9 functioning, cond page 47 1 Hecause they are large consis meteceks containing thenssands oF ar wide variety of bonds. | ee) | . by a process of breaking in sequentially min acids | aan meat Soy ebenloganhy ps to wor out sedis shape of the jrotein (ts seoonty, tenia and posiBay quatemay Nast + bee Teel AS Ridagy beghenening in conan Cake = é : aS-4.3,(cont) mee fn Dus pobody i completly sre a of teense uw he eet 35h ayo he ime. Diferent poe ie Td hove need an ay Foe rowing aml ming no ee, whereas young Waa ae TS eel gowig uh pu aot eed peti fr mala et Foran hie ts deaf protein (emo He oy fat une he iste fb Young nen ae i Deca of st istagl peti). Young worse ting Ho (ele ae omnes #9 ne ch ep ten ey wu nce exe peta he Ty wae pregnant obra cron ofthe Bay _ateuges cny to ate apposed wt lil shoul be ekg in at eee ie san cay compares an Wesly Uc neds of te eee eset itvem groups pron ped guiblincs that are eas 0S seine Ian eis frye fom th average f the BUT. dco ay not be ero doen ae eon eifereat ats or ost Fete: dove seo Sis ex awn soe ae 0 eng wbeabty 2 ue 2 hase mary icant oh as CAT ng th ter af pale wo frre dice ater Fr Dc nS spemen sing her for ove ds Anan ase, geting arund eas of enry om foes ate dan pene loo much oneal The BNI ihr mt iting a you are moc Hs fae poles fy gt to it fn your san I 0 pest 1 Facet more energy thm hese sunt of pevsin or earbate,S i Sever cane amrunt of feak is io end op wh 2 pone ees Nan rest Tan much energy acc dhe Bo 0 ih ee fi 2 tse sm porte er Roch asi atl a rm appage 53 1 2 eS BAIL is body mass index whi Al's BML is 23.03 which is is a comparison of weight and hei ideal. a About 9 stone 7 Ibs-to 13 stone (¢, 60 19 €, 82 KS) b About 7 stone 3 Ibs to 9 stone 11 Ihs (c. 45 hg to ¢. 62 kg) 6 feet is considered obese from ¢, 1$ stone 9 ths (&- 98 kg) F considered obese from €: Proportions of fat and muse will have a high BAST but also Bave 2 hi highee proportion of fat Male: approximately (25 Female: approximately (23 ~ 15.5)/15.5 * 10 a. Shows that avec the fast 25 years there has been 2 ste available per day has rise calories per da’ bb Obesity levels in the UK. to follow patterns in the {US.11 seems likely that the UK diet 11 stone 12 Ibs (c. 75 Ke) te in the body [15Y/17.5 x 100% = 42.9% 0% = 48.4% ily ris in the US to contain very bigh levels of calories, and that the 9 14 from around 3200 to around 3900. calories available every day and so a steady rise in obesity Tev ¢ Analysis of the number of calories available compared toa decade 855 Calculation of expected weight gain wit ysis of individual diets of @ number of overw correlation. Ana) of normal weight 10 sé daily in the avers 9 to sce if the energy avaisble real th observed weight gaint there are differences ia dietary che’: igher energy requirement than those wi? ight. metre 58 is People with high propsitions of mice ha ng trend for fot wekage cabo That is 709 6 teen climbing steadily. Food trends in the VRS ss would be APS SUK dict 22 " «il also have bid exore ed 19 see iP the B89 SHOW peopk 2 reo opepage 55 1. There are many other causes of ‘death than just those related to smoking. A smoker ay die from one of these before they are killed by a smoking-related disease. Not all moked’ are adverscly affected by smoking-~-their genetic makeup means they are less likely to be affected by smoking-related diseases. 2. Many possible answers svch as: may not fully understand whatuhe risk is; folder smokers who scem perfectly fit and underestimate the risk; may be addicted 10, nicotine and find it very difficult 19 quit smoking | When compared with bar charts in fg 1.4.2 will 3. Bar chart of data from table 1. show that highest proportion of population that smokes is Scotland, which correlates with the deaths from heart discasd and strokes in both men and women, However, rate second highest in England, though death from these diseases is the proportion To establish that of smoking in men lowest. And, in women, death rates are higher than in England, thous ‘of women who smoke is lower. So the correlation is not a good one. axes, you need to find a mechanism by which smoking can smoking causes these diss produce the diseases. page 57 1 Use large sample sizes, earry out the study over many years, being studied keeping all other factors constant if possible. try to Isolate the factor jsease than fraternal 2a A greater proportion of identical twins both die from heat identical twins have ientical genes, and k to heart disease, twins, in all age groups measured. A fraternal twins do not, this suggests that there is a genetic li though this is probably not the only factor (otherwise the values for icatical wins would be much higher) b Heritability is greater in younger men. ‘The apparent fall as men get oker may be due to the chances of them dying from other, age-related diseases or accidents before they dic from heart disease. Or the Fact that evergone is more Fely t0 be affected by heart disease as they get ohlcr, page 61 1 Acrtic ancurysms are most greatly feet development of plagees in the aorta, imereasing peessure there and resuliag in gotta near the plagues. ted by stoking, ‘This eould be dee to the weakening of carch will provide many answers, eg Munster study highly regarded Because 2 Own re ete. Suaents should of size of samples, figures from whole of UK give massive sample also cowsidler where published and how this affects ahe relizbity of the wl Answer will depend on rescarch but should include reference to factors that increase .f Fength of study, peer review in publication, reliability such as size apage 63 1 Te approsimat Tink between the factors, dcty davbles the CX mortality rate, Correlation, as ifs only showing 2 the way thar the factors 2. New ideas that coma the eve miodel mean eethinking ns better, Ang now idea dare linked and trying to identify which model explains the re needy ta be tested using data from Tagge andor Reneterm studies amd dere nals to ee cedenne tor ale dat the muse of Fw Lea the diane fs correct, Su NS sional reputations Fake (9 pa ‘vested interests at stake ~ pro vant of funding by research institions andor commensal concerns 14 tar model drugs ete, based on a partie page 67 1 If the side-effects of the metic patient may give up on the acatmient because eit taking the medication in osher words the dangers of Ue illness) than the actual tk, Ako the perceived risk of taking the medication and expen side-effects mag be much higher than the seta ris are unpleasant and affect daly fife tog rsh perecivel risk of the reset for ay be mises Bower snoy ree the chances of getting heaet disease in people whe ¢ cholesterol hevels in the whole population coe Advantage realise they ure at risk lowering art dissave and strokes and therefore save money substantially red in’a few people due to siderefivets, part Disadvantages: may cause dam not monitéred by a doctors 3 diet, srisking or being unfit result in people feeling that they don"t ns other factors such 3 3 Tn many ways are very simitar fom having stating aval, but tre gay wa foe pope to reduce their ssk fram eae Hs be inode in he ete wish Advantages: they wre an & cenntain them can simp easy to extend Benes to chien and all family anders withors mass & pe tisk of us Food-hased prodoxts dons dnvolve faking drugs and Wherefore th singe products tbat ¢ very Jow indeed side-effects, ex ver dam: five wis ester ds the recomended sing a smiatl amount of stint ft Risks: these prestocs are 60 many peopie wil ink that just by ane provediad frei heart disesser not all peop weigatiniate the personal Bost from c= xy dont noetl te exsteol other f may head tarfeeling that don't times a week ths sanie way 50 pov, may result in people Keeling th diet, smoking erbeing wai ductor or medication“The meta-analysis published in a journal has looked at a large number of studies, 4 Ushich increases the reliability of the findings. A daily dose of plant sterols reduces LDL cholesterol, and this is, 5 a Sothat some patients don't reccive the treatment (without n Shonly factor that is differeat-berwcen'the trcatment group and contzel group. Patients taking the placebo don't get the benefits of taking the drug (if there are ng the any), Possible reason for placebos being unethical include whete those ree placebo suffer more, or are more likely to die during the drug tal. al have plenty of ‘goed’ cholesteral already, So lowering 6 a People with a high HDI. the level of the LDI.s will give them a very healthy balance in their Blood. b ‘The best groups to treat are those which will receive the greatest benefit, such as smokers and women in this ethnic group. page 69 1 Lean: ¢, 72%; normal: ¢, 59%; obese: 6 into duily life than increasing activity evel 4, Losing weight is easier to organise and Fic ely to be genetically different, so 2. ‘The ovo groups have very different lifesisles and are tere may be other factors that are causing the difference in blood pressure ‘Some people will overestimate and some underestimate the risk because most people know whether their blood pressure is affected by salt or not. Some people will od pressure is raised, and be very concerned nto health warnings, or be tol their blo thers will he unaware Of the amount of hicuen salt they eat arnt es andl come to no liste about their salt levels. O' think they are alright, or feel that people have eaten salt for een barr Whether we like salty foods of not is most likely to affect how much we eat of them. Also sins a lot af hidden salt we may be oblivious if we cat a lot of processed food which cor to our satt intake. ported by reasonable argument. For example: 3. Many: possible answers, but must be supp jis a waste of money as mest people do what they feel happiest with and advice; it is money well spent as Ox mere people who live healhily, the fewer will need pore the recatment for the“unit 1 Topic 2 ie page 75 a + A mononucleotide is 2 pentose sugar (either ribose or deoxy -ribose) with an attached base (cither adenine, thymine, guanine: and an attached organic nitrngenous phosphate sguanine of cytosine in RNA). of cytosine in, DNA, or adenine, uracil 2 -The complementary base pairs in DNA are adenine and thymings nd guaniog and cytosine. Hyaleagen bonds fink the bases in a comptementary pair Wht a banked to Gppasite strats. “Phis nates the ng" ofthe DNA tls, As tere ars many tase Pas sa NA molecule, and therefore many hydrogen tents the te stands ave Behl ras together in the helical stractare by the hydrogen bends page 77 nd cytosine are the sae cowed that the proportions of guanine & 1 Chargaff's data sh sp DNVA, as are the proportions of adenine and thymine, “This mst De the cast guanine forms eomplemcatary base pas wih eytosing andl if ase pars wk thymine. As there is r other physical association between bases in DNA, you would apeet no other relationship boveen ve propontions ef each base as Carga ns Pauling’s zesults showed that hydrogen bonding can maintain @ 3D) helical strasture. Knowing thar the complementary base pus are held together bby hydrogen bas helps to explain how the DNA normally forms a helical structure. 5 2 Developr Jeas in science depends on the pied pieces oF information. In the eae of DNA, before Cs tie best model for th of DNA, they had 10 unders resuls frons Chargaf, Pavling and Franklin that their mod i communication of ideas between scisarsts is essential fr page 79 r 1 Meselson and Stahl showed that after ene replication in @ medi 7 nitrogen the density of the DNA prodvced was half-way between that of DNA + containing all heavy nitrogen and DNA evataining ab Hight nitrogen This cou ; only te explained by the DNA hae inh ec i f cen ding heavy nitrogen, wih what you get afer semconscratice retin s| 1 t there had been conservative replication they would Inve found hat the DNA al Beau r and the other half all Hight. t 2 ‘The molecule of 1D ise whiel brea the hylroze f beowen complement es form bydrogen toad ' ing exposed bases on the DS: DNA potysserase aad DNV ; se cauae bands to form tivsen Bie nectides and so Bull te new DNA S88 } seaant av ety nytt int Anon Cia Ee Teatans a ain» Ran Satin teed 32% aBRST SEOIQah y pe Piss Chapter 2.1 (cont) : ; nme page et 1 a ‘The DNA coniains the genetic code for the protein gene for the protein occurs. ‘The coding & ‘The DNA unwinds at the point where U (antisense) strand of the gene attracts nucleotides to matching base pairs and these * join wo Yorma'a sirand of messenger RNA. When itis released from the DNA, the MRNA molecules passes out of the nuctous and attaches to a ribosome. {dls to the ribosome ant attach & ‘Transfer RNA molecules bring matching amino 3 to the messenger RNA so that the amino acids are aligned eorreetly to form the pastel page 83 1A point pale or a change to a base pair. A change for, so this won't have any impact on the organism as the protein formed will have the sate amino acid arrangement. A change to a base pair may change the amino acid ad if this amino acid doesn’t form the same bonds a3 the original one, 1¢ dnd will noe work ia the same way This may be a deletion of a single base uation is a change within a gene. not affeet which amino acid is coded coded for, then the protein will not have the same 3D sha as the original ove which will affeet the organism. A deletion will affect not only the tiple he amino acids costed for, ‘This will eh body works “The risk of X-rays is that they encourage mutations to happen. However, many nt Which it occurs but also all the vipleis following it andl so change many of the protein formed and so affect how the 2 mutations are repaired by the body"s own systems and only’ a few may result ia problems such 25 eancers, The benefit of using X-rays is that they ean identify problems in the body that need treating, If used only when needed, the risk is minimised but we stil have the benefit. page 85 1 Yeast cells An intracellulurenryore is produced by a cell for setion within the cell, Aa extracellular enryme is produced by a cell gad then exercted so that it aety outside the cell 3) Student's ox research,SET Ure arrarre) erly ener merarerarangrena rea rea Te AP Chapter 2.1 page tia 2 Plan should include suitably metho, idendfying equipment, varisbles res toa (cont) : arn rece rent 89 © Globular protein with complex 31) shape and 8 critical shape to the active site © Catalts: speed up the rate ofa reaction but are left unchanged at the end of cher way. the reaetio’ and don’t affect the reaction in an «Horm an enzymobulsteate complex where the substrate(s) fits the active she of the emyme by inducing a change in the shape of the enayine. ‘The shape of the setive site makes i easice to break existing bonds within the substrateis) 6° 10 foray new bonds beaveen products alt amounts + Present in very Specific to one or anal number of rexetions of similar susteate rs + Rate of revetion aftected by eon pup to a osttala point action aficeted by: temperature and plT because 7 + Rate of (of the enzyme wf its active site [31 shope needed for the shape of the active site t be eritcs! “The shape of the enaymé is left unaffieted when the products ae released #8 Ge ¢ formation of bos slive site is tom cond of the reaction. The role of 1 ewveen substrates, oF the breaking of bonds within the subs s the reaction se quiskly ¢ they © Only small amounts are needed bes site, 90 shape of mstece'es Specific because the substrate(s) fis within the important. Substrate conventeation increases rate of reaction vp to the pint where a 86 sites on engyme molecules are occupied, fier this po 1as no further effect. concentration aases the rate of reaction by Jing ‘Femperavure incre: up to the paint where so the shupe of the active site enzyme and 90 slows the reaction re aris to affect the wesk bonds withis the eneys acd Afier that point, fesiher incre denatures the pT algo affects the weak Pon sin a proscia eoleculs s c. Different weak Weads are afiocte and the sh changes ia pit, 90 diferent enzymes work better # di Es, of rests, Look for case reliability and vali lle to ine awareness of need for control, re ele, sof maiataining all ether factors eosin considera rneed for water bath atures chosen ~ awarenos of no rat biologics ea ygeable number of tempera appropriate and 212 es appropriate pardicr of repeats, of cach tempera suitable enzgune with sirape test ils ie aciisty, ete risk assessment Z esas sa Rnsant ith E4 Ten tens and Posi Biase Dab tem bend 0as EY ere page 93 1 Homozygous, both alleles for a gene code for the same version of the characteristic; heterozygous, the vo alleles for a gene code for different versions of a characte domiriant, an allele which is expressed whether the indiviguat is homozygous or heterozygous; recessive, an allele that is only expressed in the phenotype when the individual is homozygous for the afleke. Paco phenotype tpg ghenonypen © tte ult Parental phenotype ot | Olivine genotypes at | Otbpingeereyae harenion aire i aii Paxeta phenotype lew | Faphenotype 1 vas | [omer "Sate 3. It distinguishes a heterozygous individual from a homozygous dominant individual, a homozygous which phenotypically are the same, because when crossed \ one parent is homozygous dominant, al the offspring will have recessive organism, the dominant phenotype. On thé other hand, ertssed with a hetero gous iMaivitual about half of the offspring will show the recessive phenotype jad have easity 1 cheap to culture produce many offtypring. ‘There are no ethical issues with usin 4. They reproduce quid ishuble characte this way ig them page 35 1 He chose characteristics that varied in a clear-cut way so that results would be easy t0 assess. He could control which pollen pollinated cach flower so that he knew. exactly which cross produced which results. He prepared pure-brerding parent plants from which to start his experiments, He analysed his results statistically to test how well they supported his ideas. salu ; ved EIST Ader bt tre og toh it wh ehar Chapter 2.2 (cont.) ——eeEEEEeEe 2. Genetic diagram showing F; of Fy phenotypes. Mendel’ results for each experimental vatation anu F resus for chosen wait, This wil give 3 1 ratio trait are close to this but not exact due to 3 Answer may support or be against adjusting results, but mast be supported Py suitabte srgunient, such as: yes because Mendel’s results gave us cear laws of iohertance on Achich to base genetiess no, because adjusting results may give the wrong anver and feet that area of research for a Tong time. page 99 is an exantple of polygenie inherksswe. Alpha tha santa 16, Beta thstassacmia is ¢ 1 ‘Thalassaem con genes at two loci én cheom the haemoglobin gene on chsmosome 11. “The enost severe for, where pe Nt haemoglobin is made a all, is caused by a recessive allele, Diferont forms F¥¢ different symtoms. AW inckake symptoms of amemia ~ weakness and tred-xss from lack of oxygen in the Blood. Severe alpha or beta thslassazmia vihout regular blood transfusions a5 th life milled forms of alphut thalassaemia gine some protectin blood cannot emry enot However, i¢ diseases which ex help ide 2. ‘They show a pattern of inheritance for gene disease is caused by 8 recessive or dominant allele 3. Genetic diagram for couple 3 snd 4 shoukd shox: Both parents albinism, producing 3 sarma! heterozygous) to 1 alin. Genetic diagram for couple 10 5% nomally either homozyg give a theoretical outcome of pigmented); the osher wil gh all heterozygous offSpcing (east 1: | heverozygoes to homozygoes a statistically possibte that th it is not possible to deteranine 4 You can't experiment with b humans have a long breeding uunethieal. Genetis pedigece ¢ alleles they doa’t distinguish te, produce fexs offspring and # we 1b ants shaw how gn allele is ial and the ho Fy between & C Lepres help 3 abnceds for trea P. > frora Birth the pot ig protioms, or to reduce their Advamages: ean ident inherited diseases cau 1 Tw family to propace for that suppers and fer sockets to devids how Rt $0 54795 tha support, Disadvanuages: the information may be used to dict sia o3 individuals with potential gorctic diseases, ¢.g. in providing health #950 rance oF when applying for certia jobs. Other suitable answers acceptab 6 Te would be unethisl to force specitie crosses between humans foc exrwrimental 's show the resulis ef crosses Het Rave purposes to test a hypothesis. Paigree diag taken place and can be used 1 interpret inkeritance, fe Tentary snd Tobshuam ¢ Toone aatiat Lamead Dk ' Psat AS The Poy enceaio aa An© page 103 “Phospholipids make up the main bilayer of the membrane, separating an aqucous layer oon éne side froin &n aqueous layer on the other by a hydrophobic region which makes diffusion difficult for substances that are not lipid-soluble or very small, ‘Large proteins that sit within or across the membrane act 8s controls or gates for the passage of fonic and larger molecules across the membrane. ition system Glycoproteins on the outside of the membrane are part of tk cell ree 2 Unsaturated Farty ackds contain at Kast one double bond in the carbon chain, ‘The ¢ in the membrane, the more uid the membrane is. more unsaturated lipids ther 3. Any three of th following. Evidence: lipid-soluble substances pass through membranes more eusily than other substances; model: a large part of membraries must be made of lipids Evidence: membranes join when cells join together, and most membranes sea themselves’ after puncturing with a fine needle; model: the membrane must be fairy uid and the molecules in them able to move about a litte phoupholipids at an airhvater surface form a monolayer with hysdrophilie Exidene F5 model: phospholipids will ends in the water and hydrophobic tails ia the form layers that arrange the hydrophobic-ends in aqueous solutions, keeping the hydrophobic tails hidden away from the solutions. ipids extracted from red bload cells cover an arca about twice the size of idence: the cell; model: Bridence: larger uncharged molecules and ionic molecules can only cross the membrane if protein channels exist; there are protein molecules in the lipid bilayer that act as channels oF carriers. he membrane must be a lipid bilay page 105 “The molecules need to be able to enuss the membrane and there needs to be a 1 concentration gradient for these molecules from one side of the membrane to the other. on in the middle of the membrane, and 2. Water can't pass across the hydrophubie re ions are not lipi-soluble 3. Simple diffusion is through the lipid part of the membrane so can happen at any part of the membrane, Facilitated dilfesion ea only happen where there are suit ccartiers in the membrane, ja Behe BS tis Enrepacbe aed Dee enemies tog \ theChapter 2.3 (co SARNIA NEE ESTEE RAI: nt.) : 5 page 107 1 Osmosis is the diffuston of water across a partully permeable membrane from 9 solution to a more concentrated sotviion. direction, Isotonie: there would be no change to th would diffuse into the cells from the solutina 3s in the or; ls because 35 many Hypotonie: the eytoplesny of the extls is more exicentrated than the solution os nus the cells than aut of them xr nralecules would diffs the cells, se mi the cells would swell up and possibly bust Hypertonic: the cytoplasm of the cells is more ditate than the sot lecules will diffuse out of the cells than into th s0 re water mt shrink page 109 1 it posse to take in substances across the sll mer 1 Active teansport makes Can ato mee ceniration gradient, when diffusion wor the membrane be impos: against a con substanges which eould not otherwise pass thre of the esti 2 Endocytosis and exocytosis involve the break sprang, If the membrane wasn't Auld, this wouldnt are large mulkicellolar acesses that keep cells alive. Phey ni 1 Humans ature and all the pr all celis in the body to maintain the rate of ual respiratory system is needed 25 ¢ with the hy gases wid this metabolism, A complex in fed for this rapid rate of 2 ‘The nose has a larger surface in mucus and hairs. So the air entering thr 1d other pa cleaned of dust the mouth gets Hie of this preparation a nose, Iwill bee mare than air entering through the moth than thre lungs if air is page 113 rR of diffusion is prope wided by the distance the substance hay to travel, So sate of if increasing susfive ar digtunce, ‘The human lungs provi a h | gradient (whicn noasled such as dering exercise) and there is a tiny & | etween bload and air in the alvenli. So they provide an eflicient gas exchange | teed Bon ster tophrumine sal cones ie or Toadans and Tnton io Phan heen fon difference ant deren With inewst PastasMOO) ES TSSaaRae concentration’ of eiygén find a fewer concentration of carbon dioxide. This mainestee steeper concentration gradients for these gases between the ait in the lungs and whe blood, 80 that diffusion rates are maintained, 3 In normal brcathing only’ part of the alveolar air mixes with i exhaled sir. So exhaled air contains a slightly higher proportion of oxygen and lower proportion of carbon dioxide than alveolar aie ‘ wale alr to form the page 115, 1 So that it can trap particles from the air and be moved by the cilia back out of the lungs. and removed from the body. So it doesn’t block the tubes. 2 Chloride ions are actively pumped into the cell which increases the concenteation gradient benveen the evtoplaim of the cell and the mucus on the surface of the ec tion gradient means thut chloride ions then diffuse out of the cell into ive charge “The concent the mucus through chloride channel proteins. Chloride ions have a ne ive ions in the mucus aracts the positive fons so a higher concentration of negati of sodium into the mucus. ‘This reduces the concentration of sodium fons inside the cetl, so more sodium ions diffuse into the cell from the oiler side, The higher concentration of sodium and chloride ions in the mucus means water molecules move out of the ccll into the mucus by osmosis. So the mucus stays runny Hae As eg np Casein a& Chapter 2.4 : $< s ee page 119 1 Atleast one of Nwala's parents fs a curric for eystic fibrosis which ix why Nua is obviously a earrice, ‘There is a 1 fn 2 chance that Nuala's brother o¢ sister might 0 be carriers, This will be true even if both of Nuali's parents are carriers themselecs iageams) Pact hone Teneo | | meeiecie mate)» rye rae geotye fa | | rewtsgee yi J, | | eres @©® OO | ene | i ottpe teerype airait olerge tipi steve secre oligeetesire 2 Every conception has a certain chance of inks follow the theoretical possibte pa fected, ‘The diagrams show the theosctical possibis patiems. . i Pree ge cametes aati atheatly (908 ee) the CI 3a Wi moving out theowgh the chani recus and f moves fnro-the cells by osme cus: thick aad sticky this blokeor na} This makes them and fils the lungs, reducing 8 3 the person feel tis is avaite mak so pathogens trapped in lungs m make you tired and lethargic + duct is blocked by mucus so lick of enzymes in gut ~ fart not di b Pancreat properly $0 hess food available to be absorbed io provide energy for Be eels, the ing got is hares 10 digested food being 2 ested fou avaiable ix blood to be used for eee tired, lck energy. Also thick macus fo Mood which again reduces sete Ind Amooset tank fr eatne onl Eotsguine § Barna Livin fait 08 spe tories TOOB.S sotoarld. + 4 Excess excreted as pump won't remove eo oné from sweat ~ elsiyte (salt) balance upset. ‘is affects the contraction of the muscles, the heart, the neryous: _tent he Edney, movement foto and out of els by osmosis the wok way the body works i less efficient. page 121. 1. Loosens ant! removes the thi Jing mote surfa sticky mucus from lungs i: ssier and less risk’ of infection, avaitable for gaseous exchange, breathing differently ~ some worse than others ~ 50 drug regime 2. Different people are affected xfs. Any one patient has good spells and bal spells needs to be tailored to individual n depending on levels of infection, activity ete if infections involved, extra antibiotics, if they produce igainst possible demands put on 3. Drug combination depends ~ jnsufin OK doesn’t need insulin, may need to take drugs to prateet a damage ete. At different life stages the disease may be better oF worse, body vary and therefore need for medication varies too, page 124 . 1 In’gene therapy a healthy gene is insert functioning allele into the nucteus of the host cell, The new Genetic engineering is the process by which the new inserted into the vector and is the first stage in gene ed into a vector which then carries the gene will replace the function of the faulty ale! heolthy section of DN: engineering involves: jonucteases chop up healthy DNA, leaving sticky ends DNA segment into the DNA of the pls therapy. Genet + resisition enh +, DNA ligases attach the ney bbe used as 4 vector the veetor is then used ta introduce th mid or virus to he new DNA to the host cell ¥y are all effective at getting new DN into a host ell particularly useful in bacteria as they pass into the uses infect cells which makes 2 They are used because the Plasmids (bacterial DNA) 91 host nuckus and can combine with the host DNA. Vi genes into human eells where the viral DNA ' are lipid spheres which fase with ec them useful for inserting with the ne gene combines with the host DNA, Lipasonie allow new DNA into the cell — hopefully some of this makes it to the membranes and nucleus to fuse with the host 1D Limited success in cystic fibrosis because plasmids are net useful for hums eels, viruses cause an immune re: ino nucleus, also cells fining sion in some people andl Kposomes are not very effective seul, ete, are regularly IA, the effect of gene you au geuing DS: repluced, 50 uness can be persuaded to replicate the new DN therapy doesnt last Fong. 300%Chapter 2.4 (cont) for the respiratory tract aspsts deaths for CF patents ~ Uhese are usually result of fen Af 9 gut as well, If germ line therapy’ allowed dual completely free from disease. Long-ters vent for CF patients is enormously expensive in G85 yy often cannot Work, : 3. Hopes = that it wil remove the need for any treatment of CE, ‘That it will prevent early problems. Possibility could be extends = remove faulty allele entirely #0 al savings as lifetime treate finan: and health care personnel plus the} sult berefits, dow't last bong. ‘Faking much Tonger So far treatment very fia develop than expected not passed on, cost Benefit playing God, poten 4 Clear statements of argoments for ~ permanent Cure A} against ~ what else will bs enginecred, ene wo zygote ete. Any valid pol _ng treatment ete. an sive 1003 impact of individual of im ersonat opinion expressed and validated dl presented. P page 129 1 Simple blood test available and for longer ~ cost more to keen of testing new babies aad keen ng available ~ expensive and iairusiee = 8 Je swith CF live longer s9 need many -s cost:benefit calculation is in re wwe. ‘Therefe faves them as healthy as possible. In past & nd people affected dida’t Hie very IVS: te joe. Amniocentesis needed if some 3 inv x resulis Soares | tater of tsk of genetic discase mot F260 2 Carried out carte Sc until are preg doesn’t realise th further in the pregnaiiey avolves process of IVE bat caa be he woman is pregnant. | ind not ¢ cartier. No Intakes place befor baby is free of disease at matic and more effective sof miscarriage. Non Less emotionally traw 4 Any appropriate ethical points,called i haar of tthe cell only became possible sith the light microscope. As ‘échnology improved ~ better lenses, better microscope, beter staining techniques ex became possible (0 See more detail of cell steuctures. 2 Problems with dala from electron microscopes, ¢g specimens in A vacuum or severe teatment to prepare specimens, so likelihood of artefacts appearing. ‘This can give @ false impression of components of eytoplasoy and lead to_pegple having doubts of validiyy, Many different images are now available using different techniques and. ‘magnifications so it should be possible to rule out artefets, a8 it is highly unlikely that the same artefact will appear every time regardless of who prepares the tissue and how page 139 1 Provides structure for the cytoplasm, holding organelles in place, Also involved in cell movements due to contractile proteins, and transport within the cel 2 Enables different functions to be carried out in different areas, making the cell more efficient. Enzymes can be held next to each other in sequence. Membrane folding gives inereased surface afca for enzyme action, Avoids substincestenzymes interacting ‘and causing problems. Any other valid points, 3 Transmission EM: high magnification, detail: scanning EM: 3D image. “Transmission EM gives you detailed information about internal parts of organelles ete. Scanning EM gives 3D picture of the cell and the relationships of one organelle to another. page 143 1 Using electron microscopy helps us under different types of ER. Using radioactive areas of ER, eg lubelled proteins would show up in RER bot not i SER, labelled lipids in SER and noi in RER, Centrifuge tissue to investigate different areas of ER | nove about the structure of the tbels to track substances thirough the diflere = check for labelled substances ere. then moved ino eavities of RER and es are pinched off fr: 2. RER - enzyme proteins formed on ribosome ough the system, Vevicles containing the enzy by cytoskeleton to Golgi sticks. Membrane of vesicles fuse 09 sind may be modified. Finally enclosed ss Iysesomes containing transported the RER, and mov form Golgi. Enzymes move through the Go in another membrane vesicle. Some remain im the cell sive enzymes or are released into the cytophism (intrveealar enzyinnes). Others vid aetease enzymes by exveytenis 9 the ous’ move to cell surface membrane, fu (of the eel (extracellular enzymes). 2a as it means that enzymes only work in is whicn they shoulda't, Controls enzy thalism oceur in the right sequence, Packaging products within a cell is impor the appropriate place, Chemicals do not cascades and mikes sure all the reactions of me Allows materials to be transported to spe reqgons,~ Chapte fs 3.1 (cont) \ppens if a different technique is used to extract enzymes from rat 3. Example: What liver? less activity measured for the enzyme phosphatase when extracted by different technique -+ why fewer phosphatase enzymes? ~* tried fast extraction again or refrigerate and cnayae activity returned + were phosphatase enzymes in mem which was broken by fast blender or cold? -* different fractions of ra liver exa under electron microscope and membrane-bound sacs found in fraction with 2 let of jiy + do these vesicles contain phosphatase enzymss? -* new stain ined phosphatase a showed up phosph + lysosomes with phosphatase activity had been discovers, {and elesteon mero es under both Fst enaymnes in vest Icis used to get rid of cel 4 Apoptosis is programmed cell deat ‘coming to the end of their life, also cells which contain mutations, ¢ So healthy levels of apoptosis allow new eell growth and ako peeve: 1 problems from damaged cells. I tas much apoy:esis, can Koad 6 wks and probably many 0% of cancers and ot rt F congse8. I too bike, arthritis, damage after hi can teal ta cancers a5 cells containing mutations are not destroyed page 145 18 Very thin and fh 1b Cilia move mucus carrying ba © Contracts to allow muscle to move bone 2 a Any system = co: 1b Clear and accurate explana page 147 1 When the cell is not isi mes are very diffuse and Ss DNA is translucent, so it cannot be seca. As the cet! goes condense. The DNA molecule winds around positively charged p: clustees whieh then 62 to retesis the histones to form den: ice very dense structures that will uke up. supercoils which pecs visible under the micrascope. ; mitosis: § hours; cytokinesis: 2 hoes 2 Interphase: 38fii ipo page 150 ©. Totemphases stage before mitosis begins when DNA replicates. Prophase: chromosomes coil and condense s° take up stain and become visible 25 a pat of enromatids held roger By 8 esniomere Nucleotus beealis down and nites begin to separate £0 form 2 spindle, spindles formed by centres, chroma \ membrane breaks down, Metaphase: nuclear hase plate of spindle. tine up on equatorfmetap! Jes along spine [Anaphases centromeres separate and liromatids move to opposite P tubules. each poles of call, are now chromosomes #651 Nuclear elophase: chromatids # i agins co divide, Nucleali reform, centoles presen membrane reforins, cytoplast two separate cells resull 2 Root tips suitable because they contain many rapidly dividing cells in growing Te rain no pigment so easy ro sce stain taken DS chromosomes, plant cclls co! so no ethical issued, pege 153 ste food, oxygen, build up of toxins, carbon dlexids levels, 1 Levels of aval temperarure, pH ete. isms reproduce osexwally and there ate more of the 2 Yes, because mierootl any other living organis! oseme. Each egg has only ie WW, which does not give -e one W aid one Z chu 3. Because female dragons hav has tone chromosome which duplicates, 50 (he cE female, or ZZ which gives 2 1s capable of normal reproduction Joly a normal adapiation. cy are normal fer: 4 fe shows that th means that the parthenogenesis i also proba + nsenuat raprodueton in vertebries very re and 2. 3 5 Irhas been thou freak occurrence. “Iie observation of the some phenom ce abvity 10 breed sexually suggests it enon in two unrelated fe js a normal adapta acho have shown th ates, If this is 80 (and it woukl be 3 very ? siketihood is that this will arn 19 be 2 fal of isolation. If it oceurs in reptiles, It may = advantageous ed isolation fron th ly comn for many species) th adaptation in reptiles who are at risk rer groups such ag amps fish and bins and so parthenogenesis eerebrates may be far nore cornnvgn than scientists have thought se ta Aspen Gabe fy Tent inte * ranean Tinie Lied 28Pn em eT ERATE OEE RES. hae as page 155 1 Linear dimensions not necessarily measuring true growth, wet mass: amount of water in cell varies (plonts particularly), in animals amount of water drunk, amounts of rine and faeces ete. Vary; dry mass: accurate but involves killing organisms and + needs large numbers of genetically identical or very similar organisms so Po sive and ethical issues with animals; any other valid points. expe Litosis is the process by which cell division takes p 2. Growth involves cell division. which mitosis does not affect ‘Also need assimilation of material and cell expansion, reases in limited amounts cach Height is the measurement of the exoskeleton which i fier moulting. Mass can increase beoween time as the exoskeleton hardens # ‘more body cells are made within the exosketeton, ' aes AS hese eyectiies ond Anovoment Guide Tran ia) Taint Rein Eakene Pat SSE SEPA areata rine hepa an a eePERE aie Chapter 3.2 gta ~ page 157 1 Climate change; any other sensible idea. new disease; shortage of food ox 3 introduction of new predator; wuation where conditions change, the majority of organisms adopted uo. Different phenotypic features needed to survive in changed condi wn introduces variety and so an increased possibility that at least # crease the chance of survival ia In any sit reproduction the offspring will have adaptations which in situation. 2. Helps maintain variety and 50 increases chance of long-term survsel 43 Assumed bacteria enly reproduce asexvally. Lederberg and Tatum mised ¢ ‘whieh needed different amino acids in a minimal media Vhsconine and leucine, but could symthesize or manage without meine = “the ouher needed methionine and biotin but could synthesise or manage w tineonine and leucine, Lederberg and Tatum found individuals which could sors ine. This proved that they’ must have exchanged ge all of the substances they needed s0 they’ co ual reproduction must be taking p m to survive, One ype minimal medium alo to gain the ability (0 synthes survive on the minimal medium. So s¢ jatence from electson micrographs. confirmed with ev page 159 1. Seawial reproduction ~ re number of new cells will keep ini he chromosome number of the par duction of chromosome numbers important oF chromossy casing. Meiosis is a reduction division Thi nal gomatie cell nom daughter cells have half ¢ aiosis join, the new cell has the origi twvo gametes formed by Also allows for variety. 2. Variety introduced in a number of ways: 7 jons) which introduce 8 «+ eplicavion of the DNA ~ scope for errors (avurath nal chromatids cut and rejoined by enzymes + crossing over where int introduces different arrangements of alleles ¢ made during crossing over when mis mutation possible new cells form means cock © ssortment of the chromiesonns ature of chromosomes + random 9 contains a different 1 snd Veni «eaten Hache Paneod 29 ace AS Hcy Wrlimeain an Ansan Cate be Telapage 163 1 Gametes carry the genetic information from male and female parert, Join together (0 form new individual. 2. Meiosis introduces variety and reduces the chromosome number by half is takes place const. In animals takes place fn the ovary and the testis ~ mei testes throughout life in humans, takes place in the ovary every month in the pee! of matare ova, Final stages for formation of gametes. In ova, meiosis isn't comyteted unless fertilisation occurs. In plants meiosis onty takes place in anthers and ovary. Tt of pallen grains and ovules followed by a number of mitotic divisions which prs number of different types of haploid nuclei 3. Human mate gametes: many of them, so huge wastage as very few reach the fe II as only nced to carry genetic material © egg; nus lovuiny very sm: condensed gen ngpott its long whip-like tail to produce movement and keep speam ia susp riceotubules of contractile proteins which produce whip-like movements of the = ‘keep it in suspension; middle section contains 1 to move the spernu! to provide the ATP necded for the movements of the down the protective layers around the ovum prior to fetlisation. which brea 4 Female gametes in mammals: relatively Inge compared to mate gumstes; no ad. for movement as moved by cilia in female reproductive tract; conta'a food res ide to prevert the pe for early embryo; have protective layers around the ou in singl is suspended at metazhase of ms of more than ene sperm; cor ~ meiosis 12 only completed if fertilisation occurs when haploid chrom. haploid sperm nucleus; polar tsvlies all die at Fertilisation. Female gametes in plants: large compared to male gametes which #5 pollen geain; contain no food stores for embeye ~ they form be nuclei which fuse with poten nucl to wall of ovary to afew seed te witht fertilisation; contain a number of di embryo but also to form endosperm; att ¢ ovule fertilised. gametes to female - either courts sex organ for placing sperm inside female when rating empDoran Pesca ha 2 Teensures that pollen grain 6: species of plant, and 0! helps to ensure varity booth pollen and ovvle develop when it 3. Braye Favymnes in the heas and zona pellucida a10uh 4. Polyspermy is prevent inyembrane so that fon! thie ovtside rather tha fertilisation membrane cof other sperm. If runeiable s0 that an em would die and not develops waste an opportunity for the sperm, and would individual and the #7 page 169 1 Tetipotency is the Ps are totipotent in the Phuripotency is 0 nal cells are plat 2 Cell determination: € os and tissues Can differentiation is pucleus resulting they need to do. page 171 1 Plant cells maintain a short time, Plant pantculaely in msi go through, Garis otents fren onl , but also that if they were from different species: on a different species, use ovule is stl we to the advantage of the specics as 8 whale «sin mitochondria release ene"ey 4 of .d the ovunt ed ini s move 10 mak negative. This forms around more than one sperm entered the ov bryo would not develo} This wo cies level to form jest embryo he potential to form jpotent slightly ells in Ure early embryo become 1 asa result of the process by whieh in very specifi ells are ge amals, are early em arta ee ent ant Us nly germinate ly when on a differc The speem (acrosome) digest #63 by opening and closing throughout fife, animal when itis on the stigma of the some sat plant than it originated fe ‘oss fertilisation which would 258 “If the pallen grain & available to be fered 2 there isn't er the sperm for the movement vf the tails a y the protective fle to allow a sperm to penct#ate, of various ion chanics swith respect ce the inside of the ovum posit further sperm. ‘Phen 2 128 is repels the entiy of etely block @ the ferilised ovum to comp! polyploid 5 a jum it would become triploid oF 1p, or if development fal waste the resources put into the arted the ©! an both successfull reprodus a known call types ia an organism. Anima cells, plant cells remain totipatent Trough ost of the cell pes needed in an organs Jater in embryo development sxined to form pa Unsie postion in the mbes h different genes are switched on or oy a ‘types of cells; making specific protelns fo J cells are only totip ny easy to work with, ‘Toxfpetent animal Gs Inryos and so have many developmen Frain: Honea HhSRE a8 ¢ SBhed? 2. Embryo splitting is useful because: + it allows ordinary quality animals to deliver top-quality offspring + many more offspring are possible from top-quality cows than if they just earrsd th it own ealf it allows easy transport of top-quality livestock to developing world et. Exhical issues: : + interfering with mature + rabbits used as surrog te mathiers to transport embryos are killed afice page 175 cle so differentiation happens fast. Changes can be mad 1 They have a short life observed very quickly. No ethicat considerations with using them. Cheap eap, easy to heey and genome well understood 2 Gene probes can be used to highlight active genes, to show when genes icular proteins have been nade. They ean aso be usa Jhed on ia different tissues. This enables sci it occurs in different cells or off and to show that pa show which genes are switc and tack differentiation for and against cloning animals: advantages, ex F° 3. Any relevant argume actual health benefits for people, species ete; disadvanng unexpected problems from cloning, expense, religious objections etc wwellargued points. Sinvlary reasoned choises of which factors should Be consieres when it eomes to decisions on using the technology a medical research, understanding the way hi 4 For: eg cells can be us develop and differentiate can lead to tecating and preventing i [Against eg human life is seceed, inserfering with nature, people might € people ete. Again any sensible suzgestions. eocscct AS Redigy Imphemsrarte and Avacwerte Cathe he Teatre al Toyhahuame UN an Faas Usted 205page 79 1, Hope that embsyonie stem tissue to treat patient. Ability to overcome ¢ into de calls will be able to be made to differentiat: nny problems of rejection by using own cells. research published in reputable journal (Secu ve area; sour 2 Hwang had good reputation: J) = many people working In $31 twas looking for this breakthrousl = young, healthy eggs ete: Any’ othe + valid, sensible point research from South Korea, make peor suspicious of any breakthrough, make journals mere carefuh about what they P snake pews media more suspicious personal humiliavon for Hwang and loss of ch, more deavands for work to be peer reviewed and # nis inade ete. Any valid points. Impact ~ make people suspicious of researcher and rese: before announcement 43) Bmbryos from IVF treatment ~ some peaple have religious of moral views whic they object to infertility treatments, some peorle object to the use of a source of harvested! stem cells for resea ch or medical use (right to life). sm abertions = some psople strongly object to abortions (HisNe Embryos fro some peopte object t0 the use of Ihuman embryes as research or medical use Cright t0 Te). a source of harvested 5! w but must be justified “Any well-argued poiat of page 161 1 Peeing able to dircet stem ells to make 8 particular type of differenti tissues, syonie tissue involved; no rejection i vantages: no ethieal issues a8 n9 mt calls used. es: pot many adult stem cells; don't difercntiae casily OF Disadvanit ¢, adult stem cells will carey (he range of call types; if genetic and need engineering. avestigated allows ef allows new processes t0 be in 2 Animal research 2 ‘comes ethical objections to experimen gystemis 10 be built upi over tors of repeats using animals ssc as mice beats Hey are cheap, hat there are relatively few ethical objections to their use 4 Any sensible points, eg: yes, he may fave died without the weatmer ead it ad ales fnnily night ave segeetted Hoe WANEpage 183 1 Ethical issues: human life sacred, embryo: bbe used experimentally or as source of cells ete, Cannot be answered by scientific argument because based on belief not evidence. 5 phil cuts ~ Aaveeag wo eesinsuce or ene vec: ratast problems of rejection; any valid point. re humans with rights and so should never Disadvantages: umbilical blood has 10 be stored (cost implications) carries aay genetic discase. ‘Adulc issue: mulipoteat exer than pluripotent unless new tecksique dovelors ue for converting 10 successfully; adtule stem cells rare; te Any valid points, il and accuracy, auareass of need 3. Look for clarity in arguments, factual det money efficiently, techniques at early stages so difficult to know which v most effective etc. Any points of view acceptable as long as well aad sei rather than emotionally, aggess. lo Lonted 8 ect AS Hasgy Inpbenetion ond Ansan he Teach and Tabak ¢Pewge ocpage 185 1 May be polygenie so affected by several different genes. pene may mask or affect another. ‘May also be epistatic so ene b with either aaTW? (to produce 2 Correct genetic diagram showing cross of AAC blotched) or aatht? (10 produce =i “AaT®, agouti mackerel, and 50% Aah? agouti Aattt®, agouti blotched). 3. Blacliorange alles for coat colour are cars on the X chroinesome. Mate cas normally only have one X chromosome so therefore can be black OR orange, duals that are NXY, where ‘a mixture. But there may be some very rare in could be tortoiseshell with random X inactivation. page 189 1 a. ‘The rabbit has a mutation that means the enzyme which produces dhe d js inactive at normal body temperature, When the fur js removed and a cool pce in place the temperature in that arca is lowered. So enzyme remains active = melanin pigment produced. when fur is removed there is a drop temperature produced and fer js dark. However, once dark fur-has grown, skin is kept warm so at next m the enayme is inactive as skin is at nozmal body temperatuy 1b ‘The skin is cooler and loses heat easily enough to allow enzyme t0 work so dark pigme new fur grows, fur — so new fur is cream again, ther have same genes and similar environment, This 3 fare the same, and can compare pairs of i red apart have same genes b Identical wvins reared toget scientists to sce how closely they wins in different environments. However, twins te different environment, s0 looking at sinvlarties and differences gives an even cl picture of how strongly phenotypic characteristics are affected by genes and bs cnvironment. 3. Fairly reliable as they are from tvvin sities, However, numbers in the study = ed wins, Data from larger studies (s relatively small, particutarly of the sep. the 2008 study) give more reliable evien phenstype of the bacteria could be changed . Yet 0 4 Jacob and Monod showed that the environment at a genetic evel. No Lact sugar lactose appears in the diet, the bacteria produce the enzyme needed €2 “hoy showed that the presence of fretose operates at the level oft it down, ing the way itis expressed ant the protein made as a result, Por the 6 ent i showed one clear possible mechanism for the way genes and environs produce the phenotype of an organism. Jose in the diet ~ no lactase enzymChapter 3.4 (cont) SETS: page 191 1 Discontinuous variation only seen when a feature is either present or not. IF 8 characteristic is affected by both genotype and enviconment there will inevitably be ots of different possibilities, depending on the genés inherited and the environment of the organism, and therefore the Feature will showy continttous variation. 2 Normal distrtution gives you information on the amount of Varety within a population, indicates the ¢ af enntintocis variation and gives an indication of the rebubility of the results you are looking at. page 195 1 Monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme which breaks down the nevreweansmitters which carry messages across synapses. Too much of the enzyme becaks down too msch of these chemicals, too litle allows them (0 build up. Hoth of these situations cause symptoms of disease. Too much and too litle can cause depressvn, Too litls sso linked to addictive behaviox th, in wen affects he people ovee long perin? of 2 Longitudinal study fooks at Linge numbers of the s tion of the getotype ant dhe time, This gives an opportunity for effect of the in’ enviconment on the phenotype to be seen. nent, eg ionising radiation or chemicals ia tobacco emotes e2n place in the genes, altering the genxype. Mutts ‘oF tumour Suppressor genes, ether stimu 3. Aspects of the envin cause more mutations to ta in genes, such as proto-onc cell cycle or remove inhibition From the eel cycle $0 that a cell unlergoes rap unconteolled divisions to form a tumoue. ee the | | | | movtality in women: men 7 4 lncidence has inceeased steadily, approxima fast 30 years, Lower incidence in women and low likely to work eutdoors with tops off so more sunburas men less # cover up if start getting sunbusnG, men less likely than women to =3¢ suns again more likely t0 get sunburnt; women more likely than men te go ta a dost to have melanoma diagnes concerned about a mole so more I siill be treated. donning 5. Numiber of UK holidays stayed fairly stable ~ increasat number is 19°08 by away again, Numer of olitys ta ad inereasal steadily sice the 197 Foreign holidays EXely to has hot sun, more sunbura etc. with knack-en effes melanomas or ns, eg longitudinal staties of gros of people i 18 for links between su: exyesure ant -8 the links terwoen UV ries where Bere have book sit Evidence: any sensible sugge different types of botidays over yea incidence of melanoma; lab studies on animals obser exposure and incidence of melanoma, studies in cow pisunscreen Use, eg Azstes’, to efforts to reducé suaburn through cover weeded ve ae ‘uot AS Hedy Inphenntsie 20 Aasinant Cate Ee Tent and Tahisoy Utama Tai fi Saatpage 203 1 Cellulose is formed from the beta isomer of glucose, and starch is formed alpha isomer. ‘This means that in cellulose the glucose molecules bon. chains, but in starch the glucose molecules form helices (in amylose) and bra from the “chain structures (in amylopectin). ‘The long straight chains in cellulose align tog: {a long, strong microfibrils that give strength to the cell wal The coiled st ay sto of starch makes it a large compact molecule which is useful for at en molecule, 2. Cell walls provide strength t9 the plant and prevent cells from bursting bathed in a solution that is more dilute than theie contents. ‘The cellulose micron ands strong and nat easily stretched, so they help to maintain cell si. fof hemi-celluloses and other carbohydrates hold the microfibrils in position but Ke Aesible, so that the plant can bend with the wind ec. struetu the cell divides is Mexible and can stre 3. The primacy cell wall formed whe: Gircetions a5 the cell swells and the plant grows. As the cell gets ol more rigid bos whic Mer, more cellulose microfibrils are baid down at angles to each other, to make a ranging shape any further but provides exira strength for th prevents the cll If the cell wall becomes lignified Ia rigid. ce, this makes the structure even stronger and 4 Plasmodesmata are cytoplasmic connections bewveen cells thouigh the cell wall means that substances from one cell can pass more easily into ancther eell with 2 cell surface membrane and cell wall, Allows communica having to pass thr beoween the cells. page 205, oplasts have a complex lant cells, Ch sh teaps the ened 1 Amyloplasts are structures that store stareh in of folded membranes that contain chlorophyll whic struct sunlight so that the pil t can make its own food. ‘and animal cells both have a nucleus, mitochondria, a cell susfae les, but a 2 Typical pl membrane and cytopl Animal cells may have temporary va anent vacuole, sometimes chloroplasts and sometime plant cell has a cell wall, ps amyloplasts hd be wasting sy so plant cells that don't receive enough light wo 3 Chlorophists trap sual energy if they made chloroplasts, If a potato tuber, which is usualy coved from the soil it starts to ture green, “Te eells on rade 0 is white, is the potata must be able to make chloroplasts and the green yi found in them.PS Tre CR LIA Loe tal betel a ale Chapter 4.1 (cont) page 213 Similarities: eanspost water across the root from soil water fo vascular tissue} at the Casparian strip, all routes have to pass through endosermis cell cytoplasm plasm (symplasi); apoplast Differences: symplast pathway transports through cyt also passes pathway passes mainly through cellulose cell alls vacuole pata -s. Symplast and vacuolar pathways involve osmosis down a through plant vacucte cmeenteation graicnt, Apoplast pathasay Is based on the cohesion of water molscelcs 2 Root airs have a large surface area whielr increases the arca for diffusion. “They exc ut into the soil providing greater contact with the soil partiles and soil wae asured by the rate of water produced at the top of a stem Root pressure cannot explain the transport of allt water to the tops 6! 3 Root pressure coukl be r tant has been cut of plant because it doesn’t provide sufficient pressure to get v where ap water ina most plants. page 215° s chlorophyll an 1 Minerals are needed by plants to make eritical motecules such acids, calcium pectate ‘and ATP, without which the plant cannot grow or function well J to exchae just the ming When investigating mineral uptake in the ab, you would ne sated, keeping all other variables the same as far as poss sks, A control of all mincrals in the sols being investi ible. Repeats will increase reliability of 1 a would be appropriate. Phey st by active transport through the eet hairs foot 19 the xylem by diffusion or 2) Minerals often emer a pi transported through the apyplast pathway in the 1 possibly through the sym way by active transport. Inthe sytem they are transported around the pl 3st p ant by mass ow to where they are ne 3. Any suitable experiment tut interferes with the encrgy-producing mechanism in fs and controls all other factors. nt Auer Gane be Tent ant Baal ane Beane Rina Lingo 208os eneenoynane pameenesacen eminent eran page 217 1 They store substances such as starch which are good energy sources for us, They’ such as vitamin G and iron, that we need to Keep { also contain vitamins and mincrals, ergy. Alay have high ‘our bodies healthy. ‘They may contain oils which are ich in en protcin levels. 2 Expected answers include ice, wheat, potato, maine. Rice ~ sted of that grows undenground and isa psrene: maize ~ seed of grasst&s plant = sead of geass plant; potato ~ tuber tl (Geom which new plaat grows in the flowing season)s “fese all contain a high concenication of starch which is an lew both for plaacs when the new plant grows from the seed or perennatng oF provide us with energy when we eat them. Osher Foot plants te asee7eB - 4 Selective breading vses just a few species of v af the plants grown. ‘Tis realuces choice for the grow (and may make the ¥ ficulties for farmers in poorer areas, Genetic nai sortant ene! -ariaties of plants to improve th Farmer of whieh varieties th use of the 0 jety more expensive be new seed or young plants each yea: for GM ; develops! work od Sought 2 point which may eause dil this problem because framers have to bet ified to prevent them breeding 10 2550182 pecies. Possibility of cress b os ete, Any valid and wl varieties because they are mo concerns about eross breeding with wild sf wild planis having knock-on effect in food page 219 1 The thickening of plant stems, by sclerenshyma anal lgeicaton cf ssi, BSS resistant to tensile and compression forces, ‘These «Wood is a9 # them strong and cond useful for supporting t uhich also makes it useful in the outer Is fhe load of walls and roofs in buikine good insulation mater pot within a matrix of other 7 2. Reocause fibres produced in puse fern, ‘ don't need retting. that minimises dams; 3 Sustainability is using resources in @ find so that the resources can be rep js a renewable resource, $0 this ca such as ¢lay' (for bricks) and Tin that ace carbon og materials can be replaced by grosin ‘Ponce they have been removed for uss Wood cer than using B < 3! during construction. foncrete). Using wor’ produce build foc falyries, ropes etc. means th runt AS tds npr sod Cie Tanks Tne etorva tsantin DSS D8 en a”~ Chapter 4.2 (cont) perenne nn ne er page 221 1 They are easily accessible from a range of plant species, which means th sustainable resource. 2. Advantages: biodegradable so less dainaging to the environment than oil-bs Xihen discarded; a renewable resource so potentially supplies shouldn't run ou + can be cont Disadvantages: more expensive than oil-based plastics eur use of crops for food and for binplastics. os dats that compare performance, and a suitab 3. Accept any answer that ine assessment of that comparison. Judgements on importance shoul! depend on a eritical assessment of the qe data found. Accept other factors That are suitably justified page 223 1 To remove impurities that may have other effects, and to got a more reliable d Some parts of the plant might contain ether poisonous chemicals, 2. Scientific basis: identifying active ingredient, testing on large number of p cluding § Unacceptable: experimenting on patients without thorough testing for s siveness in other Ways beforehand, particularly experimenting with do informed consent! off risks death of patient, Almost cert 0 227 » Tab preparation of a: 1 Modern techniques: identification of active ingred ingredient including modification for improved effectiveness, testing on cel cultures fist for effectiveness, then on animals for safety and effect limited human trials before large-scale tials on patients, This includes use placebo effect. Careful reconing at all stages t0 level of vish to paticnt and assesst tind tests (© avoid th corrcet dosage, side-effects including ing into prod On, new drug is worth pu tion of active ingredient by guesswork ( orsling of all tests 304 J 's method: identifica Wither! and error), no tests before tals on patients, careful n fy the best rea ment effectiveness a: of active ingredie Identification of active ingredient ~+ lob preps modification for improved effectivercss =» testing on cell tissue cultures animals > phase 1 trials on human volunteers -+ phase 2 wials on small cf patients -» phase 3 trials on large number of patients -* licensing of ne continuing monitoring of side effectsAriswers to Student Book text questions PS Sap RISE ePBlea : a . Chapter 4.2 (cont) : ng Geng etennrrtneten estat neenenenervtreenennenmren nanan eye nee 3. Any appropriate ethical statements suitably argued, eg. is ethical because people volunteer to take part, or not exhical because some people may be persuaded to take part because they necd the money. Alternative ~ accept all suitable’ suggestions supported by explanation. s suitably argued, eg. is ethical because it may save 4 Any epproprint exieal stame that person's life, or not exiical because it may’ risk that person's life more than not i such as with side-effects. Arguments for oe against will dawnt on using the treatan the balance of success or risk for the patient load AS Fags Iphone ad Ancum Co he Tents an Tiabiton * Pesan aceive iChapter 4.3 : Press Etre page 229 1 Chas visible dif doesn’t mean th ces; difficulty = F visible differences = casy to see and measure dilfere indicate different species, or lack ol ¢ morphology: advant ses don't always y are the same species. at of species eifficulry - ean be Gane flow! advantage = lak of fo is hearer _ particulacty in stow-bveeding & very difficult to get evid jn diferent localities at ntentifiations reduces chance of aa nadiviteal Dh ng bietiversity 2 Faster and move convenient Linder more thas og nani and so -aver-cstinall page 233 1 Molecular phple: ues analysing the D} NA and other chemic organisms whic! 1 similar of very di his analysis ean be used (© shemanscrate genet diversiyyboween apparentty siavlir oH ans, or it may reveal surprising simil Inte patterns ia this data, s0 sand the fg that there are BO 1 2. Professor Moran would a about his argume ddagsn'e prove anything, Stunts should Took Up Bs people who suappert him cine Hgcterin brah of fg he the Archacay few the EMF AG! diversity Professors Pace wd De e with Archaea. Archaea and Bae fone character in Je maintain that there is oly enormously athe common with B. cs = relatively parallel eve ar feai much more closely rion ~ and so see fe elassiied toget «for a tong time they’ 8 = iedepends on what you are Tookieg for, what Your 278 Bur none of tb pret data ete, trying 69 PFOeE. ysis of the three geen Muay belp 19 ch 3. Further evidence from more moleeulir s copied will depend om ese ailet Which theory is 260 relationships further. Whether onaher they strengthen oF weaken ee tery TEL alos deperat on the status of snation of the scicntitie seappost th cory whish theory catehes the Has sts whe ge shod inthe which ets Jets the majority of fund sanity, whicl reputable journal ets poge 235, rit myores cle. T Hing what it eats 8 snip Hives, inetd ecds to be well 1 A niche is the way a ory ing euccesaill (Je. gras and prstuve oHBpring) he ceanNS te the ewanivons strand it, and uberefire ity milie’se Ht ir ean find food and a 2 a Tithe before the dive be. 4.5 minutes ¢ 160 ~ 20160 « 100% sty without briulgcantia 2 4 8 amin 12% = & 32 seguePEE Sy Eat SE > chapter 44 {cont ) 3. Sced mass: decreases in naturally pollinated plants won beyond an intermatiate distance from forest patch; fruit’sced set: gradually decreases in navairally pollinated i plants the further you get from a forest patch, “4. Teshows that natural pollination is better eoser to forest patches, $0 maintaining grcater biodivesily is patches of forest gives higher productivity of coffee plant, better for coffee production. Financial incentive means growers likely to take notice find maintain the natural forests rather than destroying them, salthy ensieonments, oo 5 Advantages inclade: can increase population numbers in safe h erie variation within the eaptive poputation, Disady 4 and in transporting 5% and can maintain ge include: east of maintaining population ia ceptivy individuals for breeding to other 00s oF nature paths; also needs recove of natural of habitat otherwise cannot reintroduce species back into the wit, Ethical issues spending money on such programmes rather than health andor education for people. page 263 cd t0 fee at night and ents many different Kinds of re Ot 1. The brown tree snake is adap binds and lizards, There are many kinds of birds and lizards on Guam which to the brown urce ake adapted to avoiding night-time predators so are vulnerab ‘Also there is no cndenvie predator en Guan that exts snakes, No local snakes to act as a competitors, 2. Sciemitic rescareh: identified the cause of the problem and possible solutions. Jit took 30 years to establish what the problem was, by whieb time many socks were already extinet and others in great danger. tuceding and reintroduction: can prevent species becoming extinct bat not Capt a large enough area? useful untess the brown tree snake can be excluded from polation of the endangered binds maintain a breeding poy 3 Any suitable arguments with appropriate justification, €.g. biosecurity: worth be if exeludes the snake from large enough area to allow breeding popula endangered birdsRete tn es chaos page 207 11 The epidermis protects the stem, reducing water loss and making it more ¢ pathogens to get into the plant. Parenchyma is packing t place, Collenchyma and sclercnchyma are strengthening tissues that help sujywvt the * plant, In a young stem there is more collenchyma because this tssuc can stretch as the is formed as the stem matures ~ tie ool walls stem grow’s taller. More sclerenchym os they ean seth but the provide more strergh than colenstge ant : are ligni , can suppott the plant more firmly. ; 2 The epidermis is Nat with closely connecting cells so that there axe no gaps hive them, ‘This helps reduce water loss and prevents the entry of pathogens. 1 is made even more waterproof with the secretion of eutin which is wa rc water. Modifications of epidermal cells can protect the stem even further wits points, barbs o¢ hooks, or help the plant in other ways page 209 rying the t= -sport 1 ‘This is to prevent animals nibbling the soft young bark and de: tissue, If the bark is destroyed all around the trunk the plant v4 move up the trunk, and no food ean move down to the roots Mi dic, 9s no Weer can 2 a Ringing experiment, removing the ring of bark by hand ~ this Ne different rolss of xylem and phlosm but needs to be done carefully bb Autoradiography ~ this uses radioactive isotopes which are mye sultable 10 682 ia niques. school, and need proper handling ts © Placing a cut end ef a soot in dye ~ a simple experiment the shows the = i vascular tse fn plants 1 - page 211 i 1. ‘Transpiration is the loss of water from the surface of a plant, macy ¢ | “Translocation isthe movement OF substances inside the plant. : 2. Transpiration provides the pulling force that draws water up theassh the pla the roots and aay substanc dissolved ia thot water nt that Mentifies fate cape tors are controlled, explains how the experin reliable results, Iusdes 2 risk assesement deal Ab Redo EopQowrtain nl Rectiend Guide £6 Tones and Tahedie Tarn Baton teak 0