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CHAPTER 1
THEORETICAL APPROACH OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
2.1. Introduction
This chapter describes the fundamental principles of basic operational amplifier design.
Although the two stage.

Ccmp

Vin

A1

-A2

Differential input stage

Second gain stage

Vout

Output buffer

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of operational amplifier

The first gain stage is a differential input single ended output stage. The second gain
stage is normally a common-source gain stage that has an active load.
2.2. PARAMETERS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
1) Open loop gain: Open loop gain of differential operational amplifier is ratio of differential
output to differential input in open loop.
Table 2.1 Comparison in standard operational amplifier and differential amplifier
Differential Operational Amplifier

Standard Operational Amplifier

Differential input

Differential input

Differential output

Single ended output

Differential feedback

Differential feedback

Common mode feedback

No common mode feedback

3.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS

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The following equations given refer to the circuit elements of the operational amplifier
shown in Figure 3.1
3.2.1 Slew Rate
The tail current I5 determines the slew rate
I5 = (Slew Rate) Cc

. (3.1)

Typically slew rates are 10 V/us

The tail current I5 is also written as
I5=10(settling time) Cc

. (3.2)

Where Cc is the miller capacitor

However there are some constraints on Cc:Cc >0.22CLoad
and

Cc<=

. (3.3)

gm 2
2G.B

. (3.4)
Freq pole 2 >> 2.2 G.B.
i.e.

gm 2
>> 2.2G.B.
2 C Load

. (3.5)
Alternatively I5 is given by:

I5 10

VDD / VSS /

2.Ts

. (3.6)

Where Ts = settling time

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Conception of idea
Definition of the design
Comparison
with design
specifications

Implementation
Redesign
Simulation

Comparison
with design
specifications

Physical definition
Physical verification
Parasitic extraction
Fabrication
Test and verification
Product

Figure 3.1.Flow chart for integrated circuit design process

5.2 Output swing
Output swing can be defined as it is the maximum output voltage that we can get at the
output of operational amplifier without clipping or saturation. The circuit arrangement for output
swing measurement is shown in Figure 5.3.This circuit is to predict the output voltage swing by
setting the input pulse to be 5V.

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Figure 5.3 Circuit arrangement for output swing measurement

For this simulation process, we are considering transient analysis by applying the pulse of
5V.
From the figure 5.4,we can observe that by applying a pulse of 5V at the input of
operational amplifier ,we are getting the maximum output voltage of +4.5 V and a minimum
output voltage of -4.8 V.

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Figure 5.4 Simulation result for swing measurement

So, output swing for this operational amplifier is given as

Output swing = 4.61 V

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