I

~1

__

In the U.S.S.R Shakespeare', worka

ha\'e ~n published in over five
million ~opies in 28 lanRWl!l"t!! Ilpok-

en by the variOUs peoples of the

Soviet Union. More than 300 produ~
lions of Shakt!!peare', plays have
been put on in the country'a theatres
In the ~ourse of the l_t few years.
The four-volume Soviet hundredthousand copy edition of Shake_peare in EnRIL'Ih which came out
betw~n 1937 and 1939 hu long
Ijn~e become a bibliographical rarity.
These are just a few statistics which
Klve some Idea of Shak(l!lpcare'.
popularity in the Soviet Union .

Thl' collection has bren pr<,pared fll:

publicatinn by the CommlMlon fOI
the Study 'If ShakMlpenre attachNi
to fh" InsUlul(> of World Litf'rature
ot thf' U.S-S.H. AcallEmy
SdenCe3.
Thf" hook reprf'Sf'ntli a ('r~ectlon
of articles by <'\illlinguilhed Sov1et
writers, critlcs, ~cholara and people
of the theatre. The ("ontinulty between Sovtet Shakespeare:ma and
the democratic traditions of RU1~lhn
19th-('f!ntury crtllcism is ensured by
the fact that thf' foundaUoru of the
former were laid by M Gorky and
A LUnltcharsky. The first part of
thla coll~on Includes works by
weU4I:nown student.t of Shakelpear,
auch as L Akscnov. A. Smlrnov.
M. Morozov, A. Anikst and others.
In the Rcnnd part, enUtloo Shakespeare- and the Theatre-, the reader
will ftnd A representative selection
of artlclea by produce", and aMoraK. StanlalaVilky.
A. OrrtuzhC'v,
O. Ulanova,
N. Okhlopkov and
othen-who have had a hand In reIMarnAUnK the dMlhles..'1 charactera
ot the areat playwright on thf' Soviet
,tap and acreen.
More than forty years of Sov1t't
Itudl. of Shakeapeare will pus In
review before the readl'r ot thla
book It II hoped that it will .,rve
_ an Introduction to a ne-a' and
Iuable ehapter in the hlatory ot
world studies of Shakeapean- and of

or

.-"s ;nre'l theatre.

SHI\Kf.SPl-.ARF:

IN

THE SOVIET

I"

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I
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lion

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in t

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A C()~lF,~I( I
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TRANSLAT~D fROM TilE RUSS/ioN Sl' IoI'IW, tfM,A,.'f

In the (
ha\'e 1)(

mJlHon I
en by 1
So\'let U
lions of
been put
In the c
The to~
thousanc'

CON TENT"

COMPILED BY ROMAN SA,'/ARIN AND ,A,U:XA:mER NIlC01YUIUN

'.

DE$/CNI, '} BY L I't.JnOI5/(1'

fHAK

'" A, BI.OK

speare j

PEA

Plays

since bee

, lCinq , I!~"

5.1<1. P

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A. tUNACHAR5KY

between

rT DY C'F l' ERAT'JRE

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I. AKSYONOV W'.al I

These ar
give lOr
popularil

'" A, SMIRNOV
Bar

'OCO

, 1.

ANISrMOV

"
58

un

the
h kespe .re

A. AN.K __

M. MOR0Z0V
Thl, collI
pubUeatil
th@ Stud.
to thE' In
of t~ Ul
Th@ boo,
of artIcll
writers, (
of the tJ

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KONST\NT N S "NI.J.'V-'V

.. AI,EXAJd "'ER (\ TITZI

tween &:

tbedemOl

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the fact t
tonner w.

pI,)

nv, Shl e

~ ~

G. LANOY,," My

thla colle
well-kn,",

G. KOZINT'EV

auch at
M.Monn
In the lie!
spearoe an,
will find
of artlclee
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,
"0

PREFACE
In the
ha\'e I

million
en by
So\'iet
lions (
been p I
in the
The f(
thousar
speare

betweel
since be
These,

give

III

popular

This col
publicat

the Stu

10 the

of th(' t
Th. bo<
of artie
writers

ot the '

tween

the dem
ttth-cell
the tact
fOnTIer \
A. Luna

thI. col;
well ho

auch u

M. Men!

In the _
-PHft' a
will find
ot artlel.
K.

Star

G. Uta

othera ,

Incamat
of .......
_tap an
MM.

_tudl_

SAY WHAT you will, fi9ures still cannot but CUr)' 1 ~ertain
conviction. Since the October Revolution, ovel 5,000,000
copies of Shakespcare's works have been published in 28
languagc!> spoken by various peoples of the Soviet Union.
Over the years 1945-1957 alone, the Soviet stage saw marc
than 300 productions of Shakespeare's plays. Morozov
book Shahespeare, published in the series "Lives of Remark
able People" in two editions which together ran to 100,000
copics, sold out almost at once. The four volumes of Shakt
spearc's works in English, edited and annotated by S. Dina
mov, the publication of which in 100,000 copies was begun
in 1937 and completed in 1939, have long since bccome 1
bibliographical rarity. Shakespeare's collectc:! works tran!
latcd into Russian in eight volumes, publi!::he.l by Iskusstv
in an edition of 225,000 copies, sold out on a sui .cription
basis. Shakespearc's Sonnets. as translated by the 'atc 'Samui
Yakovlevich Marshak, disappear like drops n the anu
whenever they arc reissued, notwithsl mding en..,rnou' e:li'
tions. "What do you expect~" the young ~alt; worn n In t'\t;
bookshop turned on me indignant y when I ve"1ture
l
grumble at the instantaneous disappe_ r m( e f the (' nnets,
whkh t.ad materialL<>d briefly on their helv .. thai ve'"
mOlnmg Al cr all, it'~ Shakesl ""arc: I" And you should have
~ cen her flcc al vc with contempt r th~ dilatcry pu h"
md with under t;-nding 01 the importanc- of tho"'" Mnnets,
which th~ Mo: 'ow 1ubli( always quick to Snal' UI) arvthm~
new in the wlv"f ook had been tracking dow- )J over
the city from the moment the shops h d 01 ,~d. fhe' ql ~<. ..
Englishman's reflected ~l< ry hone "-'lck at me from tt,: eyc)
':If this youthful Cl'catu ~,so erenely con ou' of ttlC tr JP
worth of William Shakespe3.l'e
Shak~spcare, of course occupcd 1 -pCCI_ 1)1 C" 1 Rl'" . fJ.
culture before Octobe- 917. r:'1e irst tr'lnslat.on~
. hs
play" were made in the n'ddlc 01 the clgf"atc""fJ.ll l.: ~nl .lIV
Thc beginOlW.. . Shakespearc.m
. c m 10 Ru' 51
tc ')
t'"t:- e"1d ..,t th" century when ?\I. "-ar m: n pubils.~rd ,
.,refacc to hi! W1 t ansI-ti, ., of ''.liius ClesaJ ( l A 7).
Th~ Decc-nbl i! ts "l. ~f" tl1 he mti V "'i ,<"'lelbc .~' W ..
r l l j tnt 'e tcol n ~hakc5f ...
0r PU5hkir ",d, tel', fur
Belin' !t~ the imrno .1 her tage .-f Shakcspe", ~ s~ - ~d zs '1
7

great example of realistic art. It W.:l~ Dobrolyubov who

formulated the universality of Shakcspc'lrc's signiric.mcc in
thc words: "He represents severa! new st~lgcs in the gene!'al
progress of mankind." Sensitive and Pl'oround [lnalysc~ of
Shakespeare arc to be found in a number of Turgcncv's
works. Even Lev Tolstoi's passionate critique of Shakespeare
and Shakespearean realism was in its way a proof of how
profoundly the grc.J.t Englishman's art affected him.
Th,anks to the patient labours of several generations of
RussIan translators, thc most noteworthy of whom was
perhaps A. N. Ostrovsky, onc of Russia's greatest nineteenthcen~ury dr?matists,. the complete works of Shakespeare were
available In RussIan by the beginning of the twentieth
cent~l~. Russian studies of Shakespeare produced competent
specIalIsts such as, for instance, Professor N. 1. Storozhenko
of Moscow University who won the respect of his English
colleagues.
O~er this. ~eriod too was founded the splendid realistic
R~sslan tradItIOn for the staging of Shakespeare's plays starred
with such names as Mochalov, Lensky, Fedotova, Yuzhin
Yf~o~va and Kachalov. Many of these Russian pl'oduction~
o.
a espeare went down as memorable occasions in the
~IS~Ory of the ~ussian theatre. Shakespeare's verse began to
R~ss~tte::~c~ m the ~a!1guages of. the peoples of old tsarist
Sh k'
t e UkramIan, Anneman, Georgian and Latvian
~ ~speareana ca!1 all boast a long and worthy tradition
out uallt~~eP~pul~rt~r w~ch S~akespeare enjoyed "through~
was merel
USSlas, WI e as It was for that day and age
ular assi~l:t~r:d~a~;r' unfo.lding ~rologue to that truly pop~
art f h
0
IS gelllus whIch began after 1917 as a
~ltu~e. t e tempestuous development of multi-national Soviet
Nearing the fiftieth an .
Soviet power and 1 k' IlIversary of the establishment of
perience of half 00 1119 back over the amazingly rich ex. t cu 1ture, we can faIrly
.
say that, for our a century of SoVie
of a new era in ~eun!ry, 1~17. also marked the beginning
h
ppr~clabon of Shakespeare. Soviet
scholars did
mue to ennch and
'11
understanding and inte
.
are sti ennchmg our
heritage.
rpretation of the Shakespearean
. N. A. Oobrolyubov bbr
"
.
Phi1osophical Works) G~POl~,A!e FdosoisJtiye Proizvedeniya (Selected

1
t. 1948, p. 459.

Of ,our e, )~ clny coun~ w;~h its ;wn Shak~spcare.ln

theatrtc:!l ,1Ild htcnry 1"aditlons, the history of the genc!'.ll
understanding of ShakcspeZ!rc is closely bound up with the
history of the theatre, WI~"t t~f" scarchings and discoveries ot
great actOr: and produt,;s. In the U.S.S.R., t~is intcrconnev
tion bctween the Iitc1'arvll"d the theatrical views of Shake
speare is particulJrly cle.. :: thanks to flC! t!1eatrc dnd, later,
to the c.;inema. Shakespeare has become a staple ingredient
of our day-to-day life In t:te a.rt~ and hiS ~omc as it were
to bear his own part in those -,ocial proc('-.:sc~ whkh ch..Jrac
terisc our community. Of course, L~e same might be said of
a number of other dranutists of the past whose plays arc
permanently in the repe:tory of the Soviet theatre. Never
theless, it is first and foremost and in a quite exceptional
degree applicable to the great dramatist, the 400th
anniversary of whose birth we ce!::hrated in 1964. The
art of Shakespeare, impregnated 6." it is with the spirit and
hopes of the great revolutio~-y ero:: o~ ~e Renaissance, hold~
,m immeJlate "elevanl'~ f('lr the Sovic~ pe.:'plc-for the generation who stormeJ th~ Wir.ter P3.i~~\.: J...-:d defended the
young Soviet Repul~lit: ty force c! ~s during the Civil
War, as well as for ou: cntempc:-ar..cs ~2d.J.y-thC [,uildcrs
of communism.
Naturally. Sha.\:.e<;pea:-e-s pO;'t::.;rr~~:; :-n the Soviet stage
h'-ls been greatly furthered ~~y :3e ~0:1st3!ltly in.::reasing interest in his hooks. Productions cf S~2kl':;r(,..J:"e in the multinational Soviet t 11eatre lead inevitably tv 3 .::.)nstant increase
in mu}ti-linguJl Soviet Sh,;"1kespearca na. EYcr wider circles
of Soviet l'C'aders and thotre-goers are coming under the
spell of Shakespeare. For instance. t.'1anks to the co-operation
of translators, Shakespearean scholars and theatrical workers,
it quite recently became possible to put on a Shakespeare
festival in Orjonikidzc where, in the course of onc week.
five Shakespeare plays were staged in Ossetic.
The study of Shakespeare in the U's.S.R. has developed
in close contact with the arts of the theatre and of translation. These three main trends which go to make up our
understanding of Shakespeare-the work of our actors, producers and stage designers, of our translators, scholars and
critics-are closely interwoven.
It is for this reason that, in this collection of articles, we
have tried to give a typical selection from Soviet Shakespeal'cana by including works by poets, scholars, actors and
9

In the [

ha\'e

b(

million
en by

Sol'iet I
liom 0
been p~
in the

The ((
thousar

.......

betweeJ
since Ix

These

give ,
populill

This

e(

publiCi
the Stl

to the
ot thf'
The Ix
ot &r\I

write...

of the

.....
tween

I,,",-co

the flu
tormer
A. L18

thlaa

well-kt
...h

M. Mo
In the
JpDre

Will fir
ot artie
K. St
G. Uia

othu

In.....

ot Iho.

If. . . .
'font t

'h"'

,
Taken together, tlll'y gi\',t' ,Ill ilkil. of the. Illilin
l'rodu<.:ers.
J . J 'he stud, and 1I1tl'rprl'liltlOll 01 Sh;lk(.:
,
long \\' lie I
"
lmes a
de 'eloped in this l'Otm(ry, and lll'lp t1~ to undC'r
h
spcadfe th.Js underlying signiticance of the dCVlh,.'PIll<.'llt of
stan
c
"
USSR
Sh.Jkcspeare studICS m t.he . '~,' ' ,
This book begins wIth all lI~sp'l'l~d addl.'l'ss hy th~ poel
Alexander Blok to the actors ot the Bol~hol Drama 1 hl'titre
in Petrograd who, in thc hard and herOIC days of the Civil

\Val', had decided to stage sever.:ll Sh.:lkespeal'e plays, .:In

undertaking which they fulfilled with eln-iable success. What
110\\,.' seellls of most interest in this address is Blok's desire to
help the actors towards that new interpretation of Shake
speare which was expected of them by their new .:ludiencc--by
the workers and soldiers who had committed themselves to
the task of building the first Soviet state. It would be Wl'ong
to look for any definitive programme in the passionate words
of the great poet; it is impossible not to sense their profound
and thorou~hl.y understandable subjectivity. Their dignity
and value he 111 that awareness of the new which, in those
years, sustained Blok himself.
A~atoli Vasilyevich Lunacharsky, the distinguished Soviet
publIc figure and statesman, whose vivid article on Bacon
and Shakespeare, in this collection, follows Blok's address,
devoted a good deal of attention to Shakespearean problems,
He embar~ed on an intensive study of Shakespeare and of
the p,0lemIcs centred on his personality and works before
the FIrst W~rld War, In the lectures on the history of WestEuropean lIterature which he delivered in 1924 at the
Sver.dlov Communist University, Lunacharsky dwelt ,vith
particular emphasis on the theme of Shakespeare: the lecture
he devoted to the great English writer was called "Shake?peare and His Age", a title which, in itself, stressed the lead1I1g part played by Shakespeare in the development of a
whole perIod of world literature.
At that time, Lunacharsky was inclined to agree with the
theory advanced by those scholars who considered that the
real author of Shakespeare's plays was the Elizabethan
?oblema~, Rutland. Later on, Lunacharsky rejected both the
Rutland theory and the related theory according to which
I,he author of Shakespeare's works ~as the philosopher
l
B.rant r..... Bacon . Howe vel', a caref
u compantlve
study 01
thaconh .lnd Shakespeare suggested a number of intere~ting
oug t ~ to Lunacharsky and these thoughts found expres'
10

1;100 m th<..' artir:lc in th)s colleelll n_ 'Bacon ,mll the Ch" 1dcr
(If Shake ;- lrc's Plays" was written in lQ34. It I un char'
sky',. be- t wor'< on Shake' pea anu, in our orinion, ont" of
the bc<,t Soviet <!"tic1 t, h:,.vc br:en wr ~~c, on c ph losiph c
c()nlt~nt (";If hi1 play
At ahout the same timf> M.ax n G< r"<ty c . w", wr:Unq
good dL 11 ahoul Sh "'cs 1' lTC.
. Corkv held 'n~t Shakcspe yo was 'I'te 'voll~ ,r~1tes
playwright". At the s?mr ~iT?(' h.. .... 0:1 th" 11' 911;lt
writer WiI'l a nC'hody ID ongt-"
rr.r ~:I' r G, r' "
conSidered 5h..:'
'1re one of h. ~:l4 ~ r'l. W\.--. he pond
rc't.H TIl in the
cl'ed the prospcct've df"~ pIc pmnt ~f 50\,...__
theatre, he locked t .... Shakespc_ e :IS :I nc de' 'l,I''jrt 1y of the
particular "ttcnt on of young SOVi4 dr_Tr.
:
ooking
back to Shakespcar .... which accords w. 1 t 11 advi C ot "" __ '1C
and Engels in th:" let'! ) to T 1 a11e 1
eve' )cd nc- e
fully in GI ky s 'ar ie', "011 Play,' 1rd w accc t_4 i::S 1
baSiC tenet of the pT" :urn e f Y"'"lng '# ; t ..I :lIla 1 lC
thirties.
"A reat. ~isto~cc'
;L ..
11 eit 1C 1 n'" n h n.. ve
been before nOI 5l 14~, a Burr ., 'Be ng w t 1 ( l C p:
1 ~ .
Vlarimir Lenin, lZ:S ren..:l red 1- .:.~t tr_ t), '" of th .. ,-c::"
for~e', epL' n9 h n by t - : " ,
rcvc 11 :r.
iqhl) ... f .1e wor1t.ing das ! 1 -:: 1 "' ... t.,
th s man 0
action, lhis builrer of 'le nC'" ". !' d ~ c ~ 'It t '-- I).e
hero 01 "lloc.:rr _ aD1~ And, ir ori r t
t thl~ b~
with the rec" --r' v baJ powe"
~
l__
' t ' e cnl.ld
- rtudy the l r
f. w 'ting - 1;
Ir
s C' th_ "It
unsurpz.. Sf>~ r. SL -s of th _. te lry f~ r n J '1 'I!~ 3.11 ir
"e works ot "::bakesl _ ... '
fvcrvth: 11 bC'ut th ~ en
__ ~I'" tiradt;:
;"'nif _mt th..
! a,' that LOl kv di4 ro~ 51::: ... Jmf ):" rs
n c:.hal c ' ._ are'
play" W 14 re~~ ~ whole lir" 01 bourgi-i
' _S,
rmnmb
with I)e romanl cs f'" L:.. e :..; r-ool n isted th~ t Shake
;pea: e c tch ng u" 'It;: ~!'CI. .:-r into th_ wor d of nagifl'::"
ion, m ' _.:!i hill fOl gf the rc~, \ 'rod 1t "coml_r
we?,: V
lrd suffc log m,:m wro sk"
l:y t}-!"t r C'~o 11..:1 r 1S' hIm

'1

cr._

1. M. Grol .y

\!'

oYIV
,J "
. . . I/-

J.

...

"

'" ,.

,.

'

KXVI,

hav ~ been lea., 1m h_._ 5r. k_

.... I" 'ct Vol. 'XXV p 426

<,'

~~ ~

"

mv
c
Elnd <.:en

.. vc b : l
t s

rn

In
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mi

en
So
tio

be<
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tho

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giv,
pop

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pub)
the
totl

01 II

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or
wrt.
or a
tW!1!

1the ,

the t

rOlliN

A. L

thIo

....I~

",,'b
II. II
In Ilk
-PUn

willI

or_
K. S
G. VI

OChn.

., ....

='-Ida

--- .
-.
-~

rest and distraction; and the fact that. when he calls on the
Soviet writer to create an image of the "teacher of the rev
olutionary rights of the working class", Gorky considers it
possible to direct his attention to the practice of Shakespeare.
in whose plays there are indeed many characters who speak
out passionately and boldly in favour of new ideas giving
an example by actions which set them above the canons of
behaviour acceptable for their day and age.
Shakespeare's vividly-drawn characters can indeed serve as
teachers of a "new life", particularly. perhaps, the gay heroes
and lovely heroines of his comedies with their dauntless
frankness in the face of their enemies and their readiness to
stand up for their beliefs, if necessary by force of arms.
Gorky asserts the view of Shakespeare as an artist whose
work embodies the revolutionary essence of the Renaissance,
and this is why he is a source of such unfailing interest to
the Soviet dramatist, whose calling it is to express new,
gigantic conflicts born of a new revolutionary era, foreshadowing an infinitely more significant turning-point in the history
of mankind.
During the thirties, Soviet studies of Shakespeare, continuing in the spirit of Gorky's interpretation of his realist and
humanistic art were closely bound up with the life of the
Soviet theatre which, in the course of these years, put on a
number of important new productions of Shakespeare's
plays. This development of Shakespearean studies went hand
in hand with a general increase in scholarly output made
possible by successes achieved in the building of
socialism. Progress in the working out of a general MarxistLeninist line of approach facilitated the appearance of
new and profound studies. The works of 1. Aksyonov,
S. Krzhizhanovsky. A. A. Smirnov's book The Work of
Shalzespeare, the discussion of certain points in this book
initiated by A. Kemenov's article entitled "Shakespeare in
~he Arms of a Bourgeois Sociologist", the early critical works
of MM. Morozov and the articles of S. Dinamov went ":0
m..lke 11;' th4 r:,ch and vital groundwork of Soviet Shake
"'pr.ar"oiol1Y dUj ing the thirties. The achievements of thi!
pcriod were .:on~mued in the forties and fifties in the works
of A. A Smirnov. M M. Morozov. A. A. Anikst. V. Uzin ,nd
"'ttc~- scholars who 'iought to adv,lnt e and lend a more
J,rofound ar.d striclly ~ actual basis to t~c <;tudy of such
proHcm!. lS ';hakec;:p'are's TPa~ism In lt~ at tual hi~tol'ical
12

context, the degrec to which his art was li,ked LJ the foJ\
traditions and til the ordin~J' pc:")plc 01 his dav, :td
important questions c",nLerning the period .... ation ,,)f his worl .
Since the War, Soviet studic, of Shake' peare 'lave "11ade
considerable progress. A s~duus publ~cation W1.S- The
Shahespeare Col/eeliot! (Shekspirovsw Sbornik) from Whl' ~
several of the works published 10 t'1l~ volume ue t<!kcn.
Interesting new books on Shakespe3.re inc'ude KO-i ltS:V'5
Our Contemporary Shahespeare (1962), an extnc~ trom
which is published in this collect" on 1!" ,n C'. -n Ie 01
a "film produccr's view" of Shakespe'lrc wr ttcn bv :1.1"
author for whom the English dramatist is a~ lexh<l'.l~ tiblc
source of inspiration and ide~s, Art des on Shakespc_ "h ... ve
come to occupy an outstanding -laL" 1 tPe pc 14 dical p.. "'s
and in publications by indiv'dual c,'llli..: ). -r;4 ycar 1 ~l 4.
the fourth centcm_ y of Shakespe", E
:r " ~w t 1(' pub! n'
tion of a number of ncw books on Sl _'- 'I lrc
As has already been poin~ed cut in ....'---1'i n oduction
scholarly work on Sh 1kespean:: ha~ ... 'w ;lV5; C ... :::
o. elY
intel:onnccted with the w ~~'k of '_ ~ e "t.3tric" com rue
wil'" . hc crc_ ~ vi. S ~ ~ing!:> 0_ th_ a1 t;J.~w lr 1
f IT'cn
of 01.11' theatre' The U.S.S.R, c n 1..;: .. t l 14
u,;-:i u: eu
litenture of ..... is kind lbou lL 1! ,. won:s whi4 1 baL gJ
c.. general id~ 1. ot tOlE:. .I. n4 Ie':: ot iDte pl ting indiv1dual "lay,
on t e Soviet st,-gc "n~ fol1..:w tre ploce .... o.
_ recr __ . 01
of in(.uVlLIIJ ... (;'land_r> W1S 01 ~1.~y" ~ 14
D.05t
intel'c'Jt,ng f "'Ill t liS Lre:.~.l1'C :10U,
01 S("Ivu.;~ t 1( ltre 1
literatu e c-n ';.l.kc
)" ",bsor'---lrg ,... 'I 114 : d,)cu
mentary ;iLCOUJ1ts .... f th ~ er.:'lUV( ;is. ilril. t'::l f ;h~ . ~ uc
by people of the e t t:
For this r"::1S0n we d~"'14 ed to show ."1,; \1",,11 ~v ",I '-'.J'\,et
theatriol litc.ratu" ~ m hakc:..ppare ince, 1 . Lll t mes, the
production of Hr~lllet is ope f the n O! t ...r;;eD. prot"'lelTt !
c",nfJ'onting our ShakC"pf'arC~~l . 1L 1tr ". v,.-e .. -: ~ !,}'vcn wo
1
dilfc nt inl Mretatil lS 01 Haulet wh ch re'~t;w~ tile dC!ve
opme'lt of the ~ovi( t approa! 1 to p1 .)duct "'n~ ,,)f ~p._ {espe~re
between the b ties ='Inc
t: new c 07' 01
lam ets whIch
I Ok 'lo~kov '~rorluc
L
J.r
rprinr.;;..1p:t ",ul' ~ tat-e d r .
, .
Jon .h Jkc pCClre in Sovit.t 'let I, s i:~ 0 bee mc ::I su 1t.i.:vul
n,m' four sta" o;;ipe
ln..l ._:ld not "-11 rc Y " bC..lut!.:
~ 3dt ~'lu S "er" Cpl~)e"1teJ bv lP. extrJC~ L'om ~ahrd1
L. ~;1l>V:}, W 10 CL ... lkJ, 10
1n immo 1 t" charcograPlhl~ Im39 '
onc 01 sta" ~espe_ ... rr\lst rnchantmg . eraires Jhcl. PIt:!
A

In .

bay.

...

mill

--

b ut

lnt

thou

Soviet actor's approuch to Shakespeare s ch;lractl:l'S, hiS

attempt to "live himself" into tIll' role, h;1., tWCI1 particui.lllv
fully treated in a book by one of the founders of the Soviet
Shakespearean !'cpcrtoirc. Ostuzhcv, from whose work we
have selected an extract for this collection. OsLu'.hev did
much to establish a new understanding of Othello which,
varied and enriched by the cxpcricm:c of other actors, remains
a shining example of what the Soviet Theatre has to COntribute to thc interpretation of Shakespeare as a master of
realism inspired by thc high ideals of humanist philosophy.
Our interpretation of Shakespeare's laughter, the way in
which we understand and seck to convey the atmosphere of
his comedies, is shown in the article by the distinguished
Soviet producer Alexei Popov. Taken as a whole, the articles
in this collection give a general impression of the importance
of Shakespeare in our cultural life, and of how this great
writer is understood and intel'preted in the land of socialism.
The immortality of Shakespeare means more to us than a
fine sounding phrase, than a quatercentenary slogan. For us,
it becomes a reality in the invariable success achieved by
new productions of his plays in all the republics of the
U.s.S.R.; in recent translations of his poetry and plays, and
the way in which they take on new life when rendered in
the idiom of our times; in the fact that, in April 1964,
the whole Soviet Union celebrated the 400th anniversary of
Shakespeare's birth both as a great occasion for the whole
world and as our own special occasion, a red letter day in
the calendar of a country in which Shakespeare has truly
found a second home-a vast country, generous in love and
gratitude, always ready to bring his great works to life again
and again, pouring into them her own feelings and emotions.
R. Samarin

SHAKESPEARE
A'l/fJ TdE STUDY OF LITERATlRE

ALEXANDER BLOK
In the UJ
ha\'e bee!
million co
en by th
Soviet UnJ
tioru of ,
been put 0
in the cou
The fourthousand
speare in
between 1
since becolT
These are j
give some
popularity

This collect!
pUblication
the Study (
to the Instil
of tht' U.S.S.
The book n
of articles
writers, cnt!
of the thea'

tWeen SoVl(!
thf! demoer

lith-century
the fact thai
former were
A. LUnat'h
th.. colI~tI
well-known
.uch as I

M. Momzov

In the ~
sPt>a1"@ and
will nnd a
of article. b
K. Stanis
O. Ulanov.
other. wh(
Inam.Un. '
of the ,",a
stale and
More Uq
studt. of

.......

hook. It ..

.. an In
valuabl.
world atud

SHAKESPEARE-'S KING LEAR

An .t1.ddress to 'he Actors

QUITE RIGHTLY a certain Eng1i;h critic once :ud that, In

Shakespeare's tragedy King Lear, "there a'" pi! Ills set for
the reader at every turn". C4)mpared with this tragedy, the
tragedies of Romeo, of Othello, even of Macbeth and Hamlet,
may seem almost naive.
Here, in the simplest language, well within the scope 01
everybody's understanding, ~s Jiscussed .;. rnething that i~
hidden deep withi 1, 01 which _t h ft.:uful even to spelh,
something which 15 OT'ly within thr rmge "'II comprehension
of very adulL pI )ple who hc:v' been through a .:rreat de1l.
Everything n th1 t aqedy i: dark and gloomy, or, as
Ken t say'S, '.
A :; che;:; Mle 5, J 1J'1;
if.. Idly
Art V,

Scene 2.)

H"w then, d! es .. pur Y ur ~ It -ur tIe' u: by I. very

bi~~~rne< 5. ut ~ nc' 5 "'1 n("bles, 1. tterlC') b~ings us to 1 new

knowledyc ollifc,

Our guidinr plinelple fOl th1S 1)] Od111.. ion of K ng Leu on

thp !)tage of thc BulshOl "JrlMa h _! "shoe'..., believe bE'
something 1.:c;.e ;5 we au: 1( t "'~ll1 ~ ou~ "to ear 1 passion
tv tatter ; we Ge lot
n iu:-' ~ -u. ''incipll ta5n. to pIal e
our dudie"ll,; OT" t"'e r_ '1k ",f an aL.y", of~! ~:;tl', vii. inilS
and sorrow. l1is C'.Ly"~ will be rc\' ,.He~ 11 .1e I.. Ilrs~ at the
tragedy with! U1 ",ur 1!:>:isll1:.;e :wd will "pc.lk fOILJ~f
11
neither do WI;; w .h to 5t1'~' S :.uch sceneS d' t'1e 9"u9 9 out
of the eyes of n OJd 11an 111
nds, 01 1C ,cr COS f m~ 'de~,
and suicid(', in 14
lSI ~ ct wc ae nol want LO palOt 10
w;olly bla( :'i. l: 10ur , _ 301.. ;!I s who d( let "j'pell ':;I u~ as
oul"thL t"
drd u villall~s,
m1 m nl n- td li1 g a St: Sf' 01 pll)rort on, W.
~
"
JTlaim'lll
t ~l
'e w Y 1.1r.:n.1gh w ~ ~ 1 iuty bound not
tu gIl S~ over he ba. _c ide ... 01 the tr<lged v '.noWl:lg ,15 we
do thJ.l m, nv )1 the to fl"lgh 'u.1 51'cncs were not crc.lted by
ppare fol I '"'e""t H 11 E;ffcd ,"ut J 1 tlte namc of d
ui 1 whic'1 Ilal bee 1 lev alt:::~ .. ' lim. ~he lUOlence ::nust e

OUI

Shak~'

,- ,

hlgh~l

17

n~ade to see clearly all ~he ru~hlessne~s, cruelty, aridit

bItterness and ugly vulgarity which arc

In tbe U
ba.. bel
million c
en by
Soviet Ul
tions of

been put
in the ex
The tou
thouAnd
Q!'re ir

between
since becI

n....n

Cive IOn
populartt

whi~areinli~.

In

this traged

Yci

yan

Indeed, I would have you notice how dry and bitt

the hearts of all the dramatis personae. There are no cr arc
f
th
. I '
cxcep
.1Ons, ere IS p enty of bItterness in everyone of th
I
m some cases it is diluted by other qualities; onlye%i:t~J
though, and not destroyed. These arc llardeucd hearts S
'
have been made so by the time, others by positio~ ~~l~
o~he~s by age. And in these hearts there is a lack of livinl
bmdmg, penetrating moisture.
g,
. It must. have been that, in Shakespeare's own life .

whol~ ~:l~l~e

hf\of Ehzabethan England, in the life of the

per aps, th~re was, at the beginning of the seventeenth
~entur;r, a kmd of dark stretch: before the genius of the
t

It h~o~J~r~d thebmem?r y of a time long past, of a dark pao;e

w lC
a not een lIt by ray,> of hope nor wanned b

~~:r~a:~tt~~Ui~go\~ug:~~r. The te~h~ kof thIS t "agedy ar: ~~t:~t

memory down to'

. yo~ng.
a. espC31 e has ~anded this
donc
w:lere and in nO~in~ ~~:s :lh~c~:~scoulbd ~dV. h
,_ no'
intcnt ;on.
"". ..- a s::orvC' IS'Itter

2
Four gC!1entions dl e paradrJ
f
Tet U~ fint take q look t the orc '1S .i'" Kmy L -:lr
e ~,'angprgcn~lc;;.tor ot the
traHcdy, at !.he brighte t" a.
OUl ht to f
.
s :PUltS.."t"'o:e Wll,t w.'ud S;C,::1
1
arm an eXLeptlon, w;
t fi t . h
.
._-,
sll,Je t.:-. (,111 d . Here' .
~-." ,:I, ~s Slg. t.t ,~ impos
1S
lhe King. Sh~ IS tlesh IO~lde!ta, ,the: : lVOl ~n~" d, LUphle r of
mhert~:ed ht;r falher's 0 .Ie flh \Jf olJ, Le ..F; she ha~
tc IT; hie Inabil ity t
stu~bornnes), S I, ,m!le';s pride, hIS
!'Iiily to compl'om' u cOmjr,'flllsC" tClr::.. lt bccduse this in~
unr"v,.lIiny oj a ,!~:'lV<.! the fi',1 "ulwllrd im';"lu'lst: to the
began to roll out n. Ie. t~~191fe of ml,Jol'tunes which then
q.drly vclouty {' J.J,el,l t"l[l f'''' sll1ng, unwinding Ihelf with
~.:;lrue Ia \~ " ten co
. t: J WIt h 1)es d emon.'
.but whC'l'e is .that
d.
. ..
mp.:.ll
mOl,ture
1 '1 hn
t h (' very e<:,cnce d rwy
In f
..
'
. '~1~ k ,"'up WhIC h l~,
here WI: have the f ~ tCl:rlnme '.Jul oJI Desdemona? Ant!
c...,mpilrc--.d to AntilJo de. h,~~ 1110T"l" ~'ften :.l\~I, Cordelia i;.;
il <tit<:, ,I !i1t'St un~''''~:~llJl ': am ..'l.re many <{Ull .., unwl)mJ.nly
.1 ~"mlJllfl('bcing.
y '\Ill which h3S taken posS('t;sion d
0).

h:

18

After Cordelia, the brightest spirit among the young IS

Edgar. Edgar is sacrifice and retribution; Edgar redeems his
father's weakness by his own strength. What a radianc~
should surround this courageous, pure and limpid heart! But
take a second look: Edgar's first action is precipitate flight
from the wrath of his own loving father; he takes his deceit
ful brother at his word, without even attempting to ('leek
the truth of his calumnies. Is Edgar a coward, then'? No, toe
is not a coward and will prove this later. However, it may
be that, in a harsh age, there can be no indecision Ind rcaJon
ing one way or the other; it is simply necessary to extricate
oneself from the danger sphere while the going is good, as
Duncan's children extricated themselves in Macbeth, other
wise-one stands to vanish, without trac'" and without rC.lson.
Look further and see how many arid :l1a$ks Edg~r must
change, how much he has to dissemble, how 'aboril>mly and,
I would say, how prosaically he makesli:, wc.y [orw'-i..!"L AI
the last victory is his, he appears as the a...- ~ '1ger ~f ill deeds:
but even here he is not bright and tJere is oo'adiance about
him; he is just the unknown black knw h"
Compared to Cordelia and Edga: we '::":lrot but ~,' st:uck
by the youthful 'ire the naive spon~anlity and light hear~'
cdness of the King 01 Fran' e, He ',e.:-n: t.' . I::: an ..;,:)p~:-:: ;on
rom some the wolld, and so, 1:1 1( - le ~S; .n th..:t wo!1d,
cw'rything 13 ,one:i:ow sim;-,lFr and cower, peoI'le il:~ mO~'e
lru!.tful, t'lfomg to !-lelr fe low w:'",('ut u~~e .. .:r motive not
expecting ~'" '''nd r him" ,ecret .. :nt-my
If, 'n the hear~.....,f rc~:~elia ,,:1~ EdS..Ir ..~t;e :'" muc!l ds ...
be ides uj'ynf><,s and heavlDl,,;:, L"lt.; saM( c....m~'t >..:: S lld ~~f
the othc'" . :laractc Edgar's ~rol:t~r Edmund 1.' n('l lflveterate
",Hill'l. He IS sometimes comra.red ~o rago, I;u: he 1S bv no
m(';ms ,uch a i'orn fiend d~ that. The timc ,lnd the way he
h~s ~'een brought Ui'- a cruel age (llld the sll"k('ning cons...:iI..,u!,nc ,s of hav ing no right:i, or being ba~.:: bOl1l, which is
no' his (;jult but his frlv,,10us father':;., h:Jve mdde of Edmund
a cY1":i,a1 fre"lhini<er, a man devoid of mo!"al l,rincipks and
lIt ovc'nh;e in Jus choic..: of mC3ns.
N'2ithe: does the qencration which foliows after the young
C':on:'lst ,"X, lu~ively ot evil people. Her;;:, w.:ll to the fore,
'.tdnds the' hwal'k and unhappy figure of the King's fool,
W~L' 10VL'~ his master ~o much and who so poisons the h.:lrdest
mQmenL~ of the King's Hie by his bitter jokes; to this generation, too. t"ek.ng;.; the gentle Duke- (If Albany. Then come that
r

,.

19

.,
S
II
b

"

T
II:

110

"

Ii

p(

TI

...
...
.U
to

of

Tb
of
of

....III
....ro<

two

A.

thIi

II

In

-'"

repulsi\'e villain the Duke of Cornwall and Lear's elder

daughters. the difference between whom wa!; excellently
dc' cribed by Gervinus: "The eldest. Goncril. is , wolf-faced
masculine type of woman, full of independent plots ,md plans:
whereas Regan is morc feminine; she is more pas:!ve and is
dependent on Goneril, who eggs her on." The likeness between these sisters lies in the fact that both are thoroughly
commonplace, vulgar pieces; in both, the human being has
died, leaving them with nothing but immutable instinctual
urges. In any other epoch they would have been spiteful
gossips; in that age they became black-hearted criminals.
As to the eldest daughter's servant, the steward Oswald, it is
enough to say that death itself could nol strikl:; one ~park of
light in the mind of this despicable slave
The third generation stands 1cal'cst to LC'lr; it is not dl':

t nguishcd by soft-hcartcdne~s either In t'1c cld Glouces, ~\

is p?s~iblc to find nol ,oftncss but a eel tai:-o sal tening'up,
d t1acc~dlty 01 chanl ter, lIn 'mplc_ iog w~nt at pc spicacity
For this reasln we cannot 1uJJ.y sym c:. isl' with hlm 1 tl-tc
tr Jy ,",,,rdo! torments to wh,c'l he is subjected, f e ,"
has ommittcd a rco.lly admirabl(' 2.:. pc haps the fir t re ... , y
coungc.,)us act 01 f>is whl)le life,
The flobl! V i11U lDCOIT --tib] ~, of Kc ... t 1,.., b w):th-v
f .~ars. But CVln KC"1t J.("~s rldianec . . e IS hk ~vm(' gre t
shaggy --log. The hide of t: .... og
c h~; ~ lLV Iblv CDvcrcd
with bald pal 'tes :md s lr), t;1 t C(:5 O. h.)pg YC'lr cf nal'
!'ll (" _r"l S Wllh thrr, strJ.ngl' pal k
-Ie 1 v o~ .... t lr 'cncs,v
ilno ... V
1 tenrtc~ cs'); h
inl Y h_arl 15
1101
~ u W lt h
m 1~ e" c '1 In
oq W' '1 lrf} ... n~ed red .,;>V\!5, qc ~I ding ~
sl,e ~,lay
'1k ltlS teet; to, . Y
~r y .. d ~ ~ u
1m l ... pieces, whc '-"
nl t l(t h: T1. _
_ c .... _.. . o!.ed r
pal I.
c grCJl ne t
Tear . Lye ~f u tlt)e
l'
-; 1
'Y
~ ttc
f K ng e r In tho oh.: e t, to('l '1
IW1~ ... 1
th
rone - f thaI c- 'QlV TIl U\~W wh 1W],
( t
1. P mgl'
JW, w Il..h
~:
....... _'lng TH... ),
flIr in' ,-"C _ 11
rthe 4('
f e
11 d '" .
t~
t 1
0..
cu. t) '" ,,)J 111 ~ hak_ .... "'r
t
1y
f ".
w;: ,
we, d
h c lre 'V r
i C : ' " n~
t1-. ... V: 'rd r v ... IT" '
, h- I c~ 1 t n
t'1IS
r th' J-.
t'll! .

c, I'
;,("olJ
dl y 11 d itter

r. c
r w

,c

So let us try to convey this peculiar dryness, this barret)

quali.y 1U th. speech and the behaviour of all the charac':e' s,
the impression. ,mique of its kind, of scared wing~. To con
vey th:s il'l.spiral1on in a mannc::- neither dry nor bar cn ,here
IS 1 wOlthv ehal cnge to the actor For, in all of Shakespcale
there is no morL adult t agedy than thl- dry and bitter
tr v-cdy and T :epery,t thesl words again and al ain, beCluse
th('v seem to n(' to cXr"r- :; h(; ,ruL'1.

The ccnlrc 01 the ragcdy n oc~upicd by Kng Lc:... h msrl

f .,:":e, thelc 11 no ~uch tjangle of L''laracten. c::~ bl illS n.'
~or in! tanl". ~ .1 Othellv. The Pllffif'I".V jefi 111 ~l:y b:::'onp to
Leo:

f w
l~' ou minds '~I".k to re'; cw onf>
figt: ~ (..of OL
<Yn n:;l, we hOll ~ r_v ~

J"

f th::: tYI il_'

fl.1

Jl:v n
..:! evcr"

great (;n~ err 1 w cmov ... n cn.

redl It.n c
r~edirg, Hi~ v hale I".h~ 11
0:'"
"I t ..... f dis., 11
Ind .. e
lt tr'll , 1 J. e~ \omg 1
r
1C 1 me..l...
I'l.r- k" u ,th_ g( '1.1, r .1th cs. (,('1 ~
,
r \.,I 10.1 C )ll1'!:J
n.
.) ... : l" _r 1c I". ~n p_e~~
od 1. ~d _ ISb nee
1)1 1 he wh eOl
f '11 t. . ,
W IV
bee, 5, eng~h_ 11 .I b1 v~ r IJ '1 P v, It tiJen; Ii ..
11
111 til
Lr .. '1
1 n ,'r
-1_ v 11
r
9 10wn kwlv, 11 .,rtr.1S: ~J' ",.11... rr .. ,.t::~ 'y,
k ~ the
fc~' y e \. .....f
h md1 c! v 11 Old
sv- ~in~ il
c ~
11
t1(
trc . . . rt'lC' ky
1 I,: tr....
~"'I th .... ~, Pl)~ eh .. f 11 tUll1 \\ 1 n
U J wh~ 1 ts
~ r-:...; lil q c
..
)1 th
... W 11 1, in
k
tC.W"
~

'11 31 ual

I".

0lLrl, g u t 11;; In ,gr. of

:I

A.

"

p'

n..,.
III

Tf
'\

'.k c
f

~,

f
... \ n

11

n J,J.y

xv te..&

od

n ,.

t 11

"

..
~

t~

t'

0::'
H

U\

.v

1('

1.

cut

h p
h' ~qe

11\\"" en e
,"- 1ali 'J .....
t) 1 II ... } blOW P
t
11
J-... .J may saw it
c
1 1 c! 1
11'1':.t ~rc. wh'_
s

11"
b t ' '1 v Jr ,IS~ I
h
lrd ' \ I II
1
lIi'1'

vtL

Ir. nal

t,

)1 )( ..... -~ ~--

'1

r. 11 t
fl

b,

"

'cd I

1". ' .
t

~unn

<

<

:.: h

n
r

111

C. J1

noisy rustling of its still living leaves, just i\~ if they had
all realised simultaneously that they Illust pellsh and w~l'e
sending up a soughing rustle into the blue before hurtllllg
down to shatter and to part bury themselves III the earth
which, until this day, only their roots had known.
.
Such a proudly growing tree was the heart of KlIlg Lear.
He was not a king in our sense: he is a big landowner, and
his kingdom is not a kingdom but an estate with "shadowy
forests", full of game and herbs and berries, with boundless
meadows, and rivers rich in fish. King Lear's subjects have
been used for many years to living under his glorious sceptre;
they love him for his mercy and his kind heart and fear his
stern and hasty temper. No one had it in his heart to hate
him, for in this man, "every inch a King", there was too
much virtue and integrity.
In the course of long years of glorious rule, unshadowed
by failure, the heart of Lear became filled with pride the
measure of which he did not know himself; no one infringed
upon this pride, because it was natural.
And so, the old King has sensed the approach of Autumn.
He is wise with the wisdom of Nature itself and he knows
that there is no halting this advance of Autumn, but he is
also unwise like this same Nature, and he does not know
that, with the Autumn, something else may come-at once
terrible and unexpected.
King Lear has understood that the blood is coursing less
strongly through his veins, that it is time for him to pass on
the burden of power to others. But he has not foreseen that
the people to whom he intended passing on this burden were
not as he had thought them to be.
Unhurriedly, the King divides up his domain, of which
every meadow and every grove is familiar to him, so fairly
between his heirs "that curiosity in neither can make choice
of either's moiety". The solemn ceremony of the hand -over
begins. The King, at the height of his power, has, it would
seeDl, taken all that he wished from life. He has long since
married off his two elder daughters, their future is assured,
he has almost lost touch with theDl; he is left with his youngest daughter. his favourite, the object of his tender solicitude.
Two dia~shed foreigners are seeking her hand. Today,
... he glVes away his power. he will also give away his
beloved daughter to one or the other of them. At this solemn
moment the old man is full of double pride-the pride of a

king and the pride of a fathe,', and he savours the ceremony in

ad~ancc, a ceremony the solemnity of which no one will
trouble. After !hI; only one thing will remain-to fade peacefully away or, as he Illmself says,

Ullburllwned crawl towards death.

We sec the old Lear like this for a fcw minutes only. The
balancC' is upset, lie ha:~ been hurt in hi'.; .pridc as bng and
father, and he blls into wrathful confUSIOn. Even so docs
an old tree fall, sending up an outraged clamour of leaves
into the blue. Cordelia and Kent. whom Lear hounds from
his presence, both tell him of his prIde. From. thIS momen:
on the old heart knows nO peace, the stram bUIlds up undel
a hail of new blows, one following hard upon the other.
Having banished the on~v daughter worthy to take power,
resign,d his power to the other<. But
h ~ thought th"t he had .
the power rcm.linl:d WIth '
him; eve;: h'In:: t 0 h Isown mlsi""l'tum.:, hClvert; "the spectre of power ; he. fcds, undcrstan?~:
<;ces" that he' is (I king. Only under the Impact. of ..fonen1
im'lIlt" doc" 11(" rea1isL' that he has wrenched ~Ui rame t?'
nalure rrom the fixed pL1CC' ana1et h~s "dear jU{kgc~1.cnt ~
Then he bcqin<; to waL:h his ~tcp and tv ta c Im~; It
h'111d But this only leads to a stIll greater l1ar~up of nob ~
a~gc;'" and, 111 a wild par0xism, he surrcnd';,rs is .p~:~~;nnd_
his pride to the clements, whom h~ cann~. t~~w;tact of the
51"nec they arc net hIS daug tcrs.
15 If,
L
nes ' " .
.
h' h
e Kmg car
trancciy is the st:cond .summit on
de we s~ ar lives on' in
The mind of the Kmg has cloll e ~~er, e '1 the most
a dusky state between dream and ~~hrlUm, w~~ne as a new
bloody events break over both famhhes _~~d {ope of rescue.
light is already seen to be approac mg
e
In the eclipse of Leur we sec:
.
. dl
... matter and impertmency mlxe .
Reason in madness!
. t own expiation. The
His fault is expia.ted, or serves
~~ comes too late. The
darkness will not tnumph; but the I~
ilness her destrucold man recovers his daughter onl~ h0 ~l that remains for
ticn. Having born so much .anguls
For the last time
him to do is. to die over her hhfel:h~i~oclkax in a tcuiblc
his curses rmg out aud reac
reproach to nature:

f
..

at

23

Why sbouid a dog, a borse a mt, bave Iile

Aud thou no breath at all?
In the I
have bI
million
en by
Soviet 1
tions 0
been p\..

in the
The fo

tholl'Pn

4e u e
betweel
since be
Theoe
live _
popuJar

Then this momentary upsurge gives way to bitter childish

bewilderment. and Lear dies.
Why was all this written? In order to open our eye
those bottomless pits which do exist in life and ,"hl'c'h 'ton
'th'
I'. '
I IS
n~ t WI In our own va ltIon to avoid. But, if there ar
h
frIghtful abysses in this life, if it really does happe~ St~~t
there are tImes when, although vice docs not conqu'
d
does not triumph, virtue docs not triumph either, f~:' ~~e
has come too. late-must we not then look for another a d
more perfect hfe'?

. Not one word of this crosses the lips of that cruel sad
bItter artIst Shakespeare. Courageously he ends
' f II'
stop, on the exhortation:
on a u
I

Thla: co'

publlca'l

The weigbt 01 this sad time we must obey.

the Sta
to the .
of tIw t
The bo

After all he is an arf st

t
.
the anci;nt words "L I ,~o affpr~est. and he seems to repeat
earn In su ermg".

write ..,

July n, 1920

of artie
oflbe

'" T 0 L I l

.j

N .. (' HAIl SKY

BACON AND THF CHARACTERS 01 SHAKESPEARE'S

PLAYb
WITH ASTONISHING, still uc u. pas_ed _en us, Shakespeare
perceived and dcscrihcd that ir son'c ways t-'r:fying yet.
at the same time. bright and splendiL rhcnrmenon the mighty
upsurge of rcason in the society of hI!:; t -nc, Our intentIon
is to use Shakespeare's images in _ r ~er Jl"IOl e exactly to define
the charactcristics and t :ldrncies 01 r 1S01' n Onf~ f ts -::'lost
brilliant rcpresentative' Ot tra~ "cr:ou- oj thl 11 ro of th,s
article. Francis B?coJ"
Conflict plays a great par~ 1 all Shakespe_ ,'s .,Iays, ,nd,
pcrhaps, thc decisivc part in t~, :>C"calll.._ TI stoiC'....

,In

t'lL Middle AgL' md 'he b.

nrg o' ,'le
Renaissance. 01 WhH.' ~hakc "'~'H" lIns a '''. ~ W"S 1
time of tempe-t'louS ld:vidt..... "'IT. th-. di, mte r _iliC":': of ~
The end

01

~till fairly firmly C' t il 1 c:hec soc _ I UI -'- He

l.s:'lf fcL ev~rywhe',; Jake .... B'L -;,ar 't,;n

We...

1- II

)r-found
f the baSIC
rar
b

studies of thr Renaissarcc "'c: -) '" \. nI...

t~~c:ecs of this e )ch t lis en cipation 0: thr individuitl ,,1'}~
1is lctive c"- dL lV;: ur to _ -_ l\t r 11, UI c ... f
l(epf'1l
n ~y to detclJr. It. h _ r_:td '1- ~~II' life
The c' 1i...._l~ lpal~u
dividl.._. 1, "l., constant 01 ect of
Shakfspcarc's coni 'Tl, 'I "t. hi
'"h ~ individl.._ - - n _
tc )1 plolound inl rc t to "m What lie brl:_ .. hin "
succcc:s t"l .... rowl hl~ e\}~l nl e sing C::;Ire-. cr prelr. ,t Jrc
1
destruction? Fithl r is r 55! Ie
h' V\ de ::haOI1'" w ... r d, in
which 1.1dividual Wl
OJ'c 5) lil :,cilt;~:'}1 .-,ittcd ;1f' lr,..!'mt
the othel
hake':;:"! _ . chardl ~s (. nl ~ttl1 1"--," pel har;.
"1:'1e he rc 5 of ~h.lkc .pC-lr~ 5 imn ediltc 1-- -Ie . . eo;.::c:S. , the
Flizabethafl dnmc" ts) -k
eyr.c;dvcs :If:' DC t 311 L~l1ngs
permItted? ~~'C auth( r VO t'1l n'Jrch' dd gone down t.,l~ly
belir. f in God h_! b~c.c~t. ve v ft._bl~, an~ '1 plac,' ~f L.,flt
T
~ "'c Will which hau. b~1 1 qu L~ pl ~_' e'Y ie" oul 111 the
J
tea,"in:>;. ~ollated y thl ch.lr ':IC), '11.('" egar'" su~pect th:
c,. ~enL -f some 01 c dl\} lity .":m. pc...h..: :s, ur s('me dark
Fa: u'llik"'IV. t V'"]s "I bJ re i,rcl' br,evok,t or l~S:
pC' _:blv ell "I ~if:'1plv cr el. 11 li'_c'y ~C' ~r'oy the sl1ffcnngs
~ 'ne t. 's th.lr to' 1 ~on pas. ilm (0: them

-'u

If all things are permitted. then the following question

In thl
have
millio
en b)
Soviel
tlOIl5
been 1
in thE
The
tho....

.peare
betwe
.inee t

Th<oe

give
popule

Thls"

publiCI
the St
to the

o'the

The'"

01 art!

wrlten
01 the
lHun

the <lor
Itth~

the lac:

tOiniE"

lb.

A. Lur.

eo

weU.okn

ouch

M.Mor
In the
SPUN .

Will ftn
of artIel
K. ilia
G, IJIar
otb 1-,

remains: of all that is permit~~ d, what is a ctuJ.l1v aCCOm

plishable?
E\'cry form of retribution. whether it be the "'esult of a
confluence of circumstances or : he cruel reaction ot govel nment. society, or enemies. can, in the li1st analysis, be defined
as failure. If a man succumbs to the buffeting of such retribution. it means merely that he has failed to calculate hi~
actions; that, having accepted the more or less (morally, in
the eyes of the Renaissance man) justifiable thesis that "All
is permitted", he has left out of account that this docs not
mean that everything is simply there for the taking, or that
it is possible to live selfishly like a beast of prey in a world
where the prize is to the strong. or that he has forgotten the
existence of society. of the forces of state and of other
perhaps better-armed predators,
It is better not to be moral-in battle. morality is nothing
but an encumbrance; true, morality can very often be useful,
but only as a mask behind 'which to 1:tide cvnicism and cruelty
But it is essential to be clevel to be very very clever It IS
essential to be able to pI IV va:-ious par, according to
the dC'nands of the si .uation P is 3senti.-l to ',ow how to
imprcs~ other people- if need be by force. It is c~ srntial to
c3.kt.:~ate in good time what orees vou arc abou. to set in
motion. and to . . . ase ~ u c 'culatil)ns on thelr Ii x nU""Il
pro,nCL:.VC . .t~ ngth T" be clevel tT'C2'S 0 leave out of a,count al' :"CliS":.o~s nil 1'Il("lnl nor: ense, " -reconceived orinions, all false v3.1ues, c..:-,d.o look lifc soberly bctwc:o'1 the eyes.
B':1t this cll)o mean.:; td ... inJ in the very e_' ~_,'gers of Ffe
wlth the <;>anc sobre glance.
No genius in the cu'tlrl11 hi. tory cf he wo:-ld has dt;voted
l1lian' an .malvsis as did
sc conLentrated and"!1tw.:"Jelv
Shake..,peare t'J the appeannce of r,'>':l!:il'n. to the 'appearance
oj l!1telJect .:-f njnd 3.S such, oj :nind unfette;'~J ard " .....throned.
. ~~ind has bf'"f''l dcc',,!:~..: a ,.c:," pPot. Yet.n shake<;:e ...
~~IS po"",:er '.~.:lke( t!le 9reat('~t t1.oubt. He is fU frorr. ,:~n'
Vlflcc;j t':;;;.t t:li~ rilot doc; net e! 'nest always S~-::Ol to ruin.
"Be thal a.s i~ ID.?)', t~l" :lITe-g.!:ll .. nrl ~\-e 'If'W pre-cmi'lt:nce .-f
mte:le..:.~ :5 .i! thc~c v.-bich nt t ,'n:'.r illterc',ts Shakespe::trc bt:.t
tc:1t'en~ ~ ~"ln;. E,:> :3 ;!TlhUc:,1 with thl' 'wst prolUl d "cspect
:.:.r ::.tdJl.~ct. H(~ is far :rcm dr ~I~'1q, fc..; ftvm ,-.cte t;n~ cver.
t::e. :no<;;: ~!1il 31 '\hcv.J~ic. OJ in"f'i'cct" lIe u,..d(~~t':'::1d!
their pecuhn f!"'eedom. their pr.;>,:Lll"'IV grar.c. ':leir incompar-

ble huma n val JC which rests in their ve"y -ont~rnpl for all
~re,"... nccl~crt ODin.on~. But. at the same time h:: .. 1lses th'lt
their lot I ::' a pcnku3 one; he wh('l ar andons the h'odden
path, he wh.o ct: OLt I J seck h~ppiness In~ SUI eiS f1 the
occan, trustIng Imself to ~"'e WIll of the w'nds with oniy
on~ captain on board Re.:!svn- k~1ng too, eat a I" sk.
RcasoJ'l 1S c.: weape n in the it uggle f01 ucccss-thb s ne
il !:ipcCt of Sha, ' espeare s lttitude to intcUert which had bctomc
such a great fOl - iT' thp WQ] Id of lis tiIT'e
The other aspect was conuiuc in he l,ught that, to "le
man of intellect, who usc') h] rea~ on 15 '" bn, iant tl)rch, many
things become clear which,. for ordina~ pc_pIe,. :1.1 .... till dark
Suddenly, with extraordmary l~ dltv nd :h~tnctnI;AA. he
sees himself and all that surrounr1s li:! , lis : ;l"!.:~ Inl:
terrible war ~ lluminated by thr !::~ ... b9ht l. j:" , 1...:10 Ii
'lppears t"rat the wor'd ls ,ot only, s.. an1~ ,,1r1 t rible, b~l
mean and stupid as we' "'c.,t,.. sSlbJv
1: lot w rti wr. ~
living in it en .", -nC4 1,," e1 - .1(' gre_tesi. U:J ~~J ~~d
victor1cs whu" t 1-as to r-:. r do lot "'l~" j:"y '1-1::' (.0,- 11. _ e _1. t
ence 01 to m -t Of' the f,,:t th .... ~..! v of- ):11"'"
'" r"
Inl.
e,he-n~' c:. "u! 1...... -rr::: wh n TIldV CJ d age nd ~I ~t1. If'
irescapal!e l<>t 0: (J liv_"1! ~.... ngs, _el! D --er 3.1.
.
lLre ,."'IS'n, "l"recoc .Jt.:.lv wid_ 3.' - __ becon ) the :111_
c'u~ e 01 -e s 'Henne: f th:o nPl S :: \ l,orr: it nl -n::s. F ....:~
we have to ....0 ""11h'Lo::-:: 01 the t:: tV\; d ,1:'ance.s 0: t1 ....
Vl~ ~ phi n01 'ene n Wi k.b w_ C:1 ... r t:'.l'- nd p', CI~el:v ~c
m.:aL ted ' th::- t ... 0' \,. ibcvrw~ .W
)"ll'"'dv Wo~ 4 r, ~ W:.
r"nncis B;lc In, 3. 1.-n ot lr."C It. ..... po':; :; ~d... amnd ,"
uae, int. e-nan, "I~ t ...d b" ,"to; nrh::,.!~ s::t U . 01 the R~enal:;
t. Ivpes 01 :)hake'
dill.;
"'ad .ol.,t.thu.g 1 to: :m,"U0 1 \A,
u_.l ~' . ~ , . 'el
r~'s he _cs
.... c im,"1 ect As we b.C'con e n.'. ~ ell ~ :
.
' . ,.,
n' niJl3htv w: th ~t1e rnaxlr.l.
uC 1L1i Inl:" w
b .... .)111 n.
t.
. ,
,,'
l'
hp -:-fc J" for' haviL ~1I in e ".vdav lL ," we w::, see. IS
\in.hl With 'e fiJ: CW::'S Of Mpto:hj..:.ve:~i.
,
.
h
.
' h 5 ~ ... "lght j'.;ofll
t c
satT'c ""I'll; 1 rrust ~': erop a l~;. ,. .
.
f
A the
(; ... i.
m , It "h..:: .llthOl.gJ- ik.::::on feels absolutely 110 shad.ow ~

e:;c ne; f:r what I!; c....llled :nor.IUy. he p.e-:-fec!!y unJ:r~tfJn St

, ,
~l.k ~lltjeltn,.,ort,:ll1<"c'" no
III -l- il"lpor .!nee c: ~:.. ~ mo~.;U :n.l~ .' ,.
'.
11 the
v.:-k1I hl.> t:n: ,"u~"'qf' bv o.ver !:-ank. r~vclatd.~~~' i~tellect
inpor mcc vI veIling the cl :.1d.1Clty of t ht;! Im,epcbnl ' . And
.
,
. ,ll\J-ac..:epta e VieW.""
ehl:-,d vClbal c...:..ncc'SI 'n~ .~"I geUlr~ . ."
.
h n in his
.... "ul,1 U"('or. dC'l thi~ C10r~ effectively t a
,
Whc-" .,.
u
.
II....

d d' t d '.J VlrIcU5

,

b' ......

:,::.

AI

'"-

ny

:u',1i!S(tt;J work:;, whic'~

he

e lCa c

'

In the
ha\'('

milUOI
en by
SovIet

tions
beenp
in the
The r

thousa

Qe,re

betwee
since b
Thoe
give I
popul,

1'hla ...
publica
the Stt

to the
ot 1M 1
TIle bo
'" artIo
wrfteta.

"'the

'.em
the cion

,the tact

fOllilEr

A. LUll;

thlo col

well-lm(

ouch ..

M. Mar.
In the
,p~"e

will ftn(
of artich
K. StII

o. UIon

'at.......
..
.... ...
oducs "

--Ib
"on

highborn patrons! This transparent. mO~'al mask, hO\,,'cvcr, for

anyone gifted with the least perspIcacIty, represents no bal
riel' to the understanding of Bacon's extremely far reaching.
intcllcctualising amorality.
Only from this point of view can we explain Bacon's
bchayiour at certain moments of his life when his cynicism
O\'crlcapt all bounds and, even in the emancipated society
of the Renaissance, provoked a reaction of hostility towards
Bacon himself. Again, it also explains the seeming "thoughtlessness" which led Bacon to ruin his brilliant career by
taking bribes in a manner which, even for that time, was not
sufficiently discreet. not sufficiently adroit.
But. if all these sides of Bacon's character-his common
sense, his cunning, his lack of principle-lend themselves to
comparison with Shakespeare's heroes of the emancipated
intellect, then there can also be no doubt that Bacon is very
close to Shakespeare's more sombre and, at the same time,
nobler types-to his Hamlet-types, of which lVC sh. 11 single
out three for close analysis: the melancholic Jaques, that
Hamlet in embryo, Hamlet himsclf, and Prospero who is. as
11 were,'he final solemn chord of the whole theme of doubt
and thought associated with the name of Hamlet
But first, let us take a look at Shakespeare's cynics. The1 -'
d .: d !-iood many of them. The first mo~t grandiose plac~
1
!.leir ranks is occupied by King Richard III
As I hzve already sflid, in Shakespeare thc con lict between
11div duals (usually a struggle for power) plays a majOl
par .... esnec~...ay ;n the 'Hi: tories. Richard III is the culminat1 ::!g poir:t of the Histoncs, T, the person of Richard himself
Shakespeare gives t 1e mose finished produl' of this time-of
an age 01 r Jth'es~ 'nutual extcrrnina, on among the ambitious
nobi1it~

r-e1lstonClI Richard III fl'Iay nc-t, -er1.. aps. have been ~~

.."lack d! Sl kc. p"'lre p,inted 'UM, He we::; 1 We. like urblL
us king. un!,crupulour tnOU\.ll r the pt:: ,lIit F 'lis 'lolicic)
but. plobaGlv }":',e woro;:e or ..:etter han thr Otrerh how"vCI
the fr"ct llalrc; that t1r. m SP,) F thf' ne~ pJ '" to !-- a - ar ic'
Ullll~ strc-: !i!;J.l.,. t') '<ie l;'1ri :U, 1- is lem'-a reputillC n
Wi<'lS " -:t of Co 'Il.....;1 of ext eme
:nring. 'lr' i,esl :JJ r'lth e 'S'
rc. -::~pIC ,,,', re Te.::dv ene.: willing to - elit.ve n all t-.t. OJ1(
S .. ~t
c -,mc ~hank.s to w iii: he
~uppo~ ed
~"e
ae,. eved c..nd ~---,-tn~.l:'1p.d h:'l1! :!f in powc- :t h if.. ry likely
that tho: ... ~r::hl, wh('l hold ~ ".dt ~hake'Spe_' ., cltarat' ~1 isa'

ion of Rich~rd III was such a tremendom- success Wlt'1 the

London rullic bccc.usc the image whiLh ShakesY"'l!. '" ~avc
them con espondcd to the image which this same pu\'ll _ ex'
pccted are not far hOJ? the truth. Nev _:t,hc,less. o~c ho.ls ~nly
to turn to Holinshed (I.e,. to Shakespeare Immcdn.t:c SOUl ee)
to be able to say that. this time. Shakespeare w"s not enb cl~ faithful to this basic source; '1C w:)! 11- 0 :on! i~'" ably
indebted to the wellknown book 0[': Richard III written ty
onc of thc greatest intellectuals ot the RF""laI~ san('e-Thomas
Morc, the greatest figure )f Henry VIII's rcig" llld. ""lP.
might even say, in hi~ OW" way the p] "( t.1]";0] ~f "oth
Bacon and Shakespeare.
Chancellor Thomas More, havin~ under~a':"', trc ta! k of
compiling a biography o~ Richard II. ,w~otc what was .n
fact a profoundly polemIcal lnd p ,htu'...! \; )rk. r1f1t11._S
More's aim was nl t 30 muc, to cur_v lVOU. V' ~'1 the 10use
of Tudor by ervile .,nl. e e~ to exalt it ,-. t:: expc~se '~ It
predecessor not, .. f u 3C as ~ flatte: . but ""l zs mt"~ 1 ZOOS
lC wa!;, :n '" gcnenl way. trY ~' to gct 11~ owr. 1uma"111-1,an
d 1d,
0r "le imes pnfourdly rroqre"Sslvt:: b:. qr-' ~Ol til ..
n1 11 men ed urdf>l t 1t p: >tection: the Iude
{tr ....., thl!
rut,er alk
com::- off amI ';.11 rr-, MOl_ h ... Sll. ev ,.
tual v. dl victirr to the nO"s~:om dr !,01 m 0: r cn v VIII
h ,rv VII Juke 01 Ril n ond.
~ jt\.._' conqll r f
.
,c
:ichard
PI lrd t 1e fir.t .,...1L..):0
end .
. . . .r".'
. . w".
- In
11
1 r "pul ve nh,;:
c-nc-1 d ,OS( ngi ~d nar .L 11 u u.
f
rOI pl_venl Th(\m s 'Vl"'~.: f orr II
.11
u
tlr.s to ..1P.
t'le u/c.."f Ric 1mond ;.v"3!> 1 v_. tuom k 1Ight
effect hdl
. '
,
ci
nJ' P.
who' C )(./(>1 t -te.ilt;;_ e lu.tr.nl 0: 'u. l( e "n
.. pU
nent f v Ct:, whercas Ril.."_ .J I I w <; ~ ficnd nC3nal. ...vorst COfll.._lV ble product -f mea C',-.
~t ~
Thl idea cf Rkh u I f P fou"l. \; ciOU5f J J,.~kCSl e'll2
<
'n
tdv 111,:mgt'lt le c
h)o fr'rJ'I MI
Howev r. Wt::
n.
.
''1
rI
to 1( ... WIth
tr~m('"'uops di '~e .:-~t ~- F",: ~01E" RlC alu.
.'" f
1 ' 'ur
,'.:ho 1<:'
w , me ly ~ pili ;:" 'Y nC!I"'1 ~ gur~. f I
d - ~"i 1~
r
11.11 >Iy
"...:11' _
S -i
y
~.)od :\.11.;
. . ,,"If
h ....
...
d
,,5:::.
...vh('ls~ CryII" M01t:: h 11- 11'I... h. pene
t
.-Jr'
d dual
on.:u "].. le 1 IVl
,
.... "lrc, J-.c in __ . CS 1 e p e r .
, ~ttin~ .'1:
""c
lndil Sf' fit ~rc 1- I, h, or c .. 'lL_nl
u ue u~ t ~ mit ... 1 I I I
to rch ..~)] 'Itate
~ t 1t. VCr en :. 4."lakc5!-'C r ~ ~ C_" ~ - t
'1e
rt t,;h u III
,d. y ne l ngle uimL "n th'" 'onlrdlj'
-lac rut nen..m;
M
<! .. r bl"'
'1111 I..ch 11.:._ a!; even
ore
J

ili. .

In th
have
milli(
en b
Sovie
tions
been
in th.
The

thou!
.peat'<

betwf

since
Th...
give
popul

ThJs (
public
the S
to thE
01 the
The h
01 an
writer

0Iu..

tweeu

the de
11th...
the 10<

tot ihet

A. LUI

..

...eUoob
ouc:h
M .....
In the
41'N,

WIll ...
of a tid

Boa

It

Q.

U\or

Pas '

"' ......

I~

-s.
-., ' -

L8
1"

-I
~~It

Ir

but from all this he draws no poetic or ethical conclusions

Shakespeare's Richard III is a monster, but such a splendid
monster, so talented, so successful, so surc of himself. so
bold, that Shakespeare admires hIm.
Like the subtle psychologist he is, Shakespeare tries to
distinguish various features of Richard's character and to
show them at various turning-points in his inner development.
Although Shakespeare is bound always to condemn Richard
politically as a usurper, in spite of the fact that he piles
horror upon horror, that he is constantly appealing to the
spectator, exciting his anger against the shameless RichardIn spite of all this Shakespeare still respects Richard. J
repeat, he admires him. Not for one moment does he desire
to discredit the actual principle of the disciples of Machia'
velli, the principle. that is, of rationalised ambition, of civil
ambition directed to a definite end, prepared to draw on all
the resources of scientific analysis and predatory hypocrisy,
taken to its logical conclusion,
The History devoted to Henry VI was most probably in
the main not written by Shakespeare and it is very difficult
to establish the truly Shakespearean passages with any
real certainty. However, in view of the fact that Richard III
was in all essentials written by Shakespeare. it may be safely
assumed that those first stcps of the ladder which, in his
drama devoted to Henry VI. lead up to the Chronicle of
Richard III, were penned by none other, In this case, we are
presented with a picture of genuine development of character.
Gloucester (the future Richard III) is first and foremost
a dashing soldier. He is not afraid of bloody battles, nor
~ocs he shrink from letting blood-his own or others'. He
IS more energetic and active than his relatives, He is a wild.
rou~h lad, a.nd is feared accordingly, At the same time he is
~ crtpple. HIS physical deformity is emphasised in Henry VI.
It ma~es him unlikeable, even repulsive to those about him,
s~ts him apart from them. isolates him, forces him into J.
kmd of bask self'reliance. The psychology wh',ch is the na'
tuul re<;.ult of these circumstances ~s voiced by Gloucester
In severed monologues. whi<.:h we shall n('t quote he':"e since,
t
. l~hc very, beginning of the play i<.J.chard lII. WI;: have a
hll nt sohloquy which sums them all ur (characlcrhtic.
y t e WdY, of ,the artIstk device 3ltOptcd by Shakcspear'"
to :~ohw us the mner workings of his Rlchard's mind).
lL ard 15 a cynic, he knows perfectly well what he IS

he despises prejLdkc and recoil!!. bcfole no eimes,

a ?U, for Richard is not cr1me it aU but the WeaJ'l5 to an
Crune
i t 0"
d For this rea! on 1e .:afl re h pars'" h
~ I an
um,_
en't penly and wit.'1out "'ar. On the othel h...nd. it i , ,;,t
qUl e a scarcely possible to imi:lgine Ric'lard hc:V nq u c nfi
course,
.
'
dant to whom he might
have .lOId th IS I I
an Inf
11
r" lKOCS,
T dmit the existence of such a confidant woulu. be t,o r'ln
thee a icture we have of Richard's chane ,cr. He lu~t be
T ~ the dramah~ t l~
~
d
enough
before
others,
But
he
v
e1
res d \
the conventi( n 01 the sdilc l'r. Rirltard I 1, jeft
save
Y
t'
d w th I r' .,;
alone with
himself, d
pon ere '
lIS 51 . IO~ an ,
brilliance of imagery, exposes s JJ'lO~t mw rd thoughts ~
the audience (who are pre'Ul1t :i ac's:""11).
t
Let us cite the whole morolo1ue WI ~
~t the an I: me
serves ~s l kir d of ltr )duction - I: e... tlrc pky
t

"ths,

JO

,,

And therefore. sillce I call not prove a lover.

To entertain these fair wcll-spolwll days,
I am determined to prove a villain.
Alld hate the idle pleasures of these days,

In th
ha\'e
millie
en b:
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been I

in the
The j
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give s
popular

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to the II
of th.. u_

The bool
of articl,
writen, (
of the U
tw.." SG
the demO(
lith~tu

the fact tt
former

Wt

A. Lunacl
tht. coli..
weU-know
IfUch a.
M. Morozc
In the lie(!
speare and
wlll ftnd I
of artlcle1
K. Stanla

G. Ulanov
othns wh

incarnatln.
of the .. !a:I
t ...

and.

More than
studl. of :

"'-beI
bcdr:. It Is
_ an Intr!
V'alub)e ct

,n

WOi~ atud~

Sheik

If we consider this monologue carefully, we are forced to

admit that Shakespeare makes the first motive of Richard's
"villainy" the fact that he is made "so lamely and unfashionable" and, because of this, is at an exceptional disadvantage in
peace-time existence amongst the gallant pursuits of the court.
Nevertheless, it is essential to note from the start that,
though Gloucester may use the term "villain" here, he is in
fact most indulgently disposed towards villainy and we feel
at once that he is not in the least inclined to see himself
as a "second-rate" person just because he happens to be
physically ugly, On the contrary, we feel that this physical
deformity, which condemns him to a peculiar isolation, will
only serve to temper him for the main object, for that in
which he finds himself, for that in which he finds the chie!
pleasure of life: that is in struggle, in conquest, in the
achievement of his aims by making others the submissive
tools of his will. In the famous scene between Richard JII and
Anne, Shakespeare hurries to prove this. It is not only that
here Richard shows magnificent talent as a man of intrigue,
able quickly to put two and two together and to see how ~e
should direct and combine circumstances so as to make hiS
way towards the throne as fast as possible. In exactly the
same way, it is equally not that Richard here shows himself
such a consummate actor, though this is most important, nor
is it the tremendous art which he brings to pretence and
deception. The specific flavour of this scene is given by the
fact that the deformed Richard here speaks of love, of passion, that he wins the hand of tl,c wife of a man whom he
has slain and that, in the sfoortc t possible time, he breaks
down Anne's hi'l.tred and:hanges it to a cer"ain sympathy.
T'1is proves that RiL lc:::d's cl'ockc~ 5houlders, withered hand
lOd uneven legs ~;-e :10 h.ndrancc to ~m Wlc::.ever even
when he needs to use C~ 01 C'> 2"l. . we..:" on .
I would 'ike to dl .w the'cader sattention to the con vel'
sation etwL~ RI' 'l~rJ md :~u, k lgham, T' is conversation
hows w1:t.....t <!-.1 enor:""luus F:::: t Wd"'; played by tht: ability to
I(. 1 part Ird by cunn:ng J~"l.se,.,bl:n~ in ' .... e rcla:i('nsh. s
betv.: en t 'It:, in~cl:.ect, 01 that time
12

'.

<

...

". - -
~

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In Ib
have
millio

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Hie 'lard

lions

....n'
Buc.:kingham

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give a
populal

This co
publica'
the Stu
10 the I

ot thE' t

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:i1~1
tween

the den'
Utth-cer

the fact
tormer
A, Lu"
thta co
well-kn,

.uch a
M. Mot
In the

apeare ,
will On
or aMlel
K. Sq
G. Vial

otM"

In.......
01 the

(Olllt:, (.

(. :.1ll5i

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since b4

-, the \..)ur e o! hIS c.:-nvcrgal on wit'l

Bw:kil1gham

en b)

In the
The t
thoula

u!Jin,

thou ljualu, alia l1"nll'" tny ",IOUI

N.urlher thy bTl.. 'l/h m mJadle 01 (.I 'Vord

Alld Il'eu begin again, anl slop auaIn,
AHa Ji til( U wprt d' _fraught 'Anl nad 1I."1I1
lerror
'lut I can (Olluter J ;t trlC ae_ n 'rul,te 1wn,
Spea}~, ana look back., (1.11d otic" n every ldf
Tremble .:Jt1-l start 'It wall~r. 9 01 :l .'raw
11ltendintj leep SUSpl1 11 jh::"!'y 'OOli
Are 'It my se~ ke like elLO~ 'cd 11 If' ,
.,4~~ both we r=!!d.v "1 th,'r ollie es,
It any I n~ f, Irae' 11 hltag lIS,

pc: til Jlar ,- 1~ vf ~ 19;11 Il ty I.

hiS
- WI, 1 t"
- It i
ravishmg in cxq\.lL.c t nd-,J ~ vpex r i c
c m'
mcnd l~
anyone v. \l ha either 1( t t_ d
t rg c ' ... n It.
Here I wlil c nfinc 11VSc; t Ind' ting t\. .. (,IOU( - tet
\. ;lnnoL only lr lW I 1 1i.
;II sara b u
1
tc_t ry
essence hiS \II ul,ke ,!laL c
l( I.. r _ ;.re ~ _..1'"
casm whtch : 50 "1ar"cter: .. , ( 1)1 11-' l(
n IJt 0:1 11
mask 01 1 t "r: ~tial', 01 1 n _1 c' r ...,e
f
11 n). t 1( Y
1
man WIth u h_ _ for (.'~ 1( ~'" "11 ~s vf I. _ anu ar t i. 1
order to tdkc th: In ph.... L .... nj e _ w. y f -Jlv 19 SIJI
stance to a yer':J.ap p. '19 r.4 d 1 tl':: p....... c W1)( h '1'"
led them to se"'l:\ In 11m 1 k ng, 1 .. pn('ll ~
0: law ",.ld
order. Latel on, wrlen t~u _n.: 01 11~~a.v 1fe Ire]e y bc
ginning to tun agaiJ'l' h n \\,' 1 \;"at 11' \;~llle dallnt
docs he lporoach (IUe 1 E "'aveth, <-'-lIng fo:"e da!! hter
hand! How 11uch p_. Slon, how 71UC 1 .ll~cncv, how n lch
1
di~ al'l'lin~. tcndcI nes:o i~ 1I11-Hl't 1:1 1(' W u' 0 Ih.. 131 UI
It may ;l:Cll that, C"l th .. LX
Ie "c..:d El _beth ~hc k lOWS
lim v 1'Y well 1( c!,; wql I,; d4 e ve_ At 11 ,'eveD!', how'
~V(,I hard it mll! t 1e fa h'n he ~qa~ 1 'luts .1p ,
llende <;
tak~ ""d., WIth all the lr- II nd Il( "'Ie 51 fpO.'SCSSi,'1
ets ttl VUI .... u. di le Ii' ~ w"'OIC new ySI n a' .oil:Cli
3lonshlPS, il. 'N'tolf" Y t~m vf ",.'ianl..': w
pe pl_ w'1,11
he /las no t..='lv offen~_ ir rde . t;:"u,k a 1rn fUU'lda'
'
til.m bene l11 h 5 feet.
A hiy:h dc;: ' I f thl
shown by CiIOuCC ~e 11

t.,

'"

In t~
ha\'e
millio
en b}

So\'let
lions
been.
In the
The t
thousa
speare
betwee
since lH

These
give

Sl

popular

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publlcat
the Stu.
to thE' I

ot thE' U
The boo
of artiel
WTiten
ot the't
tween S
the demc
11th-cent

the tact
tonner w
A. Lunac
thlli cou.
9(ell--ltno",

ouch at

M, Moroz
In the Me
apeare ani
will nnd
of artlel.
K, Stanb
C. UIanov

othe,s

w~

Incarnatln.

However, the figure of Richard would remain quite

incomplete in our eyes had we not seen how Shakespeare
organises his ruin.
Richmond is advancing against him at the head of a great
army. One after another, Richard's false friends go over to
the enemy. It becomes clearer with every passing hour that
the force of this enemy is crushingly superior. At the same
time, Richard is troubled in his own mind. After a whole
series of crimes he has killed two innocent children. Here
the motif which Pushkin was later to develop in his Bori;
Godullov is introduced with tremendous effect. But Richard
is no Boris. Although he docs indeed suffer pangs of con
?cicnce, although. he is possessed of a human nature which,
In accordance wIth a thousandyear-old tradition, cannot
but reproach him, albeit in dream, with his inhuman cruelty,
he nevertheless shakes off all these terrible dreams and
repro~ches, all t~is trouble of the mind, as soon as it is
mormng and the tIme has come to go into battle.
W~ can. only advise reading this truly superb scene,
whel~ eveI;Y word adds a monumental stroke to the portrayal
of thIS terrIble, monstrous man.
'hI:I~e, .it is en~ugh. to quote Richard's last rallying speech.
~. lC b .g.lves an inspIred picture of his Machiavellian policy
1S a Ihty. to choose the only words which could possibl;
t h eart Into men who are in fact fa
pu
f-' d
d f
..'
, r f rom b
emg hIS
Hlen s an ar from bemg Idealistic "patriots" of his cause
ere, we have a knowledge
h
.
even Napoleon's A d
h a mass. psyc ology surpassing
n
t.on, what steadi'nes , at .t e sam.e hme, what inner resoluto illumine the d . ~ of mmd commg, after a troubled night,
.
eCISlVC moment of the: struggle
RIchard. Go , Ge1111emell. every tHall to his charg
~et not o~r babbling dreams affright ~ur souls'
Dor ~~2SClefillce is a word that cowards use,
,
em:; at rst to heep the strong "J awe
O ur strong arms b e au, COI1SClem
.
'
. sword.'
Oul

of the 11 E.

a"" and a

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atucll.. ot ;
rble. bet
bocdi:. It 18
.. an Intrl

vahqbJ. ch
_01 kf atudll

'he.. '

71 ...

MUl(.;n Oll

ravely, 'et as tot peU ~llell

no to
t
1zan J l t l ha.:ld I.) ludl.
What
h.:'r~ven ,neu
s ...d I say mOl c; tCcm I llQl e infer! d'

'
[.

h' Jam

h.w.

E,1(ugh.f Ricoard Ill. Of. .

t
I n ! hr more ::Jnndk10.' ~ se. .11S ~ ti\.lure ,:; c.vnL~ived
B.. cllns amont m(){\d~ ~ou
an the il~ur, of Bacon. :-'u~
. re In m"ny ways very close to
jf

Richard's. It is one and the same school of life, one and the
same world.
Perhaps Shakespeare comes closer to Bacon in scalc wh n
he creates the illegitimate son of Gloucester 'Edmund in
great tragedy of Killg Lear.
e
. It .shoyld
not~d from the start that Edmund, also, has
hIS JusttficatlOn, Rlc~ard e~ters into a monstrous struggle
for power and explalOs thIS by the circumstance of hIS
physi~al d~formity, E.dmund enters into a similar plot and
explalOs thIS by the CIrcumstance that he is a base-born !)on.
Here, we are evidently confronted with a broad generahsa'
tion.
Shakespeare asks himself: why has a type of man come
into being who is prepared to put his reason at tl e service
of careerism, of ambition, and who makes so dangerous c:.
servant of this reason, so sharp, a poisoned dagger )f '115
will? And he answers-why, yes, all men likc thaI Ire. in a
way, base-born, they are all people to WhOM fate h::s nol
given all that they should like to have. They are people who
see themselves as unfairly done out oj thel r ghthl place
in life, as slighted from the cradle, and W 10 fOl this rea! on
set about righting what. they are convinc-.;Io.l. are ver-igh's
of Nature. with the help of superbly thoc_
ut intrigue'.
It must be admitted that the RUSSI..:'! 1 t Inslator of King
Lear, Druzhinin, gives. in his preface to the plilY, U~ excel
lent analysis of Edmund's character' an m_'}1 ;i5 whiL'" IS a
firmly drafted that we p-efer to "lor~ow the whole p~ssagt
just as he wrote it:
"The basic feature of this ty.-'" is thai br lZcn in.olence ;md
shamelessness which always enables the POfsessor f suc'1
traits to lie without the least tw_n~e of conScH"OL .... ~o don
any mask, acting always under thenfluf'uce :>f one domhating desire to make their own way at C!.1V cosl even :f that
way should lie over the dead bodies of fathel or l-rothcr
Edmund is no mere narrow egoist, neltller is he ,;: blind
villain capable cof ~aking pleasure in his own "I doing. Ed
mund is a richly JiFted character, but a character w'1o has
been cankered a; the root and who. be...:ausl' of th: s, can only
use his exceptional talents to the detriment of hIS fellows.
Fdmund's genius IS "'videlt in his every step, in his C\'cry
WO!:l. for not Onto -;te"""' doe" he take and not one movement
docs "c make wl:ticn has nol been carefully calculated, and
the' e eternal c_.!culali<"ns ~o dlY up ~rn:,tnd's hc:ut and

th

?c

"t

so

,"'

==
=.'
-

mind that he becomes old before his lime and learns lo

govern even those bursts of youth(ul passion before whose
onslaughts fiery, easily tempted youth is usually so vulnerable. Another undoubted sign of Edmund's genius is the
way in which all around him submit to the magic influence
of his gaze, of his speech, of the general aura of his personality, which inspires women with uncontrolled passion for
him and men with trust, grudging respect, and even something resembling fear."
To this sketch of Edmund's character we arc tempted to
add only the famous monologue pronounced by Edmund
himself, for this monologue in many instances corresponds
almost word for word with some of the tenets of "free morality" to which our Bacon, in spite of certain reservations,
comes so close to subscribing wholeheartedly.
Edmund,

Thou, Nature, art my goddess, to thy law

My services are bound. Wherefore should I
Stand in the plague of custom alld permit
The curiosity of llations to deprive me,
For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines
Lag 01 a brother? Why bastard? Wherefore base?
When my dimensions are as well compact,
My mind as generous, and my shape as true,
As honest madam's issue? Why brand they us
With base? with baseness? bastardy? base, base?
Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take
More composition and fierce quality
Than doth, within a dull, stale, tired bed
Go to the creating a whole tribe of fops,
Got 'tween asleep and wahe? Well, then,
Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land.
Our lather's love is to the bastard Edmund,
As to the legitimate. Fine word, "legitimate!"
Well, my legitimate, if this letter speed,
And my invention thrive, Edmund the base
Shall top the legitimate. 1 grow; 1 prosper;
Now, gods, stand up for bastards!
S~akesp~are's lago we consider a third type of intellect~ahst-cYnIC, one who uses his mind as a weapon against

his fellow-man. On the whole, he seems the most puzzling

of all the series of characters to have been created by

Shakespeare in this field. Indeed, it is impossible to say what
were Iago's guiding principles as he carried out those
supremely artful manoeuvres, . dange~ous to himself and
infinitely cruel to others, by which he mtended to encompass
the ruin of two beings for whom, at the very worst. hI:'
could have felt nothing but indifference.
Shakespeare eon fines all Iago's motivation to the scene
between him and Rodrigo. Here, we are treated to a whole
system of strange attempts at self-justification. At first, we
see Iago entering into a plot with a crazed man of crazy
desires and, quite without rhyme or reason, just like that,
as a kind of low joke, agreeing to forward these desire!'; on
condition the other fills his purse. But then it turns out that
Iago has other motives of his own for wan~ing to do D:s~e
mona and Othello an ill turn. Here, there 1S some SUspICion
that Iago's somewhat scatterbrained wife, by whom her
husband docs not elsewher(' appear to set much store, has
not been sufficiently nice in her de-"llings with the General
All this is mixed up with varieu" other considerations, all
of them trifling, contradictory.
Why such a subtle psychologist as Shakesp?are n.ceded
all these various motives leaps to the eye lmmedlat~ly,
Obviously, they arc not needed to provide the real motIvation of Iago'::; behaviour but in order to show that lago
himself does not know his own motives.
In all this long scene. which represents a series of confused
attempts to provide some justification for an enormous,
crimina1 plan which is due to be executed. with the m.ost
exquisite cunning and with iron will, thc Imp0r:t~nt t~m~
is not the attempt to suggest motive but the defimtIon give
. h
by Iago to the power of human will in general. ,
Thi's last statement, however, must be modIfied str~lllg t
"
'II
'
,I"
but
the
human
WI
0f
away: Hot human WI 111 genela ,
. h d III s
people such as Iago and, perhaps, s~ch as, ~lC ar . ,a._
Edmund a!'; all the!':c Machiavellians m polItIcs and In hPn
~ate lif~; ~nd. to ~ l:onsiderable extent. of people sue as
our Francis Bacon.
Here is this .J.mazing passage:
Iago' Virtue! a fig! 'tis in ourselves tha.t we are ~hlluS ~!
.
.'
d
to the whIch our WI s a
lhus, Our bodzes are gar ~ns;
ttles or sow lettuce;
gardeners: so that if U'C wlll plant ne
,

37
36

set hyssop, and weed up thyme; supply it with aile gel d

I1 l~lall~; Ch"IU?r to IWue it sterile
of herbs, or distract zt"WIt
with idleness, or mam,ired llJ1tl~ m~tist~y; why, the POwel
alid corrigible autll0nty of tll1,s lzes III our wills. If the
balance of our lives had flat Olle scale of reason to pOis
another of sensuality, the blood aJid baseness of OUr n:
tures would conduct us to most preposterous conclusioll ,
s
but we have reason to cool our ragillg motions, Our cawai
stings, our unbiUed lusts; whereof I tal?e this that you call
love to be a sect or SCiOll.

I"

In t~
ha'-e
millio
en b)
SO\-iet
How

been,

in the
The t
thousa
speare

betwee
since hi
These ~
give 8,
popular

This col
publicat
the Stu!
to the I
of thf' U

Th. boo
of artiel
wri......
of the t
tween S

the dem(
J8th~t

the fact
former "

A. Luna(
lb. calif

well-kn~

such ..
M_ Moroz
In the lie!:
apeare an.
will ftnd
of artlcl.
K. Stanlr
G. Ulanov
other: wt
Inearn.tlna

the"!a
t .. and.

of

More th.n

aNdt. or .

........ be!
boN+' It fa

.. an Inire

vaJuab.. d!
....Id .tud14

.ek'

'- ...
'7

It is quite evident that lago is aware of tremendous

strength in himself; he understands that he is his OWn
master; he understands that. in this little garden which he
has just described to us, he may plant out a remarkable
series of most subtle poisons; he understands that he is a
man of strong will and clear mind. a man not bound by any
prejudices whatsoever, not enslaved by any laws outside
himself, by any moral heteronomy, and that such a man is
terrifyingly strong. In those times, still grey at dawning,
when the vast majority did not know how to use their reason,
wh~n ~lmost all men were bound by religious and moral
preJudIces. such a free strong-man must have felt himself
akin to the Novgorodian hcro of our ballads he would
se~ze a man by the ann-the arm would come off, he would
seIze a man by the leg-the leg would come off. He can
c~allenge anyone he likes to a battle of wits and can beat
him, can ma~e hi~ look foolish, can deprive him of prop'
f:~~,reputahon, WIfe and life, and himself remain unpun'

If there is a certain clement of risk, who does not know

after all, how much charm risk lends any game for the real
gambler. And Iago is a real gambler. He is a poisonous
rna1
v
.flower. unfolding his petals in the first warmth of
t e spnng of the mind. He is enjoying the icnse of his own
newness. h.e wants to try the power of his youth straight
away and 15 spoiling for action .
w~ut
does lago fall upon Othello, and not some other?
. ~ oes he rwn Desdemona, and not some other? Of
h~u the r...lsons which he givcs are purely ridiculous, No,
ohl:r ..... u~on Othe~lo t-e.cause. Othello is hi.!> commanding
. . e ...1Use he IS anh dIu, ~trtous general and, very :learI)'
." (11;,.].1 m.m b
'. eC':lUse c 15 covel'cd in the glory of pasL

thy

f 'fi"

l8

, t 'ics over countlcss perils and SUI" "f his own courage
Vlcdo:night. Surely, it must be pleasant indeed to trium~t"
iln
man J:ke that? Incidentdlly, it is ~lso elSY, ecausc
over
'
l'U
b
d ry s t r...w It
" I~
h ' aingenuous,
t"ust fu,
10 amma Ie a!
e 15 asy to get .,e mastery of him. t;o lead him by hIS black
very cAnd don't you ice what a pleasUl:! that is? Don't ynu
If "
I
nosc,
sec how delightful I. is to see onese, leutenan~. ag~, a
Ily smart aleck without the least claim to dlSI nctlon.
rasea
'
in the role of guide, mastct, F ate, p rOVI'dI n_ ~ lnL G('d 'n
relation to thiS famous, hot headed, "owc ful, dangel us
and fiery general?
.
And Desdemona? 5h(' is the daughter 01 '5E"""latl,r B, It m,tJo,
she is the finest fJl w. r of Venetian ~ult~h; she' IS 111 lyncai
'ty and noble devotion sJ""le IS hk:> 1 iong, he IS a
I
scnsuil I
h'
Id h
great prize, the highc. t rewCl
fOl W Ich a n :10 ,ou
ope
and she has :;urrender:>~ hers!
Othello y.. thou! . _ erve
has ranted h n the pI ize of herse l ~u~ stoe s tr J! tIn~, shr.
is d~encele<;.s, she is honoo. ble She": IS lC -lble of !usped'
in an one ,f double de.;: nt. snc ao~ noL pvc} k,ow the
't ;s verY c sv to Jre h
lli~" any
g . Y of the w.
mr.anmg
h JW Igr.....
- b ~ it IS 'l _fe '
let AJ"ld, iUre1y. you -mst see
.
f
ll,
'"'''It:'y uch l .,,1 II e 01 ] ItU ~ IS
that - e :1te 0 suc c..

C!: "\ 0' -,e Vf ~hr 0

10 on(; ~ 1,-01..:, to
u!, rc u: any .
~
k sin
sutfering. to T'l:', tl."l I..lU-t:. ler ~) cha~~... .,>n. 1
9
(lnd a delig:-t ltO d to:"D1t,;;n 11 d 1 :a1c~H. ~n ubI" c Re: li.All thl J :1go SolVOl i r n ;lllvanc... \\ -, IS
d
h
sanee scns.J' llitY:ind h
e Ir' lmp h 5 1f' lilv" i(':C In 1 vance
theile
"p n i l , .s~~., hin self ~ .. 11- 9('11.1': f t'1 r e
1 u1 n9 the
ill angl 1. And to s.~"" h,ll5e f ~, :t u:~ wh~ar shim witJ""o
hte of G.ll". .. exaltt:.l pc )\ n"gc. - SI]
PrIde
Trill i~ l- <;. lut v ..
n' Y Ir 'I 1 the
me
" :tim"s arc
It l.' ~lso c.. vCly ~lIm .\."'n.c ~"'1 ~N)~"day.,
rllakc-up )1 t'l vpc 01 th~ "::. I~ .. lL -5 ost lh fres'riness.
differ t n( W 3uay - kC
n. lL ~.ll
nil ~ .. ,'IC-. t over the
The enli"nf' I"UP lr~ 1~ ... It! -y.,:~r ci'leighte_-th centu~ies.
C~ th s "'u. {J("c lr. rc ~"ent .,t In t
cno't "JU..:...""llJ.::;
1
r'is W'lS th" J~ w . _h
VC iC0
I,..

t'tis was
,
c
holman ,unn.ng,
coml inatll...n! ir ,res c rn '.at! n,
h as ........ O'le -;0
t qc sue
. ..
the he\,,,,,,lv f t II <"lfl' r U 1 f1h
(hC"'dcr'os ..i.e ~lclos.
cr. Iv de ibe~ LV I.: ren~ mal W 5 suf#kl;" 'l~Y . ,U
CcnF~(, y 1 L klrq, F ~(1 i.~lJn ;mnc l~ we shall
rcmov_J f um ny form . f c...ncroU! ..

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see from his biography. Intrigue, as such, however, provided

an atmosphere in which our philosopher felt rather well at
home, as we shall also very soon see for ourselves. I do not
know whether he was ever possessed by such arch-diabolic
powers of ambition as was Richard III, or by such petty.
but uncontrollable and fathomlcssly vicious demons as lago.
The intrigues in which he was actually involved were perhaps
nearest to Edmund's in type.
Yes, indeed, Francis Bacon really did consider himself not
altogether legitimate. He did not choose his parents but, had
he been offered a choice. he would have chosen others. He
was always having to pull strings through his influential
uncles. And after all, in Cook he had a powerful opponent.
He cultivated the strangest, most tortuous friendship with
the most original figure of his age-with Essex. He was not
above playing the part of flatterer to the most despicable
people such as King James and his favourite Buckingham.
He had to mo~e among shameless courtiers, cunning lawyers and knavIsh parliamentarians in a world that was
dangerous, unprincipled, alert-and, in this world, he mandqed to c~rve. himself out a great career, almost entirely
thanks to l?tngue, and clambered his way to such a height
t~at once, m the absence of King James he even enacted
t e part of monarch in London. Then-he' came unhinged
t
u~derstand all t~is aspect of Bacon is only possible 'by
~ mglfmto accoun~ hIs own moral philosophy, although he
Imse
ld
'_he
lightexpressed
of that Its but caut'Io
us y,
an by examining it in
P {cho1~gy of the shameless chevalier of
intellect wh' h
embodied i;'theWthrc:v~h Just been analysing. and .which is
discussing with the readerakespeare types we have Just been
Now let us turn in anoth 1" d'
.
Shakespearean eharae~
. C Irechon. Let us examine those
Yf"t infi'litcly melanehC'Ys !n whfm s reflected the springHke
worM .at that time In ~h woe : om wit' which afflicted the
!5cienl:fi(;;:'ly nsych~\o _ e sense or whal 'night be called
'Pt ue had
edeees~~~:l obJer-atlO 1ts about reason, Shakeof the ac'i"e ;ntellpc t "1;tnh contemporar:cs. In the field
'11ento: ;'1 MaL!;iavell;' ,e ad;l c>plendidly concentrated
T1 the us> d,,,
........
.
Ma(~: "/elli mIght have.:! b~,tcmrlahv\~ types, t'1e 1)art o(
.Igmfkmt tl,al the ap fl.r~n ,P aycd c-y Montaigne' :t is
JlP an( C f t"tl. ~c..,tcm'fllativc and

;;0

in

40

pro~o~ndly mo~rnful reason, enjoying as it does the author'-

unltmlted, albe,lt melancholy sympathy, is bound up n

Shak~spe~re. WIth ~ tendency to. contrast "pastoral" philoSOP,hIC .prInclples With .th~ hypocnsy of court life- 1 telldcn'
which IS also charactensttc of Montaigne.
Y
Berthelot, in his work La sagesse de Shakespeare et de
Goethe, sets ?ut to pro~e that Shakespeare in general paid
a very conSiderable tnbute to the preaching of eleqant
simplicity of life as opposed to arrogance and vain luxUlY,
This, however, was the essential significance of all the
pastoral moods of the sixteenth, seventeenth and, in part.
the eighteenth centuries, Be that as it may, Shakespeare s
comedy As You Lihe It is the central play indisputably
dedicated to the philosophy of the p.slora1.
It is not, however, this particulz'" Shakespcarear ~cnd
which interests us. We do not, in Fat. ~ "1l conside l that
Shakespeare defended the pastoral 3i,irit with my very
particular vehemence in this comedy We .. e however, 1teres ted in one of the most im.,ortant, 10U9" nol no! t;t( ve
characters of the pl11y-in the n elancholY ';tques_
Jaques is re cet'1:'ed to several ines as a mel 11'hoJ c and
this is signific":m. r e ,imself tr c to define the .... or. for
his melancholy anc' does thIS in " special. h _ C)I 'lg w"y
It is one of his gene 31 characteristics that hI" once l~ h"
high wisdom and the til di lqS 01 hIS nl1d, which di
to
the point of paradox from "he: vision of the so __ 'lf'd ;tVel
agely c1f'ver '"1an, in an ironic, jok ng fl I.
1
Here is how Jaques defines the genus of b,s ne anch l 1:",
''1 have nei' ler the scholar's melaf'_lotoly, whil.' s emulatIon,
nor the musician's. wl ich is fanta!)~ cal, nl)r the ~OUI tiel S
which is proud, nor thl soldie's, w'Iich is ambitious, nor
the lawyer's, WhICh is poi c, n01 the lady's, which is nice,
nor the- over s, whl,h is all tJ'.es(' ~ but Ii. s a melancholy of
mine ow~, com pour ded of m_ W simples, extracted from
l1'anv .. bJe. ), md n(,ccd the SU"LuY 'ontem;'lai'on of l1Y
t lVe1s,
whic" mv of -, run ina! on W 3pS 1"1f! .n a most
!1~morol .. 3dl 31 ,~
jaqu:- up 5 'lot WI~' . hlUC h::; extra01..! ~nd: .:.:y Sd~
con( 151' n: f 'OJTl t'l r'll;vple. But he know"- th",t ~~ey wt:l
lot undl r t~. 10 ''1t:;IT' 5, rc gH ~w;ty A.,\: he 1:- VISited by
;"e df'!)] ~ "pu~ n the 'iofey lrJ ,.- ~ct like d lesle,' w'?~C
p Ivilegc 11 is to s.pc~. n par"dl''I( He .10 use h:s fully It e
41

a stalking-horse and under the presentation of that he shoots

his wit!"
0, that I were a iool!
cries Jaques.
I am ambitious for a motley coat.

. .

,
I

.'
..
T

.. ... . ..
,

,
. . It is my only suit
Provided that you weed your better judgements
Of all opinion that grolVs tanh in them
That I am wise. . . . . . .

. . .

. . . . .

Invest me in my motley; give me leave

To spea& my mind, and I will through and through
Cleanse the foul body of the infected world,
II they will patiently receive my medicine.

til

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From this it is clear that the melancholy Jaques does not

consider the world a hopeless invalid, He simply sees that
the world is seriously ill, and believes that Reason, having
diagnosed the disease, can cure it by speaking the truth-even
if Reason must go clothed in jester's garb.
Jaques looks for the most exact panllel to this world,
and finds it in the theatre.
We shall not quote in .("ull Jaques wonderful monologue

The question remains as .to . whether, having such a truth

to disclose to the world, It IS possible to open the eyes
of this same world to the fact that it is "a dream", that
it is "a play", and to what extent it is possible to put it
right.
. .
The cure, cv~dently, can only conslst In people adopting a
Buddhistic athtuclc and ceasing to attach importance to
youth, to beauty, ,to am?ition, to honour, to victory, to Suce 5
All this should, In theIr eyes, carry the stamp of mutability,
In the works of our hero Francis Bacon, it is possible to
come across bitter aphorisms in the same spirit. He is not
out of sympathy with Montaigne, whom he knew. Howevel
such sayings arc not typical of him, The hypothesis that
Bacon is the author of Hamlet is ridiculous, But that Bacon
is a kindred spirit of Hamlet's is undoubtedly tl"lC
In what particular does Hamlet differ frClm lis prototype
Jaques? Why-in so "'3.1' as Hamlet is DC void of Machiave 1
ism, of intellectualism.
He is a prince of talent. a pnnce of lumanity. a soldie'prince. He is not just "a talkl "-he IS 1 soldif'l fllis is the
side at his nature which seducee Altimrv in hi. nal ae 'lCl_al
production in the Vakhtangov Theatre rhe fact '1at Hamlet
is a strong willed young mal.1 r...:.. been noted .,y many.
Why, il if enough to reread f imlet s tan(}u~ word!. t
the end 01 the th:... d ac~!

There s 1etle""'s seaLe..! 'lId Wy tw(1 s_~ I-1,.11ow".

Whom 1 U,ill tru!'t rs I Wlll adlier fanged
They bear the n,~ nd!..le t~ey must ~'Jeep my we
And marshal me to lnavery Let 11 I ' rk
For 'tis the sport to have the e,1yiner
jioist with his own petard; and f hall,Jp "'lrd
But 1 will delve one yard L"'low their uurzr
And blew 'hem at the moon. O. #" most l weet.
Whl"l1 in ant.> 1;'1r. two era lis direc'ly ~l1eel.

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women nerely players.

But only the end:

Last scene of a11.
That ends this strange, eventful 1listory.
Is second childishness and mere oblivion
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste. sans every tIling.

Inear

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1'1. th:s WdYle b'!! is of Jaques' underc;tanding )f the

v. r~ l becomes quite dear It is :l rcpet. en not a theoretical
but 1. pndical repetition ot "he famous Faster'l~ saying, 'He
t'lat mcreaseth know edqc inu - ist":th svrrow "
Tle wor~d is SI") arnngcd .lat ;t :;,. only possible to pl .. y
one. ~!3.rt with ve ve a::1d ple2.-ure. if ne ..1.oe~ "ot real ')C
that '-ne is _n the stage Othc: wi~c thc transience l)f a. that
15. the c.. m"essne~ss of 111 t;at roc'
n, will 1 iSI n ht: whole
dC
f ...... yuu, ..:.nd the whole T"art.
.
42

The1c
.,,) need
-oin OU~ th~t these wvds 'ould have
be!';n
k"'l
y Rk.har~'"1 or by Edmund, 0] by Iago
0'1 uct} 1 r ,-t~. HamId m gl t lot only lave SUIVIV.:d the
. 193211- s;)vil.:t pro
or

IoJ kolai .l\kimovs pliia - ,..ll prcino

nov T' b. ':\is was
du! "l Al n T' t.agj":" Hamlc' in the V:kht:.n1 f .~. e~ptment\1
Ak'mov s f.
n_~ _=-t, M" ~ produ( " _"1. n-t w s O '
.

n~ture

41

,,

I.

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II
P(

struggle, but might well, have ,emerged victorious. But such

a prospect wau,ld hav~ gl~:e? hm~ no pleasure, for he knows
that the "world 5 a pnson III whIch there arc many confine
wards and dungeons, "Denmark being onc o' the worst". S,
His acute mind penetrates all the imperfections of the
world. Yet to understand the imperfections of the world
implies the possession of high ideals of some sort with which
to contrast it. And indeed, Hamlet dreams of a world which
has been somehow made straight, a world of honest people,
honest relationships, but he docs not believe that such a
world will ever in fact become reality.
Hamlet respects his friend Horatio most of all for his
honesty and firmness of character, that is, for his ability to
bear misfortune with dignity. Hamlet is moved by his meet
ing with the host of Fortinbras.
Examples gross as earth exhort me:
Witness this army of such mass and charge
Led by a delicate mId tender prince,
Whose spirit with divine ambition puHed
Mahes mouths at the ilwisible event.
Exposing what is mortal and rmsure!
To all that fortune, death and danger dare,
Even for an egg-shell .
And. dying, Hamlet has not forgotten Fortinbras
O. I dte Horatio.
The potellt poison quite o'ercrows my spirit.
I caHnot live to hear the news from England:
But I do prophesy the election lights
Oil Fort1l1bras. He has my dying voice.
These are the. people whom Hamlet is prepared to respect
They seem to hIm to be leading the kind of life which would
have suited him.
. The soliloquy 'To Be 01' Not to Be" is so well known that
~t f.eems. unnecessary to quote it here in full. but to subject
It.' s, me ilnalvslS trom this particular 1)oint or view
S llrsolutcly essent;,al.
We ~iL 1.4 lve aSIde Hamlet's doubts as to w~clher a man
.In r sit S\!U ,de when he is uncertain what may lwait him
beyond the ~ravc Thl 1. 1 special question wh' ch does nol
fer t'lr: 'n( "1C,t. concerl u W ~ He 'mC1 ested In ',,)W 'ic n et
ce, ttll fe lie l! k~

Wbether 'tis nobler In the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to talw arms against a sea of troubles .
And, by opposing, end tbem.
'
And points out that the lot of the living is 'heart-ac '
and a "thousand natural shocks"
lC

To die-to sleep
No more, and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to!
And, further on, he elaborates his thought llhcr mOl .
clearly. He says ~
For who would bear the whips and scams of time
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely
The pangs of despised love, the law' delay.
The insolence of office and the spurns
That patient merit of the unwrrthy take:.,

Whell he himself might

.
And so on
The first disl: lVC"V made t;y Sh..;...\esp 31 5 a~ ake l1 mg
nind i, the existenc..:e of tyranny, the ab._"u:e 01 right,
This is not the place to go into the ques1 ~on oJl wht4 1 ocial
itnll it was Shakespeare's ltenlion to mow, It IS nough
to h<1ve ascertained that the til SI "nd no. t repu!SlVt: ~sp~ct
of ufe to be discovered by reason is the 11ofound c ",t ",die
tion between the idea of justice and ... lity, W 11Ch i. .-:.md
to be subject to tyranny. What follows; ne the morc ...bs~.;1.( t
moral complaints of Hamlet, Everything t;l.n be reJucea to
one and the same idea; that very bad, iesplc It 1;: unw rthy
people do exist 'lnd society is so organbL i tl"lal they lave
power, that they :ire in a position to oppress others, to spurn
others, that the wolld is so constitute:! that Ie best '-_ople
'.he worthy, nOlle -nd l~v
people, 31 pUSh!d :,0 t.he
wall.
.
It goes withe ut ayul\ thai such an 11 tude Wl! alcl.!ptahlC
lot only to SOIJ1e f the lla1contenls. that IS to c_:::a1n
_... res -tat ve . ..)f the ~i1(it;_ youth of th~ old <:.s~~~~~
Whll h was ~el' ng the PIlCh under Ehz,abeth. ,
.
class nonal Lhy .... u t1i ,0 .. ' :tat very par~ of then~lI,
qLll i ... whIch rc;r~.:~nt"'d -talf,t, Whl..l r ~le'if'tcd t O'iC
4

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devoted to the arts, and which was flesh of Shilkcspcare's

flesh.
.
For the gilded youth, on thc one hand. In so rar as th .'
h
.~
whole class was shppmg
an d S 1'1'
Il mg ilcros~ t ,c surface of
life and could see ahead of them only som('th~ng In the nature
of ruin, and, on the other hand. for the middle-class intelligentsia which had only l'cccnt~y awa~cnc~ to life, the World
around had suddenly been stnpt of IllUSions (and even to
these newly awakened people there seemed to be no solution)-and it was at this moment that thc thought of suicide
obtruded. If, on the other hand, they did consent to go on
living, then only clothed in mourning because of the impossibility of calling life good or of making it so.
The real meaning of the monologue becomes apparent to us
if we compare it with the LXVI Sonnet, written about the
same time, in which Shakespeare puts forward Hamlet's
basic arguments. But, this time, in his own name:

Tired with all these, for restful death I cry,As, to behold Desert a beggar born,
And needy Nothing trimm'd in jollity,
And purest Faith unhappily forsworn ,
And gilded Honour shamefully misplaced
And maiden Virtue rudely strumpeted,
And right Perfection wrongfully disgraced,
And Strength by limping Sway disabled.
And Art made tongue-tied by Authority,
And Folly, doctorlilu, cOlltrolling Sl?i1l.
And simple Truth miscall'd Simplicity,
And captive Good attending captain Ill.
Tired with all these, from these I would
be gone,
Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.
Here, all the reasons for the sadness of the awakened
intelligence are particularly clearly shown.
Everything is topsy-turvy. High places are occupied by
hideous masks. True might, true modesty, true sincerity, true
talent-an these are set at naught, and there is not the least
hope of setting things to rights.
It may be that, at the time of Essex's plot, Shakespeare
did nurse some absurd hopes that this particular, impractical
plot wi.th its extremely indefinite programme might chan~e
somethmg or other for the better; it is, however, quite ccrtalll

that the s!Jpprcssi~n of thiS plot m~ght h:ve be 11 the c lUS.

of that tcr iblc dIscnchd~tmcnt whlcn Ie ~ suc'" a pnround
. print OD the second period of thls g: eat wor'd poe'
ITllBaC":on knew Flizabeth'lS court. He also knew the C)Uh of
Ja TllCS , Of the injcstiC":es of 'Oth thesc courts an'" 01 tl': ..
ontcmpOllf), world 10 gcneral hi! had 1)< .. cularly ar.:utc
c crso na1 expcl1cnc~ He lim:clf for that matter w..s not
pbove committmg Slml d 10Jusl ces when the oppc tumty
~ffcrcd. But Bacon was ) friend 01 Es . .ex and was I !iCO
the plot, though admittedly in rather a cunous p:lsition .
When we become better acquai~ted with Bacon's. so-called
worldly morality, we shall sec. 10 It trac""' o~ that dlsrnclanl
ment and of that sadness whlch ~ere !: . dlsturbmg sOC'cCty,
However, it i! safe to statc categoncally I lal alth?ug~ B.. con
is related in type to P-am1c (because he IS CQ1. allY Int lcctual,
whether as ae ac"_ ve or an ;malytical intellec J. ~e nev.' l(
less represcnt =lUl. ~ a differcnt rype And, ~ _ lap.' In order
to come a lit r closel ; - 'lim, h is eo ~en~ "I t~ nng on v :
one more figur~ r- m Shakesp are gallE. y a! WI e ml 1, the
most mal ur ~ G.gure ;e It th- 12'
tne
... of Tire em~ '.
Prospera.
~
.
Prospero 15 a sL.'lolar Prospera 5 i Y"1.!
Pro t!JO
wields a nac k book and i nagic ~.ff tv w;ose power he
can control t le or 'cs cf "atu c
Prospera las IlUCllD ommc"1 \0 it BaL -n
,
at:..
_ entih("
b
By mean! at crc.!rvc In\ ?n:..on, }
,

.
1...
grc t r"
TX Yo' v... . la! Jl.:" - ~at on
mvcshgi'lhon!;,
nap ac...lle:V_
~. -.
.
. I 04).1 u" or JuS.
'
\.
I"'"'
'I,.;
~"k '1,t SU_l !
l~ on tle
UCI~
~-:
staff If e ienes If> oldnaglc, it :' ':Y__ ll.>e It 'fs fa~e.
the same time Lu"lC"nea to ..._01 the po.... ,r 0 L: Oll'a
. ,
,
'1
~.(':i (lC.:UC d
knowledge whIch Ill10 ,ic1ueves hroug- app.1
'"
1'-" Acden'v f\a:on passe,
.. ,'-.
.- d I
new magIC. Throug h hIS OW:l pec'J :~
.
'C31 '\JJ .1" a "m 0
out mto
the \.. tOl'la~ Atl an t 1~ B~~'"
'l-~
Prospc,"v
.
.'
Sh k pedrc w~s
It is 4i'mo!t i,)l)~sJ~l"
behe,2' ..1al ~ d e~ t I' '\..15
, o;,u~t'e drgw'lCn s. .1 toll
.
hmilld: Wl1h "om::-.' f Ba(l..lns meSI.
'"
'\riel JS the
way "r m!-t ..mcc ' is very C..lsy tlJ ":~'~~.,.l.m ~ c"~ception
E. noolhmeDt of th.!! whIch Bacon w~h: ~~rn:_. el~ Caliban
to which we will rc!'Jrr,t. Pro~pcr? s p~;e. 0~~r ...wel' lohe
I-prcsents c..~ onf' 3r.d t.1C' sa~c time h~ p~;)ple in gene!'aJ
OWe1 elcmtnts "f n;J.ture over :nc ..:ommo
.
m~ ,'vcr t~e 1lativcs o! c..:-lorues m par~~'lr~ as indifferent
fLowcvc 'Pro~pc~' 1!:- not so much u aPr.
0:.

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41

46

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to happiness, setting no store ,by it. ~c docs not even d _

to revel in his revenge on hIS enemIes. He docs nOt eSlrc
desire to sec some acceptable order established on th eVen
True he arranges the affairs of those who are to go onel~a.rth
"Improves tell'
h "ot;
lh
or at'least
c k
ta cs carc of his b Iv'"9
1 '
" da. But h"IS fi 1'S t concern IS
" to divest him
e ovedI
daughter Mlran
of his power as quickly as possible and to seek retirem se I
" wort h I'U I"mg. He does en!
The world docs not seem to h 1m
ni
hate the world, he simply knows its worth. He has
enough of this "Fata Morgana".

h:d

These OU! actors,

As I foretold you, were all spirits and
Are melted into air, into thin air;
And, lihe the baseless fabric ot this vision,
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve
And, like the insubstantial pageant faded
Leave not a rach behind. We are such stuff
As dreams are made on, and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep.

This is the message of Shakespeare's idealistic and pessimistic wisdom.

Having passed through a stage of infatuation with the
world, having passed through the bitterness of struggle with
the world, he has arrived at a certain reconciliation with
it, but he is reconciled only in so far as he has realised the
full extent of its vanity.
How good it is that life is not eternal. How good that
everything passes. How good that death must come. Ho.w
good that there is an ending. On those conditions it is still
possible to keep one's scat for a while in this theatre.
It goes without saying that such a mood is neither the
"beginning" nor the "cnd" of human wisdom, It is th~
di~tinctive ~ood of a class. The great mouthpiece of a declasse
anstocracy In the proccss of transition into a class of bourgeois magnates and. at the same time, in his own person,
the representative of the class of lettered craftsmen who
provided the nobility with their cultural distractions, Shakespeare, in that epoch when the middle classes as a whole
were developing into the incarnation of avarice. hypocrisY

48

,
ttl
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or

.... . c.. .

I-- ../ ,

...
....

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"

...
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II

po

.."
pul

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11

. ,,
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ot

of ,

'h.
'"

'Ith

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...."

A L
h ..

"h
.. II
In

..
f

"

t~

Ufltani! m, could sec no bright rifts in th

.
'" d P
N
hf
c massmg
uds lhead. 0 sue n ts were promised by the
h
CO
L'
b'lt
f
h
mOlarcy
I
..... hich was Jctnl:.- UI up rom t ese confused social relaionships. TlifC was no way out. The alternatives wprc a
k~ll oneself, or ,0 grumble on endlessly about the unfortunate
'It" y ...l~ world ha~ been ,made. or ,to be thankful fr-t nut..!
t lit)' instead 01: dlscovenn~ therem cause for mclan~iolv
fOI ou hero, Bacon, thmgs were quite different T y
l!ao m t lC1C i! a special note which we do not heal frol
~'Osf:ro. whic~ i~ brok~n in Prospera. Baon hold:- fa~t
o ",nc th ng to hiS magic book and to !lis nlgic staff. A
!}l at work needs \~ be done here to sort out 3.1 the n' th 1,

ar CI hlVcnt1.0ns ot S~lcncC'
Bac: n 1$ full of youthful, happy, sparkling, 1<iIV
II
n
'lC". He ~now that the ocia! order i~ unju5, }- c '" O~
that il s nc_":' sary to come 0 cr ns with TIlrV thln9~
a nevil 11 11"_ And. in gene'l 11. he :; w 1 v.)1 Vdnous

s: ..<!v a'oeets f 1t world. but 'lC JTlakp

ht JOin l (
L
n 1" e I~ nOI 'ike )1'ospcn. who i~ 'e-'al d I ) put aw .
~ taft o! St cn('c and the p_~: II 1l tv of e.: L .,i} r ~NC,
-:1] 'y
,'W=: he "''''1
r d um_. 1. t 11 C
-t)-.. : h_11 t 0: ow anr! 1 e "r til no cnSOl 19"
~) lac n k.lvcs
Jrt s r
"lui of
~'ld lnn( c
)I
11'11
fL
TIl)'
giv
n
the
r
gnl
mt.
l('1d
W' I d,
fi.
,L 11 rc ... f th.: w rd. (: ~')l '10UI ml101 ty C ~.
] t WIll be t tr ~
lkc lr ther 1 k r un
.l-1
~.
r .. '''IS P( 11 t d v C'" J" w tel Jl

',t

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on

'11

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1

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ngly' t ma.l

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'n h ,yo,,~L
p_ll

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11 d
p 'g

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r .: .1~ 1at _pt}1

f the ",. rl, ~ , t rell y i

t 1, :tirq

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49

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the ability to pass on lo another ki nd f

'
d
h '
0 POWel" t
h
o f sCience an tee meal know ll'dgc 0
'I "h - 0 t cpo'"

.
n"
llL
W
"I ct
' I I"
new f a rms 0 f SOCIa lfe. Thl'rl" before.
C \\'1 1 fOlln
a ttractive per spccti\'CS, almost limitless l~~r~pcn ,up th{' Tllo
I am call ing.
,.
spcchvC's, Whithc

,
<

po

And, as, ,in all the works of Shakespeare there .

represcn.tatl\'e of the intelligence in whom th"
IS not one
ev
d5 particlt
' Iarly strongl\' tl' IS note dom'Jn~ t(
en
saull
0"
' d'
"
liS may be t k
one f Ul' the1' 10 Icatia n that Bacon had no d"'
. a en
on thc works of Shakespeare.
neet mfluenl
It s~ems to us, howc\'cl', that we have made thO
CXCurSlOll
' to some purpose' si nce ,'" ,'t we Ilave IS
metcolourfulI
resembl illg Bacon among thc "chevaliers of intcllc t" ~eoPhe
great gallery of William Shakespeare's portraits.
C
III t c

Th

934

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h

.,
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Th,

of
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of '

IVAN

WHAT IS rHE QLESTION'

I HAVE often come de os~ t'1f': opini(

that. in hi! famous

"I

To be or t to be that is the question.

Whether tis noblr- in the 1l nd to ~Uf'
The slings and ar.. w t ,utrageolls lor_ ,...
Or to takp arms again;~ c seQ of troubles
And by opposiny -..zd fhemf To die: to sle
No more; ana h y G: sleep t4 say we IU
The heart-ache, tWa IJzt; .. 1: USaf'" r: tUlw shocks
That flesh is beir tu, Irs 1 C~ nsumnu:: ion
Devoutly to be v~s1: t T 111 tn sleep:
To 1 n! pp",hance 1'1 dr ... _ 1J lY there the rutJ:
POI in tl:, f sJr/::.~ of d('~~i :v wt dl_l!_!; na,Y , -Ie
WhCl1lVP ,WI
mdfJed of4 ,'11 utOll'll '01
Mllsf !Jl11e us to" ;lUSC' J.he 's the re pre'
That ma1~('~ 'alamity of w lon~ 1;fe
FOl V'II OO'.JII; bear Ille '- t p_ and . )11:S 01 ti'Ut:

fonn
A, I

thlo
well_
OUch
~

.....
In '"

Will :
of art
K. ~

o. u:

othen
incom
of tho

_t.
- ..
st... i

TIll:
lne

Mor.

ihk.

book

'l.

third a~t n~ono:loguc, Holmlet give. evidence ,1 hiS nClpC1cily

for action In hi! own word~ and hlm~.,;1 points out the 1'I,~ ..:;:)n
for his passivity This reason ,or mans pas:ivlIY. t s m ...in
taincd, lies in <1 tcnden( y "\ think whic~ wcolrs E.w .. y ~J\
power of decision.
This opinion. traditional for nineteenth-centu-y
I.. sm.
is, as we shall sec, founded on circumstances which beu 10
actual textual relationship to Shakespeares tragedy. Nevertheless, it is a view which hes exercised a considerable in flu
ence on Hamlet' .. translatol:; and zll th.: Ru. sian VE' Ion!
available have been c eatf""' Jode" it ioflue. . . .:: I1.ercfl re
before we bcgin to -naly e the telCt. 11 would seem (le irable
to have it iet out for u.; he: in t'le ongl1<u For th~ lh..'
ot convcnic,t analysJ I !;'13J ;ct Olll tJ"Ie 1! e t" in para
graphs accordi lC" to the na: lrg 1 ")aest's n auc i)'l dE l: -)tioJ"l

tw"
the
lith
the

M,

AKSYONOV

Thp

(1Jprcs~ol

par.L~:

In.'
"T'Jlat n

:.h m1. t~e p "1(.. '_'(1.1' . ollt~ llely

of 1es"lse..! 11 VI: t,le la; s d '0-',

)lence t tiZ! C lr'; tlte sp' '111

tlcllt mer't _! the '.Jr.!.l1 rthy taRe

WI'eulle 11._lJ~1 11 .~;gI t ~J1<' -IU ",s mahl'

Wit'l ,!':lrc bodk. 11 ~ ho WI '.J.1U l'lrdelS J..:~I
To {II U It alld SM e,,' l1ld
1 we:.::' v 'ire

valuab.

world ,
.''1 I

"

Bill that the dreaci of SOJ1/t,thitl!l after "('Utll,

The IIndiscovered e(lulltry from 111/10.";" hOllrl!
I

,,
b
b

T
U

...=

.'
'J'I

DO

'1'1<

I:
10,

01.
'I'l1o
01

No traveller rclllrll-~, p/lzzks Iht' wiIJ.

Alld mal~es liS ratber h('1I1' tlt()S(' ilf..> ttl" bO/l('
Than fly to olbas tIm! /ll/.! lW(lII' Hot o/ t'
Thus cOl/scicnce d{lC.'; 11Itll~c t'(lll'arcls of liS all
And thlls the native bile of rC.'it)I/llioJl
Is sic1dicd o'er with the "ak ('list of t}wll!lht ,
And enterprises 01 great pith (UIl/w011lent
With tbis regard. tllcir currents fUnllIwry.

Alld lose tbe name of action Soft YOIll/{}U'!

The fair Opbelia?

Nywpb, in thy oris01ls
Be all my sillS remembered.
Either course of action suggested in the first five and a
half lines is judged by the criterion of its greater or lesser
"nobility". Whence came such a criterion of judgement?
It is seldom noticed that the dramatic text here gives
Hamlet two monologues. one after the other (divided, it is
true, by an entr'acte and the scene in which the trap is
laid to catch Hamlet, who, immediately before this, has
ended an extremely long monologue with the promise to
lay a trap to catch the King). Yet, in the first verse of the
preceding, neighbouring monologue, Hamlet has just been
calling himself "a rogue and peasant slave", has, in fact,
been ascribing to himself qualities which arc far from noblc.
He has been cursing himself for insufficient will to action,
and this judgement has been arrived at under the impression
of the. actor~s declamation. The monologue of the third act
then, IS a kmd of polemical continuation of the monologue
of th~ second ?ct. There, Hamlet was quite sure that his
behaViour was Ignoble, here he is busy trying to work out
a concept of what noble behaviour really should be.
. Hamlet stubbornly rejects the idea of risking his precious
lIfe for the sake of living up to the norms of feudal morality,
of ~he morality of the noble. In essence, he has already
dhClded the matter in advance, but he gives his decision in
~f c. form of a question. To "take arms against a sea" (even,
1 It!>e only "a sea of troubles", here the thought gives
matenal form to the metaphor, no more) is a hopeless busi '
ness:. such a rebel is bound to perish. Is it noble to go to
certam death? To go to certain death means equally to admit

the po~si b llity of s uicide I that .) wO:1hy, Qr an unworthy

lclir nf Nolle, rgnobtc?
, Th .. t 11 IS un' !:'l cnal Ie 1 ,e!:- evident. and Hamid does
nllt p::.:.a' c to take t":1i :nl "IC.)",idcr'ltion: rC.1Son and nobility
arc c~ nc pts of an ' scru~.::~ly different nature and are inC)m ne n ,c"li 1(;" y ou Cilnne: . )nf'~und the ont' with the other.
Nol Il'ty I S be und up w~th the c":,ncept of courage. The:
nobly bom w...rc bligcd to affinn thci!' hereditary rights
by co urage '1 bill~:C .fl , !ia~let '-le Elder had done), and
commoners coul4~ attcam the tlt'e r:f n,bIe by some show of
bravery. And 1>0, IS c~r... gc fit;; C, :)I"Y for !\'uidde? Hamlet
examines the que:.! :on I~m th!' ;;::int d view of the fcar
of death; the s~cond st11m\,1i.ng:,b-::k- l"1e fear of physical
pain o-was not at that fme even ccnsidcrcd w.orth taking into
account. Is it ot: ~c::::..:"V ~o be '~'1U;-o1gl.:ous m order not to
fear death? H..J'll!et mJ.int~in'S l~;;~ it is not in the least
neces~,arv, Death ~'1 Jtelf not c:11), :-'C'~d~ n:: ll.:ITO!~, hut is
even d ~onslderably :.nore plea!:..::.:::t Ci!tt::-~tive :han life. To
consent to ue..:th, the" :";;.;quires r.::: pJ.~i;;ula!' courage and.
therefore. ,t ij nol from ::1obili~:,' t1~at p;;crk c"nc;ent to it
and nol ~ .i.'om la,--k of no~'Lty tb.t they seck t;) escape it.
What is the c.::.u~C'. t~cn, cf the fear c! death: asks Hamlet.
and answer,;: unc..:rt.:dnty 305 :': L~e condition of man after
death. We ar.:' made cow.;!rds of. ace we are all made cowards
of (that i<;, t:v.;:n ~:~o ..c w~o Jot ~CJrt .are n.ot cowards) ~Y
nothing less than oJU;' (:nsdcnce arld Its attltudc tv the hfc
beyond the ljraVe, And, fr.)P1 the point of view of such. a
"
" "d
to Its
conscit:nce. he who dC'e_~ net c"nsent to S.1l0 e .. or
ea
equivalent to the hopeless taking up of arms. agamst a s
of troubles, is quite right. But conscience 15 an abs~ract
concept it belongs to the individual man, not to any g"lVc!l
.
" b
d the consel'
order of things, the conscience of FortlD ras an
I
.
" O f hch of them is Ham et
cnce of Laertcs can coexIst.
w 1
rt f
COU
speaking and why should conscience be .the l'fst h
appeal in his polemicS with the feudal vle~ 0 t e w~~ h
which obliges him to blood vengeance, a view ffroh~ w.ld
Hamlet recoils with all the forces of his heart,
IS mm .
and of his ... conscience?
.
0 t precise
This is a Question which must obtam ~fi m s
f this
answer if we wis.h to understand the signt cancde 0 on
f mous for goo reas ,
monologue which has b ecome a.
er- rofundity
although it docs not, perhaps, contalO ~ha~ su)
thoughts
traditionally ascribed to it. After all. In am e

fd

1':

;)

52

on the causes of fear there is nothing either p .

.
attlcul<tr!
profoun d , or, 51111 1C!-iS, l1ew. II"IS arguml'ntation
9
Y
to the Odyssey and to Oediplls at C0101l1l.'i. to Ho~~r <1(\
Sophocles and, through them. to the most ancient t" all(
The significance of the monologue is purely the t!lcs.
declamatory or, if you like. structural.
a n(,1.
Hamlet. as a rc~u1t of his dcbatin~s. l:urtailcd by thl
appearance of Ophelia. comes to a conclUSIon which he impa
to Horatio as soon as he has got rid of his beloved spy ~
has taken Horatio in affection and become attached to' hi C
alone because Horatio has shown the virtues mentioned ~
the second and third sections of the monologue. He has bo~
the buffets of Fortune, been "as one, in suffering all, that
suffers nothing", and has never been "a pipe of Fortune's
finger to sound what stop she please" (the last comparison
will later be elaborated into the episode with the musicians
where it will hark back in deliberate repetition to the scene
with the players in which the thread of Hamlet's considera"
hons on nobility takes its origin).
Now, after this conclusion which Hamlet draws from hIS
long debate with himself, it can be safely assumed that h
is satisfied by his own arguments-he has discredited feudal
morality most convincingly. We are still not quite deal as
to how he has discredited it. For the author, this was eV l
dently perfectly clear It was "llso cleal to such a reader ..
Voltaire.
In his translation of this monologue, the Old Man oj
Ferney replaced the word "conscience" by the word "reB
gion". Logically, this seems quite reasonable. It is quite true
that not conscience but religion is our source of information
on the world beyond the grave. If this reading is cor ect.
Hamlet has every reason to triumph: feudalism was religious;
its morality was constantly upheld by religion, and philos
ophy was her handmaiden. But is Voltaire's reading correct?
Was not this ardent debunker of religion, separated in timc
from the writing of Hamlet by almost two centuries, goiog
a bit too far'? Why, after all, did not Shakespeare himself
put in the word "religion" instead of the word "conscience"?
The second question is easily answered. Hamlet profc~~"s
the Christian faith and, in Shak~spc:1rc's time, it W;J.S n~l
done to speak dil respectfully of t'1n f=)m the stage. Eve 1
in taverns, for that ::natter.. ', wa' bellcr to think before OJ"lC
spoke on such delicate tooi,s af~cr '111 ome"ody 1Olorme-t

,,

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other:

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ot

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-,
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vallqb

SNt.

'4

. n< t M.:ul('lwc '50 it i'J quite within the bound, ~~ pO

.'.t~litY that. 1 Sh~r:.e peCll"c had ~tshe1 to put n LC word
,;1 t jon' he might have replaced Illy '1e word C"lr.sc c le
red \e Ii t:11 "lr reader would himself. have ma~'" ~hr n ;::e
on
".us nent 'rhe ("xampl of 5C-; literary lc:..~~)) lU
g, ry 81 J ' .. WOI k 1
ubject to ccmol hlP is tv.. wid( spre 1a
th .... rs.t wtohobe leee S(1l"y \.., d
bI', C 't
W"
1 t he 'K" SIll
' 0 HCTS.
for.
1
I-th c
'r ,',e Ii:t question, h"'wev...
we .aJ1 ony
1 . . ' f we 'lre ablt: to re'~on' tru the a~ tu ~p
thr:
.. n<;~t;tl r (readerl of th~t perir-i to this tyne of t
1 task
~;de the more diffkult by the gap of t''""1.e l h .. e n U .
Not hut that we have a reader, ana ~pee ltor, .tOO, n th
er<;on of Ben Jonson, the personal frio ld . a literal r oc
P f . dramatist. In the last a( t of hl (. "1fl/J lC thl~. P l
~c ~~~uccs th(' monologue: "fo be
[ll"'t t t
III t ~rtll.ty.
....... _. ,g '" av~ 11 n ml"'" ~ reei( n of llUon,
hfc an tlqUC. p.g
...
'-..
rand for thi~ ... ~ n --115 e ~ rc sions :U. ItL er nr ~ ODel.

-atc ar
Vc"
II ",c . pll ltors of
o t 1. 1 n 1f'::'I1.
~
.

Cdti~nl ~h'

11

lo

~p}-~ "'~, ~

sy./

,I

~ alj a~ ~;I m~

is th 'atemn!,. ~om
II
t.~
~c ;'11 t
'cbcllion wit'1tn the capital. bUl h",. ~ ~., (.)~g . n wh., 1
hcfol"> they e U'~ ;U C 1tl sh th_ r 1.: nh ~. r:'" r ~ f)C'
,
1 llthe~~
n
.\(1
to me cxt"nl, lfIV Vt.
1.) ,11
u:".J
out tn ..it Ull C f~.'" 'lV_ ~- pn ~::
. . t "'Jand(.J
ll,;:-t of dell
The S... ;:~~ "t"~' aT"
the "x~rc;ne "lal.y for th ... ('
I .hull p:::. ....- t lo 11
and 1",g r""
1 whl( lo-; :'I
51 C '1
r ,".'1P i4 1.(
1lth_
t
_ l "1.0 1
,1Jons('lll,
i\.J._ ~ for'
..~
J'''''1
mad_ t t}llt :-,~
{hisb ry :11> rt.Ol_ ~'"\; ... i tr_ '~':tK- II ....'_, W rtr. q'lot
Sl n\ h3s uc.:cc c..J n -. J n,; .
d on th \.; i"')O . Or..
}eyal.l~
iog in l~' Cl11 ~ly
. n.9
wor'...I.w d~ igni t canc
the qui ....:J' of RI mar }U ttl c5 :;:! .. l
x m,1 ... for
.r~
"')[ Rom. <ll1d the v "ut: o! 11 er. ~
k hi s ... .,1 ..
'
L~
'1....., tl r:'. ...
t h (' 'fit "> (T n'v sc
~~
M

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C

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Who po ,/". L 01
A 10114 of tile ,re
, ,

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r'l);ue
'J) tJO u ... /J, h1
do::.l rr.'.1
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Syl! f1'j~

lionl uw .

.~ flrat ~ /lId lot

r Jr~ 'c
atr:::l

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em I L t

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But ilwt it is abborrin{T frow

OIlT

state

Sillce to a citizen of Rome. offending,

1
1

,
t

"T
~

p,

TI
po

th,

"

of
Th
of

w,

Ollr lawes give e:dk om/nol death. Why thet!

Decrees be tIwl? 'Twcrc vaille to tbinlw. for leare,
Wben. by the diliyclIce of so worthy a Consul,
All is made safe. and certaine. Is't lor punishment?
Wily. death's tbe cnd of cl,ills, alld a rest,
Rallier tban tonmmt.' It dissolves all griefcs.
And beyolld that. is neither carc, lIor joy.
(Ben Jonson, Catilizze. His Conspiracy, Act V. Scene VI.)

On the basis of this argument. Caesar suggests banishing

the plotters to various free cities, where they arc to be kept
in strict isolation on the responsibility of each of the cities
as a corporate body. The suggestion obtains a favourable
hearing and splits the vote. Cicero declines to venture his
opinion. The word is given to Cato.
Developing his views on the legality of the defence of
society in time of civil war, a legality which has power to
override the formal rights of the accused, Cato goes on to
criticise Caesar's arguments on the subject:

of
IWE

tho
tOtI

'he

fom
A.

W.

well

..,b
M. 1

-In

will

Good Caius Caesar here. JWtIl very well,

And subtilly discollrs d of life, and death,
As if he thought those things a prettie fable
That are deliver'd us of hell. and furies,
Or of the diuers way, that ill men goe
From good, to IiltI1Y, darl~e, and ugly places .
And therefore. he would have these liue: and
long too.
(Ibid" Act V, Scene 4.1

of ar

K.
G. t
other

Incan

.....
....-.""..,.
of th(

Mot'e

.tudle

v.luat

W"".

Sb....

If we compare these extracts we shall sec that Ben 10 nsol1

has divided the arguments of Hamlet's monologue between
two antagonists. The individualist and liberal-adventurer,
Caesar, defends the first proposition: "to die-to slcep"
whereas the champion of the inviolability of Roman tradition,
Cato, who stands firmly rooted in feudal ideology, bases his
arguments on revelations about the world beyond the gl ave
frightening
11 mf"n" with posthum<us .... cribution. Thl'
argum(nl
)1'1is c"'nvinced apologlsl 01 feudalism arc
..eiigiow This was 'tow Shakcspelre's cont"ml".)ram .. undCl
stood thf' 11 ,'Tument we arc considcling here.
56

.vc1oping the t.hcsis of the intrinsic v'llue c l L'1e indi

DC
h' s:
vidual. Web! ter dots tel
or is jt in your lUlowle1ge
.
To answer mp. how long I hOl'e to live?
Til I's t~r tn:"5t ne 'essary aueSL n
(John Wehter, The White DClil, Ae\ v, C;c'ne tV)
B t let us gt::L back ~o 1- 11l1et'

nonologu!' It co .10uIe: ~~w

be ~ufficicntly clear that Ha~'et s-.lr~eeied in amwcnng
feudal morality in t~lm~ of Its ow 1 11gh:st ex"
Ion the
.gious criterion. It s l( ~ thoughl w'11el c!-leeks th Wil
\
re.
h" SI , \.lCS 0 'thC na t,L
.t '. "conscienc"'!
W)1C
v .ue '"
~'e:~lution" :mG, fOl nnsClene~ reld ...Ii~io~ f'1c "01d
Fox" of Ferney was on thc right sc nl
hi, 1~ thf' e Ie ,::I
the cunning stru :tufe ot tnt': nonolo l ue
Taking his pi int of dep,- .ure: 1m l( nor n of fe ldal
behaviour, Hamlet proves t'1: t
Cln r( - . 111"' n_btl"!
'to 1
:Ilncl d
i' when, in. tf'ad of foPow ng .. If': dlrc_ c
c" he IVt. hi~ at.. -11 on tr 1( pre ~rv tion liS own
e nc ,
1.
~.
rrcn
t(,
life which, as we kniw ht:: n S 1( I . ! : ' ) u
lOyb C1y
t' IT \. 1. 11
u t 6c .
It "'ems tl 1.1~ that 1e
ult we r. ... tJ-... f -.;:.: tr 'lC'dy
t'ntlj imyur "11 ! or th c 1...
--- ... ti'"
:1 II ~ tt
dond w' I serve to undt. Ii If': once 111 re . ~
ift,oLma
l
.;tudy of E izabe lan dl.:~a as 1" . : t'
.: elf U1'ldf"l standing f 5J aL y ... lh.. :' - tr)

h:

A. SMIRNOV

,
,
i

"

SHAKESPEARE, THE RENAISSANCE

AND THE AGE OF IlARROCO
(On tIle ,\'afllrr and Dct'elopnh'flt

of

II

'"
TI

II'
PO

TIl.

Shak('sprarr's Humanism)

IT IS a matter of general concern that. in recent AnglO-A

ican Shakespearean criticism, there has been a strong ~:~.
dency towards the development of a formalist-aesth J"
"
approach, a growmg
ten deocy to analyse the works etcf
S.hakespear~ as ~hough their author were a skilled techn~.
clan-entertamer, mterested only in pleasing his audience d
basically indifferent to all ethico-philosophical and soa~ I
problems. Soviet studies of Shakespeare have on the t'I"
hdill"
,Oler
an, 0 owmg m the footsteps of the best traditions of
fonner European and Russian scholarship, continued to
look on Sha~espeare first and foremost as a representative
of t~e Renalssanc: and as a champion of the ideal of
RenaIssance humanism.
Of course, open tendentiousness and moral ising are alien
to Shakespeare. A great realist. he reveals the essence of
~fman ,char~cters and relationships, the causes and effects
man.s actIons, and leaves his audience to draw their own
conclUSIOns
"
. ' He does no t preach at us I"k
1 e a narrow-mmded
moralIst. ?ut teaches like a great artist and thinker, helping
US
tad "'I"hd~ ~nd deeper understanding of life. The objective
tr en 0
. conceptions is nonetheless
clear
fo thIS Images an d poetic
r
standing of ~i~e~.re founded on a profoundly humanist under
ismLiving
h" hon the wate rs h e d 0 I two epochs-between a fcudalw lC was already dyi
d
I
was still in the
ro
ng a"Y ay an a capitalism whic 1
actively critical
b ce~s hoi bemg born-Shakespeare was
never wearies
ex ot . t esc o:ders. On the one hand, he
the cult of read, m~osmg. avar:cc and the power of gold,
~
ney:-lO T,mon of Athens (the famous

of

.. CI. my bo~k Tuorc1'('sluo Shel .

detailed expo~ition of thO _ th
~~p1ra, Leningrad. 1934, for a more
i"('Sum{> of basic prop~s-ti IS
ought. The follo .....lng paragraphs .:.Ire a
Ions more fully developed there.

58

monologue of Timon on how gold perverts all human feelingS); in King .Lear (w~ere the old King, made wise by hIS
misfortunes. enes out: Through tattered d('lthcs small Vi(L>
do appear ; l"0bcs and furred gowns hide alL Plate sin with
gold, and the strong lance of justice hur..~es breaks .. ,"
(IV. 6}). in The Mercbant of Venice (the theme Of Shylcrk.
the scenc of the three caskets, III, 2), ctc. On t'lc othe hand.
in his Histories. Shakespeare shows how grell wa'S the evil
and danger to the country as a whole n'F!" ,e'ltcd by the
wild. unruly feudal leaders, ridicules arLstocratic llt'ogancc
in the comedy AI!'!; Well That Ends Well. pla~ upon c..:rl;ain
typical features ;f feudal parasitism in the image of ralstaff,
etc.
At the same time, howeve'-, Shakespe,lH' md~es n:.'l diffe!'
ence between these two ordel'~, in so far 15 hI' is always
free of schematic generalisations. quite ar:l1t from the
fact that the very c('''''ceptions "feuoal" and "bourge ...,L;' had
no conscious existt"nce in the mi~ld!' of pc:-:'l;:: of hi!' time_
Thinking of and accepting ;~fe a~ a cC"'!JlplelC, Shakespe:m.:
took feudal or bourgeois features :as theY3rp .. 3!~d in 1m
own epoch e~ the moment of confluence, while :at the ~lm('
time, their complex.: unity was eS:3bPshc..! in hi; -JW!1 mind
by the fact that both WC':-,' ~o<;til~ 'J the prim :p 1e ,~ ,c_~lthy
humanity. Such is the origin c' c;;;.~:: ':Jr/1 (x'.:.mdy
complex' images as Richard II! w~o :night ~~!" ~~:,:~.~gical1y
defined as a combination of feudal utth:",Jat and brilliant
predator-adventurer of the epoch of prima:"v :ac,:umulatior.,
or of Falstaff who will learn the humocr of th:; .lge" (Merry
Wive<; of Wi,.,dsor [ 3) .lnd, having .::sbC!~dcJ h:s feudal
train, emharks "JF,'n .l r::-~taH(.' Clter;1l"i.:'c' ~f doubtful
honesty.
The enemy of medieval ideas, .:-!' :te,'editary nobility, r..::ligious fanatitism, racial prejudice. et,:' .. Sb.kc~pc.lrc nffirm<:
objectively in his works the principle of equality, the equal
moral value of people of all ..:lassl"s ..,!l r.lCcS and all creed~.
This is shown dearly enough in his portr.ly~,l.s of ~thelio=
the black African who st:mds-l"Tlor~l1y and tnteJlectua~ Ym
head and shouldel'~ ::tt'ove thl! VcnctLln anstocrats by w 0
he is sttnounded of Shylock who. br .:Lll his personal
'"
"tl
ml,:mnl'~S. is ~hr'wn.
frL~m the religious.m d raCl<l JpolO
.0
view as a vidim oj the Christi~ns who gang up to bate hun
(ct. his monoi()Qu(' Ad III. Scen~' L .lcknow!ed~('d by many
clitics to t,>! the hest ~pe..-:ch in defence of the Idea of equal

rights for all peoples and all faiths in the whole of '

litcraturc~; and of Helena i~l the com~y All's Well Tlia/"E~!~

Wel1. which dc~'unks the Idea o~ a~lstocrJ.tic nobility, ek

Shakespeare IS also the enthusiastic <ldvocatc of the ri h
of the younger generation to follow its own heart. and 9 ,t

feel he is on their side in the struggle against the mCdicv:~

domestic tyranny of their fathers. EX.J.mplcs of such despot"

,,
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oft

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boo>

val..

..

fathers arc; Egcus in A Midsummer NiObt's Drecull. thrcatc~.

ing to shut up his disobedient daughter in a monastery, tnyoking "an ancient Athenian law" which gives a father right
of life and death over his children; old man Capulct, trying
to force his daughter into marriage with the bridegroom he
has chosen for hcr-"County Paris"; Desdemona's father,
Brahantio, refusing to believe that his daughter could come
to love the Moor except under the influence of magic, and
ready to curse her fot this love. In all such cases of conflict,
Shakespeare is full of ardent sympathy for those heroines
who are prepared to fight for their love (Hermia, Desdemona.
Jessica, Juliet), whereas the unhappy Ophelia's blind obedience to her father he indubitably represents as an expression
of the weakness and defectiveness of her character.
With immense conviction Shakespeare also plies the
idea of intellectual and moral equality between man and
woman. In this context, it is enough to note the obvious
superiority of mind and will of Helena over Count Bertram,
of Viola over Duke Orsino, of Portia over Bassanio, and, to
some extent perhaps, even of Juliet over Romeo. Most
remarkable is the fact that Shakespeare wished to givc, and
succeeded in giving, one of his most remarkable illustrations
of the richness and fullness of woman's nature in his portray
al of "a shrew", that is, to use the conventional expression,
of a "negative" type of woman.
Shakespeare sets an exceptionally high value on truth
from the human point of view, on sincerity of thought ~nd
feeling. Hamlet is always searching for the truth, hav1l1g
found in books and heard around him nothing but "words So also Lear, who originally took all things at their surface
value, begins, in the great enlightenment of his madness,
to look for truth <: lone Othello, also is anothcr,uch constant
seeker aftcr trut l1.
FM an

;~.!v.

c 'v Sh. R..'pira

60

What rcpellcd Shakcs~a~ more than a.n)'~inq w 'S truths

. hcsis-hypocdsy. There arc but cw wntcrs ~ w'lose
lntl~ . to be found SUI h d collc.:tjon of 11 imagln_ hl
wo~ s. IS of b ocntes. In the majority o' .:.. !:, they :"K"lng
var~~~e~sual ~:pe of c'llculating h~ ,oc~te wlto ~.. ts on hi
to k' certain Cl lmstanl cs and for s;me dcl:irute purpo c
mas 1~le 1ago Rosencrantz md Guild... :lstc~, 1 llsta1 In
Such
Wives 01 Windsor etc. Ani her type h. t.he tem
Tile
erry k originally put en of lCC_ .. ity md inc by
porary m.:1S ,

th
be oc
f the plc;Jsure which it glVes e w arc.
l'eil50n 0 y such is the case of Rich_ j III 3ut . 1 n re
P
. crmancnc
.
arc Shakespearc's portrayaIS 01 h ypOCflt("s 1
mtcrestmg ocris 'la' become second "1_U
md who
,0
yP
whom h
Y " ,uc11 to themselves. :;u(h is M::!v)lio
k
t spca
evcn hY ' .....
I
h h
'
o
'rctended "respectabfily" i! l ~s W IC 1( ~ s
d I l l t the sake c' hl~ c 11 ~cr ana \- ':uc 1
whosc P
ut on once an or a OJ.
lIB t
P
t be indistinguishal1te F~:n 11S rl..l ace . . u
has grown 0
.
tiog( a WIth
'f . Malvolio thlS
ganie' t-vPIJ ... ISV ;
1, m
. Angelo (\It.. ~UIe tor ~1el. ;uel t taK ... _-:'I 1
grotesque, 10
tragic characte1

~_
Still more charactt:Jl, tiC 01 Sh___ sJ ...;.. ... outlook "n
~("'leral md(

L
thesc ethical, lOman' :uian prnl.. '.~ I~ ) nr. hen._.
standing of tJ e whole ro __: ot k ~. : _= 1. y... t!.
this. his mo ~ qener lllseu udqe4. . s "1
this life
_
m t'" poir.~ of
If we examm~ all ShaKt;te~ll "s '\: ';",... ~1..at f r ...... tlu,,:
view. we w,11 ,e 10I ce ~ -1 - ~ _Co---._...
"nature nf' ,. liS
highest cite" on was If' C0n,-_"). v' ind
H: conccpt f
favouritc WOt is) Nol only ioes ..
r.._ l\!.'1cnts t.n

v..lichitp"C
Ith
naturc and 0
e Images ... _"'. ul! &"1 ht but lal
support of some ,f h: n: s. 1m -. .
h"urc)
.
d
aCi lnst "" 1(.; 1
......
And "ere W'" ualiU S
l-'fs also the ~('Itm an c eno n .
the w' rth1l1c::, c!
hum~n 3ct~~~~od t arc D.s. ;
rly. in
of nature a. Sh_ spt.lrc nde
W1.ic" 1. alwa:-.;
gOll"1g
cvi~cnc('. Fl st-tl'e
11 Vt; ~pro;;-h_
Shal" ~"'arc ~ del
on 111 na1 urc Hcnce, on the..: 0 re' -cJ :n the dyn"mlsm of
of movem t, ~ .d.~~elOI ~cn",.expl ')'snov 19 thf' j( elophis iJ11ag('s <'.."1d 111 11 m )terl)
Y
tL r 1..
d hI' a"\l re
h
t
on 1 ( ' ) lC k
,
mcnt oj hiS 1C" oes
lC c f
thing exc~eding 1, hi'
llP ~
,1
14"
sure' flu t:v
~ lY .'1.. t' c dcm. 1d ~. that
u'lt.:I '"
I
nPIC SI e ... I eXI.. '1( c
d .U 1 ~s vallI.. 111 d I"1!
It::.
srllncthm~ .01 ... \I .
. c' d'ne
.",'"
rt.-, c' a~ ... ght
bcauty uch l~ lC' blo::. C"ll nr: .:... Ul.

:r

!l

that is bright~l' than is .nc.c~ssary fOl' the satisLJction of tho.:

practical reqUirements at VISion.
Portia's speech on "mercy" as all essential concem,
.11.11
1 ant
to "justice" m~y serve as an,' ustrahon 0 t ~is, or the cxcc~
sive joie de V1Vr~ ~f Mcrcutlo. the" ovcdlo\\"lOg wit of Beat.

I
1

.r.
...."
.....
...
....""
k

III

A.

III

rice, the sidc-sphttlOg laughter o( falstaff. everything "pia _

fu1", in fact, which we find in Shakespeare's imagery; an~
seen in relation to all these, the splendid words of Lear: "Ou~
basest beggars arc in the poorest things superfluous. Allow
not nature more than natU1'e needs, man's life's as cheap as
beast's" (II. 4).
The second quality of nature, according to Shakespeare,
is its "beauty" or its "goodness", which in this case means
one and the same thing. understood without the least trace
of abstract mOl'alising,-that quality which is so splendidly
rendered by Shakespeare's word fair (beautiful, noblc, pure,
virtuous) as opposed to foul (harmful. disgusting, dirty,
vicious). As a resume, it might be said that nature, for
Shakespeare, is healthy, beautifuL creative life; nature is
evolution .

2
However, although Shakespeare remained faithful to
humanistic ideas throughout his writings. his humanism is not
monolithic.
We distinguish three periods in Shakespeare's work: (1)
the early period, during which he writes mainly gay, lusty
comedies and dramatic Histories (roughly from 1590-1600);
(2) the middle period of the great tragedies, heroically stern
and sometimes gloomy (1601-160B); and (3) the late period
of reconciliation during which Shakespeare creates plays of
a peculiar type, of a legendary, idyllic character with a
softened tragic quality (1609-1612). Each transition from
onc period to the next is marked by profound changes in
Shakespeare's philosophy and poetics. Particularly significant
is the transition from the first to the sccond period on the
boundary of which stands Humlet. basically assignable to
According to Caroline Spurgeon, "evil, in Shakespeare's imagina'
tion, is dirty, black, and foul, a blot, a spot, a stain; Shakespeare als.o
thinks of evil as a sickness, an infection, a sore and an ulcer". But 11
carries with it no "sense of sin". (Caroline Spurgeon, SlJalwspcare's
lUUlgery and What It Tells Us, Cambridge, 1935. pp. 158-159, 161, 166.)

62

Shakc,pcJ,rc scc ne! :n".nncr, althou9.h .till ..:ont~ining many

feature of htl fir t. ThlS I: lns1110n I!> the ,ub)ecl 01 thl~
'1Itid~-

It i~ nol )niy tJtat, at L.,lm stage, Sha~:;~pc~e ~\lms to

wte tr_qca e '11 tnd of c?m~d:e, and ::!stones. or thJ.l.
om 1 rn(>1 ry sto:y pmnc~, AC 1$ Lms~"rmed mto a ~eV('l'~
'Hie .:J,nr' JuciEe of ius tiDl~.; th~ m.:-,t pnQ2[ tan l bCUl'
rc i! t;lC pc JI' _1' (:lara ....cr of Sh ~c ipeare' i 'grc II tragt:
d~ s.. which al "'ol:nd '.J]' with his alte"ed lttitudc '.J life
I~c these tragedic, we find n.ot ~"ly ci :m.jl'stic "~veI1ty,
gloom, and, in pmt. even vuty, "~t_a :ce1,n'J J1 '-'J.~::tstrJ~hc
boding or, perha",::. alre:tdy broken ... 'v .. :. m:mkmd. ,j ft!chng
of the almost complete (we emph;:'ilse th1S almuc;t) bankrupt
cy of all hopes, of the b~nk~llptcy of hu~an n?)~,Jn an.d
will. In Hamlet. the qU4O'<,t1cn :s ~alscJ. a~ .0 whether hft.! lS
worth while. whethc; the~'e is any mt:J.ning at all tu m~n'~
existence: in\1acbrth are :evealed t'1e tC:'rible l,.ml'lat10ns
to which d man of .prJwe.;s is iiU~)e,,: and the d,:l'\ ab::s~c<;
of the human. au.:: ~n Kir:.tl Le;;'T, y.;,_, "rc ShO"",,l the !l10St
cruel breaking o! iI :"lans perso~:::i~:,., c3.di::lg tc th'~' appal''ntlv incvitabl(' ,:ml:usic'1. that mac :s n:-thing bet a yot'.r,
bare, forked aflim'::': (IE. 4', Somehm!:i .,~j~J..l', alt"~u~~ I~
a mu:h c:luted fOlm, IS 1150 to be r .. :;::':-~("- :.n the ~:rr..!.;al
\omcdies of this perle,,;; TIJilus z.'1~ Crc.,sid.... A1~'s Well
That F:nd~ Well, Measure k!' M.,;s:::-:. ~:'': 6rs~ ?~ whl(~
\:ven ends ::-agirallv wherea~. :':". t~e two ct:~C'rs, tzt h:Jppy
' , . - ',e a"'~C
l';""-n~~..;
eot.. the
,.;1 d ing ,",,-,11',:c1y compcr_:-3 C', _0:-..
""."
c~, "".
fuur and iI h:;:lf pr~x:eding act~_
.
,
'
Thi'i great change i!l Shakc<:~e~ ~ fc.::i~g :~~:. llf(' IS
..
1V b QU:l d up WI ~J th e a.:- w ~L_'
h1e ",>,,;,~
lts
mtlm:\tc
........ - makes
_
lPPcJ.r,ulcc .1t about thi~ tir.:c ar.d L'ven m.lk",s i~seU felt m
his pro5"Jy: t:le fonne'r SJl100th~:: H-:,'\\-ing l:mguagc ~nd
rhythms, the harmoniou~ ccrr:.positie>n, the 0utw.1l'd ~obsh,
~U'C replaced by :.tormy im\'ard mt'tio~. by compleXity of
stlUCtUl'l~. by sharplY expressive intonat.I~~:
that
All this h;\5 given many Western cn.ttl::> .cause to say, .
Sho.kespe-:\l'~'~ w0rk of the scc0nd pc nod 15 thc ~ost ~om
..
h b
., Ie . Such a dcfimtlOl1.
p 1etc> cx:'re~SlOn
~~! t c .lroquc ~;..
. ' how'
h
,'.
'hich reIgns m t c
.
ever, in view ~~! the uu.:>! ~::m USI~~. '\."
ill.defined
underst.mding of the tenn Barr"co, I:, e1ther h
. 11
.
Tl e fact of t e matter
and mC0mplcte. or ..::~~entl~ y Wlon g ., 1.
mber of
l~ that critics frequently mdude 3 cons1derablc ~.uB .. ..
'he c''''nccpt
of
iL\lOCO.
eXlremely \'dl'leU, phenomena un d'
I.:l
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63

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twe<

the t
lith
the I

lonn,
A. L
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Will t!
of 8rti

K. S
G. VI;

othenJnearru
of the I

.tap 8_

...... I

.tudl_

.....00...

.... ,
II

vaJuabk
World .t

-ebl

As regards form, the features of the baroq,llC style arc quite

clear-cut and there can be no l~ck. of c1a,Tlty on that count.
The basic feature of ~al'oquc at t 15 c~nsldcrcd to be eve.,)'
possible kind of dcfcct~on from the ~ucld cal,m, harmony and
wholeness of. th~ R:~aIssancc styl~ In the ~lrc~tion of irreg.
ularities. whlmslcahtIes, complcxltr and IntrIcacy. Instead
of straight. clean lines, clear, plashc forms, bright and gay
colours. all the transparent harmony of the Renaissance, in
the art of the Barraco we observe intricate curves, complex
masses, dynamic energy, dark and sombre tones. dim and
emotional chiaroscuro, opulent, often heavy ornament, sharp
contrast and dissonance. However, everything depends on
what aims are served by these artistic forms and on the
ideas which they embody.
What may be called the "classical Barraco" of the second
half of the sixteenth and the whole of the seventeenth
centuries, that is, of the epoch of feudal Catholic reaction,
corresponds in the world of ideas to the renunciation of
Renaissance joie de vivre and optimism, of faith in the power
of reason; to a departure from realism, and to a submergence
in an atmosphere of vague, tragic sentiments, into a
mysterious and irrational world. This does not exclude the
presence of a current of hedonism in the classical Barroco,
of intoxication with the sensual impulse. But here such moods
assume an unhealthily passionate, excessively tense and, in a
certain sense, tragic character; they are devoid of that sponta
neity, that lucid gaiety which characterises the hedonism of
the Renaissance. To the perception of artists and writers of
the classical Barraco, truth is revealed as "multiple" and, in
the last analysis, incognisable; :reality--as fluid and inapprchen sible.
The features of the baroque style described above ,I,'erc
eminently suited to the expression of mystic moods and to a
certain form of aestheticism, typical of the artists and poets
of the feudal Catholic reaction. This was a rejection not only
of the Renaissance but of humanism in general. Such is t~c
art of Gongora, and, to a certain extent, of Calderon 10
Spain, of Gryphius in Germany, of the later Elizabethan
dramatists: Webster, Ford, Turner and, in lyric poetry, of
Donne and the "metaphysical" school in England, not to
mention a great many wr:ters and artists oj '5econdi! ~ Y importance in all the countries oj EU1"pe at that time.
But Shakespeare's arl in the same period bears n('l :-,'scm'
64

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well-l
au,h
M. M
In tlu

.......

Will tot artl

K. S
G. til.
other&Ine.rm
ot the i

ltap .
M ,.. I
Itudl.

.......
.....
.
book. 11

vaJuabl~
World It
Shekg

1 cC to this, although, &':)rmally. it has certain fe- tures in

b ann,on with classical Bar .)co. r'1e- C Jmmen features C lD b.
~.
1 ar b rc 1k 3.way f rom the Renaissan' c
explained by a SImi
(though not. a,s. we shall see, from 'lumams.n ). by the taking
up of neW pOSI~lons. ~Y the appear~ncc of a new attitude to the
world and to life whIch was exploIted n a ,pedfic manner bv
the forces of reaction .,md which pndul. :d the sty'e of 'lc

el.;

sical Barroco. bul whoch could 5'" ve qUlte otl:.::.- even 1iamctrically opposed aims.
These neW positions w'lich Shakespeare had adoptc-:J. we
a direct expression of the :risis of Rcnaissancc-typt;: numan'
ism, a crisis which had 11 eady found u11 expre::. lD in
Hamlet. In the last analysis, it onsisted in awaroess. c :he
discrepancy between the ide'lls ')1 Renaissance humanism

and the possibility of theIr re1r~~~ on in the :a1. 'llstori(.aJ

conditions of that time. T'u was a phen( nenen whl':')
affected the whole of Euro~e ana whk'l w~ ennect"CI with
specific socio-political events md dater- T 1 Ge r D1ny in 1,;35,
came the supprcsdon of the .Anabaptists (_': mO!~ VUIU
tionary sect of the Reformation). 1V'.ough. ev_l l;.. )re thl!
Luther had flung him!eh into tilll:. _ TIS n L: prin'e acDOD
strating thereby the way " which the lC' ; ity an:! ..;. ~I l~ C
took fright when a( eG by a popular, peasan: re".,luti,J" In
France, in the mid thirties f the sixteen~J-. century, Le e Wd)
a sharp veer ~g t:o th. right in tl.. -:; tic s - thlO king. thaI
is, in the politic's 01 t~c ru. In~ ..:. "')5t:' ,...". - .tlarly 'cr Le
famous incident of the lac"rd!' n "34.In Italy, also !n the thirti~ VIe obst.:rvc an "aJ\~=-Ol'
.mdslide to th~ i9ht v' )('h W 1!', n )= r . e rl;; .. "'C " ' -events and ideole iul tfl"dc::.- e coy)nd thlO \1;; mt t"l a
still greater exte;' ~~ 14 11 1, 11 1)'1 a1.!irS \; e com} e on
of the procf''l.) of the repla( 'ement .:' MI,.;. h 1:r:.~ R,"" blic n
Norther1t Italy by pl lOt paW.':' :md tt- . cro( raencc - a. nj ~
feudalising nobllity f

m \llt"t 1: ICl forne y?e , the :l1qhe

:~I

~14,

Tlze illciuen.! ,. the pille 1,

un c tli:l ..
t
yC.ll
on the doors ,f public \; ita'
puis - 1. ch- '.YfI! anoxe
the walls of the King'
W' e - th I la(a
1s
r:
l dcontain
n fOlbii
u spa en attac"S on : h":>S !:"d n h P P- W1
.;- . .
-rs
U .. k
Ira!
ndign'll\t l' su h :\ lttc
:> n.e crenlH!1
o"
[ c {ing
'. :.
! ..
f4
w. c,

Cath~hc
!\t:~e

",n~.:11 ,~.lS,

~t(:1

~!".
~rdc.:1",
hnvesti~Ai '
c'" rc execu _ 1. Aftl . thi~, Ih
=,,~ .

nc ne
Owal 5 re igi 15. :il nl 1( lnd t:' 11 .
...;al ff4:t:' h n
...are,c<:am
en~. Exc.:Jtion .. '1 t4 ~ nt nt.i o~ "e-' tbn);.'" u g n '
_veral 10ze 1 p _0(.'

q .11'.(' comn _] eve ]1.

""

-r n

~lt ~

,,
b

"

1/

::

'"Ii'
TJ

po

TIL

....to ,
pol

of,

'!'be
ol

strata of the bourgeoisie; the beginning of the econornic

decline owing to the removal of the most lmportant t r,ldelines from the Mediterranean to. the Atl~tntJc and Indian
Oceans, etc.}. In Spain, at about thIS same time, after Charles
V had systematically broken the power first of the great
feudal landholders and then of the trading and manufactut
ing cities, an ultra-Catholic absolutism was established.
Towards the middle of the sixteenth century, reaction on the
Continent was in full swing, finding expression in a whole
series of extremely typical phenomena: in 1540 the Pope
initiated the Order of Jesuits who, incidentally, were to
become the most zealous propagandists of baroque art; in
1551, the Grand Inquisition was organised in Rome (it had
existed in Spain since 1477); from 1545 to 1563, the Council
of Trent was in session whose aim it was to regulate all
aspects of public and pl'ivate life in a spirit of strict ortho'
doxy and conservatism; in 1559, there appeared one of the
brain-children of this Council-the first Papal Index librorum
probibitorum,
In England, this trend set in much later, Here, there was
no counter-Reformation, and absolutism kept its progressive
chara~ter m~ch longer and in a significantly greater degree
than m Spam or even in France. In England, we witness a
buoyant increase in the forces of the nation, right up until
the defeat ?f the Invincible Armada, which guaranteed Britain
the S?Ve~elgnty of the seas (1588), After this, however, in
the mneties, that is, half a century later than in the countries
of Southern and Central Europe, the decline set in here as
well. The basic circumstances relative to this decline were:
the Widening rift between the bourgeoisie and the new aris'
tocracy,. most of whom had emerged from its own ranks; the
concl,uslOn of the national struggle against Spain; the first
conflIcts between the royal power and parliament which
proteste~ against the grants of trade and manuf~cturing
monopohe
. 'I eges to the aristocracy, AU this becomes
sand ,pnvl
,
barbcular~y eVIdent after the succession of the Stuart
r ynasty 10 1603. Hence the profound changes in English
Ite;al~ure at the turn of the century. furthered by philosophical
::n ltera~ trends from the Continent where the new curts. havlOg developed earlier, had by that time achieved a
~a~~e u~ature, and finished character (Montaigne: the latc'
pI q, hItahan novella; the pastoral genre' the Spanish
aywng ts and novelists, whose influence jn~reased greatly
66

el' the St'larts), 'ience H'l112leL and all Shak(';s~wre s pla~'l

d
un
d" ,
f the sec n pr'lO...
o
the trouble wen ie- . than the C3.t'-.5t:~p~e wl:l.lch
But helmed Reoaissance-ype ,h
"
It <!.,.,
~mamsm 3.$ a re,u
II..~
overw "th the actual socic-pohU~1 lJet"lp of the -!gc, The
h W'[ this catastrophe was:ll.:~ In. L-Ie mil'::,"" 'JotcoaL"'"t
lJl y
caus~ ~c Renaissancc-humanisLc ldeal',.mre'lllS01bh., undel
of t e d'"t,'ons whic'" could haven f ..ct been !?!~ 'dc~; at any
any con
la
'n the dcvclopmen" of :t c 5S sc .le:.'i,
'
sta-3:f~rc this crisis. Re~81 :;ancetyp~ hum~m.m bd ',1.;1
'd n' More than this. it W2:S uellneated w~h ,a,doqmlll1Sm
~ y ~~. d from the Middle Ages and merely : ,dL'__ ~e~t mto
mho~~!~ channcl-a kind of "jnside-ou~ dogm':';';1srn .- HI ever .
an long as its task was confined to the . "l1anl..:p~\tiO~ ~ man
.0
from feudal meeliF .-;,I d ogm.:. ,L
. - con'"'
-- , ""n'"
.. - . !lurnan
"t 'nd soo"ely which ,. offered. al~ leJ5'h c!:!r..::nel:y
persona I1 Y a
.-.
naive a~d ?~er'5impl_i~erl. was yet suf~..c~(,I~ th. c~ -: _epti('~ of
,ooady, accorG.!:...
. _' - d
The, llldlvldual pc."
t h , h<ol.;.~_.y \Ii 1( c dl
RenaIssance humarusm. s some In .. -,.
thE;: :' :-:nt c!
single, devoid of complex:"y or dr - ,?c ,!lent, _, .1, , tb~
. wor" 'n It z'" thr<: .. " .. 1.
b
!
contact between C':'\';.' '111 :-~1'"' _~ .. ,:~ . . ht~- ~.~ ::~;::naticClS
act~ve repository ot YlOse ,~_~,t:~, ~-~.g &.~ -(' ::t r:>~1;lles
whtch go to for:n ll. A ,t, ~o It'.. , '
"
' . j 2~~~ c~
nothing so much .l~ a gt::mt :~:..:.:"1 pomEt.~ ,': :.'~ ..:~"c.:-nccp~ion
"t
hySlC Sue t_
- - .. \,;-~-D
h
Id
teo
c~ocn e"ll. ,P
- ~,~;:'.:' 't~e .. : ...s,,;:~_'e :n ::tis
of personahty. Petra, -h s llI~ ~.- ..e ~1 ... ;. lo"' " ~ Ron'
works of recognised ,'O~~: .::;!'~: ::o~ '"~: ...l,,~::~ ':.~( ~:r;;'i~;:;
hL'-'
sard's, Ariosto'f" Spencer.) .!IlLi.. at .~~ . ~',
.
development. Mar'owe s.
,
f h _ ... 'Ol.-~ey 1S f,,:'rmed
In the :>.ame way, .l C=-~H:l!p.:on 1 , U:::':-dgoro:.:s and life'
which pictures it a~ ., free .1SSC'Cl.J. __ O:l"-,
' ,Ie of ston.:f
'
t
"1" L1C C.1:...
loving individual$. SUt' h, or IDS anct;'M' , aret c-f Na\'3rrc's
tellers in Bocca~,:io'~ Decan:c:,~lL orl,a :I~C Thdtme, Such
HeptaJl1CrOll, such is Rabelals .4.b:- Y leet "aristocrats of
associations arc possible ..)nIy to d!('~ sC'd by Renaissance
the ~pirit"an idea strenuously 1_ <";V~:C'~~1 concept ot hered'
humanlst:- in contrQsl t..:. the fcudJ.. me, le\ of taking in the
ital'Y ari!;tocracy of l'irth, ,The queshd~ nct as a rule, ari~e
whole of mankind. of crcatmg a st.l.tc ,
"oken of there 1S
"t
'we h ave sp
at all. In such c..:.mmum ICS as
'ther leadership nor
neither structure nor develol'mcnt. ?~~ of absolute frcedom
government. f..:.r they arc ruled by a SpIn onflicting interests,
and, at the same time, there are no c

d..

'1

L;

,.:,

',J

67

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ot.

"",

all ,

....
,
,.... ,
twa

twUl.
.... L

....

Contradictions, discord and evil arc thought of a~ a fot .

and passing .blight, a poison br~ught in from out!;id~ Ulto~
At the basIs of such a conception of the world is th~ .
of nature as an absolutely and altogether good

fa Idea
th~~Ci S(thr

Physic ?f Rabclais as oppos~d to the Antiphysic,

everythmg false, perverted, wicked), and faith in the
d , to
of human nature. Let us recall Rabelais' rcasonin gothO ness
9 at all
man ,5 oatu ral'me1"mahans arc 1awful and that if th
not subjected to constraint. they would lead o~ly to cy were
able and moral actions. The Renaissance humanists . r?~s~~.
mood, believed that an eloquent exhortation or ' 10 1 ~ he
appeal should be enough to teach man to cast off e;n, ar cnt
to begin to help his fellow-and that then life WOUl~IS~ and
become beautiful and happy. Such a Utopian refonned a o.nce
we come across more than once in Shakespeare's c soc~~ty
from th.e fir~t period. Let us remember Act V of The Momeh les
ofh Veruee,
In which all the "noble" and"
ant
t
f h
generous- here
earted"
~a:;a~e~f~h~ i~ et~lay, having m~ together in Portia's garden,
to "the music of ~h~w~et-sce~~e , ~oo~lit night hearkening
the comprehension of r~erf~' W~lc;h IS, of course, beyond
"dull as night". or th l'f 1 es?
ylock whose spirit is
Forest of Arde~ in As ey ~ue
bhss( led by. the exiles in the
1 e It d. particularly II, 1); or,
in a certain sense th
pany (Sir Toby Bdlch e ~ar~free a~d ~armlessly merry comTo this Renaissanc~ hua~a ~t alz.~) In !welfth Nigllt.
of absolute. complete1 and ~msm, . truth appears as a kind
which all that is nee~ d . Immediately accessible, to master
("Fortune"),
e IS good will. energy, and luck

t1

This world of Deeameron a n d

Id
of the youthful novels in
verse of Boccaccio this
a~d. Poliziano. Adosto ~l~:n of Lorenzo the Magnificent
Peners (Nouvelles n:!crJ t.
ent .Marot. Bonaventure Des
tw~ books of Rabelais a
et ]oyeux devis), of the first
0
lyncal comedies, histori~s and e poems of Spencer, of the
as Romeo and Juliet f
the very first tragedies (such
word is permjssible 'pIal' example) of Shakespeare is if the
~ts juttings and mO~d~nfmetric. It is not quite fl~t ~nd has
IS devoid of the third di~~e ~ bas-relief. but, in essence, it
yo~ want to attain to truthnSlon, of depth. In this world if
old a well-found course or .t~ happiness, you have o~ly
ong enough-and. with luck Wit s~ficient energy and for
and Vasco da Gama arrived' rob. Will arrive, as Columbus
. ate port of your desire. This

lrn:h

:0

68

R Clissancc world is boundless and, therefore. infinite in anv

d.~~~tion. but only in the flat. Yet this boundlMsness w~c;
c~ough to nurt~:el t~cling of. t~c l~,exhausti~lc abundance
f life and bClDg. of :lcver-fal1mg Fortune ~an idea ex'
~rc(llc1Y ,haractc1"istic o~ t-'le period of pnma:y (\::c~mulation.
This feeling waS no~ns~ec1by the gre.-:t dts.covenes of the
epoch and the great l1q:.lld~tton~ of mediev::ll dogmas which
werC being effected by rahonallst thougnt,1ogiwlly, in the
light of evidence f~rnishe~ by our senses ~nd re:lson. Tn its
beautiful naivete, thIS Renaissance humaru~bc Weltan.<>chauung
was optimistic and idyllic through and th~:::'Jgh. At the same
timc, it was individual:sl~e, ego(entric in ts intoxication with
life and with the limitless possibilities whk:'l tl,..lS life offcred
to the individual.
Howevcr. having emancipated the inCividual. this Wdfansdwuung was seen to be an insuffi;.;ient ~:::undalion for the
organisation of human satiety, fo!- the ceatic!I. of a 'State. At
the first clash with ~-ealtty with ~':tc forces 0f the feudalCatholic reaction and with ::'c practice of pr.ma~v at"- umulation-thesc beautiful i~lusions c.:llarsed. ThiF W3~ tc- 'e71d ne~
to the general collapse _,f hum~'1ism, b,~~ .:n1y tJ its relr~a
ment for a further. more dour st:r1;gg!:: to thf' .)vercommg
of that easy-going faith in the sufficiency .:~ hJ~ thought.,.
and sentiments which ch.::rlck:is.'::.i Rt::la!s~anc ... humanlsm.
and to the working O\lt of a ~Otl.! rrofo;:r.J 'JIldc:s.tanding of
the world. that i~, to an l."'Xtendcd .l!'l<! ::;;:!"c c:!nc.:tl con~ep
tion of the human rc~_~onalitv ?.nd c; !1:n:::J.n rclati;:>nships.
Both these rc~atiC'nships and t~~e ?CTs.:'!'!aJity ?J:'. begin ~o
show in al! their c0mplexi.ty, in ~:lci.r c.:'ntradictlons and 1D
the process of dcve1op01<,;at.
_.
The most important !niles:.,~ne 3.1c39. t~~j. rOJ.d l~ Montaignc's doctrine of the human - I whKh IS concd~e~ as
indivisible but not unif":-n11. which is full elf contradlctlons.
constantly changing, adapting itself to circumstances and
circumstance,> to itself, cap.:lble of infillitc dc\'c1opment. In
close connection with Montaigne's Que s~5:.ie? stands n~t
the capitulation .:'If r,-,~IS(ln but the adnlls s10n that tru ,
'h" d f',n,ul'e but arc a
'
K goo dness and happmcs,> an.' not OSSl ('
~
...
way, a quest and a struggle..
f human
An Jna!ogous change occurs .liso 10 the concept 0 .
society . or. in other ..... ords, of the state. The
~ow
.f latter
d at ....isanoUs
d 1
unde1"stoocll<; a compound of opposites pOSl lone
1evcls. as a 'c~01p1cx structure in a state of constant eve op69

,
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I

T
U

..
1M

air

'1'1
II'

po

Tb.

pu'
the
to l

otl
TIle
ot,

<

mcnt. as a unity of various and frequently

forces. in which the common weal is attained ~ontradictory
the smooth co-ordination of the parts and of tl y means 0:
" 0 f In
" d""d
I"
h
Ief subord"
tlon
IVI ua mterests to t c requirements
h
Inil
Fin?lIy, the world as a whole, the "macroc~s~" C ,whole.
seen m the same way. as complex and mulr-l ,IS now
di~linished image is to be found in the state (~ ~VCl1Cd .. Iu
qUite frequently to be met with in Shake
ompanson
"n t
UI ysscs ' spec<:I"
speare: cf f
I ,5 allee,
1 In TCOJIlls and Cres 'd T
. Or
shll further diminished, in the human "I" t~l ~, .' 3). and,
(as the Gentleman in King Lear says the' "{ttl mIcrocosm"
man": III, 1). Such a world, such a st~tc and ~uc~ wO:ld. ~f
dual IS, capabl~ not only of growth and chan e bu an mdlVi'
formatIOn (d. m comparison w,"th th"
,g
t off Jtrans
e growmg-up"
I"
an d Romeo, the transformations of H I t L O
r U let
, Ed~ar,
Mac~eth, Coriolanus, Cleopatra). The ~:ld
and like man) acquires de th b
I e society
ever-changing, multi-levelfed'an~c~mes stereometric: it is all an
This new conception of th ' In essence, fathomless whole,

(tk

~frthcedeRd th: oversimplificati~n ':~lr~dh:;~:tn:c~n d~ghicht'sU-

e enalssance was ca bi
f b .
rna Ism
possible directions dep ~~ e 0
emg channelled in two
handled by progre~sive :~r;;g on w~ethe: it were being
by the reaction.
s (humamsm, m particular). or
In this epoch of sy t
.
~atho1ic Church to dr!:~rt~h ende~vour on the part of the
mto her own servic th
e achIevements of lay thought
neglect to make us:' of ~h ~orces of reaction did not of course
~f man for its own end IS ~cw conception of the world and
"mult~ple levels" of tru s. Fl,rst and foremost, the idea of
multlplicity". The old t~ ~~s. replaced by the idea of its
faith and knowledg th ua IStlC doctrine (good and evil
"an
d realiora) all e,
ed
earthly
J"I an d the heavenly real'
fa
t
Ie
Ior. an d, as it were urne
outtob
'
a art'
1 : an excellent preparation
~hlch was now adv~cat~ ~CUtrr mstance of the pluralism
btruths" (or, correspondingl 0 Ie result arrived at was that
elm)0Thre than two, as for ins~ nO.nTIs. values, criteria) could
,nee,
e world of l' .
sublimated feelings P(i~C~~~:l ~nterests; 2) the world of ideal,
nfvel~); 3) the world of e rat ur?-late chivalric and pastoral
a rhlhlosOPhy; 5) the worl~a~f sCll:n~e; 4) the world of rationuc pluralism (0 d '
rc Iglon.
people of the Renafssa~~~~ml:s r:lS~1 tO be ~e~ with among
ca t h e sptrltual struggle

70

f petrarch or the restd~e of religious' ascetic moods in

~ot.:cacLio, But. ')r the-'Jl, thIS WaS ,1 hard inner t:onflict which.
h d to be resolved one way or the other. In the late Renais
s:nc . toward~ the end of th~ sixteenth. centu~, ,such dual
e
ity was
experienced, m,ore, Col.mly .an~ tts objective ~ignifi
nee waS in the dellmttatIon of cntena (norms, values). the
cairitual from the material. religiOUS truth from truth obtained
: rational Ilnd empirical knowledge, in order to guarantee
the second of thesc complete autonomy and, therefore. the
possibility of fr:c development (Bacon, Charron. eL.).
NoW we arc faced with a completely different conception,
The possibility of the exi<;tcnce of two or even several contradictory truths gave rise to a sensation of J. ~"agic splitting
of consciousness. of utter spiritual perplexity. A~ man (;on'
templated the newly-revealed depths of ~he. wor~d and of
the human psyche he was overcome by glddmrss OJt such a
spectacle of fathomless- depths; he .fel! an urge:tt, need to collate all this together into some slDgle "ystem. put '~:as not
in a position to do so in his own slteDgth. Everyt~1I1q w~s
subject to doubt, everything larsing into ch?,:,~ ~t 1S at thl~
point that the obliging priest appears. takes bewtldere-i m:tn
by the hand and leads him out ':If the ~abyrint~, TheTt' ,301'':
many truths, but all of them arc conditional p.nd rclatl\e.
There i; but one real and absolute tnth-the !.:~igi':::il:> t:1Jth,
by com par:" ,on with whkh all the othe, truths ~cu~,~ :l.
secondarv po~ition. Life :md all connected t!::.c.:\nth, 15 a
dream", 'lot an absolute "illusion" but 3 relati\'e one, fan
incomplt::l'" rc.:: ~ity which may and should be accepted .Jr
the sake 01 practic3.1 essentials. even for the ~e of pleasure.
but which
always be put away f:-om
pushed into the back':}round for the sake o. the untque .9. .
uine" truth oj r~~iqious revelation. Hencl! the ~e)Ults
famous do!";lJinc L"'f 'the "two truths" which arose ndm
second half of the ",ixtC'enth .:entury and which. f
b
"
an int('re<;ting f'lol('mi~3.1 r~~f!c..:::ion in Shakespeare Ii ac e '
."
. _ "
ed b M beth t"' d{'s~ribe the pro'
F.quL\'o,.:Ibor." I,; the w,~T'd t:s
'! ac
~.
od (V 5)

':-'!l~sdf." a::'

~hr-uhl

th~
s~~

phccy of the "We'r,' ,i~:C'I" .liter he' h:1S jc.:lmt th:lt BI!na~t:~S spe~ch,
IS on the m;ll, h .l!:l:l;ln~t h'Tl'I, In the ,,;une pl.:1Y. lflb'h po 1 '0 bell for
the"
f
"
, " who has ccn sen
, lc' LS.:I" .rCl'C" t{'J .:II' -',q'.llV"C:1C'f
.
d
C10U>J h fc>r
gL\'\~g ,'vid, n,,'C' ,\<:j.Jin<;t 0('111 s~d('~, "who C0n:ml,t.tenr tr~).l,s~m'mcnt.:ltor~
Cod, \"'~", y ... t ,','l,lld n,'t "'--lUI'I.',:,c.lte to he.J'\en v' th JCSUI.( Harsnct
!>c't' iTl.
.J rc:c'rCtK<' t(" th<' bhc ......' -idcncc
by e d er P1-'"
"th gtven
"the gunpow
. . who
('xammcd in Mal',h 16.).' in c.;;ntl<,C"tl.;;n WI
.
C f "two truths",
~"ught to justify hirn~,Jf by p.:"stulating the eXlstenc 0

thi~

71

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19th

t/,. ,

torm,
A. L

this

well..;
.such
M. M
In tht
'pea",
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However a similar doctrine may also be found in Prat '

thought. in the works of certain representatives of~tant
"metaphysical" school and, particularly. of Dr. Brown
taught the existence of a "higher" religious truth which
sway over "lower", earthly truth. All this did not cxcl de d
current of hedonism. but with the taint we have
eda
On this
91'0\\'5 the art of the "classical
1'Oco. which makes WI?C, usc of, all the techniques alread
mentloned as characteristic of thIs school. Particularly h Y
acteristic of this art is mystic eroticism, the
horror of pleasure, the sensation of man's "sinfulness" (T' 9
de Molina's EI Burlador de Sevilla, the lyric poetry of I;~O
Spanish mystics, the drama of horror and scnsualit
Webster and Ford, etc,), This line of thought and thO Y, 1
"d'"
Issye
10 art 10 lcat~ a renunciatIon not only of Renaissance ideals
but of humamsm as a whole,
'
On the other hand, this new attitude to the world and t
led the most progressive thinkers and artists of
t1m,e to seek, a deeper ~nderstanding of humanist ideals,
~hlch gave rise to traglc humanism. The best representatives of these trends are Shakespeare in his second period
~nd Cervantes, ,Re,mbrandt, to some extent Michelangelo and
tr:onardo da Vll~CI. Tragic humanism is the awareness of the
ged~,od~ man In a property-o\'ming society which is more'
over,. s 1 109 back into feudalism, an awareness of 'all the
wearmess
of e
the struggl
societ
f
w h'Ieh man wages against this
Yh' .oh a struggle which does not always promise success
and
W IC
seems at t'~mes w: 11 JlIgh
.
theless
is alw
hopeless, but never
at the same t~~e a?d ,10 all circumstances obligatory. And,
Weltanschauun : It IS. a~ aw~reness that the Renaissance
insufficient an:; 10 ~llf ItS Idylhc optimism and simplicity, is
plex arsenal of rr:~t o~ such a struggle, that a more comRenaissance huma~i:~~ IS required than that prepared by

~h'
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al~

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~an

th~

In the view of tragi c h '

.
Jllsrn
sible in the conditions otFt
: e.ve~ I~ victory is imp?scumbent upon man t
,I e as It IS, It IS nevertheless 10thought, in an attemO tc~ntmue the struggle, even if only in
insoluble conflicts f p th 0 .penetrate the essence of these
of the future re~l or. t e victory of thought is the guarantee
!:Jamlet struggle in v~hoouryh over evil. Thus Shakespeare's
to put _ight" '1 _
hg t. l~d for thought in ;0 far as
e Ime t at 1S out -f oint' (I. 5) is a t.ask
71

whio..h annot be performed, so thc.ught and undC1'Standinq

bet.:
his adion, In exactly the SLme Way thought ;pc lDlr.
amc
thc l.ction of all Montaignc's -.ife
lr'1 order the better to undcr<.itand all tbf' ~if'lc ulties of the
!>trugg lc whoch man is doomed to wage agaillSL suo -;..mding
society and against himself, Shakespeare lay. bare 11' the
temptdtio n5 and illusions which can arOse in the y1th of In!1n.
The growth of personality is {nr rum the story of its uninterrupted ascent by way of casting 0(" an,J leaving behind the
outgrown stagl md fonns of its own 5' Jl( t.: ~o:" thl~
reason, Shakespe'l1'e C f the second oer cd, as, for instance
Cervantes, everywhere 1nd in everyth.in'- replaces e tat c
by the dynamic, the strut Jral by the fum,tional, fo. nula v
analysis, dogma by criticism, introduc 1n
verywhl re subtl':!
distinctions and the c ncept Of relativilv marki"n out the
stages in the development. f the indi..-idual pc "SonalLy :lOd
of human relations and conflicts.
For the expression in tenns of art of '5._,=" a humanisti
(in the new, more pr'ound "]leaning of the V: ord) :~ :eption
of the world, thr: te ... l[liques of I e ",:-=~ur. t'"Y :: v; ~ ju t
as suitable and just a! cssent:- 1 '1S r'":; tt._ exp...
n'~ C.::
conception of the wor'a "mplie(1 n c
i:aI' r.:..:: tin .. y
Barreco. The difference is onl~ J1 t'- .. f
that t!;.... ~ t:.
increasing inner J1'Invcne::~ md t'l-e~,- C;." r.t thing
infinite and fathomh.s!> gave Tis.:! t)
.. -., (' t'l-e L
,!Od irrational'ty o! f":~ .. ~_llC" '.:_ -e ,. b~ f
y' xi v
permeated by an nner o~dt" wb .. l ) subl _ )
neral
unifying law, T'lIS ide') found ~ne ex ,"e :::""' 1- tl'" work
of Edw'lrc. Dc wdcn :10 old E 19l sh ,;rJ ti ~ ,t a
tl: n:::al
artistic nl Jition. ~",'lell he S l!J1'1lari. e the ~ .... :_':'11 npre
sion left by Khg 'Lc:u"
-vervUnrg i" t.Lc t1' ~~\! 1 n
motion, and t'lr. no! on s l'\'lt of
te-."
~. A J1 - sqU(
head, which w~S [)ecrin~ out unon 'J$ 'Om, P i"t 1_'1' al
hand, suddenly
its
.. 1n(l 1
'I'
lnd
now i~ seen dl'lV~ 1 or fading aw. v int thl:: I~ tar.. e with
lips and. cy s that. 1! tnd of JI'ot'" ue un:: l' 1d ~nd
pathetil All that w~ e:: ,e ...ound us IS t~'.llpe ~uo~.'j .... 11 'ny
~nd 'leavonq yet NC arc aW l'-lal ':tW _. ide over t'1,S
VICll sltudc ana 2'", 'arc'lt incohcl'cT"t! W" are onfidcnt that
tht''I'e IS a ogic 01 the tempest. W'l,le N( h 1119 ppcars (be tOln f ;';1 t rro~
'"".c e ~n ... t 1- vc 0". It~ natural
w

chang~s

,-

supports and stays. instincts. pJssions, reason, all WI' h

and contorted, yet each thing in this seeming chaos trt~nc cd
its place with infallible Msurancc and precision,". < Cs up

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A primary feature of Shakespeare's second period'

.
critical approach to the concept of nature. In thc first IS1 hiS
of. this term by thosc who
It to Justify their own hcentIous egoistic instincts,
p ~
The whole tragedy of King Lear is based on the
..
of the unnatural ill-will which Goneril and Reg expOSltIon
hand, and, on the other hand, Edmund be:rn't on the
The idea of the violation of a sacred
their
nature runs all through the tragedy findit
aw of
expression in the pathetic plaint of ~ld Lea~~ ,~~ mos~ overt
hear; dear goddess hear!" (I. 4) Edmund mock ear,. ature,
f 11 S at thls same
sacred feeling when he remark's hy
who intends a cruel vengeance on h .PO?~hICa y to Cornwall,
himself has just betrayed). "How ~ a 1 e (whom Edmund
sured that nature thus . .
, y or, I may be cenme t~ think of" (III gl~)es ~'1ay t~ loyalty, something fears
soliloquy (that is whe~ he'. et. thhlS same Edmund, in his
'
IS WIt
no one befo
h
h
re w om e
nee d pretend), cries out. "Th
and goes on to develop the th~U, hnat'fre, art my ~oddess!'
even of the superiorit of'
~~ t 0 th.e equal rIghts, and
g
conceived not "withi:' d 1\\e lhmate. children (such as he),
lusty stealth of nature'~ I u . stale., tire,d bed" but "in the
understands the word " ( , 2). It IS eVIdent that Edmund
in a dff
f rom
Lear (and, together withnature"
L
1 erent sense
anarchy, of predatory self-w~l{' S~akespeare)-as the law of
humaOity. In this, incidental ,a~ not as the law of healthy
Shakespeare that g t d ly. hes the explanation of why
made a monster
'
rea b a t vocate
of f ree d om of feeling,
of the
d
Gloucester. Everything lS ar d' not of the legitimate son of
on the character of Glou
cest.er's love affair with E~pen
~gam ~raws a fine line ofm;n . s ~other. Here, Shakespeare
~teredstmg piece of evidenc ~stt.nchtIon. He gives us a very
age y, that is in the le, ng t at the beginning of the
,
pac'" where Sh a k espe.'ll"C "llways

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introduces hi! most ~bjectivc assessments of 'haraete,- 'lnd

sometimes. directives ~")r t'le understanding ...f the basi~
intention of the play. ClOUt ester, having brought t:dmund
to court. jokes somewhat coarsely on the subject of his son's
origin. tn introducing him to Kent (the only moment in the
play where Glo~ceslcr ~,oes. joke) be in! wers Kenfs I)olitc
"I cannot cont.:ctvC you w"th the retc-rt' "Sir, this young
fello ' s mother could; where upon she gf w round-wombed .
w
and had, indeed. Sir. a son for her cradle e" he had i
husband for her bed. Do you 5m,!11 a fault?" (1. 1}, !'lis is
a reference to nature In ts lowest fO~ ns; Gk Jc'e tc- was
drawn to Edmunc!'s mother not by an inclination of the
heart but by coarse: sensuality. "the lusty stealt.h of nature",
Another such admtr~, in tus own V'iY, of 'uatu. ~ :md
"naturalness" (although 'le does no' actm'Iv U! the' ~ Qarticular words) is lage, who profant. not the e concept!>
only, but also the ideas ,r reason and C If' l: Im':ln will,
to which we ;hall return later.
In nature. !.:tken is the full sum of all natural pho( nena,
oec
' an~
Shakespeare has now c"'me to distingui"l. ".- !:J
the "bad", the "well" and the "i1~ though lO~ -; abstn: ~
moral concepts but in the ,ense of the S!la.\(cspcarem anti
thesis of "fair" and foul which ,,"'e 'lave already le""':ed,
that is, of the healthy. Ii e--i\-ing. be:luLF"t principl is
against the pernicious. lC O-T the c..bnonnal, Of urSt a
similar division is to be fouDl._ '51 1"1 Shakespen... vr t
period: cl" for cX3lIlple, the SC(;.,e o. ::.e niS'~t rt1de.- us
between Romeo and Juliet (IP ::. 10 wi:! 1 tl'A 1.::.::\ IS
contrasted to tlll! toad, At that tinlP' how vel. lr
~...
the character ot fortuitous. mood k'lll(n~ h ~ke which
were 10sl il'" " typically Renaissance, llto:e l( brig1 t .and
idyllic View 01 nature. N"w, h"wever Sr 'tI .,"'ar_ s'lb< 7'be-:l
to a broader view of natu c than that of thf' Renai ancC to
the view taken by ponulal legend and. olk ore F?lk oetry
of all tribes and el' K lS S ~ware, togc' lcr W1. '1 lnghl m.o11
ing, green lTIeldow
1t SW,1I lnd sw:tll ow of black 11ght.
dense fOl_ t, suc \ing "l~ W lnd" )cr ...~~ most sy tern
ltic adhe ':lee ) th's sy~t?Tll "I ~'0nl :l1;l051ti0!l' bouna up
with the idcl f the par,:le'l::;m be wecn the life o~ la~~
clOd '1e cx') T cnc!'; of '1, srinl 1~ to c frluna In Klllq
L~ru: "na, r ' l t u ul<.I ly m ~ _L t 1 J 1 lis l~st tr8!" :ly 11
IS '"I~-,l\ j to t lee ttaf' ontr ,osil on of sun11ght lnd ~tar
light th u!:,houl the pi Y
'or 0 tJu:. good maltlet ( . 6)
7-

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01,

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to the dark of night. ~o the 0"":1, the wolf, the crow and the
bear-all creatures of night, malice and death. a contrapO~iti an
vhich is as it were summed up by Macbeth's: "Good thin
~f day begin to droop and .~rowsc; whiles night's bla~k
agents to their preys do rouse (III. 2).
Apart from this. besides those aspects of nature which ar
usual and. as it werc, "normal", there arc also abnormalitic~
or "sicknesses", the cosmic rcn~ctions (n common motif in
folk poetry) of great human CrImes, of the perversions of
human nature: su-::h arc the terrible, untame manifestations
described in Julius Caesar (1. 3). Hamlet (r, 1). King Lear
(1, 2). Macbetb (II. 3; II. 4), to some extent in Amouy and
Cleopatra (IV, 3).
Another form of the repulsive or "evil" in nature is
according to Shakespeare, all low and unclean clements, cast:
offs, as it were, rejected by nature herself as a result of the
process of life going on within her.
The most vivid example is the explanation (which
undoubtedly reflects Shakespeare's own opinion) offered by
Banquo on the appearance of the "weird sisters": "The earth
hath bubbles, as the water has, and these are of them" (I, 3).A similar contraposition of "fair" and "foul" marks
Shakespeare's attitude to the inner life of man. But in
neither case, as we have already noted, does it bear an
abstract, moral character, but rather expresses the antithesis
be~een the life-giving and the death-dealing principles: life,
eXI~tence. blossoming-putrefaction, decay, death. However,
as III nature, so here Shakespeare does not assert that the
ab?,s~ dividing fair from foul is unpassable. Both these
pnncipies can exist to some extent side by side within the
same. natural phenomenon. within the same human soul.
c~n. 111 part, grow into one another, in part show themselves
:lther as themselv~s or as their opposites according to our
pproach ~o the gIven phenomenon, experience or problem.
S,?me ghmpses of such a dialectical approach to the anti~~e~I~, of what must still conditionally be called "good" and
ev~l are afforded in the plays of Shakespeare's early
pe~lod. In Romeo and Juliet. Friar Laurence this naturp~lloso?h whose clear mind and freedom fro~ self-interest
raise hIm above his surroundings and through whom Shake It i

gentlcm! 'i;~sting t~ compare this remark to the name of the foolish

Frolh here usc1as~; 0;
a great ne'er-do-well and 'Vulgarian,

ra er

tn

Measure,
the sense of the scum on the surface cf life.
76

e::1re undou\ tcdly fr~quenti.y expressed his own thoughts,

sp
wi!"l rcfercncl". to hIS baleful weeds and r"~Cl0US- Juitcd
~a~~rs": "Fol '13Ught so vile that on tht:- earth doth live
b~t to the cltth sime special ~ood doth give, nor aught \0
od but tnllncd frJm ,that f.a1r use revolts from 'rut hirth,
~t:mbling on abuse' . V,,:' 'le ll~lf t~rn~ vi~;, being misaplied; ;lnci vice somehmes by adlon dlgmfied (II, 3). Eq~l1y
~n Henry V. King Henry who. true to the character given
h'm by Shakespeare, is always level-headed and extremely
r~asooable '1 his judgc;nmts, says; ''There i~ some ~o~l ~f
goodness in thongs evl.. WJuld men obk!'vmgly dlshl It
out" (IV, I).
. .
But this idea IS fully developed ~nly 10 Shakc.:.peare s
cond period. Its most profound exprc-;sLn is to l'e found
~e Macbeth where "fair" and "foul" are twice openly ~ct
:vcr against onc another. At the very beginning of }he play
(that is in that place wt,.cre Sh-ake.peare frequen~y gives
the "key" to the tru~ undl:l'Standing .:-~ the playas. a wholel,
the three "weird sisters, ;av:,ng exchanged s,,-,-c";!.] ,<marks,
fly off, chanting as they ;IT.
Fair i~ I, ,ui and l'Jul is fair;
Hove:. through fhe log a;:,3 JjJ~', ,;'1.).'
, 1
L.

Shortly ,3fter this. M.:.-::beth, reb~::-:g vi.t~,)r.,)u.:, fr..:m '.1;e

field of' !'\31 :leo m ...kcs hIS ti~~ ,,::~r~"lc<.; ~:o t~e W';;"J,' ..~.u
foul 3.nd fair a ~~~y ! have n;t S(',;-!l .(1 ;,. 1:1 Shak,_,ye,l.d'
.
!"
e <xr"',~-- t,-s 3. p."O.oun
the exact repchtlJ:l
0
...1.e~
*I,;'~ ~ .. "
.significance.
-'
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1
!'"!10D
Extremely surc~-ficiaj i!> the Or
'--'
.:"lOSl
~ "J'

.
d
t
'
.,~~ -~""".;;" ~"'r 9 1 <,;:'1
who seeinfl th.: 'welt ~:s ..:,:-, 3S f!,l'.t: ........... - ' ,
.
'
witc'hcs interpret their words in the Sd!SC th;l~ "'__ ~J.t hiS, In
,
.
d h . f u1 1<;.-:0:' t emfact. fair lS~'{or thcm-tJut an w at ~s c-.. '. _ d- g t..,
fair As .Jeml~nic- bcinqs. the "weird $lsh::rs dl-h_;:"r ln
.
. Sh k
re' time) stoo possess\?d 0
the accepted views 01 .. J. espca s
- h' .
they
great. though limited insight. Mc:reo~er~:ll;_~~~a~~:~~~ation.
are not engaged on a banal exercise III
( h
t battle
but in a ,iiscu:;sion of the dooms ~f men t e g~:n of th;
the fate uf Macbeth). Their ~hanht "Itfhe fon~~~~fe, Ma~bcth
intcradion of fair .:md foul In t e l e 0 P ~

>

"s_e'$ PlUJos,>plli.;.l1 PaU,;;rl1.';, l.oui51"

dill
V W"ltCi (ly~~' Cun),,"

~l,lna ~l te t'n;wlsity PrcS.~, 1937, Chapters U IlI\

77

.,b,

f this interaction, although he understands it in

also spea s,oprimitivc fashion. He means only that the fair
h
asomewa
t fc for
t s, cruc I ty and
1 ca
,
h been won at the cost 0 f9,
VictOry as
.
f streng.
th F UJ,th"Cl th an th'IS his
'bl expenditure
0
" IS W h 'Ie h d c t ermmes
'
"a tern
'd m"e docs not go an d t h'IS It
a I1 his
WIS 0
. .
h h' h
future behaviour: the dC~ISIO~ that t C 19 cst ornament of
He its "crown", as he llnagmcs royal power to be, could
~e bought at so dreadful a price as the trc.achcrous. murder
of the rightful King and the pangs of c~nsclcncc which went
with it. He did not understand that this same ornament of

sir

life ("the fair") would inevitably be transformed into horror

gil

and loathsomeness ("the foul"), something which he was

destined to learn only after the fatal step had already been
taken, Yet this is the meaning of the exclamation of the
"weird sisters": not that "foul" can serve as a means to
"fair", nor, even, thc other way about, but that in some
cases the "fail''' may itself bccome "foul", and the "foul"
may become "fair".
Every value, every moment in human relationships is
capable of turning into its opposite, depending on what
inner content is infused into the form which they have taken.
A similar thought, although not so clearly expressed as in
Macbeth, serves as a kind of pivot in all Shakespeare's
plays of the second period (Oibello, King Lear, Coriolanus,
~tc), determining the course not of this or that separate
lOcldent but of their entire content taken as a whole, and,
equally, of all their "characterology",
Shakespe~r.e now subjects the concept of personality to
the ~ame cntlcal reappraisal as the concept of nature, paying
p~rtlcular attention to the idea of man's responsibility to
hlmself and to others. The object of Shakespeare's portrayal
ndow b~cornes the education of man through life or his selfe ucahon . . Man'.it appears, h as a d uty to understand
'
,
hImself and ~IS r:lat~onships with other people, in order in this
~arh to WIll hIS nght to happiness and the joy of life Man
',sh e pear~ of creation and the centre of the world a'nd at
h 'Is-noth'mg, depending on how he shows
'
h' e same
If tIme, e
s~~:reeig~~ '?e~e wh~t he ma~es" of himself. Lear, the proud
that he is
th ~ ch ~,Kmg (IV, 6), suddenly discovers
at the cost~f ~ng 'brt a poor, bare. forked animal". But
transfonned f ex:; e trials, enlightened by them, Lear is
And a simila:full a p~or. bare. forked animal". into a Man.
an escent, on a rathel different less

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tragiC level. is .i:lc.:omplishc~ by Edgal Ollello. from the

onset of his bl1l1Jness to hiS final pur ficlL~n .s ~USI such
another " poor, bare. fOlkcd anlln.31' . fo c: still 91_.1tc degree
this is true of Macbeth, (01 whom this iJ the last anel final
condition. Life ")nfronts man with problems which it I ::s
duty to solve. Tlus I' .he lot of Haml~ t. Othello, I.ell Mac
beth. Coriolanus.
Fidelity to the prompting' c_ Nature s II .Dsul icient
criterion of human behaviour This W"lS show 1 vividly bv the
example of Edmund. Anotht.:., much -.ftl... 'lea xamplc s
Gertrude, whose dull-witted sensuality 'l.. IT:"ldl. hit. the
involuntary accomplicc of Claudlus_
But no marc is it possible to ec ~
~er: n in rt: ISC""1. i.
is well known how considcrablt.: a ,1 lee in Shake p __ . 5
works is occupied by the idea of controlling the Pl! Sl("l!
by reason. The struggle of reason to dominatl: wild pa SI n
("the blood", as Shakesf_ue calls it) 1 gomg on all tne
time in the soul 01 Othclh.. wlto controls '11. v.; lL impulses,
refusing to yield to them (eI. :: in tan " I
" I I. OJ
Hamlet. at the m( ")t critkc..
"ld rcspon ':l._ n:~"'lle""1 wbn
his mind and *lervcs Ut. ten ___ to breaking p"int, it.: _ ?ef, re
the beginning of the :It.:L. Slve e"lperinent '111.) he 1"1'
planned (the "mousetrap' $( ene) t..... i rati( ...... ive "lie
that man that SlOt -'1ssion's L_ -c lr.~.L w 1 'ear lim in
my heart's core, ay, n my 1C _ ~ c 1
U
J f ... /{eve
this concept of reason, liKl: t'e cOT' _
of c ~ re (10 the
case of Edmund), can be p y lDed
tJ , 3.ge
transformed in1 ,
ts own op-,C'sih:.
'
11
1IIle Sl L.11
between Iago c ld Rodrigo 1 Yo" i(:: the nonev l~ ml
comes up, lago SdY
to Roc JO
1.
OW ~ yes
that we are thus or thus_ 0'1- bome.
~ JI lS; to thf!
which our wills d"'C .. _rd.,c _ so 13: 11 "I.c \'1... 1 ,lant nett
les, or sow lettUl'c set Wise and w,- d-up
y ne supply
it with one gende- 01 her's, or distr _ it
tl: nany cIthe"
to have it stcril~ witJ. i ... _.,ns, 01' m nu ',-'0 w .. ndu __ Y'
why, the power 101o cor qi )Ie 1uthor"tv
lIS
in ot'wills. If the balauL. ~ four J_ves lad n t o~_ ,cal? 01 rc son
to poise another ot sen~ ualit . the ':lIO
ld U __ "J.e~ of OUI
natures wouk. conduct l!:t to n05. )10;:.~"'" t us one lsions

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:r al ,- ue'
formal nit al 'r::1C.' C a~ tiOl: Ilv '\ (. mp'cl. S.
Tragi( HI rc 1 'e ,1 P ~
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19

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but we l:J.ave reason to co?,l Aound' 'faging t~otilons, OUr- carnal

.
ur l.tnbltted lusts.
rom
15 ago conclude
~tmgs, ~nne, wholly wor'i.y of himself: "Whereof I ~~t.s.
m~ ...athat
m___
. .. (I , 3)
""'.
VOll C 11 love to oe a sect or SCIon.
L Ju.t c
d.iale~ cll"y as, the val.1e of nature. th~ value 'If
....1 5 assesse!d ac . . odmg to L."1e real content Implied 1lI
!he ~n 'cpt or, ~ ..:"ler words, by the way In which the COl'
eept is
P rsot1 .....ity
qUIres schoolIng In order to ach leV ~ th;
hIghest and pur !.t form 01 bcin~. Such is the Toad trave:-sea
oy ~.:.:mlet. Leu, J .. Jr, ., Ii certain extent by Othello. all
I
who'll find" themselves. Ophelia did not the- hel'sclf ana
Mac;;_!h. havmg 'ailed .0 solve th~ "r'ddles" of .l]~ 'we:rd
Isters os. limsc!'
Cor 5, :tdingly ItC;M ty, a quality sO JTluch so nV,lI
iably md so u: vers,-'ly valued by Shakespeare I! transfanned I,., m IJpontanclty simple 'IDe ity ,lnd straightfc
wardncss nt.; a quest for ligher t uth lnd equity A. I
cry thing cl e {'. idl.l of nallrc thr. crsonality,
" -'-v
e all L S em
rCllucc"i t the
n~ pt c'
way 0
ICll '!!n"';s throuqh
den t ticket of t:cm-tations qnd iIlu"
. ns, W tic;' ose in on ..:"l.
m all laCs.
In 'ltc
the a } s ~ 5C row and f
lVV douh's t
IS Ih.
t In <.:L L
new lt " Jde "... 'lc w_r d
now t k the p'
c t. e ... 1 'rec IDle de J ce
I m of the for
;xl, t L
1 ule IS. neve the l
ta
f~ ,
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the 1
:l C P foundlv POSI'IRg id 1
Ir:l' Lelv r - remove'" rorr. the C
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'V:-:1 nd r; }, 11 IT'
1tO W~i4 1 It w
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wh' _'1 ] Y
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-I del ... t ~. f0-"
rc tivi tl:
... 1 C
o laymg
, h
- ign fie nce d-;i
wmg
t
the In}, w th I l(! grnF 's 0'
~ 'IN'th
t
the
tv f h~"';l n al 're f- ... c' pc
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~ the lmag
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Lifl.; 5 but 1
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well..,
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. h t kc P05sc!';sion of man once he has lost his Way. 0

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lakcspcare
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Y
tragedies emanate hopelessness: t.1C ~~l:n up perspectives

a
hand
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the o
r , not even he
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Sh"--. &'"

1110st

better future or affirm the mllC! \. Ictory of truth OVer

\nu~:n baseness (Hamlet. Kil1g Lcar. Macbeth), Shakespeare s
!gcdics emanate a bracing vigOUl 1 courageous call to th
~~ aggle. even though this struggle ,rray n~t .alw~ys. promi~1,;
. t

sUCr.:C5S. The heroic charactcT of thIs peSSImism IS mfinitely

far from that fatalistic despair which chm 3.ctcl'ises the al

of the classical Barroco.

At base it is still the same humanism. only intensified
(because its roots have been pushed deeper), a tragic and
he-.lie humanism, which is far from signifying any renun.
ciation of harmony, of intoxication with the joy and fulnes~
01 life, but which bring:; to those feelings important correctives and delimitations. Of course, the carefree exultation of
the Renaissance is no 10'1ger there :md .hat 'supcrflux
which Shakespeare J.lway:s :lemands is no longf" all abu:}
dan"c 01 kindliness and plel.Surc but an abundanc'" of r-~e:J.
Ldi effort and, most of 11:, 11 1t: )ie acti\ nand
reat aeea
Shake. peal" now ~hows us a new and m( t impol mt me
tion 01 this. "supedux' ~ 1'" 1'H; shouk 1 duty ilT'part II
to the destitute lOd shrw 1(' heaven
no;e ]U~t (KwQ
J..C1T I[ 4).
. his new, mOl ~ ~rofound unde t "ldir... ...nd exper ~ 1( ..
vf the W" Jd give: ): 1 tu ~ new poetic ~~yl~ e <I ':'w ",:","
far narc p: ..::!ouna m ts :: _: n than th<:lt cre tL:l
y
~hat ~spe :c in Ius 11 t Fl_ od. The OJ oc s
f ICe IS lOW
1'~' ""cted ml.l .. '" :;: re fully in a1 ts c rrplcxity _nd e ntr,
l( tl""ry Lll Ity
.s wani! t 1:
n <I whol S 1
I
marle feat 1]
of 11 aft. \\' .cM c nn("' all be dl ::1on. trdt
d bt. - We shall ;,en. ~n '::l1ly 1..e no. t v v-:d. h ..
1] I fe at 1r~ is that C;hake
~~ ; I.:L al e
~ rc not lOW
~erely . u.)je_ .0 Lev 'or~ent Jt:+
nes, to ome~' 'css
.. nbhllq I '-lam f \:X,l(' II ns. to r",t<.l$.ror'lu
m'
~ ~. ~ Ald th;, ma'r
n..
lC W'vr
f C;!: ... _ ipcdr ~ l
d.11":'_ . d's,- lJ ~i('s lnd 'Jr/atzl ns. If' s"'con(l "1.' 1rt: I ,
p<.:r 1<. ...
ttl norc
1~ 11 Iv n pOI l11t
lC
1 _ i ~ nov.
!-~Wl l;:,.th
.VL ~t 01 h S S.,lt:lf v either hc i' b f1 f
I"
!l c: 1: _t::: 1. - "t_ la ome nob .og < l~ _ 'In
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acnt
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th ugh which

judgement is pronounced on that society and the surrounding:"

of the hero can be assessed (Hamlet. Lear, Othello)
We shall not here examine Shakespeare's transition from
his second to his third period, when he appears to return to
the 'Utopianism" of his first period, with the difference th. t
noW', having given up hope of seeing his ideals realised in the
ncar future. it is as though he were bequeathing them, in
legendary form, to .a fu~ure destined to make th~m a rc~l.ity
(CyntbeIille. The WllIler s Tale, The Tempest). Thl' transition
is bound up not only with further profound change in Shak'
speare's experience .and atti~udes. but also with change in st~l(
J.nd even in dramatic techl1lque. Among other changes w~ mdY
note the absence, in his last plays, of all overt l:Onfllct l{
passions, of typical real-life situations, of p~ofoun.d po.;~choio
gicai analysis. On the other hand, a ~~w dlmensl~n hitherto
missing from Shakespeare's artistic VISion, makes Itself fell
tillie, and along with it the gf'neral atmo!pherc ,t falry-Ia.!e
To conclude, we have on('e again b en ~rouaht t"'l 'aIr
the lmmense complexity and, a! the samp. tIm!.: lC cos nl al
unity at Sh'lkcSI ~.,~' work. There IS 10 c-~.)le ~ UptUf!.:
bPtwecn Shakc<;pelte 5 11~~ p_ iods. W ha" - ,IV 1 e 1m pi .J
,I the anth. -'a' on f featulI:. typi"~l of the n x ~
oc. l r f
. woulJ lave bee" cq Ially po il e ) ~IIV~ ,~x ml S 0 ~
frc uen
'ltn to III "" ~r s ~c ),1 l 1( tcy r the ;u I..: ...
alter :li~ hnl: y in lC lP. -tion from the fi t ,er
) tl
nd ro~ the c 'ond ) "e tl}l ~ N',J,::v. 1.' e ns, tlc~
S~_11
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MIKHAIl. i\10n01:()\'

ON THE DYNAMISM OF SlIAKESPFAIU;'S

CHARACTERS

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A STUDY of the way Shakespeare's characters dwuge in the

course of the development of the action is a matter of theoretical as well as of practical interest. Let us take the follow
ing examples.
Many of those who wrote about Shakespeare, beginning
with Rowe (1709), have expressed their indignation with
Prince Henry for casting off his old friend Falstaff after he
became King. They were sorry for the fat knight. And it was
only comparatively recently that Dover Wilson (The Fortunes
of FalstaH, 1944). succeeded in showing that the Sir John of
the second part of Henry IV is a very different man from the
Sir John of the first part: the fat knight has grown arrogant,
petty and has developed a sharp eye for his own advantage .
Shakespeare had thoroughly prepared the moment of disa'
vowal. The misfortune of previous scholars had been thaI they
had seen Falstaff as static.
How much ink has been spilt in fruitless arguments as to
whether Hamlet is a strong or a weak character. In the old
da~s, .students of Shakespeare loved to draw literary "portraits' of Hamlet. consisting in the enumeration of the various
featur~s of his character. Little attention was paid to the fact
that, In the second act, Hamlet speaks of his weakness
whereas, in the fourth, he affirms that he has "will and
~trcngth", or, in other words, to the fact that Hamlet ~:hanges
In the course of the action.
th By the d.epths of thought a?d.artistry which it has put into
e .recreatmg of Shakespeare s Images the Soviet theatre has
achl.eved one ~f the first places in the' world. Yet how many
Sfvlct hactors give a static interpretation of these images! One
ten cars that an actor has played a Shakespearean role
r:~~t~~;very beginni?g as though he were pla;ing "the final
. . he great SOViet actor Samuil Mikhoels at one of the
~es~lOnds 0hf the Shakespeare Cabinet in 1947' quite rightly
mSlste
t at .S0\"Ie t experts on Shakespeare could
'
rea
he of the
9 tes~ service to the Soviet theatre if they would engage
~n a
etailed study of the dynamism of Shakespcare's
Images.

'The char lctcrs created (IV Shal<.cspeare arc no\, a'i in

rv\olic c typc; t f thl . r lhal p~ ,sion: this or that vice, but
rving bcin.... s. fi 11'-1 t""l ' ... rt1owlOg W1th many passions and
I ny V1(e
CIl"Jm tan 's mould their varied and manysided
ril".cr ; e' re th'" eye, Df th~: audience," wrote Pushkin.
C ointing ut for !1~ 1i1S~ time th,,. W~ly in which Shakcspcan.:'<:
~harar'ers d(,vt'l D in '':1(' C 'lnc of tht: acticm.
c Thi~ it';) .ct "a', bec'!"'! emrha~i~tr:l more than ont:e in 5CYiet
roductions of Shakt: ,pene's r:~ys. A. Popov. for instance, in
~xphining his interpl, ~~ti('n ,",~ The Taming 01 the Shrero, la~d
particular cmph~s.t~ on the tlct tt"at Katarina and Pl'truChlO
emerge as very dll ferent r:eople at the end of the play from
what they were at the t->e'~inning.
.
If we approach the que~llon from tne ~oint of VICW o! tne
history of drama, we sh:lll 'iL:C' that ~ynanll~m of st~gc chltracter must be numbered amen\:! thc IOn?V~tlons which Shake'
speare brought to t~e dr;!matic art d hiS b.me
. .
The chara~tcr~ 01 Marlowe, Shakespeare 5 greate~t prcde(.;~
sor (his Tlmburlai!"H". f~"'r imtancd are ess('ntlally st:ltlC
L ..mburlaine may !,~joicc, rage or S('!"l'CW but, ncncthde~s, at
the ~nrl of Pilr~ Tl. he remains essentially the s~c ~ha.l'adlr
with ~'1c ~ !me outlool. on :ife ." 'l.c ",-1S a: l~e ,~cgmnlDg of

n:;

p",ether
I. SU,1

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't i not in lpt that Marlow..:' ~ e~:~:!"ac-tc:''; 1:a"e )i'.;)rt than ... nc"
....
.
fi'
':'cc TI,~y ail,! two-dimen
be"n ,,'mparec\
to gUh'~ O!1 a _.1 .'.. .... , .
"
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III - wt~, .. "'1't,,'" d\;n:1.ml~m '-'
slonol,sLlti...:. 1::x.I:1!~ IVUI,
lc . '" . . . . '~~
J.
cf .
make Lh('m,..~lvcs felt. Towards the end 0i1 ~lS bn : htc:J.~
,
I
' Sha . e-p,;-:t''C 10 a.tlsth.
c'~ret'r Marlowe W~~ gt",:.wm~l c OSC"T.') . l \ : ' , .
method.
f
t"
A d 'n 01 Ft'vIt is ]loisi"'le to find ~ numh~r 0 cx~("p.l(1n5. r t:
in its

ersham

(15~G), f,""~r in~Lmo.~:. IS .:~to:lIsh~n~l~f ili~t~~~ractcr~

"\~'di"mmc1
in the p"ychologlc:l1
. ,. .
'
'h\\ ...1rkmg
the Uprc-Sha k espcarean

0 c,
(Alice, Mugl,v)
" . but. ~~n thc
h "t
f the mora I'Ity ]l I'<iy ....,'th
1
thcatl"'~ is slill iniol'1lH"d by. t l'SPtrl .c .
Shakcspearc's
it::; schcm;ltll', twodim clU>1onal. statIc lmagcsb, k d n 'hi'
.
.'
. '. th t he set out to rca
ow
.
lmm('n~e hlslorK.il mel"lt IS
A.
h . > t, '\rc not abstract
"1'Ity. 'l'h co l' h,11,:(':.
' t('!"s which ow
e lrdll'S
<
l!""mOp]
pushkin's
expression.
hgl1l'c) but "living 1'('lOgs , to oor; h
tel'S however, can
By n0 l1ll'J.ns ,Ill of Sh~kcspea:e, s rf a;~c res~cd dynamism.
bl! s;dd. to pos~css suffiCl('ntly dt.:J y
P

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Richard III, for installce, is ,111 Ollhl'.l<.1 out villain from the
vcry start of the tragedy. "I am dctcrmlllcd to prove a villain"
he informs us on his vcry first appc<ll'.1t1CC (I. 1). TntC'. Richard
who belongs to the carl~ period of,ShakcspcClrc's work. still
has much in common With the static char.:tdcrs of Marlowe
But lago, too, created in the peliod of Shakespeare's maturity
even though the "scale" of his villainy might. he said to gro\~':
also remains essentially the samc--an utter vdltlin throughout
the whole play.
Let tiS remember lago's words " ... r will wear my heart
upon my sleeve for dawes to pcc~ at" (1. 1), that is to say "if
I were to tell everyone all my lIl11cr feelings. I should be
pecked to pieces by any fool that happened along". From this
it is possible to conclude that lago's villainy is, so to speak a
form of self-defence. It is the result of his contact with' il
definite cir~le of people, of conditioning by this circle, the
repre~entatl\'e (or "quintessence") of which is lago himself,
The Impact of society on the character of the dramalis
perso.,we frequently makes itself felt in Shakespeare's drama,
In this respe~t, Shakespeare differs from his predecessors and
contemporarIes, for whom the character of their dramatis
per~ollae was something inborn and unchanging, But the formahan of Ia~o'~ ~i1Iainy takes place before the beginning of
the, tragedy,: It IS ItS "prehistory", In the actual course of the
achon Iago s cha~acter docs not appear particularly dynamic,
A~o,ther matter ,IS, to ,take another instance, the unchangc'
abilIty of Horatio, !hls can be justified on psychological
rroun~s: such StudiOUS, well,balanced and calm people as
'ho~atl,o generally remain fairly unchangeable throughout
t elr hves,
t In ~any other c,ases, the dynamism of Shakespeare's characers s o",:"s up With extraordinary vividness. These arc the
cases which mterest
. t h em 'nn
d expression these
, , us
. smce 111
new alhl~ charactenstlc features which distinguish Shakespeare
f rom
. h out an understanding
' .
h' h IS
h contemporar,e
'
s an d Wit
of
W"IC ~ e stfage mcarnations of these works which were after
' were, depth
'
,
ba ,wntten or the stage
. ' I ose, as It
of perspective,
ecome
more
d Imensional" and easily
grow
into
est superficial
bl h d ,more "
twoa IS e patterns.
~t uS,look at a few examples,
As fhes to wanta b
for their sport"
oys are we to the gods; they kill us
Hard on this r~ e~c
Gloucester in Kiny Lear (IV, 1),
ar 0 ows another: "'Tis the times' plague,

rt\TS
.

86

\\.hc1. ma~J11r rl lc.;.d the blind" (lV, 1 '. Before us ari-::L$ th.'
J1'Iaje tic If'il\ 501ro~bl figure of a wi}itl"-hai"c 1 c-ld man
{Regan 51
d hi white ?(ard (Ill, 7)). Gloucestcr is a~
th >ugh"lufllined by a h~(Jhcrwi"dJm, ThrouQh thr- blind h,,\
Jow, whl( 'l ,'" 'eft I ',1'11 f "11' ('Ie~ he lC'1C~s tnt., th~ Vf'l'Y
depth' "II "fe 1Ie 'll .11' 'i th;,t "dL~'ributi~n ~h('uld undo
eXC'c,s, .;nd e.;._'l ']l~"1 h.lve cnoua'"''' (IV, 1), This app'.lfs to be
the only :rIal e ;n -.;hake)p:::tlre where he spelks of the rcdi~'
tribul 1on ' 01 'lches and w'lcre, by 'his, l;c untqulv.J:3.!Iy rai~l'~
a SOdL' ('c,;nomic Pl bIc'TI
Gloucester is haunhd by \',c \>tough: c-! ,uicide, But e'.(T'l
this thought \'<1ni('<; the imprint of qrcalncss. He rCni-.:ml.'ters
a fearful cliff ncar Dover. Fr~m thh, diff he drc:tms c:l: th!"'"
iag himself into the depths of the SCJ_ A truly monumental
im<Ig c which brings to minrl the tr,Jgeo:v cf the antient world,
It is not fortuitous thaI Glouc("<;~('r calh c-n the 'mighty q(l:;io;"
(IV, 6), More than once the lips d this m.1jcstic tr;.:.qk cL!
man speak of the "g(t~s"
"0 ruined piece of nalun:' Thl,; grcat w0rid $)-::111 '::' wcar
out to naught' GlouccsL'r ('x,1nims on h(;d!'ing ~1C -:;:1c1 \\":.,'-1~
of Le,lf (IV, 61 Here, in his sorrowful wiqL:'~" \:1(' re:l1iT'lc!:' t::-..
of Pro!-oero. wh(~ foretells t'he c'oming di":l?P'2;l:':lr.'~c ::: ~:1
thing~, eVt!!L "th" ~:j:~at q~~t,~ it.;.,;:::f" iTtL Tc~:pc'~ IV, 1,
The dctual de:lth of Cloucc<;tc:'. cf \\':c;ch we: 1-:1..3.1' fr~~:n 1,:_
'
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thaI i~ nl'l~~kd hl:\" ,J!C a kw t:',:m.::.1uc.:-nt. jn~Pl:'L'J, t.:-?,'~'-'~ ~:
hig11 tr,'\gedv, Rut Sh;t1;.\'~i'C':lrl.'s 3.!'ti"t;; i!ll':-~1:k"'~ F \;1:' !",'rc

c,~ml'\cx and prvfound,

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,~_ "\'" ~. Slnkc'H('\wev~'r str::mgc it m;ty b
s...)und. K!~'.i r.l~' ~"C , . "I' ..
,th m"rv l:l'1ghkr t I'>
.
,
,>peare's (l<Irkest .tragC( ICS-e91nsill'....'h' and
. t:,ltT~~p.:-nqb1c
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fi:ll s t c
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He IS. telling. l W (0\lf
Cll,
.
.,
h- \ t ~ t ,"-all
]1;Ot1t IllS
am;\torv
conve1'~ation very
htL'..' to \:-.
<IS C,r')und'W0!l1bcd
'"
,h
'.
"<,,,
h(\\\ S \
advcntul'C''l'
. , hl"W hiS mIstress 1g'll\V
h d'- a hU~'-',Jn d f or h c1' I,d'
1\;
got "a ,,'n for her cr.Hllc ere ~ 1e ~da
rt': "the whoreson"
:.I1ld how, ;IS the fC<;Ult of gOL IO
, sec I'''fo''
u~" ';,." ."
iln
....
'e
0...
,\;
Id Th Cm,
Edmnnd came inlo the WOI"
.
.. , __ ,
_
",
1
t~ \... , kiln.! in (,'rj,'I"I!l1~ II, 9)

,,1

'. Thc' w,')r~\ '-.\1 tL'lbult . . . n I,' \-''-'h~ti,'l~ ..... f t' . . . ,'t,_ It dC'l> lh't ,1rptJr
hul In tlw p.lrlhul.ll' ~,-n~~ '-'f thl J"t!!

('h,'wh,'n ill Sh lkl~P1."lr\:

87

jovial fcllow patently unfitted to ems corn, n ~J0od-natUtcd

:
I

..
..'
TO

po

TIl

==
.....
af
10,
aft

cplCurcan.

Let us follow his fate.

Having returned from the Kin!-"'~ paLl('c t~. his ("1Stl,, h('
begins to worry. Kent ha~ hccn exiled" the Kmg of Fran( ,_
has left in angeL Lear h<ts abandoned his palace- .mtt at this
moment. Edmund catches his father in it somewhat pdmitivc
trap: Gloucester is evidently a vcry credulous man who has
lcd, in csse~cc, a sheltered life. He loses ~is head: everything
must be gomg wrong bcc.ltlSC of that eclipse of the sun and
the moon they'd had not so long agO. The whole world is
going to perdition, that'i> quite clear: really it would be better
to die as soon as possible. if the hest is already over. And, as
sometimes happens with the weak-willed, he suddenly flies
into a rage and sends his servants to rout out "the villain"
Edgar (II, 1). He thirsts to sec him punished without delay.
"0 strong and fasten'd villainl Would he deny his letter?
I never got him" (II, 1).
At this point Gloucester's suzerain, the Duke of Cornwall
arrives with his wife on a ,'isit to Gloucester's castle.
madam, myoId heart is cracked, is cracked I" he pours out
his troubles to Regan (II, 1) and, further: "0 lady, lady.
shame would have it hid .... " "'Tis too bad, too bad .... "
There is something feeblc and senile in these repctition~.
But eve~ts continue to combine inexorably against the old
man. He IS profoundly devoted to his overlord, Cornwall
And. suddenly, the Duke commits an act of unheard-d effrontery: he puts a man of the King's suite in the stocks. "1 am
sorry for thee. friend," says Gloucester to Kent as he sits in
the ~to:~s; " ... I'll entreat for thee" (II, 2). He cannot but
dmIt : The, Du~e's .to blame ... " (II, 2). Most probably, this
s. the firs~ time m hIS life that he has $poken sUl.:h words of
hIS suzeram .
. He still hopes for a peaceful solution, still tries to reason
wlth}he enraged Lear (II. 4). "I would have <111 well betwixt
you, he tells Lear (II, 4). At the end of this scene he makes
no
to hide h"IS pI",Y f or Lear f rom hIS
" SU7-eram
" when
h attempt
'.
, cldol~ Kmg IS left without a roof over his head in the dark.
WI
mght.
~he third scene of the third act is usually omitted from
!,er ormances of King Lear. Yet it is a l':Cl'ne of cardin:tl
Importance. As Charles Lamb pointed out it takes u!> for a
moment out of the black, wild night into the cast1~ i~ order

"0:

88

phosi!>: the mcrry jcster and ~pic.url';Ul i~ lra~sf~lI?lCd hefo re

our evcs into a sorrowful, maJc!>tiC old man, ,\ VIvid example
of the dynamism of Shakcspeare's characters.

,,
I
b

"

T
1/

","Ix

TI

gh
PO
Th
pul
th,
tot

oft

Th,
of,
writ

or

tw..

the

t .....

the t
rOm>
A. L

thla
well_

""'h
M. M

..,.....
In thl

will f

of artl

K.

S
G. U1.

othersIncarru
of the l
ate .. a
M ....

studt.

....

'<VIew
book.

valuab.

w .....

--

Sb_ ..

No Jess complcx is the dc\'c1opllll'nl of Edgar Al the )cgm

ning of thc tl'.Jgedy hi!> is a vcry p.Jl1id.in~a9c_ It I' well nigl
impossible to distinguish any charactcnstlc fcatures, with c
possible exception of certain derisivc o\'ertones: "How now
brothel' Edmund! What serious contcmplntion arc you in?
Do you busy yourself abotlt that'? .. How long have you been
a sectary astronomical'?" (1, 3). Be this as it may, latcr on he
tclls tiS himself who he used to be. In answer to Lear's qucs
tion: "What hast thou been?" (III, 4), he replies: "A ~crving
man, proud in heart and mind; that curled my hair: wore
gloves in my cap, served the lust of my mistress' heart.
Wine loved I deeply, dice dearly, and in woman out-par<motlred the Turk; false of heart, light of car, bloody of hand;
hog in sloth, fox in stealth, wolf in greediness, dog in madne!>s,
lion in prey, ... " However exaggerated these word~ must t,c
(Edgar, after all, speaks them under thc guise of "POOl Tom"),
there must be some grain of truth in them-otherwise why
does Edgar say all this? However, even if this were nOI so,
E~gar is certainly a very light-weight characler at the bc~in
mng of thc tragedy. And very credulous: like his fathcr, Ite
immediately accepts as true everything that Edmund sav'
And then, over the head of this \'oung man-bc he rak\~ or
debauchce or mercly a rather colourless, callow youth- there
suddenly breaks a series of tcrrible misfortunes. The thl i
sc_ne of the sccond act, in which Edgar tells how he hid n
the hollow of a tree to escape dcath and how he has decided
~o ?ecome Tom of Bedlam, is arresting <lnd powerful by virtue
fits unexpectedncss (for the Edgar we knew before gavc us
no cause to presuppose stich '1 tUM., of cvenls), :lIld it is only
to be regretted that, in the thcJ.t
thi >COl(; S tlsnall"
omitted.
.
And ~o begins the tragedy of Edgar "tIp.- 1 ')01' Tom'" S
the mo't ""retchcd of the \\. ~tchcd. 1 i~ tc h chattcr will
c.. ld'"J:Ie h.JS to feign madncs: But, in hi' n d word ... , there
... 3_ .md of s~m .... T< h(" n' t ~pelking of ,i~ 0\-\ n !':t1ffcrin~s,
':. mstClnc~_ W1Cn he say' thaI 't'"tr foul f1 net" has le\.o im
,rouz.h fi J a~d 11 "lug'"t flan(" I I[ 4)' 1" ... e 51 HI rin s
f om the elLnotlf f th_ -:no d ncs lC reted lim ., :1p. \: 1C
10

r ts.}- _.h"s :lOWrl the limit.. I

lSCry. h'" h
II4>cn rcauc.. ito'" ling the old ~t :i,U the
"'d.t -l-dog' Ana
I; le ~ en;. ~ h..... Mown thj a-rk i -I
hI
(1'
f\...'if t~al Leal 1..l1 ~ l.II ~ .. r:._._
piC
r"c
1n
~hC~ ~ worls f
I'
ntalr: a _"l._ fi
hmt of :ig31 S
tr3n sf J: malic 1.
L
In '1( 51 t"l ":c:'IC....f l}1 t rd
F i9a1 5 th-,u_ht
w :1 t.le t l~ ..Jy of I.c_r It I 1\. fe:" "othing 1.. t. tn .. ~
il

., (
t"'" n II .cide . cru (I' ) ~ ~e
fJ.vinq pc ... Ie- -\
~.
h' ks 01 Leu' d-ught
wh r prepanng t be r.: ...
P)G: l\,m"S

OJ

",:old. he

~~'icidcs. His )logIc bout ':._ !;hcph... .3 .tibiA ) wh..,

hl. 1r.. t

his flock and wh~ ~a< ,only ? ~ :.-'w I.on 1-,.-; le 1,t ~r:.,g hI,
sheep togcthc" lqam 1 1 k ,UI' -1 !J ~ 1 ) ~C~. ) ta
action and to resume 11~ ("we.
'.' .
.
1_

It is a torment "It "dg:..r ) til..":: In WI ,:'?

I
0
th five wit!,!' he cr c; OUI n . . untanJy (b,d. 'Ii. n t!; _1
K[ng falls 1'1to :tn ecsta~ y of lll( 1 f," ~ o~"d, furth u-.~'
tears begin to t 10 :11- 0'- ~ J nu :1 lE Y ma, 1.'....
feiti'ng" (ibid,), Tu ling lwav ~'ill' e -::;;' ~ t\~.
1'
At 1:J.c end of :1... :: n he c ,TI~::._ ))""5 '1( n
r
though1 that he h- s 3 cJmlld(". " i
1 c
Fdgar )egins to r~ason lnd to ,; '-th r: .~.,~:
_l.t I
tone. if t1:J.e ex-,tCSSJon ~~ p ~~ A"'t Iv"b:-Ji:'s'
J~.
1card mOl e anc! m"):,e c c::
.
::' , iE
all
hil...,< ophlcal nonolog ue . Y !s ... _ er tO
k
... " J.'
f
P
bcgs r t'1al'l a secretl~ de .. y : , -1 - fl. ..: ~ ...
~
. "
he medilltZS al('1ur' fhe u~ _- . B
r ,_
the limit of mt. >.:._y 'la not n. ~ n J. t'.
,.
he has n~ t d('hea the rrl1. h
E .;ot v
him. "W' r'a, Woul ('I WI,... tl,; _'1 .. I . _
strange fiJI l' on! wa I '-
..
toagc-" (IV),
LlI
'le :dJ1l1t '1. ml
1
p...
"
n..,.1..11
\'
WO! ,t' (lV, 1
_.
<
\
\1': l. v,:
Throug. hi lit ~'l~ ~. It

r ~ \\ \"0' tirne
t.
'~I\
aSide-' he
t 1119
, je ",cnt.
t \.!
fllrt'ldv lit th s, 1 1m s 1. )"'11.1g l: 1.
f y "
.V the 1d
t'1~
~ I,..
I n p" .... :1 --tl
l J<lln II dfo r
El1gall.,
1
mg l Iml')1
I I ' . ix.' \: 1(' vf tht: "'t\l1th I(
'r- u -il ~
c rlr 1]
t.
r.'
t r
.en..
ton on , -I' n.~'
Ire
- 'he ell Ir m ';e
f the
ul'
\1
S. '11 m. 1 g'
f_. tl.e pC I ..:)' _I ~t- 1..-e "')ell ..
c ff w il ,'"t
t V
j

v:

0r.;"

r.

,.

,.

,,

b
h
T
U

.,

b,
'h

T'

g"

PO
Th

,h.

pu'

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oil
Th.

ot ,
Writ
of t

twec!
the I
19th

'he ,
fOrn>

A. l
'hla
""ell ..

au,h

M. N
In th

'''''0
will
of

art

K. I
G. U
olhetl

.....
..""'......,

Incal'll
of the

M",.
Itudhl

book.
.. on

v.IWI.

Sh.1reI

time. however. thi~ was il b,rilli<ml sl~'ok(' of psychothcl'ilPV.

In this way, Edgar s stature mCI"C3Sl'S In till' ('yes of the audi
ence. He has acquired the right to cDunst'! others. "Rl:tr fre
and patient thoughts," he says to Gloucester (IV. 6). Edgar
h<ts already mounted the first I"llng of till' laddcl' which lead.
to the heights. He is no longer "Poor Tom",
He j~ outwardly chanf!cd I~O and is diffcl:CIHly clad. Soon
he bcgllls to act: defendIng hIS fathel". he kills Oswald. lnd
an import:lIIt letter from Goneril [nlls into his hands. We arc
astonished by Edgar's ('<lIm, by the self-confidence he hils
acquired. After the killing of Oswald-we feel it in the 'tone'
of his speech-Edgar has grown in his own eyes.
At the end of the tragedy. Edgar appears at the duel in
knightly armour and vanquishes his traitor-brother. Even
Edmund admits that Edgar's looks arc "fail' ilnd warlikc" (V, 3).
The Duke of Albany resigns his power in favour of Kent
and E?gar. But Kent. too, resigns. And thus the power of
sovereignty passes to Edgar.'
'The wheel is come full circle," says Edmund (V, 3). But the
wheel of fate cannot return people to the past. Having risen
and fallen, Edmund has fallen low. Having fallen and risen
Edgar has risen high. Having descended into the very deepest
vale of life, having become the very poorest of all these people
of a cruel epoch, th~ homele, s Tom "that very dogl disdai'lcd"
(V,.3), Edgar has 1"Is('n again as a hil k:'1ight and the ruler of
a kmgdom
Suc.h i.s .the way of Edgar, a part which actors of ~ ." think
of as lllS1Pld md '~oo good to be true".

Marc. co.rnp1ex, of course, is the way of Leu hirnse-If At
the c;gmmng. hI" IS an imperious el1th-oncd Olvmpi(ln ,.
s"'''ak
f im< ,If ~s .."Ie.
"H C I! o;.ulToundcd by. gl ..,morous
I
porn 1 :m] gcncr)l Idulation, but "!-tis heart IS sombre We
In w I,J, -ed
.
, nna! linc of Ihe traged)'
~
n( d ern e< ,.,honh
tIe
.
hlre'i ;llVn
urnt\ .. )u .... ,'A'" my, T11' "I' tIC qUi rio" reading. And
t
tl d~i
rbl)'
O)L Je1(ral!y a( }t('(1 b"eau! th, the II.:
(n
the 'qht nth c nturv \\ h nth! fat- of -,'h
\. n n read'
j;....
.
,.,
,'
mQS 0
.
p~" s to
was de aei
Jil'ei th t h
..
w
r"
.
.
31 t III th I
:>U cI
;lIV n t" th II 0
ve ,,. lbh r r -. ;II
th 'n t
(bl e h
:::1
.vh( 1
r. w l( 1HaIJy em ,de (I I, b

h
(I~e
.... lrCl ~I
p)kn)} E ~,r.,vt::
. c Y th
prov: ... 'St cc ).... mn:Jr ntof h II - d
. .

(; ,nc ..uk that th s mu b

t- ,1\:
.,; 1en 1C ~ie ntn a
,.. he l' _kc~ 1r Only' the 1rrei Idia
of 1C In
(~,..'" kC~1
could la' ka wn thl .1-. c,e Brt.... .,;crc
"un woo !ll 'I-'cr). It also tl-e m' tl cd!. ~ t ;and tne
Ight", peak ... ,)f ' ... I11
)C-ythl' of L.c Clr.
II
~ho de. urs hi .. ,",W'l childrel 11 l r
of ia...
Ll.od
:110) ... ~ hirr.scH to a W 11 11 lJ iragl 1 (I, 1
}.fc I "
)r'V
,mbrc, he 1<11 0 blind.} C rrcnders 11S ;.c. cr t H J,auglrs ",.t1, tl.1( ~ """'Vdtion la" he s L k ~p the
me nri
t ..
, C su s
all llle dt..lditu.m
~ -~{1
1I1g
. : 1 ' l:" dl
that the title a1, nc ,d S 11 pdf'" r
1
~f
;.cality, th t the lamc 1 the s
t1 q. the 1 1.,,1 d
.'nature". I Ie has no tonI "1 )vcr 1 S V1 'c"')Cr ,md
bestows upon C rdc1ia 1 11
for dO\
11, 1
.ot
Lear is 110 lc~ t CS~ e 11 I- s 1...
")t:.ll:l.m
t
.;tay a jot for dmncr
~r~ t _
4' he
However, he then be ns to tal t ... ~. II ..... in tl- r~ n.. .
c. " 1. ["
nobody come, t_ infoln him' "131
ho. dinne:I" 1 ~al eriP And "~en .....,.
r .7
My "'Iol'l Go you. and c"t11 ny f
~cr
r :1i~ i' "lrst t me that ': ...
l
\:la'
n )Wr from the VI;. "
"}I -,....
t
[

st. :1 aftcl hdvinq"", :.3 11 v_ ': .7 ....

IS '1e CTT'bodi TIcnt 0'
pu ar
~
ommcnt ,..) makc .. ., eV_:11
r.,
fOOl. ;is Lear
'Is im' 1. i), (.
l '
t
'
at t)1at rrun "It ",:1t:1 he h r=. t
,
think
FOI If' 11".~ ~I TIC Lclr
ers ...
ThiS ex ... _fl. ~ ... ",f delay 5 [ r h.

I thm .. the wvI d' l' 1'_"

'"
I lIghl
u99>< ts to Leu la" h
c t'
ttl 1tio11 which he
~
11 t
c ,
(holt bUI r~meml 1 t TIC -.
pl.
vc' 1 mr t Ii 11 ... 1lcL

c
obsCI V"cd .,od t"h Jught Bul y; he
.. ... ~t:1 ,
I
v
n
h,\\'c 1( 51.;11 11m ~M! .... ,
t t'. f
.0. 71
['"Inl And. oN
1 '1r Kl1 . ht
l
lI'
tn pme lW v 11
the dl
d i ........
~'
r..J , Illt re f ,,,1
'":.. c
~c_ 'I-1 the
"y 1. nc 01
r

L .
I1g. The bl 1
f... \(
Ii ng.

".1.

I:::'

ii

,
I

H "
arcI the
exclamations: "Darkness an d dCVl'} s.I" "BI asts and
fogs upon thee!" and the monstrous, dark curs.c on th~ \\lomb
of Goneril (ibid.), Yet, a moment later, Lear IS weepmg hot
tears and is himself ashamed of these tears for, in his own
words, they "shake his manhood" (ibid.), or as we should say,

b
il
T

1/

"

'"

sit

T,

gil
po

Th
put

,h,

101

oft

Th,

ot ;
Wl'it
of t

twe<

the

Itth.

lhe

'
, Lear on Iv il"I'C,lI'S, if the cxpn.'ssion i~ allow
ut t h IS nc\\
t
'II
j
"IB ' fl' h s The theme of the old Leill' stl soune s loudly
al' c, Ul 3S c..
0' ,I j (I , 4) "'r'a k c heed
'
'h eson dog!" he shouts at 5\\.1 (
II C sh'II uses the'
,\ Oll
, h'\\ thor whip" he warns the f00 I ('b'd)
J 1 .
stna,
e"Are
, you our daug htel' 1" hC JSk 5 Gellen'I ('b
royal plural.
1 id.),
's 'rath retains its fonner. sombre nalure. Characteristic

torm.
A, L

"",

well"\

au,h

M, M
fn ""

.""'"
will
artl
f

ot
K,
S
G, UL

othersincarnl
ot the ,
ltaae a
M",.

ltudt ..

...-

_ _ II

.. an
valuabl~

world It
Shek ' v

they shake the old Lear. Probably this is the first time in his
Hfe that he has wept. And these tears seem so tormentingly
~h.1mcful to him that he is ready to pluck out his own eycs,
But cven so his old identity is already lost and he is aware
of the fact. "Thou shalt find," he threatens Goneril, and in
these words sounds the desperation of weakness, "that I'll
resume the shape which thou dost think I have cast off for
eyer, thou shalt, I warrant thee" (ibid.).
Uneasy, supprcssed thoughts pursuc Lear relentlessly, "1
did her wrong," he pronounces suddenly in the middle of the
conversation (I, 5), remembering Cordelia, Towards the end
of the first act, Lear is already on the way to madness: "0,
let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven I" he exclaims (ibid).
In the second act, every now and again, his madness breaks
out on the surface.
,A?d so we have already found three aspects of Lear: the
onglOal Lear, sombre and despotic, the "new' Le.:::, thoughtful
dnd more gentle, and, finally, the mad Lear
Speaking of Lear's madness, it is necessary to keep in nind
that, ,although Lear himself gives his illness a namc-hyslerica
passlO (II, 4)-this does not give us the right to look on this
lliness as on a pathological case. In that era there was but
d hazy line of distinction drawn between psychic disorders
dnd sto;my emotional experiences. Polonius and Ophelia took
Hamlet s stat,: to be a "madness" brought on by love. "Mad
lor ~hy love? asks Polonius (Hamlet, II 1) to which Ophelia
r~phe'': "My L~r,
dId 0 not know; but' truly,
,
I do fea1 it.'
S~ch madncss was not distinguished from mcntal illness .
" auco:' called love "the sickness 01 lc~oe 'Burton, in hiS
Anatom". ,/ Mel anch 0 1y (1621) drc::ws lbsol1tely
,
no distin(
3n
h -~n,..'ecn th e mc1anc h 0 Iy tTl. d inr!uc~d, fo. elCamplt I v
Ul
ppy love and ~1.thologlc 11 L_
1f'pl'es~ j( n

14

The n.u.lnt ~ of Lear is a n nHe talon of .1C discol ,1 of hi

COll--- tuou' fecling~. It is
11" ):r 1 19oni~ of the
nl'w
LC"l1 In :"In.ler th<lt he niS;!! sc'" nd perciv L~ r had t"l
pass bv W'ly of this dev]' tati.lg inner loioc'usl HI" himself
s~eak 01 the tcmpest in his mind (III. 4.
I SClolms pomt \.Iut that Shakc ?Carc's epOt'l had
n'lented
from the Middle Ag( the conc_.,t ~I th(' I): r If''h'm -..>twe.n
evcnts in ttl .. lifc of rnm and naniles\...:~ir ns of *1, ture bt'w ~
the "microc sm md the "macroc.: m" . 1 th.". t lblc s.o. n
which bl..::lks r otoudy over the heattl n t:j1under and 'igh~
ning, a storm whlt 1 r ... cks
rlal.11_ ... "lOU ':!s UII. 2), s
rcflccted what is gomg on III l:J( n md o! ..e~r, T"" s the
destruction of th" ')Id' T dr, the I.. ):I;lP ~ of 115 ngm<'1
"aspcct". And Lear himself sc.
b l( ur QC thl' deV1~ tal
ing !itonn, to hurry it "Blow, wmd mr!
lC'!-; youl Cl( ;::ks l

Rage' Blowl" (Ill, 2),

And, already, it is not th" old s" lblc .I.d de 51

c L ~ .... f
whom, in spite of all. ."'1: tracCi stil ft, n_ifl ut t~,- n
Lear who struggles with the 'l ltler, thougr.. 11 T,elr T-r~l: h
thc storm of un')l'idle d l-':i sion, tr~der youn ~1(,' bt''lll .)
show unex})", 'te llv 'I wil .... t'--e lttcrn" f ! 1.1 1( -,
will say nothing' ( I. ~), And then, aftcr 1 t r _it llll d~
tnbe ot accu 110m. 'orne the gent> word.
a . itt!:
fOOl 1 all h s Ii. ~, w ~ n y uo;; _ ~ such gl': v.~. 4 .. e
ru'vcr cr')lsed f_ s ps. After the I.. y M:' Wit lo~ ~11 0
turn' , Leu sa}
'C:"Imc on, my b_y 1-?W k:. r: v 1 / '
l1't coI(T I 1m ":010 mv~. Who: e 1. ~)

ny
h
TJ.e 11 t :"11 :"It r ne..:_ ~ itL os s S loge lal em
":.e" e .: f9
pi 'ciou:>. Lorn yom hovel. .t'..._t foe ana ..ra' ~. I 1dv'C one
pal t n my hf":]" t~at'
r y yct I..... lee
"ot",',",
This I. C 5 naOJt
m hiS ti. w th ... :t ""'Iv.'
J;
be
l~ eft bUl '1n 0 Wll10ul :l. fjgulo;; i! H Y <" Y
,
Olvmplan
: SI dOW" .,.,1] t'1c "",,1. j caltft 13ul t
.. ':l
~h~ mon o;;lt..., .cdr' gl":: e .. t t ulnph he '-. 9 la, b",-\V~~
a mati. It W~5 1< Wll10ut 11
rC:is\,;n th t N&um ~te
,daptcd Kill!.! r ~a t<o ".11: 11 ~_ ~s al ~ demand. c
1()
f 1
S . C{11 ~cnth c"t Jrv.
anstocratic pI Y e~ II th c n d O
omIt ~d the l-'art Co l( k. 1
n tJ"c I:: ~t :g< a
U~;ll <.l ~ VYC h v _ ,.1H.. "('gIll S ~ " I "
lm~ ~
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h wo i
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) his L\ton wods.

4c -era n

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~ body

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r.

wl.Ci' II

;oughts LoolUr., ..t tb

5 00 I S the eml OI..~, C.t

). YO _W

1,.

lInC'lUS

nes

......... -;,.

__ ':::r

you arc Fu tl:

~b..- .DID I'e T.c rtak" tl- .. _L. --tb pc.. (r'11.:.1
.
CC~l.onv .. grct1t:'l:,of
t tll r
fi t.:n :1 lUS i .. le
oesti.!..
l
r: _~ houd
akt:: the
is
L:d bv
}-c t
fi~ t
nc 1
i Ii.. L,~
"
of
dmt"ll
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i. I.e h
. ",," I ave
h cere c th sl"
.. ld 11 i
b r t'hl If' ; ld I' we re t
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that whic'l he 'las bor' ()we" from society

today)- thiS is Lc.ar' disc.:Ive'-y.
Thereupon f"ll1ows th~ r uy 51 e""lf" of
Regan and GQQf>111. e. :tdtn(: on the w... r<.ts
in the maning" (lII. 6). to WhlC h l'1e fool

,,

le uralgn.mcnt of
We 'I ~o to suppt;r
iD!.we' "And I'll

go to bed at noon S~I ev_ ything n the W}~

The life of man

15

dlStOlted; this,

:l!.

I . . ,psylurvy_

1~ se -ni to QS, S tb~

meaning of these WOI is.

Lear faM'!. from the scele::::

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In ...
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f

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of artl

K.

a'S we shoula sa~

G. OJ

othet.

In""",

or the ,

........
_,

.tepa

levie_

...

book I

valuabk
wodd *l

81 7'7 .

m_ tim" \.je ':te'll l Jm

Cordelia th:. ~ he S wlndt. ing tl. ''IIJgh the ltandi" 1.:1\
crowned with grass ... ,me. h Id flow~ :lOd ,gm' lJ hlmsell
aloud (IV, 4). At Ia! t we e him IV), 'lc.: (.nly m, a ao;
before but having lost his memory In LL \!_~'5L s w )rd,
Lear resembles the world on the eve 0: itl final dismtc q .tion
(ibid.). The heart of U:U I! W ~athc.:! in dpep san
Whe1
we arc born," he says. 'we ry that WI;; are :., me ) thl~ JI ~ t
stage of fools" (ibid.). At thiS tagr.. doctc-rs <...re :Lllei - n.
Lear is put into :I. healing sleep.
His awakening is sad. "'3E. .:' F> l~ IS YI;;I at: til
"~Le ~I
in torment. "I am "')("und upon. \' If'el
til' t at r .... W"l
tears do scald like IfU 11 n It..!d' CV. - 0 th f rnli wr.tl-ll
'dragon" not d ,race -nain'i. "I m VI;. v fr"L
1 1d -'0
man," he ::ys {'bid.
r:le f _ t !91": i')l..1 ~
- 1 a in
him," comments tnl dod r (1\ Lear and C. rde1ia are C:!.l ture_ Tl;C :!J ('f1 t P"-spe':!.k: his lIllOU! mon' 1 ue (1\ )J N- r r. .... .let's :!.way to pr son We N"') !:It; _ ! -:""
."
j i tl.:age. whe
lOt: "as. d)n. r-e 1,1.. "'- r.-:<
c -. .,d
ask of the~ fOlgiv_-;ess-It: nd C"'l... 1 ,1 t~
another ola ;aie
ld laugta
11 C'l...tod L:.:t_
)
A whole 11 vs: di/.d_s th: Len ~':"ll
. K, -" whc- W
saw at the "'1inrifl!: 0' the tr-e..1 v -the >n..; v. ., 'W::. '-'
the my terte, 01 -Ie:: te :m~ dgt' wi:- --~k.. :- ~ ... )'~\.i-am
and cannibal
na cvmp~re ... 1': r..~~' t. 3. W:11':,,,:: dr. :J(~:l.
In thc opinion Of "t. Mj,''lC 'l I.;"~:, d e beginm::~-~' ::1('
tragedy, the all.-werfu. rr'"Gnar,l ,-1 :"1:' trr-,'r.o- i- ,~ man
inwardly bount' but t'l.;s --3.n.: Le,ll' ,It the ,'.nd of ::w tragedy
when hI:: ,~ be1'lgcCl tv pr:50n ",'th bounc .nl1S, :5 ,,'1 1 nun
who haslcqui cd lOnl,' :'",~dom L~ r"!,'nr:c-cl".!e W'11C: 1 w~
have quotl-j is rcdolc"1t 01 th~ :nner : ~-.:-:,J,);':1 l.nd of .: k:nu
01 trdnsi:j(cnt 10V Where :5 trl:: so~~:,..::of this lOY":'
According ,"1:'1(' ;ntcn:A.JiC:1 01 ~1i: :10eb. Le.u 3t thl'
bC-1101'1O!' 01 l'!.c tr.JQ':l:Y ,s ,"1{"Icsej 10 th' w,~"d ,': ~i" ,''11':1

=__ ,

97

...on=
U

II'

po

...

==
at.
.....
til

10 ,

subjective way of thinking. Emerging f rom thi~ Wo Id

comes to understand objective reality in its dU':llity. ~ . he
one hand, he ~ccs undisguised evil and tr?achcry in lh~ ~he
ures of Gonenl and Regan, and the undisguised, Wrct 'h g.
ugliness of destitution in the figure of "Poor Tom". C cd
other hand, for the first time in his life he acquires ~n Ollb,the
tive value, he understands how much Cordelia love S 0 ~.ec.
The basic theme of the tragedy is thus the recognition
cruel reality which surrounded Lear (and the author of \ e
play himself), in which the image of Cordelia (fro 0 the
Latin cor-heart) shines like a ray of light.
m t c
"ABII~t th e raly ofdlighkt. tOda, is destined to fail. Cordelia dies
S Clleer ess, a1' an deadly," says Kent (V 3) I
h'
final scene, the basic "aspects" of Lear seem' t o . n t e
themselves. Here is the original Lear despotic and rePb,at
"AI
,somre
p ague upon you, murderers traitors all (" "I h
the dath
I'alchion 1 would have
ave seen
y, WI my goo d b'Ihng
d
them skip" (ibid.).
rna e
howl howl
Andf the mad hLear "Howl"
, howl
.l 01 you are
men 0 stones:, ad I your tongues, and eyes, I'd usc them
~o that heaven s vault should crack" (ibid) wh' h b
h
ang the general tone, echoes the
wm s, an crack your cheeks". And the "gentl " L
'
we have called him
d th
f'
e
ear, as
soft, gentle and 10';'" a~n e: s~rrow ~l: '~er voice was ever
members Cordelia ~hen h ce ent t~mg m woman," he re
you und th- b
s e was ahve. The request: "Pray
,
0
IS
utton 1 thank you S'" (V
)
vividly with the orde . f th
, l r . 3 contrasts
here" (III. 4). And fi~:ll ~ sto~m sc.ene: "Come, unbutton
Gloucester, from ~ sudd:~ ear llluml~ed. For he dies, like
seemed to him that C d l.o~r~~h of JOY It has suddenly
her, look, her lips 1 ok ~~a s IpS have moved: "Look on
(V, 3).
,00
ere, look there!" he exclaims

Ih'

lD~a~es

i~~ocatt~n': "~l~we

despot but. d! w~ follow t he deyc~opment Il! the drama, we

groW to dc~ept him. more ,.md mo:-~ as a hunun l'dng and
arC finally ftlled. With 'ndtgnallon and ~uming anger no
longer l(}aiIISl hIm bit! II..'T him . .. nd t.::- the whole world,
against that bub~~-ou'i and mhuman order ,,;~ life whi.:h can
mar even such mcn as Lear'

Romeo make~ hi!, firs~ 1.;:1l:-am:e !;adly. But this is cI !tlXuri
ous and shallow sadne,s. L"ader ~he gi.lr':J 01 me"Llnt;holy IS
hidden the same joie de viore whkh informs hi>; frit.:nd. the
merry Mercutio, AL.!ll" exdaims Romeo,'thdt love, whose
view is muffled still, should without eyes, sec pathways to
his will! Where shall we dine? 0 me!' (I. 1), etc, This incongruouS question: "Where "hall we dlne?" gives <lw,ay the
"nature" of young Romeo completely, of that Romeo, that
is, whom we see at the beginning of the tragedy. At that time
it was the fashion for well-be:'n young n::.cn to be in love with
a "cruel" beauty. Such an "idol - :s Ro;:.alioe. It is, therefore,
scarcely to be wonde',"ed at that Romeos fa~X:--:-:':lble melancholy is expressed irt fashionable rhetor.c :nn. What is
remarkable is that prv~0und ard s1gnifi';"'lnt motii~ keep
sounding thr0ugh this r:,etoric "0 brawling bvc! 0 loving
hate!" sighs Romeo (ibid.I, not re3Esing th..l~ he is spcaking
of the basic theme of the impcndl":'.g ::-:.g,.:Jy in ., hi.:h he is
already cast for the main r2!c, o' the t;;c:'l1C ,:-: ~atrcd ,lud
love.
The second appc.'lr,mce ~! Rcme2 :t~-!J.s :i~t.:c ~.) w::.lt ha5
already been s.aid. The mcLanchC'ly theme i5 shot through
with snatches in quite another key. "Shut up in r nson , kept
without my food, whipped and tC'rmented J.nd-Good den,
good fellow" (I, 2). At the same time the tragic theme
acquires the form of a gloomy r"reboding \1. 4) ..And, a~ain,
it is typical th~lt Romeo's speech, full of he.l\Y :?rc,b~dlD9S,
ends on a note of jollity. "On, lusty gentlemen I (,b~d.) As
if in answer to this phrase the dnlln strikes up mernly. All
this is vcry youthful.
.
.
.
Romeo meets Juliet. Here, the lyrical motifS beglO, First
lyrical enthusiasm: "0, she doth teach the torches to ,burn
bright I It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night hke a
rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear" (I. 5). Then, the tender sonnet
of the first meeting (I. 5). From this moment ,:",e h.ave to do
with quite a different Romeo whose whole bemg 15 coneen-

Id

This joy would be nth' ng b

finale of the traged
0
ut self-deception and the
mourning had not ~h wou take on a tone of unrelieved
have seen, by the dea~h same scene been paralleled, as we
Cordelia in his arm GI of Gloucester. Lear holds a dead
The tragedy leads b~th t dces~er had acquired a living son.
Such, to use Kent' 0 eat and to life.
Lear. In him we h s word (V,. 3), are the "sad steps" of
watch him" (I.e a~ a dynamiC, changing image. "As we
"our first feelin;: ~n~')f rhmardks N. A. Dobrolyubov ,
o
atre for this overindulged

-,

98

99

with

quarto Romeo and Juliet that we fiDel "defy". In all atIIa

old editions whic~ ~e as fint IOun:eI for the tell (lHI Illing the "first Foho ) we have "don't heUne". 11Ie - .
would seem clear enough. But the bouble wu tUt. ID . .
cightcc~th c~nt~~. Alexander Pope thought . . . . . .
"1 don t beheve smacked of atbei tm Apnt &om tIdI.
onc cannot help suspecting that Pope fell for the zbetoi\-eJ
ferVour of "defy". Subsequent edilDla foUo. Ft:Jis
lead and. as a result. the "canonic" text nad: , defr LL
starsl"
J' 4
Equally lacking in sensitivity are thole
who _
something unnatural in the fact that at idd, ........
Romeo should remember in such detail the apprs'lNe 01_
apothecary. the varioul objects in his shop. etc. II It IICIf:
true to man's nature to remember irrelevant cJetatl. It
moment of shock '/
The sharpening of all his faculties hrd, Romeo to
untary reflection about life in general. n
...
Romeo's most profonnd , b t l ".eat. He c.n. gaY
worse than the poison he has ra;oeit ~, ro" tit.

(V, ll.

In the churchyard, Romeo 00"...

gentle youth, tempt Dot a ..........
him (V, 3). ADd agaiD ""ns l'ariI
Romeo is perhaps 10"''0'' m
age, but, thaDks to all !bat
older. Paris is a ''you\II
weeks have goD< by (but ....
fu1 Romeo has berona a ....

eyes.

\'chcmcncc of the moment, arc to prove proph t"

wedding bed is indeed to be the gravc_
C Ie: JUliet'
Deep, strong feeling awakes the power of th

little girl, who has just been addressed

,
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10""

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In th
..."

WillI
ot artl

K. S
O. Ul
01......

Ineam;
01 the

atele a

"-

studies

...
..-.
Ie ......
baok. I

valuabL

Shakz p

"Iamb"oug~t;, This
of life. st~
lady.
l3

ai

bird", begins to reflect on the meaning

lets us see Juliet thinking. "Thou art thyself" h cspeare
alone with her. thoughts, "though not ~ Mon' t:g
c reasons,
"ue.Wh'
Montague? It 15 not hand.
nor foot . nor <
afm. n or f ace at s

any other part be Iengmg to a man. 0, be some th

,nOl
"?
acrnaml
a 5 In a name That which we call a rose b an
e.
Wht
name '..... auld
smell as sweet" (II,2). Juliet,.as wcsccaffi
Y yother
.
t he pnonty of the reality over the name c' t
'
nns
" h 'd
' uS 5 d
own wh t
ca II s tel 01 of the name" . " amea,
R " says Ju1" at
Baeon
"d
If h
o t y name, and for that name which .S
Ie,
all myself" (ibid,), Juliet enters into
thee
t c ac.cepted views of her circle in which the si .
galnst
the aristocratic clan name was held to b
f b . g?lficance of
Sh; :eels
struggle, she will

t~ke

~p;~siii~~ ~f

t~at, f~r t~is

~:ed s~~:n~~:~~gnfce.

~era ~~~i~~O~ v:~c~~e ~~eb ex~aims ~?j~.). Sh~ begin~ to' fe~;

own independent voice ?io~ge w ~c deprives her of her

age
IS hoarse and may not
speak. al~u~," she reflect's (ibid.1.
Juliet IS mfinitely ha
B
modest, more reserved Pf~~n ut her s~~ness ~akcs her more
matter than in words bra s Rom~o. Concclt, marc rich in
ment. They are but b'
9 ~ hiS substance, not of ornamy true love is grow~g?;rs ~ 0 can count their worth; but
of half my wealth" (II, 6). suc excess I cannot sum up sum
And so we co me Upon Juliet
.
agam at the beginning of the
second Scene of the thO d
soliloquy: "Gallop
tr
act as she pronounces her splendid
Phoebus' lodgl'ng. apahce. you fiery-footed steeds towards
h'
. suc a" \'1aggone1' as Phaethon
'
W Ip y?U to the West
would
~~ the Impatient, passi~~~te (~~' 2~ Juliet compares herself
ery steeds" Juliet d
aet on. Apostrophising these
aequ'Ired
'
strength
Of oes not be g, sh e commands She has
tlene5S
. . evidCourse. ' she h as not thereby . lost gen"
,\\'h'Ich IS
CIVIl ~ight, thou sober e~~. In thb same solilOQUY: "Come,
~h~rci' I~ the same s01iloq~~ed t~at1'on, all in bla~k" (ibid.),
...
IS ness: "So tedious is' thi~er: are still traces of her
. ay as l~ the night before
""1'
. a '';; ., t::rc:-,OJ ...
'''',n H'I,.
.

102

some ~sliv:J1

lmpatient child that hath new rc;~ IUld

trlay not weu th~"'l" hbid). It ~y be, however that Tulici.
thinks "1 t~:s c ~1I1d. w\th the smde of a grown'up pe:-son.
But the ma~n 11OL. I. ttaat lew t llts ha...-~ been ~ )ugl-t to
light in Juliet 11 1hgcnce, stre:lgth. COUl !gc An~ ',)frc the
blow falls Rome has killed .'ybalt. TOJ t.he first morne nt
Julict i! SCIZ~J With angc-r: "0. serpent h~art, "'I~ wit!- i"
flowcr in 9 fal ~I ~il.- ever ~ra90n keep so fall ! (:IV"" IIbid.),
In A. D. Popov S pi "I.-'uctIon (The Theatre of the R v ' ltion,
MosCOW, 193!i) lere was a ... narkable r'e':all. It lb, t
moment Juliet: I -'I her ban'" on be- dagg!"r In h. 1
this little girl who, al the o,f!ginning of the tr- ~cdy ap~50 mcek. COU] cs the fic'v blooo of the C pc, ..ts; she
is the daughter of lE' envlMc~ent and she . lOW th!
call of the vendetta ~ut her ave fO~ 'lornc"l d owr.s
t" .. n

that call.
Juliet. in this scene, i~ all .. mnli"lg. :1.11 flame ~haml
come to Rome01" says the lU~ bit1.
'B1istere~ ",. . lY
tongue!" cries Ju'iet in fury And. later. '0 .L t '" 'lei
was I to chide at lim!" (lbi=). ALl1'; hili; -,,,tr.:., '1 n;' in
common with the neek little glr who was - Y t 'on: y
obediently w~t" e.1I her 'lDotber's behl"'t'
Fr l' J lliet a tine ()f SCVfl ~ I 1~..-:_ set in ""- r her U)I
with ~omeo Lady C 1- ule. 'o~e md tr-',\ T"'i t ,/ ~er nlan
to have Rorr eo po:sc- ... -1 l -r the first tmu; '1111 t L
to
dis,c~ble ;PI)le her 11,t"t .. Ald vet anoth, t..;.
her
pall.lt:- wi h to n.:ry" to Par:- lIld 'Iuliet reI(t .ri~L
ill-conccalea ",01 er 'Now' y S. int pc~_ ' ,-L .... h
-1'Oe r
too, he sh::.~] lOt maKe me there I oyJ' ~. bri? ~I (I!" - ~}-e ha.
grown thm and pt ' ... f "1m II 1'- t . c ~~ l;_n .1.,-:- _1gb,
her Quick- tem 1 _ .I fathc' --.11 "1. - ~ gree'" _uuc-'ar. ~.,I
and "tallow-fal.~" (iNd.' ~utl-e has ..._~. u . ni~~l-'
inner strength, kr k p.":r S great. ':s there no. PIty 'Itt~ng
t
in the cloud~ th.:lt ChS 11 to the bottlm of my gne
Ilhun
But he SI "11 th ]~ :Jre1t alro. Whll the r'J>e '.d\,I~-' ~er
to mafl"y Pu s ,.,d he
left ,~uiL witho.!1 sur7'01~ :" ler
own hOO1(' n h c~ l' .s ",.-'lich ,ht! sh('lwers .:-n the 'l~rse, we
feel 1 hit;cr "I lnsu. pe.ec might, '_~nri~';~ damn~tlo.r... 0
mc-,t W]('I~. d fiend!'
'lord, fll- "':13Llbc shl. en .. s In the
..... 01'(1S
' ~IS(-' f<lil. '11y-t:"- h~vc.: power :,~ dH'
And ~e
do nOI dow t ;f'1 SI t: i' .... \dy t<J :lght to the c!c.~th Tn .1C
s..ttr' .... 'I 'n 10 FrO' L'turenc sell w'terc she Ji','c" frec rc'~
tc. her -1t: p~ -:P 5, 'rpc ,-~~ Cj:,~ pl~t kip! (IV 1

'.

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Well

such
M. N.
In th
spean

will J
of art.

K.

he says that she will throw herself down from a high tower
:'ather than marry Paris (ibid.).
It is a hard struggle she htls to, wage. ,She conh,,)}s. with
enormous difficulty, her anger a~~unst Parts. She pretends to
her parents (with still gr.cat~r dIfficulty, c:f c~urse) that sht
is prepared to do their bl~dmg .. The culm,matlng moment )f
this struggle is the scene In ,,,'hleh she drlOks off the potion
given her by Friar Laurence. ~lt~ough at first she had
decided on this step without hesItatton, had clutched at the
vial of liquid as a drowning man at a straw, and begged
Friar Laurence "0, tell me not of fcarl" (IV, 1), now she has
to fight against a fear which has taken hold of her whole
being. Perhaps the monk has given her poison? Or what if
she awakes in the vault before Romeo comes, all alone
among the dead? But her love for Romeo overcomes her fear;
"Romeo, I come! This do I drink to thee" (IV, 3),
She awakes in the vault somehow transfigured, very grownup, mature, serious. She remembers well where she is and
why she is here. When Friar Laurence persuades her to fly
from the dark vault. she answers simply: "Go, get thee
hence, for I will not away." She speaks to the dead Romeo
without cries or tears, but with a quiet and tender affection.
as one might talk to a beloved child. Without complaint or
hesitation she stabs herself with his dagger, because there
is no other way out.
We have seen how Romeo grew up in the course of the
a~tion. But Juliet has. nevertheless, outgrown him. It is not
without significance that Shakespeare, having called hi:
tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", chose to end it on the words;
For never was a story of more woe
Than this of Juliet and bee Romeo.
putting Juliet's name first.

G. Ul

others_
incarn,

of the
stage a
M",.

studies
review

book.

.. an

valuabL
world.

Shak...

I "A l.ittle more than kin, and less than kind," says Hamlet

.~), to. answer to the words of the King

who addresses him

~s hOUStOn and "son". These words are variously interpreted
. y d~ e commentators. One thing. however, is clear. 'Hamlet
I~. l~pleased. at S?mething. At what? Possibly the answer to
t liS IS c~ntamed 10 Hamlet's next lines. "How is it that the
c o~~s st~lI hang on YOu?" asks the King. To which Hamlet
rep les Nol so, my lord I am too much i' the sun . From
( ,

104

lC many px")lanations of this w;;!:.,. l'"C lrt us t.akc 1 C ... ser

look at the w.., which eem ) \,;5 te Clrry nost .... nvlction
In the first place Hamle'
punnin!l' on the we .:!
:0- and

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"

. un", "You have gone too ( in calling ~~ h.l, he i a. v. If thi'

Ham! i.s displeased at the \' n- I .allic~ lUr. If
hi "fat ll! that 5. I tamlet is. Ii) st an foreme
r' n
h too
'Y
for 1':'$ fal'w:" lnd I ..;-g:y at C_ In:.-: {
mal iag( Thi 1 the cxpla..- I i "n whi," C ..-~1rudc L... .
puts JI ;J. t)"l'" "i.l ID
5hc tells {laudi 1S t l'le "-a 10
doubt or the ~;~}- :nle', "irt'l (Nsltion AI,;-- jng t
her. i~ ~ "hi L ther', death and .. r o' . y - :-ri.'lge
(II, 2). In ....1f' sc 'ond f :-, 1- AlI~' "-;.._
it i lndl r
s. )ad "V Dover Wil":;":1, may _ntaln! '"c... e r) r h rb
current 1t that lime "Out c! God's hi ::"'1 nt
e VI: n
sun." 11 t"l.at elSe, }- mil" 1. di ... yl .. -I. : b \'mg be -:
pa.se-l we in his ..;lai r. ) the tl. ... "Y.l ve' DC me
out of my It'1er' .I-'lf' t.:n
he is
n:r': s 1 th
,Hcr!)l ~l tion set Cr-~ ~' .. w~;j ,... C ". '5, W'" 1 I ' : J
11 :lid of J- amh.:t
! C. :;"):.
\I 1..
II}:
t I
the e- -,e. MoreOVl r I ~ l.mll'" dc.;_ I: r
li {.
";I
thief w"1o 'las t ! ~ t e crowt: ' l '
l'
(I
It is =lU1t~ pc _:'_e that la.='_~
.. r '\.
ing!;;,
.,

or
ye'
I"1.C;"~ 1

_ l~ 1. JI~ly fb_

th s ~_me
h
L
the ..)ue en
,

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worl
Shak

..

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., r. ,is ,
-

~5

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~I ..

nol'.: :llng.
lrom III

'ou

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, ,.

5 le.' .. ~g .:.:1 w
ne:n~!y d }; s lfler il n."

t'tcre

~ ~.

1'1

oHL-, s... 1.,_1

tl'" her \\;. ~

..
uLserved o! 1 at. ~~;". \.
-?

, .
,
f{

-.
t

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wht:

.'.. .
l'

.. 'l t~

.... fl.l

.~.

1",;)1 di"~

conclurle that "t ..;ne,

.,

w ..

IV

1
d";"ldy-:-d.
"i,'~ r. (lV)U . r
SO to S)C.lk H llet's '-" r.:,tcry Rut t' j ' \
cnt)
thr.: l'niv . . ilv w .... , . .,; rc"n"': t!';..;,~. lot .. I taL j;;d
,.!-.crc icn"d.. fr.,d! ~'1d thl.- d (.rsl I! 10 I,nc

mid

(C~lll

har' ..... ::

th the po -r !o;.ld.-:;: '-{,,;:_ti:. F v~- oJ

,y I ~'ll .; f.rt
lthCI s':~
he ,.
me Y \H,J mg. "
II fnn -;1~__
III

1\..tl 'n .. :!

t('l

'11"

e ' tt ld ~
I)C
~I ~rH

assumed merely for the sil,kc of outward pro~rit'ty. He is

staggered by the change which has t'~kcn ..r~.1CC 111 everything
around him: later he Sil,YS of ,lhlS: 1 hose t~at would
make mows at him (Claudius) whIle my ,father ltvcd, give
twenty, forty, fifty. an hund~'('~, dUCil~S ~.rICCC fc:>r ~is. picture
in little" (II. 2). And all tlus . seemmg . that IS, msmccrity,
hypocrisy. which he now perceIVed fo~' the first ttme at close
quarters, shocks him to the depths of hIS soul.
This is the fundmncntal cause of Hamlet's displeasure

That this is indeed how things stand is made dear from the

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following monologue. His surroundings themselves awake

disgust. "Fie on 'tl Ah fie," he exclaims, "'tis an unwccdcd
garden, that grows to seed" (T, 2). The haste of his mother
who has married again before her tears were dry, the
lecherous image of Claudius whom he compares to a satyr,
are simply the expression of general disaster. Hamlet is
youthfully worked up. youthfully emotional and, like the
youth he is, ready to lay hands on himself in his despair.
And, had not religion forbade it (I. 2), it is possible that this
is what he would have done.
So it is a very youthful Hamlet we see before us. Not only
the fact that h~ is a University student suggests his youth.
Here, textolog1cal arguments arc admissible. The words
"fellow-student" by which Hamlet addresses Horatio (1, 2)
can be understood either as "comrade-student" or as "col
league-scholar" (in all other cases Shakespeare uses the word
"student" to ','flean "scholar" and not "undergraduate").
Hamlet, one lmght conclude from this, is a scholar attached
to the University and not necessarily a student. In exactly
~he same way, when Horatio speaks of "young Hamlet" (I. 1),
It m~y, be ~hat. .by the usc of this epithet, he merely means
to. dlstmgUlsh him from "old Hamlet", that is, from the lat~
Kmg. And ~til1 the text docs contain indisputable proofs
that Ha,mlet IS a ~oung man, a youth, even. Laertes compares
;,IAamle~ s love to a \'iolct in the youth of primy nature" (I 3),
'
'
. s thlS
f templc waxes"
., says TJ.ACl'tes
10h
t e same scenc referrln g, 0 course, to the body ,1S a temple, from which ';C may
un d erstand
t'll h YSlcally
'
, ' that Hamlet'IS Sip
growing. The verv'
~~~St~S ;i~~h ~~hmlcGt haddressed to Ophelia (II, 2) betray his
,
~,~" ost speaks of Hamlet's "youn blood'
and' calls
h
'
a(I. y5) th
d' him noble youth" (I ' 5) . Be f ore us,9 ten,
1"
sem~ling I~nj~ant, ~~hblh"d" candalised by the falsity, dis'

11 s W Ie
e I" now brought hcc to face with

thr first tim,. 10 t"is -fe md there is nc'llOt urpn 109

Of the

that polomUl x7lain'J the wholr matte- 1S the

matlne Ii c~ love, common to the younij_ sort' (II. 1).
~ lontu 5 -ncmtw' that. in hJS youth he 'tim -If 'sufrcred
mOll( h extremity fLr Ie v,.... (II. :l). He does 'lot know l...:lt
H mlet ha! ditcoverc..l t.er ?le l. me, that be 10 stncIr,Aq to
th~ heart by the words o~ thl'! Chost which lave ,hakEn 111(1
nverturncd his whole being.
It is siqnificant that, at bl nex !inc I
"), -tamId
'ipcakS in pr:; - Ithe ,.hythm 1 quitr ~t rent than n
th beginnm\:j, IF, on the bc"lOmng, HamIel 1 "3{i t( .;om'
Cnicatc now hf'" S se tlV1'" has rcti1_d Intf} um ~ f and
U
m
' in hints 1nd half-C'Xpre-, d mp t' :ltin "\ (C '1 s
speaks only
polonius a fishmong
CI Z), 1 109 w r~ w~l(h tn A~~
language of the taverns. Deal'lt a
-def In hvc qoo_s
polonius, HamIL is implying, L O!ady til 11 L s daughtcr.
"For if thi' ,un L..: ...d mags.,ts 10 Co d d r' _ b:-;,- a C" j
kissing cur on,' 1- lID'
gins, b~t d
)C~ finl 1. hi
thought !;'" ven the ovely ("Ipbe1; - ht L _:1 cvt: ;:l
contac w;,tb the or -upt.;:-;, :~ c urt fl.!
.
'
ups \". ~ '\; )uthful ~ndr~_tion md
Thesc .l1 e no lonacr fl
wnt'l, Th:s(' arc bit
lj ctic...
And this blttern~~~ 1
inte'1dfied bv t'lr meeting w t. R encrantz and CU1 ..,'
stern. 'T}}c~::: losr fri ,ds of l- s hildr ...... i lOd b'llrw
students 11 th~ r'iv~rs1;Y t:.TO ' J l
lit..... f 'l m~
vcnt this I-,i ten'.. 1" the 1.,~ ..~:
t
y e
has "lost hi_ m1 l ' 1.
~ '''ll S, H(" ...
'W'lat a pi ~ of Nor 1.
:: r
iaut,.' o~
,
",
not-Ie in rea! n,
-, inf.11 t t1 f J ti
'
I
)
.....
~
':\r.:t L
the wOlld! t"-::: par~ qon c ~.~.
't'
Man
"re
man Ham let 11 ... "lk. .:~ m x
V "Ii
..
delights not me
11\ r 1"1'
The splendid R J
J'I n'ne": _-th
tu1V l(tC"
_. . ,
'lov'K:'~cl.kv 1850'l"Q_ >t ;_-1 .1 r :191 '\\111 5tart~'_9
simplicity and. al the ar1C r ':":: W11 1 ae
i:ltui~';;d' un e,
,
f
Rc...... -'1. 10 Guild'
standing. S1.,l4 den y 1] ~yc t: on
1enstern. No. n~'1n ~v ... 1(: dclighl JamIe.
d ' 1'1'
'1';ngs
l
Haml ... - S lar' 'tv to
on:: _ ...:.'C~""1m rel 'j,-.hun cl .. e to 1(' l t p1"ns of fl'at er... 1- dmiet hix::~:IJ l!'d' not
't'" .' 'S b
~ dU3htv .in
so
l
,,"ware
c
'l's
nvolvc
r.t"
.
,
'
I
,
t T'" e woreS a rNdy
Ignore> the
1
01 _.
lW": dl. (,; lntCn .
. h H It.
quotc ol ~s _ how l! h 'S
late 1:: t -d11 hI'; mlr:
am
ldd' th~ p~
.t,,~ but \I herel:,:
kr. w r:
let

_&

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10(,

__

It is as though the actors had arrived from the .. Kingd .... l1

of Dreams". In this sphere, th~ sp~crc of drc.1?I S Hamlet

feels free and at case. Calmly, mtelilgently and 10 detail h
discusses some play with the actors (prohably Marlowe's
Tragedy of Dido, ~/leell of Cartilage). But. {or Hamlet, the
actor'S recitation brings on an acute onset of that dualism c~
which we have already spoken. The ador who has Surrendered himself entirely to "3 fiction", "a dream of passion"
(II. 2) weeps for Hecuba-why cannot he. Hamlet, kindle in
himself an equally passionate attitude to real life? And, finding no answer, Hamlet curses himself for inaction. Here a
new aspect of Hamlet arises-confused, questing. displeased
with himself. Already. he seems less young (it may not be
fortuitous that here there is a reference to Hamlet's beard
(ibid.}). Before us we sec an unfamiliar, pallid man with
trembling hands who wonders whether it may not be the
devil who has played a trick on him, taking advantage of his
weakness and melancholy (ibid.), that is, of his tendency to
see the gloomy side of everything.
And the thought of suicide returns to haunt Hamlet. But
it returns to a mature man. If the soliloquy of Act I. Scene 2,
which "flew on commas" was an expression of emotion, a
heart-cry, then the monologue "To be or not to be" is a
meditation spoken out loud. Instead of exclamations we meet
here such phrases as "whether 'tis nobler ... ", "to sleepperchar,tc~ to dream ...", "there's the respect, that makes. .
etc. Thl~ IS the language of deliberation. Instead of a garden
rank "':Ith weeds we have here something more concrete, a
check-hst of evils: "The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's
~ontumely, the pangs of despised love, the law's delay, the
~nsolence of office .... " Hamlet has matured, grown up. He
IS n? l~nger a youth. He has given himself wholly over to
me~ltabon. The hypertrophy of thought "sicklies o'er" "the
native .hue of resolution". Hamlet has as it were withdrawn
from
hfe has bero me w h at we mIght
. ' call 'ln ascetic
. of the
mind.'

rh:.

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b A new and hea~y ,blow is in store for Hamlet. Ophelia has

ecome the unwlt~mg accomplice of his enemies. When
Hamlet asks Opheha, "Wherc's your father'?" (III, 1). he, of
~oulse, knows th"ll Poloniu! is somewhere close by lie
now that Opheha's answe . "At home my lord" is '1
C.lt lil. Otherw se t h '
.
suddt.::111,
.
e 7e IS no ~xpJanatton
as to why' r amht
} .pe.aks Q spItefully )1 Polonill~ I lde~d, from

"'S

108

n word~
t the (100.
be shut upon hun thaI he may
ow
h fool no whe ~ but in's own I:tou.c 'uu1 J, 11
ptav t e
eVl~:h!flt that he 15 aw: t'lai p.,iomus s e.l .. Sdl P[i 9 C'il
h oove ~tion with Ophelia, l. therwlsc there 15 equ.:.!ly 'J
e~s)lanatioo lS tu ","'ly Hamlet uddenly bgms tJ t ... ...", II
0 1helia, whom he ha-s /15t begged to remember~'
ns In
prayers, why he ~ir:s ~ ~pr~a~ her w'th c serr."ling.
h pocrisy (the word pamtings (Jlnd.j d~s not n :.n ""lJy
Ywder and rouge but l.lrries the hidden JI: antn'll of :1
::ask"). If even OphelIa. al~it unwittingly,
Jcm~ t on
nks of his en~mies, the~ "), Hamlet th: ~ ~ n lng 1 ft
f~ life. He ha. come to a com.,}cte dc-:tial of the W'" d. \..1 t
thee to a nunnery I
It has been rightly ... narke? . that Pamlet app ,1'5 )
in each sue ceding ~ene.n 1 dil _".!n" gUlSe to that ~n W'li.Cl
wc had cxpec ~d to e 11m Att:.. lIS explanaht''l 'Y th
Ophelia, we e '_ .ct to _'"
gloomy t.,~ ... tel uz,:"',.Bt't t
is a calm Hand!" who mee:s ur eyes. taL 19 ntl.. hgcntly
to the actors abl ut art. He 1S if' 11 0 l~;:
the
ere
of "dream" and. lought He is oow t_ .. ",
t
- ~c
c e
)'u .. calar p'ayas ':U'(C
I ut
'lO~t the f, .. lID -t)1 f
pIes of art. 1 .'lE fi 1aJ analys. s, ..: - 5 llam._ 1
::""-'-"'C
link wHh li.~, It s : r W c:eat JOY f
l-. - :t
5

found, in 11 t. 1 , ... _. c" fo s~ _ '5 I

e
become aL_.VC, oear _= ,. _ t
Q,
.t
tnll'rOl .ly., 'lalll'e II
). T 1 tt._ : ; rds
I
s SlJrel), 19ht to :c C;ba..: espear<.; 5 0 1 k_ tt :1 e
The clo. eDt: of l- !!DIet tOhSb
.-I ~~,nl't;)- k~r
humamsts (,)f th ... epoc 1 e. _ ,11 spcare .00 :>u! j ..: _ 1 peD.-IS! ~
.
t"L. tt
1....
And' 'ten w see B Tr Jc c:Jighl

W
_1 ~
.. 1
b<...ttle. In hI! repa __
1. 1 T\e
.... . . . . l"
He is in:: h'ol tv 1e K.r. ~E. ~r~ thl:'
...
-- ~
el-~ an w
.::!. 1"1 x- ..
PoIooius, th roWS \.. e, ..:-- ell -~"
'1 U
torncnt Orhcli who betr v 1'":._ <In-')t ... " " h ~. d r. I
witticisms .L le nl y -.., 'lP. :h.. tb ...~f
r.
0 i~1Ie" i f ' )
triumph for 1- ant ct.
K~
'-'I(
t:;
1C" fC" }'n \nC
the nourctrap W H ~ 'Iamlet h
prep--:T'f.'
.
'He 1
ium )hant 1(' victor ~~o ~!3mlt:~ ~re1KS lOt vo:. ~
t
,
'u1hrt
"eK-'
he . omp~
hi1l1sclf tal pia'
a.r.
verY
1
..trk 1 -11,:
(I I ,) A.nd, on this :: er~ :0 O~~i~~ !-.n
inte .. tin~ ii. c "l'C :1 wI:' :1 1ar re :Cl,,-;,d;st him he wiI'
't ml 11 Hdm' et say that.
fate;Jl e 3.1
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turn actor (ibid.). He is. indeed ..css.C?~ial.1y . an artist. not

n c c'Iya
e sgreat
s aactor
f l ' as Shakcspc.lIc hllnscJ( was nOI J
great actor (the best part e\'er allotted to th,c ~attcr. according
to his first biographer Rowe. was the Gho~l In HamletJ-but.
still. an artist and a thinker..~\'ho, to US~. h,IS ~~\'n W~~ds. Was
only capable of creating a m~usctrap In Image (ibid.),
and it is only in the realm of linages t~a~ he can carry the
victory. In this sphere we feel Hamlet s unmcnsc strength.
It was no idle remark of onc Shakespearean scholar who
observed that. of all Shakespeare's heroes. only Hamlet could
have written his plays.
But no sooner is Hamlet again faced with reality than he
becomes powerless. He does not kill the King at prayer
because he begins to reason the issue at a moment when
reason is quite out of order, All his reproaches to his mother
are wasted: immediately after this scene Gertrude again
appears with Claudius and addresses him as "mine own
lord" (IV, 1), True, Hamlet kills Polonius, but he kills him
in a fit of passion, having taken him for the King. The Queen
is right enough to label his deed "rash" (III. 4). These transitions from deliberation to fits of wild passion from now on
become characteristic of Hamlet.
In the soliloquy of the fourth scene of the fourth act,
Hamlet again reproaches himself with inaction. Some commentators see this soliloquy as a turning-paint, after which
traits of decision are supposed to become dominant in
Hamlet's character, but they overlook the fact that Hamlet
concludes his soliloquy with the words: "0, from this
time forth, my thoughts be bloody, or be nothing worth!"
(IV, 4.) Hamlet speaks of "thoughts", not "acts". Shakespeare
~eeded the s_tory ~f Fortinbras' campaign in order to
Jux.tapose actIon Without thought and thought without
actton.
It is. only possible to speak of any decisiveness or activeness dlsplaced by Hamlet in the events which follow with
great circumspection. His actions bear the stamp of those
sudden fits of passion of which we have already spoken. He
w~s the first ~o board the pirate vessel and become their
pnsoner-a pOintless, wild action. True, he cunningly and
successfully. turned the tables on Rosencl'antz and Guildenste:n, SendlOg them to their death. But here, too, he was
a~tmg o~, the spur of the moment. He tells Horatio this
himself: Rashly, and praised be the rashness of it, let us
110

o~~

w our indio cretian

.gmf~ mes SCrve ,.15 well. w'ten

deep plots dG pa~" (V, .2). And. furthe: i're: c.:ald

make a prologue to my bl ams, they 'lad begun the play'
(ibid.).
h
d'
Hamlet appears at t e griiveyar . lie 15 sail We Fe... 1 '.:he
end is near. He remembers !lis childhood (~om.~ ) ..Tht: thought
that death make!; 111 mt.-:l equal IS now his dommant :~eme
We see before us a man who has been through much and
fercd much. And we arc not in Ole le:~5t surprised W1( n we
su derstand from the wads of the ~r(.:ve diggcJ. that ~Iamle~
rsn thirty years old. And this is the same Ham',,! whom ~e
saw at the beginning of the tragc"v c..s. i ve~'Y young man m
love for the first time' Ho,:"" mucn hme ~"''''. t~e b'agdy
er? From the point of view )_ l~.:n.ml__ tim<>-lbout
~~: months. But from the point of view of dr~matit timl::, the
ly kind which Shakespeare ClvmowLdgea i" :mr:~':,Jlt,
:any years of hard experience md 1:ard thi:"_'lqlave g:"ne
b The fact of then"~~er 1 that with hI .. nncr ~. lu:: ;aw
J~mlet in the graveyaru 15 very far .....'ll ~g ~L.e '3~e
young man as at the beglODln!:il of tn/;. t Igedy.ls~ IS it ::le
finale, in the dUta scene. he saw lam .. whose love ,m.. v
two months ago, by es~ronomical time)
lert - hld ,ompared to a spring violet. and h: m (" phe!..:.
ld called tl:
'rose of the fair state i~ i stell.
.;.!: =.'"1 .. dly out .)1
condition "He s fat inC: S_lnt of "1.. .1, tht:: at; '_1 - .. V' 01
him (V, 2)
. . . . , .)1 Sr..:kc
Seen beside the Inmense depth.
- c ___ ., -~) .. h .
speare's creations, there .i~ something _ve.lOd Ich~J";'~~ lnd

~""'nlca
tlm~ In
d
this la~k ~f correspo~ cn~' .. ot..:~t:t::u ,- .. ';' .. ,. . erltou.:>~tSS
dramatic hme- .ther~ IS a ..... ld ,. e~;,( ->...h~~~~ T.Jit. Dak
of folk art. JUSI as 111 V}.lchc, .. ~ S~,~hJ-,..\ ... fi'" 'But ".-" the
Hour: "And -:leW t'1e Tungu. Nlel .~ lllq :. "
~,:, he
time Spring come-<;, he 'nay be twen:-y w~o "r., ws ..

~. _ Ii'"

may be fifteen....

Hated. fiery,
It is enough ~o (;?m!"l:-'! Eaml,.:. i" . t ,g uiel words
youthful soliloquy WIth :'le. :L:';~~~,ed, ..... sl~~n21 ~n ~1rder to
he addresses l0 LacrtC:; b:.01
ju~. ( II d In a fit of

' < ; tr'\TC C

understand what .1 great way :1(' .1.a~ ,')' he kiils Claudius .
uncontrollable passIOn (thc la~t ~arc ~~. w~r1d is .15 full as
Now all his enemic-.; arc dead. l~ut t ~Id
tem~ :tnd Polo)ever of C1audiu!--Ci, ROsl'Tlcrant.-,,~. G~~c~'~d I But here a
'liu,,,::,. He.llity is sti'l . this h::lT"sh W0r.
(. 1 ..
L

,-"

r v r f light Calls. Hamle:' 'lsks Horatio ..~ "tel hiS

.
(ibId I. It is as though Hamlet's dying gaze Were n:=;
tow rds the r "ture lamle" dots not Cie I ~_ Simi! t.
..

AL

XAP) 'R \NIKS'

Sf AKEt;PE ARF

A WRITER OF "'HE 'EO] LE

We 1, VC Ib)' we:!l"lf: ev. . .halution t;; sf!Ve....al of ~hakespe40e
C'"
crs. c ",~alYC'=s ~e ve glVe"l Sho,:",s how dangeroU$
It s fO a:_w static pc,-f:ralts of Shake r= :-: 5 dramalIf' pe
1I~t. I"hc method of Jyna~H; description is here esseDtial; :t
~ er Wloras, %aK. 1 ..~~
charactc i must be x.:.-:-.... ;l
th~
'ne Co the acvelopment f thc ac. on. Cil u:n
c s n: ,[! c: tLCll var:"1 and many side..:. "laral ;ers be orc
1C rye of the auruc-:lrc
onc'" - in we rctu -:l b t1::
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e a VI' t numl
I, scrilA: tOl.~h kespclrc t'th:s ,-r thaI
rellgi~n.

p~ IllCS.

d pict..::d now l'

1 Cath lit.: now

Sl

vstC"ll of oDini,,'5 iu
anl. soc 1 morality :i. is
lOW <IS 1 repuL.11 .In, n~w ~S

OhliOlOP"y

mon.: . hiS.
s
:tl k tant,

01 ""arks ""hl(:1

nl

a 11 Jr'loldu of
Chr tian do. tr ne, lOW l' 1 suppurt( of
p... n s~ c 1. t
sCC
pe .sIble 0 fino quolll uns froll Sh L
;1] ~,
t
,un )SI e.v ytJ;ing and to usc 1cm t", "ll,;WC ~al il.1
.... f
r.' :1y c.r cvery c ;'l\; i\'ablc r;-" ot N
lOW

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tuw .. vcr t'lIS m, hod of 'J: 'l.in Wlt~ l"U

n orc 11k. 'y t, 'cad u .... tr V lan tIl pi 'VC d 'c"lbl

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II,. ThiS IS SI
r the in'"llc
'I thll .,h,1._
11
In
cti"q 111 H' Wf' th n': V11 il ty of t
11 e
al' s th mo. w,d("~
IV ~ 11 \ cw
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xtl n y I k y t'\
_mr 1. h ... pl1} 5 C.}Jn ":il
t
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b~ th ~ oJ. thut h r. cr . 1
I'
r t 1pt til tJ dl 0 S v ':I ~I t <:.!>
r
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How...., it is also true .that t!>at part 01 the middle ~

Fin::

.loIch had escaped the mlection 01 Puntanisrn Was

i""ified in. seeing S~~ a~ "their" artist.
tell.;n sections of the nobllity. earned away by the progzcs:
sive movement of the epoch as a whole, also had the right
ID Ie! in Shakespere a writer akin to themselves.
'DIe question may be raised as to whether such a descripSon !if Shakespeare's social positions does not conflict With
the beme idea of the wtiter as the mouthpiece of his class?
nply to this is given by Engels in his study 01 The
Peaant War in Ger:rntlllY. Engels gives most precise definitions
of the positions adopted by various participants in the social
"ph.aval which took place in Germany at the beginning 01
the sixte entb century. In this particular case, we are especied with the description 01 on. 01 the participanls
War. Wendel Hipler. a description which is
signi 6 can ce for our argument. Of Hipler's
aDd Id logical positions, Engels wrote:
the leaders
the movement h. (Wendel Hip1er)
~ 01 the
situation. He was
not a peasant
M-tder or
his extensive experi.
knowledge
attitude of the various
eacIl cd"er. prevented bim from represeutiDg
1jatp'1I involved in the movement in opposi-

n...

li

of~

, . cdn be no doubt that Shakespeare penebated more

Trcr~dlY than any other dramatist of his time into the
pro oUe of the social contradictions and conflicts of
age.
esscnilier writer of that time was able to show the relation
Nh~ ~ between the Estates and classes of Engl.-net in the age of
decay of feudalism and of the. formation of bourgeois
. ty so vividly as they were depicted by Shakespeare. At
s~cle me time it seems to me indisputable that we JDaJ say
t f\~a as of Wendel Hipler. that he did not come to exptElI
~hC ::~rests of anr one, particular Estate over and .~e

m.

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ther Fully apphcable to Shakespeare are Engela.

d cribing a representative "of a cross-section of the
es
progressive
elements" . And: finally
. ' the dramatic
.
Shakespeare's work. espeCIally m the ~ of
~
tragedies. give sufficient grounds for .saymg that SbJre5 eare also "anticipated modern bourgeoiS society'
P To anticipate bourgeois society is not. of
to
understood in the sense of. ~ .suppcn~;: IE
acceptance of such a SOClety s !Ita! pn
lrh
it
progress was profoundly con:tradictory .
a) .hane eI
elements indisputably condUCIve to ~
proc:eIIII
at the same time. it was aCWD1paN F of the
profoundly tragic nature. for the : ; '
bo
Notwithstanding all this.. even d)1~ W
only the positive but al~ the
progress did not necessarily waw
essential to put the cl~ back :::: : . .
of life and ways of thinking w
cance. Such a position. 1D our op'n,UD"

;:Wle,

e!din

S;

Dzg:.;,C

to that held by Shakespeare,

he
A man needs to know what
meaning and the goal 01 his
offered answers to

the

P.

IS

the old ideology was no JOllgl..'r carabl<.- of cl<plainin

world, although people :ontinucd to cling to h.lbituaf <me:

traditional concepts and views.
It was natural th;lt mellic,"al concepts I>houJd not die 0

straight away and were long preserved in everyday life ~t

fOlms of speech, ('ven thou~h they !l<l? lost their mcanin(
and no langel', perhaps, carrl\,'d ('om'lehan, We do not now
adays consider that a Illan is ncccss.lriiy religious bccau'i
he says "honest to God!", exclaims "Oh, Lord!", talks ~
"the torments of hell" or swears by the "Devil". Some
students of Shakespeare, however, incline to make this

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elementary mistake when they find him using terminology bar.

rowed from e\'eryday medieval usage and attempt to demon.
strate fro111 this that not only Shakespeare's wards but their
inner content as well are the same as in the prcceding epoch.
In Shakespeare's works live and act people of his own
time. Although they bear the distinguishing marks of people
of an intermediary, transitional era, when thc old has not yet
altogether died away, they nevertheless act as people of the
new era. Their whole psychology is the psychology of man
of the Renaissance. Their minds reflect the shifts which took
place ~n men's consciousness at this time and the spiritual
searchmgs characteristic of the epoch.
The collapse of the medieval conception of the world was
far from simple or easy for the man ,\'ho lived through it.
not only bec.ause it accompanied the collapse of a centuries.
old. way' of life but also because, in 1 world suddenly seen to
be mfimtely m?re complex than he had hitherto suspected,
man was left Without spiritual guidance.
Wh~n the monopoly of power exercised by the Church over
the mmds of men was broken, the very character of society's
thought underwent a change. However much certain modern
Shakespearean scholars may try to show Shakespeare as a
ma.n of medieval views, no amount of sophistic argumen'
tatlon ~anhalte.r the simple fact, of which students of Shake
,pela re In t e clghteenth and nineteenth centuries were already
we l aware that all Shak
'
"
d h
the 1a
.' . f h
~speare s art IS Impregnate
Wlt
ecclesks~f~~lt ~ i!' e Rc~alssancc, in eontra~istinction to the
Middle Ages. p .t Which :nformed thc Idf'ology 01 the
The distinguishing f t
'h
whch b '
ea ure 01 . C new We1tallsclwuUlllj
I
egan ~o take shape' th
h
L
.
was its emanei ti
,111.
e epoe of be Renaissance
r3 on from ~ Q.f> ~nfluen( e of religion. However
116

day

lLcmpt5 care
'Ilq madf" 1 ) "onvincc us th<1t thl .
no~ I t w s nco so. C;upportcrs rf various c-eeds I:=~ to
Inh kl~S~ "1;"_ f r
chaMpion of tbe . b~lie,
P rticul: ,rly
S.
-n thi' fic1~ arc the Q.oman Cath("h .... We lr'l.OW t._t
acU~C/ sm h~s 'JcCOnl(; the # .. :tion 10 c:r""..lin C r'Cl:... ,:1 U:.~
C.t t 0 "por.... V ~mddl ... ass intell.qcnb ia ...be e is. the
concm
h re~ol~,
othin,- 5UMl"i'lOg :l r..1C ~ct tl"Iat Shi.:-soeare tM a t-"'~.,
n C \ 'nt"
''leo!
It lPP_: thal he W 5 n t '- 1<.... I(
turl
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.ar'y( Zl'",IOUS
prac -. cr, f th e '1".119.l'11 n t al'th "~'..:.Sl:tr
U.
.ct C t'lol c I 1(' (atha},c -=.t}! Wi. f
wa~ 1 e
..
d)
h t timf' .hl"" objec eot pc~ cuUon ll' Englan .
. .
t "E
- th s wc ' , 0 t 11 y'crtL!
~1I- t" us lIldlSi-Ut"
vcn

f c! m .,1 I !)art n
that
eligion
does
n
....
t
-.
y
:.y
U1'"1 l
b
a ekesp-~r')
, worr.
I.
he mc t ob1'~~.
'V" Shak"', arem
Sh
~o 1 -have 1, n- in'c f)-; nte.l \.o;.;t tht; _';"iou .ldlffe ntsCrn ~~s the grc."t~ \.o~ nT.J.tist. It; 10; c
th" f)e tal). d
'S'hnkespelre's pI ys ir Shakes :xc 5 t.:,
Wl'
n t no
<
b
cl
- fire'....
ara t:
''-'l
material C-:l Wh'_l.O ...::: con us.~ \.0
v. rks
Such que tions di4 no~ - e n - p1a} 19.
... ) t~
Whichever PllY of Shakesp_.re 5 v.'~ may 100
.
!! 1: ct
oerh:l the ... 1C "lIon.
11
al._on m
c . .r....
_ . s tl.,ought ld art. ,-' 1
mc:.jj:\I . sourc... _ .:>! SJ ~J ~ lr' t' :~~ !:.. ~ d _~c
tho'. c who 'lav
f 1.-.....
..
Loled - 0 - t: 1
- " 01
1...,
text, dissc_ ~ anu
,",-_yo
l
(""1..
~ ... S

less. m~ Wh4 h c 10 t tJ-.e .. ty "I.. :l"

=n
I! living dl ma, cc.:.: :.. t. - 1: .....
C. r
19a1l!t wh.c" ~e ~; ... ,"-J1~l-'~
.. - -e" f... .... _
.;. ""iD(:!
subl c pl.:>h_ .,.
u_.,
~.
_,
51; :'e
an dudicnce to w -q tl- ~
.
ti ~ '"t 1: ~ throc1h

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tit:

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'd'1'" ti ...l. YI' .r \\r _

.. II . . . . . . . "
the pc'. ~C It (. IT''''di~.d , .
, 0
,e
,~v
1d
t- ~
ell
..

t h IS gl"ntl.1!
COJl1f'"'.l
b'" (1
l ) 0'" ) the wise
dida( tit " hi '-op f u -;:.t(:_ \',- Y ..... It.:: tr~. .::'IQc.~e RoJmp~
Ulys~""< (TroJ.u .. jJ - l
. -~ ~t:
t ..:C:1.... , __ T,I~ thlt .. :!
l' to ttll tr 111' t . .
}- ~.m c
'~ gnndiosely soml','
infcctil)~ISJV mer
cIDPdles an
~~,. d 1 re.ldy answ_

!' . .

'-'.

trtgcdics were
_tc_ ly _n
~,pruvidf'd ~'V
to eve! v pratt, n "n .ll, ('~ '"l b O'tb- 't;;' ,-tv .)1 m~cileval
him"'~lf buI .. c,rCl_ ne Lr h
~
dO~'ll:1ti(:; ''It schoh~1 ')
...
~rc If works elll tell
It i! not thu
.~" W' Sl:! .,I"!
, p');.: tf'll u of a "' :n
us "If th_: UthOl ~lf''' ~ha. "p, ~.
~:t.rl11.
ndaf In :l1ti t
qUI. e 1(...' f

Shakespeare d~cs not .l'p.pcar to ~c~ himsdf the p~:- Ie lla.

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aim of confounding traditional opinions. Let everyone

and think what they feci to.be right. This, at any rate. s w~~v
Shakespeare's characters 111 fact do. Shakespeare i~ '1 t
interested in the qucstiO~1 a~ t? whkh. of them is the erc 0
cally morc correct. For hlln. It IS morc lmport<!nl to discove.
what sort of people they aI'C. Many Ciln tnlk cleverly, Ti
heart of the matter is not, howey('r, the degree of t;uth i~
this or that saying a man has uttcfl'd. but whether he whl')
is uttering it is a true man.
When Claudius tells Hamlet that death is a natural phenom
cnon which no one can avoid and that therefore it is wrong
to turn one's whole life into mourning because of the loss
of a dear and beloved person, he is. to all appearances
absolutely right. And it is equally clear that Hamlet. ponder'
ing a growing conviction that life is a garden rank with
weeds which brings folk nothing but evil, is expressing an
extreme view of unlimited pessimism to which no man of
sense will subscribe .. Yet ,,,'C, the readers and spectators,
know that the truth IS not in Claudius. but in Hamlet. even
th~ugh, theoretically speaking, we '\re in agreement with the
Kmg and not with the Prince,
, For Shake~pe~re, the most intcresting thing in the world
~~ as man, HIm It was hc called "the beauty of the world'
. the parag?n of animals". If Bacon saw with his mind's eyes
I~to the vems of t~lC earth and perceived its hidden riches, so
Snake~peare saw mto the mind, the heart. the soul of man,
and dIscovered there amazing and inexhaustible treasures
~f thought and feeling. whimSically unexpected beautiful
unny and terrible deeds. Let no one suppose that I mean
say. that Shakespeare was not interested in the wodd
outSIde man ' But th e war Id as Shakespeare saw it was
nO'h a world of things. It was a world inhabited by people.
d
.
eac one of who
.
a1tist.
m rcplesente an object of interest to the

t;

l' Sh~kespeare's .characters, like Shakespeare himself did not

lVe writ
In a Prousttan room

few
'h
wa 11 e d 0 ff f rom reality, Thcre
arc
abundanceerso'fn W ,ose works real life is presented in such an
man'f
t t'
'
heroes reall dvanou"
1"
I es a 'ons as III Shakespe )l'e, His
O
its e1ementsYan d l;e they are sUlro~nded by '1ature with all
Shake~eal e see. aft ;h~ ety, I al: U WIth all its elements. But
somi;; cxtent, ",e st'll r 11 r d III man an~ th":-tuf'!h man, T"
1
a sack nal nally Ink nai've ,,'1111'0'

wb

amI rphlSJl'l It is ty 1( ,I that. n the spec'~ of ";,'5 c'lallc~rs.

P 'cty and 1al r arc both c m~are:l 0 rr. lo lIS "'rgan
SOli
nd phen::: "le-na o[ 'laLll'e cr Q~ '~e body ~'itic to
aons {th~ human bod: or t human ~Cti~,lS,
I Sl"akcspca.rc rn .1 ' V~'5 surroundt:.:l 'Jy a .~tJ;:-.l WOo ~
w'it~ whII'1 h= [I 1. '1i n . so mt! ''1 at .... ne that, wnen the
,
atolm in bls ~U.
15 eo:, _U'panlcd by thJ;;>~ us
"h"nomen
1 n ~tllre H
e IS "
'''I' '
:'.onc, evt, -:l L1 n en
)f c 10 l 01 )found i o. t ~n r- alw' ~ ~~ hi::: ::!t In rf -.'~
~o \thers and, f' r him, zll 11'Ia1 I -' :nW'1;' . b< ""d lp \Orl1,
th elude' -tion ''''f 1,11 ...t+ tudl ~.l}.1
r ;anding
CHoW m\...~h mir I I , r s'j L -:. oqcI
.... , -'J'"
"lIt of
1 tl.I C-,
. W
< r
ShakcspC1re na'\.:-~ we I 111 ludg! ..ID ~l I, 1( Doe v r.
1 rical her of the SonnL. snows (. ".(' eh_
11 ty to
Jnderstand l.e soul o~ I' f 1 -=.d 1Y1 of ";,~
v 1, he )
h's own idenb y in then:: J1Is. a S:aa._ n~lr.. th~ p'3.VW 191
c~t .. s into the iritual we I ~ , t.. -:. 0 ' _ ...
The natUl al l'ii..1F v. 01l( h ~," 1".. :>.: .. c..
d n T1' ..
arc never c.mfncd l.: the shere f1.. ';31 ~.. f lll..9 ..' ~t ~:
1lwlVS . xl ior "d 1, 1( t, D It - , .1
nClp.... ble uf living 10__
' .. '5 ':::'-. f
t"
-'1 S _"
xprc: s 1F _, h lmafl
to ....
e ~
:i
th1l11 t!'ev,-'::1 ly l(':::_n~pl 'Sh n t
-:: _.. ..l; J .. ,
'l. ve tl 1< vc or to '1' t=)' -., t.
t. \,.
n
~
01 to dodl e -tcath
0 s l;:~ ....
-
ot,,'ly un "~C"l t ble II l . !
t
T ev Cannot c~'11 ne e-n
If''tn
il ~ 0 b_
l.l't
!)
>C
think ,-nd, ft... h, ) .:oct

f:t:'

f:'

1al ai"."::'

!-t~gll l '

f ..

....

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bel. -u r '~to' 1< I.m,

1 Shu I \,; ' .. -::"
S I) )
t1.. e
:;
..' j,
'. 1 I.. c rc n
ly cleglul rcl.. . . . ncll ... \..J' v,!l. , ..
pc.. t.. P "'11 . . . 0 1
lI"'IUlC
p" 1< 1 to If
)
m tl':
M3' cxprc s :-,.
individu... 1 l! L'S. ;}- kCSI lie S C 11_ rl- "i". o"'l:l~
' l a l '.!I
tical thoul h
u" I. ,I 1.:1, lP ' "
"')1 .. - al y .:one
neil 11 to'- h ... " r c r;:: ''-1' ) tot! 1. '15,
tl" y ncs(
t
L C " ' " "1! t'l..e .. -c ,;
ntcll"'ctu lly tJ1c'"
...
la\ ~ .:'1 :"lr not 111:
d t"'co 1d)1 !l
In Sh"', -'c
1:1'
1 f"
::r:"'th'l.3
1.. .... V" tr. ... 10W~
'
t: 'J
J:
..
I
t hlr 5 I! '0
rIc t hC"l! C v_ .
'
'n: he11'U .... 11 101 be
tu m.:lkc lil - 0 L .. 1 11 tt..~ thcil
h a .10
(1'
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t
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make it so terrible that there will be no mC.:l~uring h

of suffering to which man may be reduced.
.
(' dept} ~
I
,The religious i.dcology of the !"1iddlc ~gc!'; t~lught th .
misfortunes of hfe werc essentially unImportant Ih at he
d th tt t 1t was necessary to accept' th ot thev
shau Id bC Ignore,
eternal felicity awaited man in another life. The hem, Io!

sho\\~~msh
speak of ea~h.

rejecl:d this cold c,omfort. Shakespeare often

but hiS heroes, takmg leave of life. do not

~ey.ond the gra\'e.

For th,em,

o~ly

one thing exists and

~hss

hfe on carth. All experIence IS concentrated i n th'

hat
life and, beyond its borders there is that whl'cll HIS Icarthly
p
,
II I
'
~.
am ct and
rospclo ca 5 eep, f~r, , ... halcvcr may happen to the soul
man after death, action (and we have already
t bI" h of
that. for Shakespeare's heroes, this is
e:oa 1':s e.d
only possible here on earth. There, where man w'Il
: e) IS
be ca?a~le of action. there will be no life.
I no ongel'
This hfe on earth is the acme of beaut M n
.
and pleasure in the mere fact of his h Y'.
find JOY
some of Shakespeal'e's h
t
p ySlca eXistence, and
.
c arac ers do ind d
Simplest functions of man' h .
ce
count the
' b s p. YSI~al nature among the highest
values of life M
h . I
'
. an IS eautlful m h'
very corporality. Howeve
.
IS P YSlca bemg, in his
d;' ~,e IS even more beautiful , ... hcn
inspired by thought
deeply from the cup o~~ifece mg. Shakespcare's heroes drink
IS

equival~nt

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But life is not only beau 'f 1 . .

have neglected to d
~. u, It IS also ruthless, If you
If you have lost yourr~~det mg, now, later will be too late.
' you wIll have to pay for the error,
A fault committed on
e
kind of evil which SCk may be redeemed, but there is ,~
.
uc s man dry p
t
'
h
an d . pOI~oning the whole of hi 1" ' ene I atm9 is very soul
Life IS made up f
s I e.
terc
h 'IS no such athO an endless serIes
.
0 f temptations and
. b I
mg as
'
'
IS a anced on the cutf
d ab soI ute vlrtuc.
Every
man
the brink of the prcc:~~cc ~e o~ a, knife, every man walks
stumble. because everyo
: et It IS almost impossible to
your turn are pressing ne th pressing round you and you in
~ature until he finds him<'~f crs" No. ,'ne discover', his trw.:
11:; own way ~hL'Jgh it . ~ut III j-hls melee and has to mak
In Shakespear"", t'lme
.
ac.::ording
to wh''':~
, the :ncmory
.
h
_,:1 t h e whol
,..~'
:"the
.
me d'leva. I view
ch~~~%;,__W~S still very ~nuc; ~li~~ Ion IS mbject tl..) -l higher
o. the mc,t p~ll.t ,'lcl ' ' Several of Shakcspea.l'e s
nen, touch on this subje,t

,](/

They rernarkh with blttder lc~sd that ,thiS M.rmony has "cc 1
upset A... w~ ave al-e'l Y s<u ; ..:crtam contempo; 11V khat""
try to pr~' nt thl' as thou~h Shakespeare S l 19ic lttitude
to the WCJrld has It'S source In re.;ret 01 t.hc y1 .mg of 11S
medic val '1armon y .
A ;uffic ent number of Shakespeare 5 p!.Jys depH t ViI')Q
I)eriOds in the hic;tory of the Middle Ages, Not -nlv thr Ilis
torics. bul several of the tragedif'5 depict the Middle Ages 1S
ShJkespc.lrc saw them. And we may asse-' with full conv it
tion that Shak ~("pearc somehow failed to not' ce ar:y p'll'ticul l'
harmony in the ~.(c of medieval society. The mp.oiell cbron
ides. which he 'tnew throuQh Holinshed. w
carc_lv
cJ1culatcd to imprc:..s him with the hannoruousne s d 'nedieval existence. Not only the Henrys ... ,d the Richards, Jul
Lear, too, was a K ng of Ancient BrHillD One would L ve
thought that Shakt:. ,p....... -e mic ht have show~ at least onc
example of harmOnIOUS fc in 1~ past r. d 11" 'ally 10Ugl-_':
JS cert<J n sc:.'"trIal'S v u'd have us :X'i~ve
The larmomous orq:am. -ticn of 'if'" wa. Doth'n b.:t Z"l
ideal It I! d. 01 an d~'al thaI Shake ""'_ ll'e 1".._ _ t
S
lk
of 11 But their pic ure, .-f t:.. s i~::l1 ''';::V It 1" onc~' ~ for
L.le W~iJ.!c;,-wi1I"d an .... nl 'us '91;. "ry 'IT drelr ng i.'"
"
heal f bloody 3.ttle of.:: ~sto..
dy 1. It i anvth f r the
Archbi<:1c.p of Cmter,ury (tl ..;v v
sol,er
tician wh ....
(1- lWS a nLtu'" ot l~ d_
:>.:
~ W" 1 _1 LE . C 1.
Hottcd il OW~ pal tic '11
task. 11.: -!!!po C W I h i
~
Jlrther dnc:! incre s t.~ Inght _f tht:
19,:lom;
h 1
And t s. u.tc anot~
U'Ilr
.llf' \\"tc:: p.
P
~-. Ie
Tempest, dreams of n ic:!._ll ~::;,. -."1':1' L twe_l = piritu.
.Ind t.he physical -r"ncipies ,.1 ~-J]
We do not ir- y thal Shake 'C'_t.: lad
1,';) i.lI
~ ttharmoniou! Ii ~ Howev
thai Iddl w... .--- ~~ -::._ji..-;)I
Shakespeare does nol thin' of 1. as d !:"I'lletring wl!.l had
real cxiste I. ill i.e p.:lSI s\l '~,):t! S:-n __ ll:1g WhH~
.xisted in thc 'ontCT1l ~,'rary"lIt'5Cl1~ but ,'71ijr a~ J p1csLntl
mC'l1 01 the fU.ll'e "'5
('oal .;>W11.'.5 .... lic .. :lurnanity 1" !:~
(o

ro.

dul"" und 051 IVt;

"c till tho 1 t may the w."Idci III \'. lie Shak~ <:pcZ!!".. S
h<1 le ter 'iv,-, S far from ..... rnonlCus . .'\s ,1 dllmat1s:o
shakesl lit:"
n::.1 p ... ticu'r y ntercsted in '"\.C, ,,: harm '
n'_us . v ng. rev". only Do:>s:b't ~s mc-ncnts .and, ta~t'n
11 1 .... whole I . s full of dis. :)r:t >fannc:w I~ alwl~S betng
1'0:. ~'l

-"'yn~ , th_"" _'ve

I

Not only Shakespeare's plays but his lyric poetry as 'Well

is permeated with sUl~h scntnncnts.

Shakespeare's art 15 courageous. Sh~kcspcar~ does not Sa

to people: life is 9?od because t,hcrc IS no CVI~ and no mi;
fortunes and man IS only bcau!lfu~ ,when he I,S happy. His
drama is full of catastrophes: IIldlvlduals perish, dynasti
fall, states collapse, but. amid this sea of ~roublcs and und~
the raining arrowS of outrageous f~ltunc, IS revealed the full
beauty and greatness of man, the VictOry of that which is his
very essence, the victory of the human spirit
It is a generally accepted fact that Shakespeare's heroes
arc distinguished by profundity, versatility and strength. But
their most important feature-and this it is which makes

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Shakespeare the greatest ~f all playw.rights-is their complete

freedom of thought, feeling and actton. Nowhere except in
Shakespeare do we find such truly free, completely unfettered people. His heroes obey only the promptings of their
own minds and hearts, if they have hearts. Their will is not
bound by any outside force.
!his is not something to be taken for granted. The social
eXistence. of man throughout all the ages of the history of
class SOCIety has always been such that freedom has remained
out. ,?f r::ach, not only for those who occupied a humble
pOSItion 10 the hierarchy of estates or classes but even for
those whose place was at the summit of the social pyramid.
Pcop~e . were under pressure from economic necessity, from
the CIVl~ power, from religion and from the sway of customs
and habIts created by themselves.
The ~ialectics of the historical process was such that. in
attemptmg to emancipate itself from the mighty forces of
~at~re,. humanity made progress in this direction by imposing
on its own CIVI
1 an d SOCIa
. 1 eXIstence.
.
dImItations
.
People were
~~nv~d of freed.om not only in their socio-political relations ~p.s ft even m their spiritual lives. And possibly the
~pll'l~ua M~uppression of man was never so all-embraci~g as
thn dt e
Iddle Ages, because the reigning ideology which
h
'
a penetrated dee 1 . t
suppressed all
. p ~ 10 0 t e psychology of the masses .
If Sh k
a~plratlons towards freedom.
unfetter~des~;dreth chfracters appeared as people spiritually
then they owed thf:e ore, c?mpletely free in their actions,
previous standards ~o a b,nef I?oment of history when the
:)cen destroyed and y which hfe had been governed had
new standards harl not yet had \ ime

t"

'n

st'" lli and \:.. 1n l"roc gene~ 11 lc~~tdnc",," soc ety. Shake
ry uc 5 t. cs, the"
re, lre BIre ldv fre:> L feudal me "lb~
sP
not yet ... und ,y bo'LL Jf'"t:"' 5 m rali:-y
an SlIl d<
we no!. fin~ c.laract ers. In :3ne1 espure'
H' torle wh .. act ...c ~rdmg to the dIctate: of }o;~l1ahtly
h IS our? And do nc ShylO! kana othe 10v(."""S f wor d1:v
o~c\s show bourgc-: 5 self III
t? To these questions, ~.:
go sWi' must be both ves lO<... "\'11"" OL ourse. in the Clo.: lder
Hotspu {HclrY IV PL I} 11r e are ertain typical "catules
"f feudal man y. li bar~-:l1al v....;fu1n: :; and hi knigh1"y
"S510n fOT ful of cO~:'lge~'" not so m.lch
tni ~.. pliO
anY defimte c )d~ ~r mol"' 'it)' l' then nifC!:~ ~I n'5 of 1
hara~ter which ha!t Te Iy ''lC''"se n tlu aml ."ot oth:' W.l'
~f life. for, be ide. ~iJTl, we, fee pc p'" f~t' wh.,m
. tc' above the 'ldIVld~. Will and people
Y. le .';l co:: tl m
la
.
I '
. t
L
and all norms o! behavlou. h.a' e ong StDc!: C~:'5f~ l .. ve
any value or n ling what oever s. for instar ~ 1" 1 t2:~.
In the same way. le xt to thr noney !"~d r Shy ' 1 e_
thc merchant Antoruo. and it becoml,.s 0 _"U! t us lai th(.
mon1 l'inciplc:s o:.'"e 1< t fc:-ncd by the: ,~L 1 'Oll ., the
1
< aJ r-1... b ~
t ~11'
W
, : ; ne!
norIT'S 01 any n:}.r ti L 1 ar" _ 1
I.
- ,
chara, .Cl' "1"1 '1]
en:;.. Sh::t.k.. J<:ar:
ua
I f... t
nnl ..Ito. ether t I...!
1
';lldaJ r;"t. ~i \. 1 t-y
1 t~ .. sam
way l! his hn, r;<"i. lard'-'~ :u->: f-ar tl'
-- tr I-y)
bou. :Jf':':- t lal tv ~ e", i" 'If'
~ _I"'t'h ld nb ~ ....... 1 - ..:. 1 .
Thi! 1 "ot l "I
V tJ-"It w... w'
) c: ' ~hake >C:lI
heroes oct< IU~1..11 rep. _-13 1.... 'y E
.:: T" c;;:_ Y . "
:l
t t
v
.. ~
.he former T lli.........
v.. 1. ~
~ 11"' 1 a e ' ...-tile lew o,)n" w_s n( ~ )'Lt f-., 1. t1..._ C Mr....... r 11y "If" 10
que'ti< n i t'le .-,r;It;. ~ "v!=.. ~ i~ U,
1 1)1-' r-:
absolute n ty ar 1(.._ 1M t)' : .... ~::l t1..... Tl.u"J.:!_ 1 and
..
cl ... ss b. "O'"ll
-:: 11 s
131 ~._
r . .....1 _:i 1 ave ., .. 1 ...
.
f
tv'
uda ~ md II ,_._).
e
ore
at
1("' tllli a
1f" m3l.lP. o J . ,

b f ,
f C h . -_.'
.. ":tu-:rCOl"to be s,- lal~l, 1 the .::.pOl..:'...: C... _.. ~.. .
way!. md . . ,1, tom .
. _
. --11 \ fcuJai 'Jel
r01' t'11. r('.'SO'"\
14 I:" .,. lr r.<Jbpt;.. '"I< - ~' ' "
the
licosity but lbu 1 "Llne l..~rnl .... ,..ur,.!:'" Af'" ::1 .X<h.... Vncss
I
.
., bou'1eon c,'.,'t0US
sJ.lUe W1y .~1vlul..
rev .... <; nco on.)
.
"
m
:
.
ts t,) .''i<' 3.NlV.:!
!llS 1
bul ,t}"lt.; abl ltv, U' .'('1' n .",...,:ncn , .... ;, c: .l!l. dfront tc
I'fit:ilatcnater
lOt(:.C - 11" .... rd( ,:t c. c .. ;:l
li 111m~1 ,Jignit)
c' thO' ex:sten....:: ,,1 . mO;'al
know
lf" ,\..
)ha~e
. ..
111UI..', .l(-.:,~~J.mg to :'nnc 1ple
c;v 14.
t. n<1 ~s. bu!

'f

f;

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rding to the didatcs of their

own Charil<:lc1 'S-OrneS
asC
I
a co
times morality and charader may 'Ie at Olll', SomL'limc moral
as
a h
cloak
1mb't'
,'cquircmcnts merely serve j
' to-personal
,
liOn
which cannot by any strctc l o t C IInagmallon be said

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wort
Shak

have its origin in the desire to stic~ to .:my particular c .hica~

principles and, finally. t~crc arc tunes when Shakcspcal .
characters de,libcratcly reject all the rrcccr~s of morality. r~
any case, ethical ,dogma never plays, a decIsive part in deter
mining the beha\'lour of Shakespeare ~ men illld Women.
By their social position Sh~kcspcarc' s heroes belong to
the upper classes. However, III the final analysis, they arc
first and foremost. people endowed \\'ith qualities which ar~
not the exclusive property of the nobility or the patricians.
It was because of this that. for Shakespeare's public, all these
plays about kings and princes, generals and aristocrats, were
of such interest. The question of
the morality 01' im
morality of this or that action is not decided in Shakespeare's
works by the degree in which it corresponds to the nanow
ethical precepts of any given class, but as a problem common
to all p~ople. Villa~ny remains villainy, independently 01
whether. It be committed by a king or by a servant, just as
the slaymg of an unworthy man is morally justified in the
same way for ~aml:t and for S~uire Iden (Henry VI, Part II).
Shakespeare S ethICS are applIcable to all humanity because
they a~e profoundly democratic in origin and are based on
the pnn~lpl~ of th~ natural equality of all people. If, there
for~, social. ~nequahty ~oes still exist, then the higher a man's
social p~sltton, the higher is his moral responsibility to
others, slOce power gives him the opportunity to influence
the fates of many.
It is ~~ssible that the popular quality of Shakespeare's art 3
most
Sh
k VIVidly manifested'In h'IS portrayals of royal personages.
wh~c~s~eare. s~stcmat.icallYl destroys the aura of divinity
'hn hIS bme,. sttll hung about the heads of kings. He
h
sows
t em H
as ordmary
1 WIt
. h all the human passions
and foibles
11 h peop.e
every oppo~tu~'tca t 5 t en: t~ Judge.me~t, giving the audience
Fairly and sq~a;'elo a~Pleclate then vIces and im~erfcctions .
moral right of th y: hakespcarc set~' the questton of the
Invested with power t 0 sway t h c d esttnlC.
'
of the nation andose
of the
people.
' , h
Th IS 15 t e point of vi
f h
.
is still fal from real e u:~ 0 t e Ire~ man in society wh~(""h
already lives in Shak q
ty But the :de.::: ot human equahtv
espeare s consciousncssmd forms thf'

IU

n l\.'
, "ii\o.-;
~_ eY
r

......- ... ,
" t

ti. '

nv

d,1" .ne s 1 v. l' n 0:

1]
._1" __

~hal WInch v,. 1~ ttt rc

;- (" _""",'", .) 5
1
Shake:;r"''lle nt d:j ot n' r:t __
r.
uev\;; of'led freel )m 1 \. .. J :::3.f-'(
:'
to lift.; 1! pI ~d
V"'.J.d..:.nd .~ ~Tl.{1. ~. S'
J..-:,"QI
P . .. .. ... til. "I
II WdS for ,'e vcr:! rc
:l...
.
-... '~t..
I'" C
-ll
......
u;~
_lsa.
t ~ 'j
14 d
W.
......'
t..
t o ..... ard
th<tl '1('
.... n
"la~
"11 'ne
<I dl
1m C' ve .... !. 1 .'
; ...
profound y trdQl- Yl Irhts , '\.:'"' ""';!, fino if' 1... , pla:,-.
In the ~gC' of ;hakcsl toll;!,
.,:\- Ii ......... 1. ",mlrg 101,'
b, ng, and thIS t: 0.;\1_' \1,: .. ;J"C"~ ...'p-' :'U~1:14Y wc).:
not \;;11 _d. W .. 1 c,',' v.: v ,is W""'::;l 'c"
~~1f"dorC1t-h"19-u~u:1
..,
l
,.c, ....
t
the olu fOll'"
01 ~rC""~H" (. l no
~.,
,
d 1
:_"
'. " SUi~e!' d(a.
em<tl1( 'P':I. V;'\ "f h'm1 11~ '~J a lnn., -' .....'
. grasp
'Y '.
Pcop
,:-t, lal ~no.; . . .lUla 1e. .
51 s.... VC-V
.. 'hl.,L n'""a~ : 11' r.lltlcular
lC C1USf
nd ,dalrOC_5t::>.. ....j .. ~
r

historical development inevitable in the c;onditions uf

time, but what they could not. undcrstan? they yet fci1 v!hc
deeply, and this was reflected In the tragic art of the pcparticularly in Shakespeare.
'
The profound tragedies of life were fitting matter fol' SUC h
an artist as Shakespeare for to him who can-ied in his h
a high ideal was revealed in all . its terrible strength ~ht1
contradiction between true iltllnamly and those sac,"1
"
,
'
' fi gure d peop 1t!'
I s, transforming" Ih
CO"
ditlOllS
which
diS
s sou
bhl
. e l tr
"
most sacred aSpIration-to
c t emsc vcs [lnd, thereby
achie\'c freedom-into the cause of their own dcstructio~ 0

J.

into a source of misfortunes for others.

Or

Shakcspe~r? offers us no chea? c?mcdies from the life of

~he bourgeol~le~ nor do:s ,he depict Its sorry dramas, Prosaic

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mterests do, It IS true, InSInuate themselves into the rclatio '

ships between Shakespeare's characters, but, in the fin~1
count, the vital questions not only for the best but even for
the,worst of them-arc: of what am I capable? what can I
achteve?
Eac? of them se~~s as it were to set himself the goal of
~o~nd1Og o~t the hmt~s of h~man possibilities in all things;
In JO~ and 10 sorro~, In herOIC feats and in suffering, in love
and ,111 ,tr,eachery, 111 knowledge and in emotion, in falling
and 10 ns1Og,
B~t ~hey ,live and act in a world where the freedom of the
o~e IS 10evltably bound to clash with the urge to freedom 01
t e ot~er, They assert their liberty at the expense of thel .
ownk1OdAd'
hhiS
' own particular goal~, md
. . ' n, Since eac h as
asplratto,ns, they cannot avoid collision,
a The pIcture ?f life given in Shakespeare's plays provides
concentrated Image of a society in whi h
h' d' 'd al '
an atom
d th
h 1
c eac m IV] u IS
collide an~nclashe OW 0 7 of society the field in which they
f b
.
,nc WIth another, This is that pl'esentimenl
O ourgeOls SOCIety of wh' h
Sh k
d'
IC we h ave a 1ready spoken. But
h' h h f
a espeare eplcts a world'
has not yet been est bI' h
111 w IC t e etishism of things ",
slaves of circum a IS cd. and. p~oplc have not yet become \I
characters depict~~ani~' ~hIS. dIstinguishes them from the
society It '
t c hterature of mature bourgeoi.,
Shakespcar~se~rn;oLtrace ~h~s difference bv comparing, say,
The nineteenth c tear ~It Balzac's Pere Cariot
process of formin ~nd~T?' htC'ratute shows us d,oeic'ty in the
uals in the pro( e;s lilt Itdu~ls. Shakespe~'\' show. Uf. individ'
o or:nmg a socie>:t.y, He dep< ts d WOI ~d
126

in Whli'1 everything IS still being cre!te~ and de"';~:i \;~

e,J}lc tht":'ll h'CS. It Ciepends on thtn whc llr hfe IS t.o be
ihis way or ~at. And. bec!use th~ arc or' lave of the
social eslabl i shncnl lut masters
I lfMt own f~t s. lImo'
eve' yone of t)'tcm al,.'1i"ves some fe.a! Jt(' of If'.rC! ~1 :lnd, ur
The'r freedom rom rc trlrung noms md tr iL_nal ...~
lenr's them ndrp< ....dcncc And here. shake PC!l is '>lw Jght
fu( c to ~cC not on y WI. 1 1.,(" dVll~1 q~ of frc~dc':1 but ~l 0
With ts r"'ve c 1 pee
Man, whf'n left to:um . t&.l r-ut tl" t_ C!p! c.:'. only
of good, but Of evil to'- The ~u .~ fl. .-;:
the oth~
is in himself.
Tis 1 ... r v'C"5 ',' t w "r_ th1.l . ( lllUS,
Our bodies arc ,.-:1 ~b. t.O .'1_ W '_l- ur'l'l t"-_ gal :Iller;.
says Juga and, f-S Llftcn lappen'S l' 11'" pt.~
"en tJ-o-',1gh
this aphorism IS "ronoune d 'v 1'\ e '11 peTSC ,... truth
is confirmcd in eve' y play c..u it r.::.: . E~
W '.~
Howevcr, lat is onlv the be~innin_ c. :: c~!;~er' ;IS of
this philosophising v; laiJ'l 1: lfther}::: ;1.:' .t, ~ '1n 1 lK
a pair 01 se..1e,. In nE:; scale'
1, .:ll.t<,,'. t " !.,..C1 lOd
L
basene5~ four natu
whi", J. W
1 n t I... ~ _:l by t
calc of :!a~ on, woUl i ond1..
1.:5 t
preTl ~
l
'onclusion~

p
Harnony of 10U~'ll U' f C... .. ;, t re~
md. 1n
~ tr._ 1of desl
1m. WI g< to Il"a'
t
l.a~~
Shakespt: lh; S nlav ,
oH~
, I

1
~.le 1 v ng and cpit..... r:>r'S fot tr.~ d
I. 1
al the u~ 'iti
)t It''
~,~- ..
Shakcsr Z<lle s p v.."'lS ... L'l..
r

).

But ife _ 11 ways 'lr ~!ti.:"' 1 .

,_ .... T,C II
the lavt:- of p.:. !?... ,"=d tJ- _... .~. 1
.g
. j
. kil
1
~ ..-.,'\tl
into l.:Jrsl.lg Cd
or /,,1,
lal JC Y y'
_....,
Dc,dcmon<t, t"'at p: d(" c::>' (.0 _ ...n'~' 0 bL' . '.. ..ntlv
PasSlon ln51 rms 1_ .. ' . : : ) tJte '-I>. . _t
1 -t, ..
its dc ire 104 Ric'1ah.. f \Jl u .. :;;,
f ::L.}.:ly r_l,.:.:;.:l
r t-IS ..nc. 19c \,\;,' Ks ,.1 ~ Sur .! .. ' ,un
)'ustification
,
1
Ok
<'t'_ -~ :'.ir-,;1d Jmd
n1l1g n an to cnc mp~5 . ...,', ru r. l' .
wgumL'ts t..:l ;USL Y 11 '_"1\ of ,1.tl'c.ndfallcr _,
A nan s IV
t I"J ci... ,(;1 s f(.:,nqsou : l('1Ug"-l, k QI.l_ ...
as w ~l' ~s tu c\' I uC __ ;. \\" Lc n ...' d. n}' 0" the ,,')ntl,; nPd~'""ry
.
'
. lnd <. . 31 C""1 It:lC':l'
51 Ie 11 1< Cllpl.1n ... ,:)O ot 14 "'0 o~ 1.., ' ,:ml' "thelC~]("':""
,,' -,
dt l .:;."
ng, f IP"n
'laviour w_ " ..,ouo.fi
.... '"'1;t lL ']5 .1.:'IC
thl! Sh ~ pc n: n I r('1fIl!.
s' '-;t ....1.... ,;> .
h'
'll)ha!i' )0 the"
C ln4. ,,)=SJU~ p .. ::tj'lc' m,,' w
;>.

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is constantly faced with probl~ms of dayto-day life requiring

decisions on which depend Ius OW~ fate and that of others
This is a principle involving the high responsibility of mol
for himself, for his life and for what he makes of the livc~
of others.
In this is the kCl11cl of that new clement introduced Into
ethics by humanist as distingu.ish.cd from religious morality
In this also is the moral supcrlOnty of Shakespeare Over the
positivist ethic of mature bourgeois society, when the behaviour of man came to be considered as altogether dependent On
"factors" of heredity or on the influence of his environment.
Shakespeare's heroes arc never victims of circumstance.
For them, there is only one "circumstance" and that is life in
all its complexity and in all the strangeness of its ways,
unexplored to all who venture forth into it for the first time.
The fabric of life is woven from the woof ilnd warp of many
characters and many fates. Of which is there more-of good
or of evil? Shakespeare answers: "The web of our life is of a
mingled yarn, good and ill together: our virtues would be
proud, if our faults whipt them not: and our crimes would
despair, if they were not cherisht by our virtues" (All's WelJ
That Ends Well).
Man seeks his own well-being and, in order to achi~ i1
exerts all his faculties-mind, will, energy-and turns out to
be a Richard III, or a Macbeth. Yet, when he is slow, hesitating, indecisive, like Hamlet, then in some strange way, his
very faults reflect all the beauty of the nature of a man in
quest of truth and justice.
In order to vanquish Caesar's supporters, Brutus should
have acted with an iron hand. Yet he, always on the side of
fairness, thought it necessary to permit Marcus Antonius to
express his sorrow over the body of Caesar. He showed
generosity to a beaten enemy, crnd it cost him his victory
and his life.
Trust is a fine virtue, but we knew how it was exploited by
Iago to awake Othello's jealousy and to drive him to the
murder of Desdemona.
There is too much evil in life, and it finds countless
breaches through which to infiltrate the souls of man. to
disfigure them and to seduce them to their doom. What is
the root of t~e. dominion and longevity of evil? This question
is always ansmg before Shakespeare. He groped painfully
12~

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f- thl! In~WC' and. in various works, \II find attempt'S to

~s"h'c this problem
,lis characters. .too, devote rnucJ:l
-h ;
h thought to t . l~r
aC'lbcr<itions arc given r:;c to oy t c t-lgic I.. rC.lmstanc es in
whie h they themselves a~'c placed. FOl thl~ rel' Q, Sh'll._
C.1rc's heroes and heroines do nol give ut eran'c 0
Id
5
b
'
,
P
s"ntrntio U5 p,l"ono~nccmcnL. ut to socc_ '1:::~ full of pel on
pltn and indlgna~lOn. Sometime 1.t SCCIT'':I to the:n as hOU~h
the SOU 'ce of c\'11 were In Inan hln! ... f urnl time oU~ Ide
!-im in the iJntastical conf1ucnc~ of cum' tane _ W'11 'h

gu~:)ntcc evil th(' victory eve qood. n ...1( cv S ~I

'"c 1( -:ojnc ot the poem The Rapt.- of Lucre 'e \. ,,,nc ,01 c.p
r ] .untty as she calls it, is guilty O~)I 11i' furtun
':>ut:n
O
the plays it is not so much chance \\ '1. C 1 l{JP r::;
the

:c n to

c usc of all the miseries oThlln'lm Hf'" ; .:l PI" C lv;)n tl'
stlmuluS W li( h impels ]:"coplc tow J s ll(l~... n Wit" In
thc ii tory King Joll J, th ... man.. 'h tr. dcs tit nt( t
Ihc t1t( ~~ not 11(; sccurily 01 hi! crOWl, Fa.ulC It-- OQC
:I( scrlbc~ .'11 .. s 'OUlll!! to tCfTllS W1' h 11 dCVII :1
~ 1,.0 1.
lOVY vcr,
l( c i! nOlllP.
my I,
he
altoqc th
tl
rt~ 1.1lth)l e 1(1 L name 1 ~'fit'
t
~.. kc
p_
C1I:a, cXnl e)~ l' 11
omll 'l- ty
th r
RJJ11C
r .. rs '" S. I n( rc re . ii' L ... ~ni1
,
c when he lYS 'ilt Old -' 1" w', t
v .. 101
c ;lm:ttcd 1'"11 rc n II d_
n . ' " r th
Jl tan...
pu, togr' 1. r
,
, l.
Y
rlC grclt t C'v
th
... _vl'l,. n
,m lOd
P
tl'r
h.......
h,"w\. 1 0 C
\. _ 11
'h ~' )"1 , r II
:':'I t) .,
.1' 1(
C crL ltv It
frl ,d
c
,
P .11g W 11 1 he lal 1(," th t 11
dl C
untr
b.
rs Cl v d, 111 tIC
lUI llC ;
n
t
..
i
1= -.
tre
n dnd lf l nd l )(LC
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th
(K JJg I 1f,
I
... ioUI
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ue"
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philippics against .the C\:i1 which h~I~~ .sway in . 1C w: d.

Here, Shakespeare 15 at hiS mo~t pubhClshc And, c~en though
this tragedy may in same pOII.lb. fall short ~f hiS grea.tc t
masterpieces in the purely artl~t1c scnSl', It 1$ not, without
joy that we feel, as we rc~d It, that Shakespeare s angry
disgust with social e\'il knew no bounds and that he was Qat
thinking so much of perfecting the playas of trying to express the boiling indignation whkh sounds so forcefully In
the raging monologues of Timon.
We find in these a chronicle of all those perversions of
human nature and of the natural relationships between peopl..::

which arc inherent in class society as a whole and in bour-

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geois society in particular. Timon sees the source of all misfortunes in the power of gold, debauching men's souls and
loosening all the llaturallinks between people.
Belief in the indestructibility of the good in man, the can
viction that, given the right conditions, he is capable of
regeneration, did not desert Shakespeare even when the surrounding world appeared more than usually dark and tragic.
It was this \\'hich engendered that attitude of mind expressed
in Shakespeare's last plays, permeated as they are by the
desire to find some non-tragic solution to the contradictions
of reality.
Shakespeare is not aware of that natural process which
is able to stand up against the tragic contingency. For this
reason, chance plays such a great part in resolving the dramatic
knots.of t~e romantic plays of Shakespeare's last period. How'
ever, If thiS natural process remains hidden from Shakespeare,
at least he knows the force which is destined to turn life back
into its proper channel. This force is man. His reason, his
heart, ~is will must work the miracle of the regeneration of
hUl~amty, .of the renewal of life on a basis of goodness and
equity. ThIS thought finds symbolic expression in the image of
Prospera (The Tempest).
The Tempest is Shakespeare's poetic will and testament.
.. i~ put a gr~at deal into thi! work. But now we aJ concerned
wlt~ one smgle. passage in thir play Gonzalo'~ famous
speIch about the Ideal republi(
Gonzalo:s speech has been giv,-'1 vane us interpretations.
Som~ ".e m it the credo of Shakespeare him! elf. This seem!
) ~. 3n lOwarranted assumphl n We do not c nc;.ir'er th"t
the. ~no,:","lcdge of the deficlf"nlCS oj the -;ocial order- as 11 was
1Il~ll!, time reduced Sh.9.~~,~,.peare to scc\inC the" lution :n

return to p. ',at1-r : SIlL" Shake peare ",antd

r.:::_
thiny differen he w"lnt~-1 t- IJ~" r~t "~n :'11;' be.w en pC.Jpl_
based on lUJTlane 1 r nClpl ander U"tP ex 11.9 '-er
We know l(~thatt 1 w imj'"- .L.e,..ndl._"t: solu
on to t'l(' coni Ole! C IlnS, inhercn" n Ih- socic ty of th ..t f ';t
whic."1 w,.. de Ifeu ) y !St'akcsl
I
nply
.... f thdt hiS
unaers,lOonqwl limif~d.WeklOW 1:) l. tl.s ro.;. ',n
v</e. eo. ndi" oned y histo"ic
un
~
Th S, II W"
by no me;J.r.:t k. cn tl.e
1 ..... lr. of Shdkcspearc'
r" f $ trcmgtl
nC'" 1:"1 _ 1, ti
... sugg C,t5 but In 14 qc 11 J w th w L 1 po...... i t~ T:~
of the evil. th~ ,1U:tC .. f ....1(' tr 9J': qual ty C" Ii c
We shaJ Sl.ll ~Iy
mi taken 111
n
tr:lt Shdke
speare's audi; '1l. dil... 11 t <lttenu 11 r-" YS in rc!._r.)
Vt:
ic!.sons in how to c... ndc
l
"
-1
ve--: It
yv i
,crmons, they wen' to chu:,-,'l. F r) tt., It t:
somcth ng differen
+" t"'- __ p
df 3 I
N cve' thell ,s. le..,n n S1 _. . .
u
r i 11
,-d tl
under tape:: ng 01 lil t: Ie "' P
t , . f r.11
the pldy 01 Shake,) :I.I!;" In -~ ti Shakespeare ar
_ d
" Jf

di
i.11ready found a il. ..... 11 ",
d ~
sc ("'USf't:: se_ ~Gth ...1 I mswcr to the qt' b .... \\- ~ }o !

now '-;.nuwn to , J . h_
.. '..1_
<
rna]:sl c, ~edlc, r e t t;'" ~
I
... xn

Sp.. o.l "\:'$,..r was ~

't::..)n 0
l'
by the If' IS of 1'1"
Ie}o _1"' L.
,
t
~e1iIY d thc:r ' ....0 .. 1.
t.'"
n
C nsu~ul.!d Shak.t.
1 _ s V
I ...
~~nse, li:;. tr ":llth S c ,,,,
Bacon l nd other "mk
c
F._"

SUIVC .'cd
ontr ruch I""i C '
~l..
They IndUlg( i 1]
1. t
f
,
\\ Ith
,
happinc':; 01 hum ll.y -u.: l ' 'I.. S"h.a _.pc I'"
._v J...l ...
that im ~"l1 ,rc w't.ich
ove r.;," \\0 L ) , n w
)Illy- on~
c " 1c1 th ~ n' a -:'
c
[}I.:rh<I)'
e .. b l .... tc JC 1 ~ i.l
) L- 1
n _tvl.:
nt An: JU'
t, rlltk.c 1(' ufft.:r nqs f 11 '11 th _ n
.nt. :id he
h
l'
0.;
~ta
ke
l--_11'C
Ii,
i
.oY
t
c
..
1
~
U.
e
b
~c on1_ ueh 1
r s.
1

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Surely. though, all the, astonishing poetry of ~hakcspcarc I

'cct of such delight to the finest connOiSseurs of art
b
I
pays.
J
. dom, 0 b')ee t o[ amazement and.
Iy 0these
depths 0 f WI!>
sudrc. b'on to the wisest of philosophers. were not intended
a mira
? T
h'IS qucs t'Ion t I1ere i!t only
neducated
commoncrs\
0
t
f or u
. f act, th C au(\"lcncc f or whom.
one answer: yes, such was, In
Shakespeare wrote his plays. Whether or not he gave this
circumstance any particular thought docs not matter to us.
What matters to us is that. by his works, Shakespeare showed
us the very essence of truly popular art. It lies in the
generosity of the artist's genius v,:hich cl'~atc~ the finest can'
ceivable works of art for all people. It hes m the profound
belief that all people deserve to be initiated into the highest
mysteries of art.
The popular nature of Shakespeare's works docs not only
consist in the fact that they were written for a democratic
audience. Shakespeare did not only give, he also took from
the people. He took the living speech of the people of his
time and found treasures in the common tongue, the source
of all word-creation, with ,\'hich he enriched his own works.
George Bernard Shaw wrote of this with great talent and.
as always, some exaggeration, in his short playlet about
Shakespeare, The Dark Lady 01 the Sonnets. Here he shows
how Shakespeare catches in passing phrases spoken by the
most different kinds of people: a sentry on guard duty at the
palace and the Queen herself. It was here he picked up about
all the perfumes of Araby which will not wash a spot from
the hands, here that he first heard the bitter and ironical
"words", "words, words ... ". In Shaw's grotesque comedy
the ~re~t dramatist ~s represented as a man quite incapable
of thmking up anythmg beautiful and simply scribbling down
the reI?arks of. others. In this deliberately comic exaggeration
there ~s a. gram of truth. Now that the literature of Shake~~eare s time h.as been fairly thoroughly studied, we know
at muc~ whIch was otiginally thought of as his own
personal mvention w . f
.
as
In act a part of the general hentage

a f h IS age and of his

1 M '
h' h
h'
peop e.
any of those expreSSIOns
w lC , .on t e bps of Shakespeare's characters 5ecm to us
so poetlca l, are to bt" met w -th h
'
poraries 5h k
l i n t e speech of his canteroborrowi~gs f~o~P~:~:r has. even been. suspected of direct
so. The fact of th
",:r~ters. But thiS, of course, was not
e matte1 1S that the poetic speech of Shake
112

dnd 01 "I l..ont.::"ll?4 r ... lrs ...... i n ur shed by ~"1_ llch

spearC
.~
I
. d lively 1.lnguagc 0 ue pc-,p c
nn Tic spel'ch of Shake pc_re's c1;=-:ac.:t~rs i full of proverbs
d saying 'lis he'" cs :md ~eromcs sing t.::-gs :md ballaGs.
an unt 5tOI'I(," and leg '''5. r'lc vcry S.J }C ts I;,f ~halt..r... c' eS lav arcC~Cnl..l C onS(" "'S~_. Whl(~~'Sp_'Sscd
speu..
th
1hOD
from gc. lCI 1tion t~ gene: h
a "- 'ICC! Ir." cnsc~s~_- Wl.
tar wlsdom and Wit
... p ular antasy. ~l il_ I-Ie
~~6j~cts of Romito 'JIfA Jul'et f'7mle' :1r(i K 'w} l.e~. T.
of the or gll!; of 'Shak::sporc 5 su j tS:1J nost ll":...ys
d
stuy
- ,art d
leads to the discOVi>l-Y t htth"
a
Clr ,......
:1re.n ~"U
1 I
and the tcndC1'lCi vf e:'".n ",.)men p-,r v S~ 1
to
,.
,on
1
rc~'y
examinc
his werk s f or t r:,,~).. f L c ....k shr.-likely to lead to pI .... 'I( t ve rc -It
~
Tales of unhappy love
\.If un-:::~ 1..1 ~ 1..1 ... n f Hut.:
pr nk
husbands, 01
ud, 11-t"'11.1 e k ng'.
e If'
of practh..ll joL'..rs, of JTlud:i.l
1.... f1--" ,-~
,
appearanc~ between tv;....
caple...
1
:l \I~ '11,.- -~ f
""_ ',', 1 ~ . p' j ve
doom and deal 1, 1nd 0 f
..... '- L
Oc_
.~L
aftelwards~ e: 11 '11" an d rr.' _. -;.
plays -f Shah"/; "IC:J.le aboullu, 1: s -'w
~- _- (; 1 ... J(:;
to live in '14 mcmv"V cf tt. l---":';:
S
_ J
and all th's is :1_;h of t"L "1 1..,
("
<
n.
md comedies. But into t' .. s fie
S_
, ,J
blood. In "l! "hand. thes~ t 1
! new me ;lJlmg ir th... _ n 1 t
the human Sl l-'oug1-t of h.s ... TI., t

The conten, w'it ,

~.
. s
,
,
L
r
t
their dra""llC: t:"\.,. 11 _-1 1'!"'W -- f
..
t
- ld ."
to t h e dr lma 01 th4 ~.";.--their new art, St Idy n J S(.l
ing Aristol e and H('r c
1
eommentato. _~, th_ l.um '-. ~
tragic and the emil The\'
11
dramallc genres
~l 111~r.'e ci.'.ma,
The oul tanding tell .m: ,.
n""- ;},
,
t..
t: 1"
....
ig t- irl.-'ratlC'''1 '-'.:
hOWcvcr, I 'Y In "le f o.I.U t
~
tJ-_:: 1:11 '.ve tlldl
lnliqUltv ~ d nol Ind th .. 1 to ~,10
.. d .- ':n ':11'
tion. Shake _lTC ':)t 1. - ,.- po ::..11_1:-7'1'':'1\\_-'-''.'
-. l nIiL" tL~ Itlham
an cnt wl)d~ .,tv r
_ b~~. ~ -l.-. . .:b!~ ....~ of. ~,~lPt"i:l..9
'hey did nOI be,- " ";.. 11
--"
,....
"'1' "C:TI :)01.1. Y
,
.
'10..ell ."1\\:., , v . tJ[
11"'
r 11S 01
,It. t
r..
f ; . ~e-" : ) 1 appren
tht..1 .. How v r, l-Jd t ." t
..
-r .. ~
-~

.......

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lkcship to the classics, lhere (:culd havl' ("CCn no r 1

.
d
.g~
Rcn,llssancc rama.
A careful reading of Shakespeare's pi':IY will shuw c
features inherited fro~ the medieval thc?lrc and o~1!
from thc dra.ma of anCIent Rome. ~Ul all tlwi W lS J work i
over, so cnnchcd by Shakespeare sown, IH' W cone 'ptio
that the result was a new quality of artis try .
n~.
This is something which ccrt<lin Sh:lkcs pcnl"can SC''loJars
~n the West rcfu~e to acknowledge. In thc process of analys
1119 Shakespeare s plays, they comc across those clement!
which represent an extension of medieval tradition and
forgetting thc qualitative peculiarities of the whole, try t~
show Shakespeare as a dramatist who, in essence, merely

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kept to the old canons. More than this, they consider the
fact that echoes of the morality plays and interludes are to
be found in Shakespeare one of the main proofs of the pop'
ular quality of his drama. This tendency is directly linked
to the ideas of those scholars who seek to reduce Shakespeal "5
thought to medieval concepts.
Whereas there was once a time when only the dWerenr:es
between Shakespeare and the drama of the Middle Ages was
emphasised, there is now a quite appreciable list towards
the opposite extreme and the significance of thf' rudiments
of medieval dramatic structure to be found in his ar~ s muc\.
eXJ.ggerated.
In ShakesI?care's comedies therc arc many farcic~l motits
bound up With the traditions of medieval folk dramd But
in the first place, the farcical clement in medieval dram~
tsclf was perhaps one of the most important contributoly
fadors to the br~akdown Qf the peculiarly medieval theolog
II al out1o~k which the drama itself expressed, Farce was
an eXpIO!lVC material in medieval at1 for it was through
farce i.hat the worldly, lay clement pr~pared its infiltration.
In the ."ee~ nd ?lacc. the nature of the farce itself was changed
w,hen It ca~c 'n~o contact with the clement of Shakespearean
d, ,!~1~, Lo!.mg Its dutonomy, it wa<; incorporated into tht:
artlstu
-tion 'I 511a k esp( -:'e',
- plays merely l! ~e '1 _ :ompo
'
f" Ogl ~dle~t:. and ts _n .... idp.dnc s WdS shown up th 0U(1h
.,
~
uxtap 'bo,. 01 f <:I"e
'
. \. '
h and the her<'i\.
WIt-!
'. I :omanttc
cments.
f
,
d J.Q. expose false. r",,'TT\:!nl e
'om'nsr,mctim<:
tarr;'.,SCor:
:'\
- If'
rlC""
It les how up t hc lowness of the farc~.
'1 t
h
II l~
~K~l ~nll l( c"'unt,
thc c;.ignific:llll.; of the
e:t In ')hak'-- peare IS 'ost. ln4< thiS is what
OJ

I fc..

:1;;:

th".,

134

pCns , t':Ie wo:ks d tho

-:;"t(" rs who t:.c e ... in
ap ..Je au. cl ont"xt. v Ir-kirll" th.. let t"lal the ::. Iv.is
'Cloy w r "
that 1 ,the nentaJ tlj. on [ J. h
~ k lnl) t5 c mpon n~ p, , .. "I,lld r_v
, .. ' ..
th
l~'ll :1(5 of 11
1 thi
0: tltl1t part h'''5 to n.!Y
) the
'oOlpe'Slti l n c: tJ'l w k
Y.'" __
bl'S 1 ~d.
fl',; I
sleigh! c' hand
4 nly 0
:tp~"m~d J
_
:11"

cr
SI

nsibili:y
In conr\;. ,til n with
a'r "IV thc E ....... Ii h

l'l.. .! ,.. ..."e I, rr..: d l ' plf':n"" ct

1 f hl
C
mal til fI '" ~
~,. ("lUll::' e
P rt
KTlocJat12 ~l t'u~ Gale n k~'lcbel"
....1-:_
='!I.
_:lie, I
';ccnc. set 6!t il IS iT' c~ .. Of :'th~ke .. re s ('
t tr
ya typical eXdTT'lple 01 hiS CSI"
[arc_.<\ oc Q'
quently Sh0Wr.:d. '11
'cne creat
a
C I
rii ti < - "
t K
just becaus~ ~ folll w im-ne lal 'I un tl'o muro ..
t'e
Duno n . The IIlle' oe:Av,".1 o.
.. t
1 0.11 "" 1
tragiC and the sharp c ntr.
'::19
th

notc 01 irony an~ I 'lds e "'== -e

.01'"
tl.e
-.
)f the pOt
Sh,' SPo.:ll!:z'soma
di
t

1
mal llity play
lal 1. ." l'
It
who inr.:olp"'; ~t.. b' tract ~, ,; 1

sodes l' thc scene ~ '11

- ,

ther klli 19 the S' ' IP l ttl J l )

.,)1
'ler'cne n
rr;l.
In'
11

"

,.

~ff,~il ~

f t tl.! C'"ld c
Ric1lard rI uc di tlr

l-

'I- -

the m)r 'itir

Il
w
'{("IV! v " w ~'1 tl. .. "'e ~
o lnt' nOl" 'lal 1 fc' 1. I ..
.
1

Shakc-vd1_ nd. c, 1ch e'

, < "I'
r
l ..lSe
r hr: perc
1 1 r
1 .... _
\.
t, ldi" on . r n
\IV
c

I{ ,.. It;
r "
i! II ti~ n
se I .... -not
f.
I I Pr: I..
or ",nal YSls. 1~ Il i said
f I'

re
ken ..vill ill 1(" n lO. )f t'P"
_11 L i,:
;
Ii )I
ditil .... 1 fig1 rc ..
ir..l -t so.
~ iuccr V .I: W iI in
re
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been transformed into the perfectly concrete k . h

essential thing is that Prince Henry and FalstaH ~~.~ t 1'.::with the complex characters of living mcn- so
pcop.l'
indeed. that critics arc still arguing as to the tt'u complex.
both their personalities.
c worth of
We will not argue the point as to whether or not .
possible to trace the line of development of the dr
~t IS
the abstract personages of the morality play to ama ron
Shakespeare's characters. But if. in admitting this ,50;C of
all that enrichment of the images which was th' \'. C lSIcard
.
.
1"
h
e resu t of
m~re~~ng ~ei Ism. In teart of the drama. then we shall
miss e~' 0 c pomt. This is what happens to those eri .
who, havmg remarked Oll a resemblance in form f 'lbCS
remark the difference in quality
, al to
No, Shakespeare cannot be' reduced to the
..
E r h d
I
ongms of
thn~ IS h' ~a~ad \though" of course, his art grew out of aJl
a ,w IC
a
een bUIlt up over the centuries b th
crea~l~e energy of the people, Howevcr, in his work; th'C
~adlbon was so, transf~rmcd that it is highly unlikel; th~~
h~s contem porane~, seemg Falstaff on the stagc thought of
im as 0 f a new Incarnation of Vice The whole thO
that for them h i ' "
109 was
and' strangely 'att~a~~~'ea hulvmlOg'bw~imsicaL incredibly comical
A f'
an clOg.
rank didacticism informed th
ho I
techniques in the drama of th rl'ddl e system of art~st~c
system of Shakes car'
e, t. e Ages. The artistic
to it from beg' ~ e s drama IS, lJl this respect. opposed
mmng
to end Shake speare 'sd rama did not
give lessons abo
t 1""
its richness and ~ari~te, ~h gave a pi~ture ~f life itself in all
linked with his
Y.' akespeare s realism is indissolubly
d
POSI t IOn as a writer f th
I Th
emocratic spectator d'd
a
e peop c,
e
For him, the stage h lId ~?t co~ne to the theatre for sennons,
to life. An honest pic~ure :f ~:rror up to na~ure", <l: mirror
pe:haps, we would not be f r e ca!1 also, be mstrucbve and,
pam ted by an artist
,a out 10 saymg that the picture
'
carnes
..
ex h0 rt ahons. So it w
. h more conviction
t han mora I
t~ined no overt kssona: a:l:o ;;akespeare's ?Iays, They canCIrcumstances, But ,n d ' . w t,) behave m any particular
.
the terri~l
pe')pIe an d events, in show'
mg
t he funny and,eplctmg
of the audience and awck . e, ~IS play!; ,touched the hearts
to good and to e"I' Wed m t em a qUIte definite attitude
. d '
. -,
1S om en h . cd
pen? ,IS less ..:onvincin t '
s nil
in sc-mC" rolling
a thmkmg man on the I-,~Si~han l!lC conclusion:, real:.hed by
- . of hIS ,)wn obselvations of btL'-

Shakc5Pc-re's theatre wa a great 51 hool of 'vlOg expencncC, e sch' 01 -f thought an~ fceling. But ar thb W S done
Jnobtrusivcly Shakespcar-'s t~~ !:..:: reqwred of l~S public
tlctivity of 10ught a~d 'Sensl ;v~ty
f~eling, lnd t~ helpt d
t.J develop these quah es. In this sell ~ the II litar an v<Jue
of Shakcspc .. :es lit for th.. p:l"lple wa an~ rem ns t-.Jdav
beyond asses! mc~t.
'
Perhaps the ~ is no m<"re convincing proof tJ"Ial sh3Ke
;peare was most truly ~ wril
Of'lC pe.:ple th.J.n th,. f that he believed in the ml.!11ignce of 'lOse for w"1om he
wrote, Hc did nol exhort them III 1 onacscclding maIm!':but soughl rather t bring them into communion with thr.
experience of the ife c" mankind as a whole. Shake ',:are 5
audicnce came to c 'e l! deeply about Ath.. l an~ 'lomf'
Egypt and Dcnm... k, as about t'leir own home town rll
past and nresent n:lted together ,lDd before the ~tec' tor
there arose the pl~ ure of the wholt.: wi,- 'W\. d. Shakcspca: ~
would have accepte<l ,othing 'CiS than thi ncl' 1~ would
his au~ ence, who baa become _ l, tomco t, ia. All ~e
world's c: stage," ths -yint: ot ODI" Of Sr- !- _ '"}t ar...
har'
:1('ters is lra. merely n idl
t"'Ot1 --.. 1"-..
''3W
5hakesp::.-~. 1 d-lma. It WiS as...
L St-il -po., ac
mol shed '" 1 bc:.~ t_t:rs \ :tcl. enclosed 1" _~-idual ' , :-, md
gJ.ve to caLl, tr"n 1~ "ppc ~lL.i 01 perL_ :.-.,: tl"H {; , t
wnrlr' III ,,'
S W llth ar_ '\"n-1t::.~ S!-ak_,:.arcs plays
brought the "lldicll( e nto <...:.Dl -" ...~ h. 1 Yo tl" t'L... 11 ~ : tht;
world at
!,;,e No 1(..:"1 b""; be..:. 1 '" -i'.,
t r.Jw Sbl~\':
spc<... ~s r
fft:,,~
? .s~1f.Jtr._-w .. ~...
lrdi' dual
Thi~ S 3. .. hOUld I " L:.lt \ c L t. I~" ,~r co:. ~t a
full Ippl~clatm . ~o" ,:.le'l S!':.( '.i"- ,.;>'
-t he;:-u.i
poopk to e::, 1(11 ... vr'i S. '_lIt 0.. L rn. nity TlI- " l~ . :It
important pl.:wrCS!I'': '" ,me:... n st.'" ,.-... , ~" pc7)uLI"":sm
People were bpl('L~ t ) ~ Tc,-1~ .. ;tio~ c :1~' fu') i'reldl~l c:
lite md, 11 J.:te -..:.me _n~, cot' :'lat bl('lO{i kr.~:l:O w:'uh boU:ld
them \.,' : 11 ,fc' 1o .... s tLo\... ~'loul t"L..c w,-r~o
Th.s in nv '"' Y :onl' 3dic~.e~ <1e n_~tic-:.li fct~ing whl.;h
1('lm~ate '! "h.}.~,p,llc S :"Il.- J s. T"is .1]'_' wa~ a :'rc:Jres:iivc
~tcm('nl " ~:, lit, A: t~.;.t ti:ne th_ . Jmc..)t:sne:..'; "f being
3 :1::11 t c'
-:.aLon n- .;]Jll P. 2~ .. 1:'" w:th fo:"J.de.1 ".:p3rat~:,:n
nd "_11 If'!t.:l 01 p:,~( ... ,~t"':":c Shclk:S"(,J~~~ ,.11CJtre ;n.,;;uLal
~d's ,Il! ill 'le"... w:t"- ..: f ... ..::!ng .):- :'3t:.Ot;,;.:11 .1:1d :!lis w.:nl
'lanr In ~_,'ld '"':tl: t:_t wdc" vi.w ,,: the w,"'ld ,. . f w~ich
w.: t lYe ':II cn !,.,' '~'ng,
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It is not our intention to (lssnt that thi'i or that arti"

mannerism was, in itself, 'p0pu]al> Of course, there wer~
differences between the aristocratic and, the popular thcat~
of Shakespeare's time. But Shakespeare s mosl subtle tech
niqucs remained popular. ~ccausc they were Woven into
works infused with the spmt of democracy.
The popular nature of sue? a c?~cdy a~, for instance
Tbe Tamillg 01 the Shrew, whH:h ongmakd 111 thc tradition
of farce, is self-evident. Not less closely allied to folk art
however, is the comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream, i~
which Shakespeare created a complex plot on many planes
where reality is coupled with fantasy, exact observation of
everyday life with formal theatrical convention, All artistic
techniques acquired popular qualities in the hands of Shake
speare. Just as, from the point of view of ideas, his art
represented the apex of the thought of his epoch, so, from
the point of view of artistic form, his plays represented the
apex of its dramatic art. If Lev Tolstoi considered the pre
Shakespearean play about King Lear with its simplified
action to have been closer to the spirit of popular art than
Shakespeare's tragedy on the same theme, the people them'
selves,. in their quality of spectators, gave the preference to
Shakespeare's complex work with its two parallel line~ of
action, its complicated plot and all those departures from
narrowly understood unity of action which lent Shake'
speare's theatre its robust vitality and variety,
~n short, Shakespeare the artist and Shakespeare the
WtIter of the people afe identical. The greater the artistry
the greater the affinity with the popular tradition, Let no
one say that ~ll the subtleties of Shakespeare's art arc only
to be apprcClated by the highly cultivated intellect. It is
very p:oba,blc that any critic practised in the art of literary
analYSIS will be able t t II
h h ..
'
d
valuable about the foOl. e fus5hmkuc t at, IS mterestm9, a~
..
m a
a espeare s works, ThiS IS,
o~ co.urse. an unquestionable point in his favour The only
Pity 15. th a t thO1S .very talent tvr
. analvsis often destroy~
.
the
I::pontam:ous
ablhty. ,0 see a. work of. art in all its livmg
.
. 'fi
t.llnl cancc. Of cour;(' it is l
th 51 k
ru..: at 13 cspearc's audien~e
during his lifetime ~nd f
S')C_~.,:;.tc:- in the m .,.' or tha~ matter, the run of the mIll
for'nu
lating a critical apodpc:.:1. tt~{',tr(f IS sc..trc.:>ly ~. !pable
reCla Ion 0 his plav B t th d
t
'lecE;.;.=_rilv m.1n that he
.
.1:>.
U
I')
ClCj no
,
geb k~s ,'ut L'tf Shakespc;lre'~ art.

or

llJi

o the; ,,:ntr.. v. I cr" .u.:.ly n::pec:t t't:..t he ('-~ ... 'llOlC

~lUSC he 1 ntc~' ted nc.~ in 'low he thing 13 done 'Jut 'n

thin~ II ::1f.
I d, n~ t Vr 51 t" imply th_t a profes lonal k.o ;'eJgt- of
the W c"' 1ft. d ts 04 land =!Clmqu
~
ncthi'lg
bad i" 11 1 The whOle thmg b t ~ pr_vent 'lIS know .. ~..;:::
from tuming mo
",p:w- te \; 14 1 JYta" n long(
..
the wood or the I -~
,
Shakes pear ~. ~
es, ' 11 e 1,' ~ Vr th ' 11 t-"'11 111
his wor1- , 0" re W l' rna." d '1,,1 11'" than 0: art. " d
;n ex cnl they w :> rtt,ht _hell" repro.::~ ~pr _ss Cl
cera.
f ,.
h
t
th ng f whl' '1 \.
also, arc c..\\ P ' \.lPL 1 1.: .. 109 t at
some,
.
h
'h
'
5"'..
life itself i~ $] lllr.:: t .,Ju: n t c wor _
re. ~
These er til w~ ~ ater ::.1t 19ht l:;y tJ-... em .j, t -"' . r
we could nl,)t c,:-pcr enc" u~ l" I.IC" on o. real It }, ~ II
not bcen c nvcye
- us t: u':' 1f" :':1::_ 'urn f the v

thl

highest arl

s 'ld:
We think me tal .,u~ 1 c t\.... ,lit
S~.
ll' I
~
1
r
I ""dt II
1
it lind try tc Illlper ~", ts a ,
1
o.,u.. , fa t"
thing. Blt et us not in ... c__
.,. f c '. cr:
'1 th t... '
lr')c t'tr aw ...... 1C S Of th: v 1 1m "'I" tan\.c
t' .
t"e
~
expres:-ion ::;"If w 1] ~ t!::
~"'t .z.n
c
was dedh.lld.

,.J
"'~e'_"
h
l'herc are sur h tr.
-'
..
t '
rulings m~ all tl'e :: c~se .. "'I _ t
,

the highesl ,t.. t of thl'" a~'" 1S

.t
~SI of the J? 01"'''' l' 1 V"~ s y,..'1
. 1 ~. .
ft. )C
; w1iy "'i~ '" 1
n xl av
..

;t

I VA N AN I S !!\It) V

LIFE-AFFIRMING IILM,\NISM
011 the Occasion of the ,IOOth ,1111lit'et,aru
oj tile Birth oJ SlIakl'sl'l'are

THE AGE of the Rcnai~sance was a time of great achieve

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ments in all branches of art. The works of Shakespeare arc

a kind of grandiose summing up which lends the final touch
to this whole epoch.
The title page of the first published collection of Shake
speare's plays (the so-called "first Folio, 1623") bears
the legend: Mr. William SllQlwspeare Comedies, Histories,
alld Tragedies. These were the basic genres known to the
theatre of that time and the possibilities inherent in all
of them were developed to the full by the genius of the
playwright.
As a matter of fact, ho\",'ever. the borderlines dividing
these three basic genres did not. for him, represent impass
able barriers. There are comedies among the works of
Shakespeare the action of which sometimes takes a tragic
turn as, for instance, Measure for Measure; there arc Histo
ries which are tragedies in the full sense of the word. And
the famous irruptions of the comic element at the most tense
moments of the action of Shakespeare's tragedies bear wit
ness to. the fact that, for the great playwright. the various
d.ramatic genres merely represented the possibility of expres
SlOg all the fulness of reality,
The Age of !he ~enaissance brought about an unprece~ented broadenmg 10 the current conception of the earth
l!self and Shakespeare's drama reflects this new outlook on
hfe: the setting of his plays became the whole world. Of
course, most often the action takes place in his native
Engla~d, but how frequently-in the comedies Histories and
tragedies-does it shift to France. to the t~wns of Italy

..
Padua
N ' Verona ' .Mant ua, V
enlce,
to Cyprus or to SlClly,
to
avarre'l BohemIa. Moreover, even if Shakespeare by no
means a ways depicts the settings as he names them and
some land he calls "111 ' .. b
.
. d
II
yna
ecomes merely a conventional
ahon of that
. pnnclp
. . I e IS
.
fISC11 appe
f fi
. - .\am e I'.n9I an d even thl5
u to 51 901 cance 10 \ he way it stresses the variety ,- f the
t:on emporary war ld .
14(}

G anc~ose also is the histc:.cal diapason of Shakcs'PC3re'

d ~J The ac' ion of 1\.llJ(} r 8Q1- take pIac ~ In tl.e runt')
e~~I'llY B.C . ".whok: "'I_S ..of 1gedies lk~ l b _\ b
the times 01 ..:u;lent Rom~ .'lnu, final Y. to thf! "mpl ,11 Vf'Y
110rc recent epoch ~f the fourteenth 5ftr.enth _~, me S 10
Engl sh histo.y, SL_l 15 '1e ro:omy. phere of the Hi! 1"1 !O
which .how u th cham of hliton ... u ):oce
. the - ult
of which was th~ worl(ll of Shakesocar.. lwn :lay dJk. 19c
TI collapse Clf feud. J'ngl ,;d, th~ bl _ Y sf'f :l l! t.} ;}
/~he feudal 10lds Ir their cn~c.s wars, thl; n ;c.i(1", ~n
~f centralised val power md th,- '_. T1" .} n ("f
1... t ~
state-all this is con u ,d lP, :::(u u
And if. <It the: same 1 ne l' '.e; w-: w rk n ... n ~,'I ~e
histories dedicate t l-'en v v (.. j the 11 .,:V R. 't 1 ~'l.
Shakespeare, at th.: out
of 1.1 (:are
wa ~ . .) wr tDg
th~ Comedy 01 .roJIO :lIlY Tltf' T ....... "g 1 '1C Shu:;! V r
which radiat~ so nUl.'1 1" Jht, n ...11 very c~ . "'I' 1 1 L
the patho! of f)hakesl- lres ~l "'. ("tl--t tati '""!.

~
A humanistic unde' tandl 19 0: U" c. ~ p
the love f life and 1P. fc.:_ i11- C _:-""_.,.~ t"" t r.:. 1
ter
of immens }.! __ . ti ~
t th t
ing upon an
1
I
of Shake" peare'
91 tol1. ... ~. t- ve i:-"
".
Engels said that in If' p~.!~
al
T'
. t p
'-nattcr smnt:: u-x lJ-t:: wc_lc o. \,...... ty
L

cally. sensual "diancc

1: !> 1 1.:: ,- ... ,
Bacon s contelT"pol alJl Shak ... ;pcare
I
From the very' li ]ni:- t!-;:- ur :~-':)Ie
-.I- ~ fl...
tist she wed it. elf 1e t only Ir . ';. . --, .
- _.. ~

undcrSllDring c' real:"'y but al 0 111- h. u~ rc ~~ p")

.into the Illes, my~~m: dept"'s 0: th ) r-_. 'y
~-C
sees not on~y t. at wh.](~ go~
~i. t'lt:~~~~~la~_ (;.n e~.~
open to..J1l "'IIS(~.
but 11 - - : Jo- L...
al C"'Inll
deeper levels oj '1ft: r _ 1. lW.uC . t e
diction5 0111 ..... ' ne
_ .. n-.'~'
the wor!r' G
.)r"'cts
t"
,.
..1
Sha k CSPC'lIC ,(>v~ I >;J ' j " . 11ur;;f1I, : 1( be~i;lrs.
the rich, there 'I(
t 1,- wo..'
11, t~s -]( t tv mmd
the hOIUCh.s d ",',g u f . d:>-' Jr,: " "
-1 th::: mt;- t
pcrsi$tcntly 10 ditcr .. ! V ' - ~.:! ,ou::,~- ~'lJ ~.> '.elLt ,lgic 'Tlomen~ of hI., ~ . c, ~~'nd~" ~1d ur.f~,' s d~s ~ ld 'oo':)~
"It those who~c hn~sc c's ~~f' :-1.-11 r:,' pr.lte.:.I{;-::Olg a1 ::'".
lno '" :nd{"lw j ra,'gC<lll'S '-~"'.
. ',e ;tOI m. W"H h b:l'cJ.ts 3r01..:10 :11' 0,,"'" 1(":'0
;>

=.- .

.1.):

'fi"',

Shakespeare's realism, goes farther. I,n th,{' ccond t-11

the History Hemy VI IS shown the ,histone nsmg of lac.
Cade and on the scene alP~car c1otll1crs ':lOd butchers and
weavers with their r~vo uhonary programme ".
et th(
magistrates be labouring men, and thl'rcforc should We b
magistrates,"

.'
Shakespeare docs not take. ~ldcs wllh tht.: l'i.!bcls, but h
cannot keep silent on the, ~lhng and openly cxprcs~ ~d n
dignation of the underprivIleged and gives it true picture
of the moti\"CS behind the Jctions of, Jack Code i.lnd his sup-

porters. Shakespeare also shows WIth what contempt the

defenders of the existing order treated Cade and how they
sought to humiliate those who had dared to rise against the

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power of the rich and the w~l1-born. Shakespeare always

maintained an attitude of genu me respect to the lowest strata
of the people, and this was what Marx had in mind when he
spoke of "Shakespeare's proud yeomanry". It suffices to recall
how the yeomen-soldiers arc shown in Richard III and Henry
V. They are self-respecting men, full of dignity.
In Shakespeare's plays, social contrasts arc always and
everywhere laid bare. Theil' action takes place on a smoul
dering soil and this is what lends Shakespeare's work that
col?uring of genuine historicity, both in depth and breadth,
..... hlch so affects our sensibilities.
T~is is ~he most important particularity 01 Shakespeare's
realism. ~IS draI"?a was acutely contemporary, directly can'
cemed .wlth the life of his own day and age, and, even when
t~e achon related to the distant past, the audience of that
ttme was .~requently aware of echoes of contemporaneity.
Th~t the company of mutinous citizens. with staves clubs,
a~ other weapons:' with whose entry on the scene' begins
t. e tragedy of Cotlo]anus, might have had a direct associa
bon hnot only
with th e 1"
'
.
I e a f anCIent
Rome but with hunger
marc os m a county not far from London
Shakespeare's all-emb'
r
.
ing all the f 1
d racmg rea Ism, capable of encompassof the times u :ess an ~ll the complexity of the social life
the depiction' of :~nta vehIcle extraordinarily well adapted to
.
emporary man.
Man, castIng his wond.,.!" .
ot the world which Lad b I.lg gaze Ovcr the whole cxtc~'
.:l
ut th"
h'C nt1y
t
IS conjured up 1;)efore".l .
. ope nc d up b e 01'C ~,
"What a piece 01 Wor' ~ 10 . e famous Sf,('cch of a1mle~
. .
l\ l~ <: ~an h",w n bl
h
In fi Olte m faculties in (,:,}"
d' ~
0 f' In reason, ow
,
.:n an moving, how I!xprc:~ :: :ld
142

j the w"'dd. the paragon

adnllrablc
aOl ma1s ('
And ID OthhO. Dcsdr-rnona, tJ,.rmeo, Juliet no '!it th
othcr me t pcrfec" crc.:tic"I1'5 d St'l.akrs~~: e, this hcm_nistic
I onc .. 'il ':In 01 rnan fi,ds its im_r: jon
It nost protoun<l cxpr ion s the mage ~f l-lam1et. fr-r
Hamlet enlladic that gre11 ~mancip tic, r~ 'lum..n rc on
which wc:s the c~mnunal
li_ '(iDent C" th_ proq. jVe
minds of the Rcnaissan ~
The power of Shake -..
I) m lies
:-; t~
Y
which he showed tho t thCl ::: ncw 'ation hIp w:u
ar:- e 11
place of .~( doomc~udal system t I
1(' W
'd, n" k
1
inimical to man than lad b:::_ ~ bef re In
Vile wo:many great hope; remal led, a L jere, "oL~'n"l J. t pIa
and did not bring lfIan that longed' tor har:n nv th ~ 1]
pincss for w'1ic.:h he was Sl 1V 19.
In the tOl'T1cnl ng dual sm, 1n .~'" dour~ 0' H,-', '0
his bold and OUI ageous.!.. l1Ilotton that tr
~;~'
P
" m,
)(i t
ibilitic' whh.l 1(' him elf 1. s de -:
'(l to
L

<
P"
m.ly never be Ie:!] sf:d, th :; 1 m of q,
"L,"
,...r.
_ "'y'
itscl \\.\t'1 c'l:tr..OIdinarJ now.. h e
t -,.
t.;:.
ity and Sf'\! contLdictions. "11
:':'"
gl ~at inteqlllY. Pamlt::~ F-nr.:'.. tl:_ ti ~
- J.~:-; in actic' [1.
WhCl
.::1 Shakcspi _ C takes his
.,d
l
.~~.
.a! ses: 109 'lC new.
urge 0:;
l.:l feudd 1 relationshIp, In Tin on IAt
social ~ondil onr foun~~:t ;" tho.
rs:
of Gold. ne~ III S Y expo .g ... OCVi ..
mis:..lluoPV Clgl ldt:: i y al "_
< t

The latf" w r'- c St.. ~- I

11

hL> pot:; c t'" tameol al

t -t 1
,
,
B\!.
which 1)1 ...,vi~C5 lC u.n~
~ !)f '" 1 h'
limc, the .. c WI"I,.J,: ai ~ui. ~ l ...-top ...
, .I
The T lIpe:.1 i
h 1. tian y c "l
opic
.
meuns to onl,...,1 t'1~
t f "ilal.
flU

or..
through"
11" _ t..;y fu....
r lr. 1m -!! (: P ~ le h.
of the int: t i1"l.. natic- ... f t
lui 1
1.
f
:-;
....... 3;kt. p_"
....
s<.J.ll( C
1, ... ne .,1
who1... w rk .
The :rc"li~ n' 01 '1 ' "" r I ~.10W"" ~
~n!Odio( figure 0: p . pero. \Ii) . ~ tJ-. ~~~ht . L ... v: Y ;;
I..
lal pme 5 (. f < ' ", n k nd .
. .. .l' .... r. n

, ..

1,

=_

'"

..

"
"

, h th
I y exposes the cynicism of colonial opprc.;,sion
whle
cpa
.'
f t
f Sh k
which was so characterIstic a cIa l~rc 0h'
a c.s~carc s cpot,;!)..
tist shows the }'c ahons II'S arIsing between
d
The rama
.. d""
." n th
. I
c
"civilised Englishmen an
s~t\ alge , U
.oscS'hamk IS ands
which gave birth to Prospera 5 0 f ty topla.
a cspeare's

SHAKESPEARE A"<D THE THFAmE

realism is ruthless. He has no usc for h;.J{-truths.

Having anowed his g~ancc to \\'.andcr over the ~hole
emporary world, ha\,lOg taken In illl the complexity of
t
J
'
con
If to his
the "actual course of events.. w h'IC h prescn t-. . .u Itsc

gaze, Shakespeare cxprcss~s confidence in the victory of man,

in the inexhaustibility of

hiS

forces.

Shakespeare's work has served as a pattern and example

,
I

,,

of a realism which penetrates to the very heart of existence

for all the subsequent development of world literature.
Gorky, who saw Shakespeare as "the greatest playwright
in the world", frequently called on Soviet literature to
follow in Shakespeare's footsteps, to study his priceless
creative experiment, to "Shakespeareanise" with greater
confidence. This wise counsel gives us an idea of the scope
of socialist realism.
The whole extent of SO\'iet art, rich in the traditions of
many nations, is closely bound up with the heritage of
Shakespeare. This titan of the Renaissance was never. in
our eyes, an honoured classic relic-he has always been our
co.ntemporary, a participant in that great struggle for the
fall' f~ture of mankind to which the Soviet people are also
committed.
Ill~~ined in the rays of humanism, Shakespeare's works
are h\'mg a full life in our country and are helping us to
build a new society of men.
Pravda, Apr:! 2.3, 1964

I\.O;:..;STANTIN STAN1SLAVSKY ON HAMLET

(From Ill. lASt Talk. with Hi. Pupil.,

YOU SEE the way the King and Queen exchange glances. He
is on the throne, she is merry. If you were Hamlet, what
would you do? Put yourself in his place.
In the actual monologue there is nothing left for you to do
becausC. before the monologue, your acting has already ex'
presscd everything. Before showing Hamlet's hatred. you
have to show: I have come here, everything is upside-down,
r don't know what I am going to say. I am just feeling my
way, pretty uncertainly-as to how I should live now. where
1 should go. But you have already conveyed everything.
There's an illustration of illogicality for you. You have acted
illogically and already played something which is not yet in
the play. How much more do you need to understand? Your
father is dead, your mother has remarried. That's something
you have to digest somehow. But you have found out everything before the beginning of the play. And. as you have
already acted the "moment of discovery", you have nothing
left to act. Do you feel how the play is written? All the action
here is contained in the words. You haven't yet masread
this action through words. Today. I couldn't "Delust,ad DInetenths of what you were saying because your IDton'tiODS are
wrong. There are words. but there are DO phraseS What
makes this play so difficult? The fact that flu Ie 15 not one
word here which can be misunderstood with unpamty Tbuc
is a human thought and. if you have failed to catch tt.. tbcIl
you have thrown away one hnk In the play In aa
your 'Dte' pic
tation, the thoughts that fail to get througb c be U)tiiiUd
in their dozens. The diction, the pbrasiDg-are all .Iong I
remember you spoke in your own wonts and got the ......,...
across very well. But just now 1 didn t "nd.!; iZ'and a tid...
The moment there Is DO acdoD aod you. 101 B tbe
that the action is e:&pu7Ilcl ID wadi.
succumb to thc heUne that lOd ='IIt
beginning of awkward
...
it is awkward. because
difficult to canceL

What shou1c1 ,.".

is the matter Don
like this After oIL
'0"

::1 Yvu ill'C t~yinij tr find out cverythmg frem him.

What 5 the malT' p.roH :n of Hamle'?
'fc u.,dt stanr\ life'') what end ~~ C"; .. 'v '1inq happen ,1<;
It dO"'" why, hoW? To undc' tancl'l[e tc.gra,;> why ,md how
J1lC .. t

to finish his c<:tree!'. The greatest stumblintl'bl k

htfcss
,]ctorOu9
. the part 0 r II'
,
IS
- .un I'
ll. II tit I set .
It '
{Ot' DC
ion
iO our pro
.
1
you
'ng
on Hamlet, you Will camf.: to tint L'rstand cvcr"th' '
orl
.
1
. lng
k
W.hich requires strong emotIons am gn.-'al words. Wh'lt'"
with that? You wiJi be living in lIawlelonc of \h(\

~:TOIl9

,
I

,,
I

Il

It

to

.....
'"
::1
Ib

II.

of

IL
O.
otII

...
of.

greatest works of art.. '

.
.
In this way, you WIll be d01l1g wor,k wlllch IS vcry difficult
and beyond your powers bu~ most Important. If you make
progress in this work, ~hcn It equals a hundred plays by a
dramatist such as, for lUstancc, Ostrovsky. So try to Over
come all these difficulties. They arc immense, but they arc
not the difficulties of this play alone: diction is neces
sary ,in all plays, self-restraint is ncc.essal'Y in all plays.
In thIS way. all that we shall do here 1S necessary in other
plays also. but here it is morc difficult to achieve than in other
plays. Here, everything must be exceptionally simple. As soon
as you begin to act simplicity, then you get something
common, vulgar, petty. Does that mean that simplicity is
unnecessary? No, simplicity is necessary, but only after the
right pitch has been found for the voice, when you speak
your phrase not hurrying, but so that when your phrase has
been spoken you then pause to make sure it has gone home.
What is needed is terrific selfcontrol, infatuation with the
phrase, with thought. When that comes, when you have lost
your heart to the word, then you will be able to sit back
perfe~tly calmly and the audience will say, "Please, that is all
~hat IS .necessary, there's no need of any mis-en-scene. there
IS nothmg to be added .. , .' .
The Queen knows nothing of the death of her husband,
under.stands nothing and will die without having understood
anythmg. How is she to be saved? You. Hamlet. must take
a sword and go through the whole palace with it cleansing
1 e a
'k
MeSSiah
'
you are fated to pass' over the
all th'mgs. L
~~ce of .the earth and to purify it. This mission. which has
en lal~ on Hamlet by his father, you have to fulfil and
only havmg fulfilled it will you feel at peace with yourself.
~aamlet has ~iscovered that his father was murdered. You
th~not conc~ve how such people exist who even before
Th:~_~h~eGs oes are worn out"." already, ., 'With another1
he Gh
host appears, I must tell you that you address
tis an eosth as though
he were a soId'ler, whereas actually he
d
x auste man who has exerted his last strcnght to

111 thlr could havc happMlcd. Here 1, thc Ght',t. it is

cC :try j - 'lce the Ghos~, t .... find out ~verything pc~it-le
~roOl him. 1 Ie" is Opheh.. II 1 n:.' ary tc see l;').to the
workIngs of her soul. Hamlet v~r.; , "0 lttain t; ~:'.lC k!lOW~
cdgc 01 all things, ~c i," ,t :n th1! 1, "hL addidci tu c\bstrJc~
debate. In 1 word, ,.10 al. you \..m L find ~ut. to ~'''''t.'tin
knowlcdy~ an~ und_ tandmg ofal "'1at ha~ n:it been
grantcd to you, y-? to. -ncn~ you~clf :t!' thl' ,time +.:1t v\.~u
arc not able
,lchlcve lhe Impossible See w-.at I ~eJ.nl
, But how arc you ~o avoid spOoking :f fccling~? It'~
ncccssary to fi:,d r )rTe f:m of :t~~'2n whi~'h w':'Jld vield
somc kind of r,"',ults. Y"u,imply c:!.:.not undcr,~nd h::w
your mothc!" ~ook your tat;,cL" d.~l.t1., ~~W it W?'ii '~~e ame
to remarry. Try to find out f~'Jm your lathe' t;....:::yfhmg that
hc can tell you.f'll', is t"::'U' w::.y~; t'1-.:.. k:10";~l-dg- of li~c Try
to undcrsl'ln~ evt"'vthing, do c-- rytr'n:: ',':'J .m ~~) fin.: :.:.~

ALEXA~DER

OSTUZIIEV

ON

"THE FIRST timc I camc across thc image f h

Venice," Alexander
rcmcmber~., "~'
c Moorfi of
h I Ostuzhcv
I
,\,\St about
years ago, w en was on y fourteen. From ca,:l <
fty
I had avidly gulped down the most various boot chIldhood
m~naged to get either from the town Iibl:~l1' .s, which I
fro.m my
fnends: It ,,:a.s my custom to label e.1ch book
resolutIOn: liked' or 'not liked' "d th
I lead with the
divided into 'good' and 'bad' 50' ~tnh d cb c laracters were
<.
I a
een with II
h h
h
a the
b00 k s whlC ad come my way a d tl
enough to classify into one or ~th~r o;erh ad all been easy
categories. So it went on until I h d . esc prcformulatcd
fourteen and was given a book to r
leached the age of
was written: William Shakespeare, e~t11~~1~~~ cover of which

l .~l

to Ostuzhev, the im r '

.'
~hLS.According
book was quite unique and if CSSL~n retamed from the reading of

,
I

,
(

""
II

"

Ie

A
Ih
w,

ou
M.

In

'wI!..
0'
K.
G.

olh
in~

olt

oto,

M",

.tud

"'boo>
..

...
....

made on the boy by P,aCing

.
, w,as Impossible to convey th'".. Impact
.
It In eithe' f hI e , or "not liked" It
lOIS former cate .
thoughtful evaluation and a
,quite new,
..
' na y lea approach.

It

"1"k d"'

s~~usso:c~hl't~g
My first impression" a t h
I .had just read was s~met~i~Z ev goes

vatu

wort

dcmandi~~cs~

on, "was that what

~'lth a new, unfamiliar kind of textremely creepy, terrifying
owever primitively m
e~ror, The habit of defining
books I read led m~ y own attttude to the people in th~
And here, contrary to o~ t~ an a~al.ysis of the characters.
would be only natural to ~o ;n Chl~dlSh expectation that it
some reason I could not n e~n t e murderer Othello for
hfofound sympathy fOf himC?laon cven to myself I f~lt a
1m. as on~ of pity for the' n~ summarised my attitude to
A kind of Instinctive feelin poor and very unhappy' Othello.
~cfi~od grasp the fact that9 ;e~:r ,before .e.xpcl'ienced helped
of the on the basis of his act
s quahttes arc not to be
e
I felt (~htside pressures to whi:h
, .~een ~ut of the context
o~gh at that time
.e l~ subjected. Even then
h d
si~pkot kIl~ed Desdemona P~~~l~ ~nStl~ctivelY) that Othello
that Ot~e~r er; I felt (and, to be e~n e~th was not just a
had I bee 0 ~as profoundly sym 9 th w.lth, was surprised)
Dt:sdcmon~ ~ aJ~dge,
I would have fu~tifitl~~? me .lnd that.
suffered innorently'
e
1m, even though

t
h

1 rC:;).:n .n'
.cvilw w'. II C'1 00....1:1

r e baY (J5tU1.hev q

o Till-; I. L O'

-J

the :1obl~ M .r all h.; -

-:.1 .:: :tit-

hildi,h
-urlS on 1I d thl ~lin:J \: \: -:,;?
I:;~k
f"
lC) rcmamc1 wIth 'lim aI' u
fj
C
f"'C~t~vlng TIC t.... lYt' Ot'-Jc I., Ostuzh '"II l>e an t( -ire .m of acjl tI
u: plft ~n he st.zl?C 111 ulh. way a to - ~ 0 E: Je' ~- ')'\_l:m
81 j ff''' c th~t h I ~ murde r~
Later on, It r a
-\ be
11 m t., Ostuzh." C!. ~ n:.t ",\;: :::110':1
thl~ dream ana, llthough V(.~ ~ im :;a:l :1 '"'!: _1"4 ~ 5U _=:3.
in making it come tn.'. ~. wa I l" pll'ng f
t.b P rt all ; 1if
thin}l.lng about It. de,tlf n~ 1m f' wth t: - rei 1_ t" rI
interested eyc on the mte rnrc bon
t Jr. 1. the r.: - by ~thr
ostuzhev did not mISS onc rnore : .n:~ ".by p 11 nn '-IS

of othello bv his cont -np-:!" ne

"I would go to se'" 5alviJ\1, ilo:_: and t~: Rl!c ... Jn t agt
dia several times each, ' O&~..lZ;P.V re~lj's, 'and, elch lime
ns
I would
compare their inter retal1C"1 of ,]e ~ut w t~ mv
own, always on t;t: ll)ok-out t - !:Jmf':t1..- ng :lf"W orne cOO
ditional touch, 9"cal 01 smalj mpctant 0 l1;nost .)0 lightn
to notice. Each
n:> I liought.:: fh~. !: _JI on ~h la th
questions which con~ iue.J t:c t.:.rment ffi :I.r'~ dC tim... I
came away pI ,foundly L lPPO' 11. d.
"They a1' made 3, gre .. t nnre, .", b) U'..
ling te(.hm
cal proficiency f L.leir act'nq, L.o1F cun a q 3,llJ t: t offset
the most "'Ifl::':' Vi". word! ,e;t lI"C and mi. n 51 ..... s. r. y
knew ;ow to make play v I. 1 11 spit :!ic1
- -p- tl r
make-up. All this w"s worke out 3.lmc", t y... fl ti( 1. Nt
only that. ~ut 5alvini, for in! tance Wc.; ~ er fy n 10 t\'e
scene of the murder of Desdcnlna lI'1t t tirnes
v I forQ.)!
that I w:-as '1 L.'C theatre and le'~ "f' tL: }rn.Jl1e1 .- ~ <.J
'They acted cllpcrhlv. But n( ,p of ]1 ~ ",'
vcr ~n
Othello who coule: be "and rught to L
'I'll a TI,_
('1'111(\
vC
was first and fOlcmo s1 \leiV 'landsomc. v v c::,ctl
v.'1
brave, very btlsl,.le' V, "t:;Ll 1n ~eneral. B's
'" hc1e 1m "
t
was suggested by
or "1l'"l1'~c tro. "" e "ntsV 109
t him
h s "t<~
\;.)IC''>
1'11s
was h uge, Ilcavy J"1la~sJ1I~ r-l! roov . n... .
t.., I
costUlne, even his PJ~ .ions v' ~ '1Uqc1nd 'tHUr l"l ~~
they did not makt:' nc like Ot'l.('11u A I thl~ WJ.! v. 'VO~I'
cally dcvclopt:'a, v wy straight :II'" ard, olJyd wth rem31.
"bie
lositv II tereSI 19 met lW,-om c l'od t ..'/l! :lol nv

vir~

Othc. 10.

O\jeall'kn(, .... 1 "I rs I'

Id\ 31
nte rl'n:. :11
With th(
uti 1.

J.nd '~"-'I

,x,_n

It .u')(. little
,'0

. le- rI h
Ild nc:":,
f t,._ ~

'roo C'

- Ih , ,I

I ~O

-,r:

~ ... II:

the

rc. 10:..:0

li n

"Not one of them was without some essential. po bI

dcdsi\'c lack, I felt; but what it was I did not yet k~o~.~vcn
For Ostuzhc'\l, this was the beginning of a new and
.
in quest of the malnspnng of Othello's charader
painful period

. "The att~mpt 'to find Othello' by giving a directl a

.
mtcrprctahon of the part, that is, by portraying hil~ i~po~ltc
gentle colours was not a success: Othello becan d II qUiet,
ill-defined; this was not Othello either. Equally ~nr~ , ?~le,
~as the ~ttempt to create an image based on the wal~tn9
tlOn of bIg and little, luxuriance and underst t combtna
interweaving of opposites was extremely ff a ~ment: this
f 1 d
c echvc but .
to~, al c to provide the key to the inner truth f th'
It,
thiS was not Othello either."
0
e Image;
In th~ long quest for this inncr truth Ostuzhc
.
Othello In the most unexpected ~ituafo' h ' v began to Imagine
the mos! \'3ricd angles, began t~ !oo~ n;~r e approached him from
(as for hiS predecessors') failure and found it. the rcason for his own

,
o
"II

"

tt

10

...tb

Wo

au
M.

In

w,

'p<

01

K.

G.

ot.h

on"

.tt

.""

M",
.tud

",v,
boo.

.."-alu,

-,
wor'

"I tried stripping all th

h
stood that, under the outc~ ~r:~actcrs and su~denly undel
:CIY of lUXUrIant costumes
and no less luxuriant p '
had failed to sec the ba~~~J~~~~ ~~h I and my p~cdece,;sors
ty, Yes, the luxuriant set had h'Jd out ~t~cllo 115 humani
had turned him int
1
en the hvmg human being
Af"
0 a general of the Republic of Vemc~~ ;
b
e

r many ye

IS 0

p. il ~takl

nd. . ru . . it Othc l~ is n9 _.]J ~. 9 l]c 'ocv ;) Otho!o h,:i

\\~'{hct formUla of Q.).;td, and C\'it r~ 1, h~e human bemg a~d n':ll . 1
AD .J.I: In the int<.rp :_!iO! )f this (;1 t c qucst for matcrid wl-i( 1
IC1 9 thc hnl 0 'he 0'
C ,.
mlgc should b~ ~on uc tee: ot
n ~, e r
IJ ward ;h
f
hi m ;t b il" vea Ing thost: nnl r qualiti 'Phl~g 0 thp part as "" ona
;I.
(
w Id ;'0 to make up th
il

01

The idea of bIgness rem' "

bi
~r:m:m 'lOW shows itself to ~~n~, . says Ostuzhev, 'bul the

rnaL~~u.:n In.o:der to leave roo;' ~edhce outwa~d

bigness to
,
cn!,?r, ~hIch ShakesJ')care ha 0 S o~ that .inner bigness
sh
to )./:y, The c('111 ' ~ :'If
rovld.ed WIth charactc1
C !'l
OllClJO' mne'" s
.
. nveshgation had to )c
. . . . tllon :~~ 'l\;. hV i::.:;st that ~h~c~~;bTlcal wo~td. This did not
c >ounds ~f th c other \. 1<:: lCters l~(n consIs.ted in isolati11'.
0,
' e
__
'S 0\\,. :If'l'''SOnalit
N confimng hi n within
'-_ d ,,_r...r/, w~ '.) show V 01 at all! The prollem,
pc pIe -. ~ hIm dn'- th"ln ~ thellc src'ahons with the
-. e play -:.d f the~-~n ~b~1 Uf 11
on the othe
m. 0 fi 1( thl;; r lJe on

th!

"teJ

Ie:

( all this not in the outward action but in the psychology d

~thc110 himself. in the movements of his inner I In )ther
\\'ords, the actor had to do what Shakespeare in his time lad
done already.: to renounce the epic dev~lopment of the image
and to show It rather through psychologIcal development. And
this way opened up extremely rich perspectives: onee g] mt'
cd that Othello is a man like other men, then his feelings
and passions should be those of a man, and his tragedy (if
it is a tragedy, for hitherto only the tragedy of Dc dcmona
has attracted attention, not the tragedy of Othello) is com
pletcly human, and all that is necessary is to understand it
and to reveal it.
"My approach to this task of revealing the truc image
of Othello and of pcnetrating his psychology was not along
the lines of the synthesising of a character from individual
features which seemed to me axiomatll bul rather along 'he
lines of an analysis of these same ~ature< lnd ,10 atte Dl)t
to understand how they had come int be'1g. In thb w... y.
I did not accept the interv.reaving of appr.._ II coni Idic om
in the character of Olhello (simplidty and Q ~atne~5, n ivctc
and profundity, severity and kindness, fit. v t mpcr lnd
gentlenes! of heart) a<; ~ 001' l,in~ given'
xi~ tirll n n:
Ib~ tract, b1 t "r ed to sec I "em 's the nal l] 11 JI rot of
LUr p( nding contradiction in th~!" al pM''lL of Sh"k ...
I)c::r . . ~ helo From thiS t fOl )wed lat a I ew ): ... blem ~.:~~'
to cstahli! h the ocia! e' ,en( c of 01 11 -. ln~
unde md
its dual nature
.:"js\on
b,
,n
,]
:nlte
Ostuzhev f".and "lle ltv !;.
- i,
f.
c
,
U:=
-~l ,..

"
n the carc'jJ
.1-1; 9 nd
"
e
.
b. LO

I n-;1, 'artie jIll y, Q th
m

,
, "

--

" "
S"I::'':'''1

.,

before t,~ SCO<.Ib.: n t a hfinished, exhausd1 e iCC U 11 of Othello:; Ii ~ ut

Co
nuc .
compressed summary uf III that whil.. 1 he L dlOI'" '1a~
oncl::' told over tl Des "'eIllLn.;: uet. II both larg... dnd ,mal,
w ich mi~ 11 have s('lveJ '1 ~rv'C ~ mc .. vivid pt . .... o~
0thclk 1~1 h. J C, '1L wvU d UI1P' ubtedl v lave . 'TI'I ._Cl
1f'1'" '1 11;:; S "l te
'"
lSI
If I e
"J undc.rs,,:;od fll"

"("Ine
11 dh~

.Ip 11

n
.ti l' b orb
y th tJ. Jy
~ ~e ... h
"" rdin~.
w
tl) P JVC b
h np alt 'c
1('

0,

a,

.w....

.....

3.1

;uls

""1arY n ... df' v 0

C
\\
l
la] '1 U! tu-hev, 'tl :ethc

"

erIg

n~

tf"
h ...rd
.~ hl!~mmis'

e painful difficulties of his vouth glV"

th
(cn(eso f
'I
Slk'
'."mea
. ' n \\'hich 'to read t 1(' ante- la c!'pl'ilrCiln biogr h
vastS 0
.
f
If
I' 1 M ' ap V
of Othello; I ~tna~111cd 01' mysc a. Itt c.
00.1', t~c son
'bal Chlcftam who was dcfcndlOg hiS native tndcp d
$001 e tr,
,.".
fh
en
enee from the Col001S109 lIlcurslons 0 t c European 'civilis_
crs', Later, after the defeat of the Moors. Othello Was
captured and sold mto slavery. Slave labour as an Afri

flt
can
prisoner of war, 0 bscrvatlons 0 re, ahons )ctWccn man and
man, first-hand knowledge of thc bitterness of seeing hum
dignity set at nothing, all this had planted in
heart the seeds of his future burning love of man and of h,5
no
b,urning hatred;
in. the morality dictated
the prmclP.les . of feud~l relatlons~lIps, Othello, in spite of
his humamtarlan leamngs, sees 10 the enslavement of the
conquered to the conqueror, of the weak to the strong of
the serf to his master, ?f th~ soldier to. the commanding
offi~er, a temporar~ SOCial eVIL an unaVOIdable attribute of
socl.ety as he kn~w It: However, a profound faith in the inner
pUrity of man, III hiS honesty, in his instinctive desire for
goo~, I~ads Oth.ello to champion the cause of this same man,
of hiS nght to hve, t? think and to feel; to champion, in fact,
th~ cause of humamsm against the laws of feudal relation
ships. But Othello's conflict with feudalism is of a some
what abstract nature: he is opposed to the principle involved
r~ther. than to ~he people who embody this principle; in this
rah' ~n marrymg Desdemona and stealing her from her
~~n~~ sl hous he. throws down a challenge to the feudal
p.
Ip e of mamage between peers' but not to the pas~,fthat~hapolho9ist of. this principle, th~ old man Brabantio,
W om e remams on the b
t f
h'
h
istic of Othello's s
. . es a terms. T IS C aracter
abstract ideal' f truggle 10 Its turn goes to form the rather
of which Sh kls IC natun:: of his humanism, the shortcomings
.
a espeare eVidently realised."
. HaVing reconstructed th
biography Ostuzhe
e rest of Othello's "ante-Shakespearean'
Othello's ~tonny p v comes to the conclusion that the mainspring of
abilities and his un~~gr~s t~oU9h .life could only have been his ,wn
"H .
es ona e mlhtary tiJlcnt.
avmg served as a I
'
Republic of V .
s ave-soldier in the armies of the
stairv.ay of th:n~~iit~thello has ,nsce~dcd the whole weary
:.l w;>.y, thanks to h' ry and SOCIal hlernrchy, having found
P:;tnci.ans of the V IS ~ruly doughty abilities, to force the
fc:' the reprcsentat~nChafn Senate to suppress their contempt
Ive 0 an 'infer:ol race and to sec him

of

Othcl1~,n

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first ,-nd
remost.... 1 taie"lted miFtary lC3d
indisrcns ..ble to '" great Il"ar timl. )OWer,
C"

all

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tt: attitude or :h v - tiilJ :1,:'",

. b cd rnly ,r. thj rae lh'lt I.e Ret"" bci, ",e :is L. ~ IS ~ - .~~
"

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"The 13tU")1 lon:::-stv f OL1L 0 him If hiS l:; andl~ ss

[,lith in men 1l1d 111 intI,.. r ty C"lte udf' the QO Iblllt\ c' hi
consciously understanding 1-is posl"on. But the 1:11:by
intuition of this wonderflll 1\1(KJ tell :urn that he can onlv
acquire the righL
life kvc ,mc! .. 'pmes tn '-lttll And
he takes this right il1 battle
"In this way, Otht:-" O'li Se" _I P !ilt).on 1, it ~!. p:- t ..>11 d.v
dual and contradi( ~ory A coloure~ nan md CI qen_ )1
pariah, and, at the samf" tine. CI ~
n qe 0' 1C:~ l' 1( ll_d
by the Senate, a
tOIV tel er, 1 tJ ing but n mtere ting
spinner of yarns, whon senato: BIll lntio W 'lId 'lev
:<
to sit down ~o hi table og' II witJ"l '1(' we. ly p tnllan!
of the Republic lPG, t the sam_ ti,
.-: .. '- 1:. :1.1 ~
:
daughter of this !:~me Jr..!:-'3.ntio

u h thIS dual qual t=; of hlS ......

or he conti aic te. ness d vth

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a.=

-t

"Hencc t'lf' 11 r :; f _:>d b~ "e tz k .

.g
connection bctwei'n th ... pub. _ eno
... p...,..
0
Othello in s\leh 1 W3V I -t ~le c . tr... ~
-~ t p M.,)().
character fhoul,"", ~ot Pl 1.1 t ) 'a.... ' __ D
o!_j bv l: ":"l
from without u" lther to be \....,., -nts ..:)1 lo 5 .o;n(; 'T\ ke
up which govern the a\.. ~""l <>y- lL..~ l '
11'"
ar
1:
development with n the' ~c .... y' 'b s r::_ ns d' t It b _ore
particularly Impor mt tl mdkc t lJ" us..: (11 a
- c"(, l.
indications given In 1( pI '-' :md (\1 11 tl''' m: en _n_
which lend th,,,sc1v'" to trc._'9 1
let DC n tJ"lP rela'
tionship between 011f"1", lr_ I , rep .> rt.ti\i
"th(
aristocracy. In ti-is rc~ 'led t'1c jrsi l(t JS, of curse, thl!
most important, p." icular y
t;
,C.,I
n :'1f 5..:n3t(' T11.
will explain t'1(" du tv c ('Ill-';" - ... "t-af"' :.cr . S 1 :n..lttr
of course' II wll 11
(!"JI~:n 11 rc.:.son for 1.1, tr,q1c ."d.
c . ~$e w'nc h ..~
Tn th,. nro
of rc ('1;n;1 '_' 'v ctl~ "I:
.' tl
Ostu.. cv
cOllditi~,t i his or I .,11 ":'rll ldi.:tio'l in 01.... 110 C' ~ ..... -Ie 1m ;1t
'Illlly, bv Wly ~
nll\
,.; a~
::; ~ . ,T(;

mi.

'Bul ilC""C ~n
w .. (ltCa "': 1 1 efy !>ubtlc lnd far
.... m .. tr... lghtforwOlrd .. k to ~il "::11 _tf' all these 'e:turc~

\ 'aV as to shoW' the decisivc, dominating fcatur

In sue h a \.
. h
.
t
,"1-1, ',1 .f . . <
cs
of his personality m, t c s.tlongcs .p~SS~~) ~ l!. Il' against the
'ouod of certam tYPIcaL ch<1.UldclIstIC. but less signifi
acg'
I."
h
11
..
k
b
caot features. and to conll~mc t ~ W 10 C III .\ 511191(', logi
lIy complete structure. This task IS naturally rendered mar
~~mplicated by the many~facctcd nature of the image." C
By long and persistent s~dy of Othello', r~ychology, Ostuzhl:v
graduall~' came to the conclusIon that:

.
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"Among the many features which go to make up the

whole complex of Othello's character, there arc four of
basic significance: a vast love of man arising from the
character of his humanist philosophy, unbounded trust, gen
crated by this love, a genuine nobility of character, which
is the outward manifestation of his own purity of heart, and
a profound commitment to democracy as the guiding prin
ciple of his social behaviour.
"Shakespeare himself gives mc copious material by which
to emphasise these my hero's most important characteristics,"
. Humanistic lo",:e of man Os.tuzhcv showed splendidly through the
Inner wannth which he finds In Othello for Brabantio, Cassia, Mon
~ano and. even, ~or Ia~o. ': quite particular quality of this warmth
IS, of course. e\,l~ent In ~IS love for Desdemona. Ostuzhev devoted
all the power of hiS exceptional talent together with a profound knowledg~ of. all the most secret reserves of Othello's heart to establishing
the slgmficance of this love.

':N0t?ing.. so detracts from the stature of Othello.' he

mamtams, as ,the . attempt to vulgarisc his love for Desdemonha by reducmg It to a stormy eruption of African passion
~~h~re hUa~c~ntrolh~d sexual. urge of a Berber stallion. On th~
call
' no~hmg so ~Istorts the image as the diametrifo y ~p~os~d l~terpretahon of their love as a mysticallym~~~:s ~~~ee i~n~o~ bl~~ween two hearts, Othello's and Desdesprings from the ~: thY' h~~a~, real, big, inner love, which
flare up from a s a ~ .s ~ ,t ell' natures. This love did not
the result of qule l' ;gllitmg at some casual meeting. it is
mona's interest in ~th~l~~'sgrow~h of feeling, from Desde'
that interest to thc sto _ ~to:les. through the transfer of
feeling of liking for h' ry ~e lei himself, then, through a
Moor's nobility of cha~~ctW en she came to understand the
For his part Othello h . er, to an ardent and sincere love .
mona not o~ly an a~di:I~~r~~t for the first time in Desdc'
IS I'trange talcs but a human
156

being sensitive ~..,) ~lS ' .. elings and ..:.~le ~o understand ~;m
aturally and Inevitably eXL.'1angcd firs1. J .. :;p...ct fe tikin .
n
'-1 :to answ~'1ng lov~ a~ ~h~t of
g,
",nd then l'k"
I. 109 ")r as ar~-..1
which he 'lI~seL was the obJc..,t. In this way. t:)( ,hna(t I'
~: the love
wcc~ Desdemona ,1Od Ol'lcllo IS not in tl.C
lost ]rtuitou' lnG t
~own l' the uiav u~ X:-~,~S ~o .
already J,'eply nrooted. It IS "'I ry :mp~rtant (0:' the " 'or
to C ";lveY t'1i '")1 t, fa: only 0:1'1 c~diL~n t.h ,t they u-1d
loved one lnothe r fOI ~mt,; tim... ....Juld they kn ,'v onc
another W'1 enou~h. ft.. ld this " I .... -,U. .J, f""r oth "v/i .' Dc
dclllo nas eVe'Ui.lton .. 0 1 Cthello wt11 lack t;he l:nJ of ':..lth
The ,oundles!
hli. traSledy, h n!.:e
particular emphasli>

tfuln

Ostuzh v
:1

...

.' ,
t the

s of 0th !.!
I..

trlh~'j

his f .. ture

"I remcmbct" O!.tuzhev tell.

1:"
v:"'eTl'
. :....~t;.1t the

Wl~ s;ll "

cJte- c!c':":t":

very young ac_ r, I used '.J

gatherings a1 the '1C:"1C"" .... i: ..le we~' k10V:1 Rl!~" In l( tL':
Alexander Yuzhin, w'lf'~'" -:n'y ... e!~"'J~:.'!;' of th-:> :" _:l:.:j
and literary wor1~ 0: tJ,-t tum: .:_:~ :)', ':1e~ O~._
remember it as th('u~a it were "_,!:'. :jav V...:.c.:mr: Ne:'TIlrO
vich-Danctl( :1ko, Alexa~~er L:,:~ky M.::==~"~ D . "'-:} M~
dest Tchaikovshy and Py.)." Bc :...-: :yk'r. h< t :fq:at'l.e~,-j ,~t
Alexander Yu-hm s 1}.om~ '"':"'he- .. "e !".'~':l ... ,":,~ C'th.;;:~ ....
trying to dchJW the maim.pnngs d C:s ~':"11p1ex .:::j .'c.!.:~.i
ful imag~ The argumC"",t ~~'e,'- r~:.t.:.j, .:~d C~':l Nl-:;;'.!;"' :~.'
Danchenlv said: '1r..e :nain : ~ :19 .. be.:. t 0~ :-:, ~k :;; ::It" ! ~
tegrity ani (;~'mplete b....l~tblncs~ c: tF..: ,;,"re".lt .. >!~d. T}:~
actor who wi" :'c al-'_ t~ ,"om';nee t1-.t: ,,.:.::e':u ... of :',:5 Wl].
be giving them tr"J.e Snali..>oc.".rc' The5l' '/';"":;; ~ to..''\, '~.:
sacred precept in my w~'rk o~ :.n~ M('~:"" "!" \~ndc~:~'2" ::1a1
they cont.lined the c~ly cor..~":: apP:'oacb ~,) ::~y h\.:~lrth.'
In my work, I :~il'd ncver :.) ;o~e sight d t'l.,o".' w,':-.:h. He,','.
s
howcver, there is 3. very x!al d.lOgC" l~l.lt t~i;. tru ..;uuine :>.
evidence of which is supp:i'd. l'Y Shakt:~pcar~ In :;.u(.:h ~('n
crom mNSUI': m.ly create the impr..::s;.ic:1 thJ.t Othcl,lo ~
undcl"standiny is ."omewh~t limited, And, thc.l" . . f~:c. ~ al\\tY~
try to mls!'- no opportUnity ~o make full u:,.c t e' cry 10
which can ~tTVe to "'ml'h"lsisc the I\1oor s remarkable 1I1te!'
ligcnc~' '
,

. tcJligcncC III his capacity as governor of Cyprus IS lihown in all .

~~btlcty but is turned against himself bl'caUSl' of his tfu~tfulnc-ss.lt~

Shake.peare. Othe'lo
humanist :)hilosophy :rlJ.kt's hL..
dem O( ratH; 'elntngs natu~ll and. ~ndeed. inevitable

'This trustfulness," sa.ys Ostuzhcy, "docs not give the

impression of lack of wJll-po\\:cr; ,It comes rather from a
conscious faith in peopl~ and In himself a~d, on this level,
it has the effect of tragic contrast In relation to his subtle

the hU:1It:, ~ t rer, .. :.'c', I: as the

reS t 0 a de:,c but c,ld anal) .. ' .. how .e: dose t'" ',",en.
h Uachi4 v c:l mlg~' h veo 1;.. J to .h:ru ~U z~t would' ave .'ff"I
nothing but a lifeless 511hou ll. I C Y b e;: c;atline t,~ , '
hi mol" him1f
"

mind,"
Ostuzhcv accords quite p,uticuiar significance to Othello's nObility
of character.

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"The question of Othello's nobility, " he maintains, "takes

on not only literary and theatrical but .:Ilso great political
significance. Indeed, the question of the wonderful Moor's
nobility is so closely tied up with the national and racial
problem that its weight as a political factor cannot but be
felt, All the power of his lyrical fecling for warmth, sympathy and ardent love Shakespeare has given to his Moor
in or~er to contrast with the white villain Iago, the whit~
prost~tute Bianca, the white nonentity Rodrigo-the black,
mtelh~ent, noble Othello. Having, by means of this contrast.
est~bhshed for ever the foolishness of all such chauvinistic
ravl~gs as ,the the.ory of 'higher' and 'lower' races and of
the natural supenority of the white man to the coloured
Shakespeare insistent.ly demands of us that we should hat~
lago-oot only for hIS o..... n sake, but for what he does to
Othello.
"Inhthese days when chauvinism is again on the loose
. 10
. the fascist countries"
preac ed by th e me d-levaI Iaoahcs
an d aIso m some bourge . d
.
.O?S- em?Cr~hC
countries of the cap'
italist world th
10 dati'
'
e pohtlcal slgOlficancc should be the
I
un
on stone of the whole t
actor who wishes t h
Sh s ructure 0 the role for any
o s ow
akespearc's real Othello,"
The profoundly democrati
democratic of Shakespeare's ~ manners and thoughts of this most
Othello's outstanding features~ aracters Ostuzhcv also counts among

~'The Sources of this democr .

eXistence is to be inferred f ahc way of thinking (and its

fellow-campaigners, from th:om,Jhe comments of Othello's
from Othello's actions thr
encc of Iago and, finally,
come clear to us when we o~g o,:,t the tragedy). These be'
ef Othello, which I have w~~e~nto account the biography
The read .
out as an appendix to
.
cr is reminded that this a '.
rtlde was writtenIn I 9.">0.
0"

'hi

158

H.

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givel

'To know ,:mJ I

cognition is al th~
actor's embodying
itself only bcgins
hatred.

1.1

undcrstan~ '''Ie :m'lge 15 \'el'Y important

basis of ",I art, in _~udinq the art of an

any g:ven I:nage on the stage But d.rt

where c 'yn~tic, is c..:;louled . v love or

Having 'Jot t(l kn w

or do,

0: =~"V em

. - kv_ h~'

"This was no longer u1at ~"rme,-, ~:'u:dish lovl" (c!' !ather

liking), not consdou~ly motivatcrl but i:1stinctively fel:' This
was that deep, real feeling \."11 ~_"'ve one ell.pc~.en~es when
one knows the ~-.,;,lsons why onl.: ~ovc) :'..::me1::Jody_ Fer mt,
Othello ccased to be a charaL~er frJm l!tc1'J.t'..lre 3nd bl!cJmc
a real man. He be~amc my clo<.;e:.~ !::i.-nd: gradual:v I bC~:lIne
so used to hi~n, tltou~;ht of him !>o r.1Uch 3nd ~v crunh..r::-ur:
cdly that I <!:vc~ '."egan ~o c:'-.:.;.:;"! .,~x:lt loim. Th~ll thc'rc'
came a time when we became (;2:'111'Ietc::. ir,)cPJr.l~<c. ~'ht'n
we became onc, I don't know w~~i..;~ it w,... .;:j be :!l.,)~': .. ~'rr..('
to say: 'Othello had entere~ ::1!~"'1 O:;.tl.L'_~, .. v -:-r ('I~tu/hev
had entered into Othello but o~e ~:--jng ,,-,s -:.;rt:J.:n, (lOt!
this I reali~,'c~: now I c~-"u:d and ,.~oulj ?! ..y 0thc.::-:Why Wal> II OthtlL Gf J.I' :.. , .','.f3(:'-:-' .of .... _~r!J..;.;- ~.,::."",,-:; l'a50 ,:Io!'c to O!.h::hev( 0~:-.:_'''~' ,..-~:~ .- ,...\ __ 5 ~... <o,:,.;"l.~n

'In the cour"e of h15 li:e on i:.C st.1g(' clll .h",,,r :,a$ t~~
transform him:..,,!! into :1n:1V diirefcnt parts. into lnJ.ny
different images. Aml'ng thcst.:! ,ne pJrts WhlC'h .I:~', in varying degrees, unsymp:tthetk to the actor himself, p3rt~ h.~
which he has to <ldapt himself with a greater or lesser degree
of compromise in order t..> step into the shoes of the ..:har'
ader he is i01pers~~natin~. And ....,nly once in a lifetime docs
,111 actOl" encounter <I part which is cX.1dly suited to hls rJngc
::md t('mpcl.lmcnt. In :-ouch ,,1 ~-ase, :md .:mly in su..:h a casc,
is the ador so .Ihle to identify himself with the man he 1S
!vprcscnting ,mJ t~"'1 pcrmc.ltc himself with. the .other'S pc~'
""cnality that he ,cases t~~ ad him and, qUite Simply. hvl,;s
I

)~

. ' Then he feels a complete inner satisfaction, both

hl.s hhf:- If and the part; then he finds himself able to rise
with IIDSC
. '
th
d th
I'
to the heights of artistic cl:eatJon; . cn an. c,n Olf' y II~ the
. a position to project
an Image 0\ cr. .h Coot 19hts
actor In
.
. t 'hi> auditorium In the serene convictIon that the
d
an lfl 0
hout dlstortion.
image will ..get through, and get t h roug hWit
This was my experience when I ,appl'oachc~ Othello; and,
if the auditorium confirms that I did mdccd 9 l ye ~hem 5>thel10. then my theory really docs appear to be Jushfied.
How did Ostuzhev play Othello? ~c him.self declares that it
extremely difficult for him to answer thiS question.

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"Before the beginning of the play, all ready to make my

first entrance, I usually sit quietly for some time completely
absorbed in the ideas which dominate the image I am trying
to create. Gradually, Ostuzhev is excluded from my consc;
ousness and it is completely taken over by the: image of
Othello. Just one comer somewhere at the back f my mind
remains in touch with the stage-manager who sees us out
conto the stage on our cues, and with all the U~ ual thcatr_l.: ~
setting. Once I am out on the stage lb comer continues to
regulate my movements, to suggest the most effective of
them, corrects the angle of my head, the nising 01 a hand,
the 'apidity of my step. That is all thai remallls f OSI JZ'1f>V
'r'1e rest is Othello .
Rut the Othello of the last pcrfornance s neve the ~ame
8-:; the Othello whom I play tonight.
I do'!]'t know whether or not the audicnce is aware f
this (lut, e\'ery time, in spite of the seemingly profoundly
e!l. 1atu~ ... of his part, r find some new shade of expression
W1IC1, IS It seems to me, goes to perfcct some featu'c
.
~t~er d '1c ..:harac .cr lL<;t.M
Of (; .... rsc, :'1.IS docs not me!J.n that tht'! image d.ld the
pi 1] ~ put tqcther fOl lltoUSJy t:....c V time -rom some
I': ~ l'~he~to TIl smg c1cme'lI ... Thdt would be sheel dlkt
thi~ -;n, ,.:Ult_ .un\Or-oft}.y of .. pi ~-:>. Slon~. actor This IS some
I kg U1tc dlff!.. 'It It IS 3. kin~ 01 rcscdLh WOl k lndcr
...1 Y:he iete' 11 ... C.!;:l: ve expcrment, 11" .cmt...nt
~ ~f Wbl( h IS 0 perfe t the Imdge th mks to th's, the
~ fo e 1=3.1t q, n e-. Y ;ml 10 pI~cis.on lOL in den; 1S
,-ut I fail' .J~ tis k nd of
k is '''ltu 11 y nco w ~1I ~.... ,,/n such C1
the new toU( h W11( ~ h ... "lpen
1fr 0-;_ j, ~ or "... J. ked.

,60

"KING LF-\R
Sl~ctdl

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'ar T

tOI III:
State JI" Ji!.!l T
I 'l.kxamll.' r

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p.,)~ Ie ion c II

colSidC.lbli put 1n lh' c

. AtJ bv tl:_ lUI n~ n whlC'
r Ylorium II" him If lyS:

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thl.. .. oldienc...
"MY dt!"rcsl WI' h is f" I-c ~ meml ...
-"tching Ostu...'lev n the pal t of Olh_'k sn th t I ould
~h~n teU him wh" till rcm~ :ns t, br de ne ..

Pal tit Jhr"v happ~ c... C. tuzhev wa.....

with the produce )f thj pl. y. Scr -" RadJ

"

~on

"Sergei Erncsl vh. h'! Imml;:.cn~in(

hi! d ... phon .
knowledge of the materi", !tone! h.3 sllbtlc ~lC_. 1... -1 m: lit.i ....,
says Ostuzhcv, "often helpca me tl :t ~~
1l"f,;.~1'Sl..:.nCl.ng
of Shakespeare's chal acters and r vc...!.e_ to ne the iomaSI
secrets of the movcmc'1ts of th_ r hear
Rar'lrv s C;hak..:
speare waS the foundation n which I bi.." ~d my :lppro.:'.'1
to Othello."

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The appre l< tion of -ql. jmir Nc...; -:

D'
tive in his jUd.Jem~ nt w
I sub,
'CTe t y
I
Ostuzhc v After se~:ng t1C p_ 'olmance Vl: .I""'lir I'
,,:, r
,
alwa::;: ~nsidered ')stu::':irv ," _1 nd
""'I
OtheJ1o is a part frc.. n th _ ._&~
rep.... .,:1

surprised the t Ostuzhev Jr..n':l.< e:1 h.. r

w
A'
ervousne
md passion, in;l. -.11:" ~
1 - ~
eft ~
,
time, not once throughout ,be nlay wi
e 1 tl ~
l ,.
more than th'" a tOI WiSh e ,;) 91.... '"
F

or in expressivene
)r In t bnie !l r=UI expecte:1 and thriJ1: .n
":1 r
A parttculal Jhc' is a 'corC :: t t:
. 1
y
problem of naL ... lality in ~t:\:. he s
t "1"t"" _ ~~
I
f
profound analy. IS to which Osh:: 1 v h '-- ~
characte. !j u hin. to ~ judi .h p.~..... :i ~
rag! dy a' i. tl 1ged:y... c 1~I,lSY,
U~_ll _
1.._. J,
'c
"To show Othel 0 ~s it c_' u r:\I the l~n __ ... t.' ~I.. . -v
"would be to impuvc . h tI,d n ld ,) tl.:- l ; , ~t ~vl~",

---

c-

what is most attractive 1111

into an individual n lrd~'
SI
of a detective story

.<

]L onli to

,_:'VC'"

tht:

plot

=l uite cx.:_. jen..! attj" ' to tI - ,.:.;'

.,i'
ned tv JSC 111 )0 : ~\e n e n wh' -, '-. t 3: ~ .'1
a:_
cndit '15 of
c:-t
hCl'~C,'f,rch tOF"h:,
".-:1th(
'0 ,.,.
f
' .. r._':nlt.J
S51
It:' of h
""on.l rfu! M.. ~ b... t.--' ':-.:1
. 0, . _ Cv devot!

boo.

oy jclou v

valu
warl

,_

"Th_ aC .. r hculJ. r]ako,; ,t ')!S bU~lDt~S ~:-:':"11 ::1t' v, ,y fir,,;

.d
I ' Ot'l'k
Th-:
cne) to
in t'-le C;ludicnc!'; s {;I,mh ('nee ..)1
. ~.
_pet"d, r siluuld nol only fee: .:omp::ssk:1 fo:, tht: MJor :lul

"

id be firmly convinced of his profound sincerity

h
sou
h
h"
and
integrity. If the actoll'. can .olncc ae leve t IS,. then the teXI
l~ OP por,tun.lty to Convince
itself should prodde ~lIn \\'It 1
anyone that Othello IS not at a Jca IOllS y IJ1clined. M
th~n once in the course of the play Othello himself dcn~~~
that he is jealous by nature (as do. other charact.cl's as well);
these words should sound partIcularly ConvIncing, the\'
should be accepted by everybody as a positive witness to thO
unquestionable inner lucidity of the character, as a statcmen~
of fact and not as mere words thrown to the winds. The
success of the whole of Act V is, to a great extent, predetermined by this."

amlf

,c

I:

..
A

This attitude to the question of Othello's jealousy suggested the

treatment of the extraordinarily difficult fifth act at which Ostuzhcv
finally arrived. Having, throughout the first four acts, done everything
possible to offset Otheno's high idealism and by this to emphasise the
contrast between him and the milieu in which he exists, Ostuzhcv
brings Othello inevitably to the tragic denouement in Act V.

"The death of Desdemona," he says, "is more the tragedy

of Othello than the tragedy of Dcsdemona. Her tragedy here
is more intimate, morc personal, whereas, for Othello, this
is the collapse of the whole philosophy by which he lived.
O!, rather, the essence of his tragedy lies in the fact that the
trIUmph. of Othello's idea is only possible through his own
destructIon and the destruction of his personal ideals (and,
amongst them, Desdemona). There is no murder here; the
~eath of Desdemona is a carefully considered plan of ideologIcal reven~e and of personal sacrifice, a part of Othello's
whole service of mankind".
1' H',nhce
Ostuzhev's
IS
c cause
...." interpretation of the famous fifth a('t monologue

"He~e,

where reason and passion have entered on a profoun~ IOnher conflict, Othello, this wonderful honest Othello,
rematns onest to the e d h h k '
h
last time h th
h
.n: e c cc s with himself for t c
act of ju~;: e d t ere 1~ true cause for committing the stern
Here in thi~ '::: ' ~s an unpartial judge, he finds such causc.
end: 'to showin on~h~g~e, all ~y efforts are directed to onc
J.udges 10 the audience all the inner
purity of Othe1f
not kill Desd 0, parti cuJarty at this moment Othello does
h
emona he destro
. .,
must die, else she'n' be
ys a s~urce of eVll (Yet s e
tray more men), and, for this reason
16Z

1 c whcn hc latcr discovcrs that not shc but he himself is

"cc of cvil does he execute judgement on his own person
aa on
SOUl
.'
.
. d destroy hllnself-also as a source of eVIl. Only on this
~n 's can Othello's suicide be interpreted as a sign of strength
r:tS~er than of we~kness. Only by looki~g. a~ it this way
. _ 't possible to give the tragedy an optlmlsttc conclusion,
IS; in this way can the eventual triumph of Othello's human?n Yand the downfall of 1ago's misanthropic philosophy be
Ism
. ' hI "
made to appeal' Inevlta e.
This line of development for ~thel1o is in c~mplcte acci)rd with
ostuzhev's interpretation of the national problem In the tragedy.

"Thc cxtrcmely responsible political task of thc actor,"

s Ostuzhev, "lies here in the necessity of can-ying o~t a
~~~isivc attack on the chauvinistic instincts of those whItes
ho have lost the scnse of their own humanity.
w "The condition of the successful accomplishment of such
an attack is Othello's purity of heart. Not the. black, purehearted Othello but the dirty world of the white lagos has
killed Desdemona, has killed Othello and hundreds of others
like him. That is the message I want to cry out to the whole
world with all the power of the artistic resow'ces at my
command. This interpretation of the I?roblem can aIs~ he~
us to understand Desdcmona's words m the first ~ct:. I sa
Othello's visage in his mind: 1 attach the greatest.slgOlfica~c~
to these words' here Desdemona is transfonned mto a tr~ y
l~evolutionary i~age: boldly casting her ang~y challenge h~to
"he tccth of the most high Venetian Senate: You see .not mg
; t h hi k "d'rty" face. You do not sec that he IS p~er
,:IU
IS
ac,
1
y
t sl Look mto
in heart nobler and loftier than you. ou, scoa o~
.
'
f yo u whlte men c.m
y;mrsclvcs
and say honest I Y whlC h ~."'
compare with him, though he be black,
. '.
,
. -h Ostuzhev attaches to th.ese
Thanks to the great stgmfk.lnc.: W~lC I' Othello the culminatmg
words of Desdemona's they became In lIS
p~int of the whole scene.
Ostuzhcv loves Othello and hates lo.go.

1 d because we love
'The Soviet people love Othcllo, as
0,.
through all
man. Life in our count'!' is devoted. to enh~r~~ill care for
its policies the realisation of a SOCIEty w I~oth the tragedy
man, for people, and teach the lov~ 0 man the noble Moor
of Shakespearc in itself and the Th~g~ 0 f hy he is so close
make the same demands upon us.
IS IS W
II'

163

<lnd dear to us. We detest l.:1go hCl'i\USl" all th" r:'l:).d of

Othello. on the road of I,nan nn,d on. ou" rOoJd, there lurk
,
lOllS reptiles who hide theIr pOIsoned fang'S unde.
\cnon
d h
l
tl t .
hypocritical mask. An t C Clrcums ance la, In Our day.
clash between Othello and lag
t00. t he problem of the
f
. fi
0
sounds "ital and full 0 ~ont.cm~ol'a.ry s~gnl caneI.', give on.,;
more impulse to my creahve InSpiration.
Ostuzhcv also accords a great de)l of alkntion to the ;'\( tual WOrds
on whlch he has to work.

,,
o

"
"f,"
II

A
Ih

w.

'u

M.
tn

.'"

wi
of
K.
G.

Olh
inC(

ott

.ta,
MOl

"Weinberg's polished, sing-song translation lacked the

vigour and the dynamic quality of Shakespeare's thought,"
says Ostuzhev. "Often the text served as a h.Jrricl' between
thc actor and the image hc was trying to create. This fault
has been brilliantly corrected by thc new translation by Anna
Radlova and, although it was extremely hard to relearn the
text to which I had become accustomed, I definitely rejected
Weinberg's translation in favour of Radlov<.\'s: in this text I
felt Shakespeare's earthiness, his clarity and the purposefulness of his language.
"Othello is the crown of my creative ambitions, the highest
point attained by me in the development of the actor
Ostuzhev," so Ostuzhev defines the place and significance of
the part of Othello and of his work on that part in his stage
career.
From the collection Ostt~efl
OtIlC1l0.
Socict~.

All-Russia Thcatrlca:
Le"lingrad-Mr' )W 19~tl

ALEXEI P )POv

Si!, Kf"',PEAR Am

boo,

..valu,

....
worl

'.IEATR

EVER Y YE.AR th" 50\ 1_: t'l_ .! q:ve m~re ~d m( ."] time
to Shake , ,uc pl~y It 1 n'l cxas-er ti( 10 'V
t, 1"
th Soviet Unhm, 5h , I c:, 1rc ~~
-1U11"'1
C ond holr.
la~d. It w ) oflIy n Jr, th_t the R d }. n .' n ktrc in it
""1... mg Sh d ( ~ell
n hould hav t: tlJ we k
t

Shrew .... 't r."' _ ~ "11 1Il! I~ m.

We lo!)k upon -,c Y- r .. on The Tl111'llQ Fthe Shu '"'
first venture nl th~ v/ollt wh '_ c:.h... 1 ;;"'11
quf tJ 1. :I
mankind. The task -f le R( A.rnw Ito .. .,.: ~ S -, ;,1; 0

;;c .Taming uJ

tIle

plays not only . bOI t

_ il1my bUl f! r the annv Cl. k
speare's humanIsm is unci, r_ 1r l- e dnd _nqenial lour
men and to our of 11 "', S.
)
Why did thr. theat "ch._.:
The Tv: 1:'1 I ,h .. 5hr
I raise this poml nly b c u:;: .. ql til h_A r
I" .: ,.~
than once as to why '1e ~ 1: -1 .L __ ~re d tJ- le.,:l AnlJ1
cho~e to taqe sucl- ~n "1' ~ 1__ Clly .l .!'
rIa
l'
appearances, the W~I Ie pl .. y ... _.
- -1 tl' f .AJ.J ....
Let the wife fear h~ lUSI n:l.
f ,
t

Bour;JC'" 1~
"lUI
rn .. "lei 11 :1 1
two centuries. bpe, adapt nq 51_
,10 _
J
J t
dards <I 1d to their own linl 'Cl 1,)' rI
1
ideal. We ,onsidt'"it -:.:r
k t
t
.
'
Sre
..
foolish n)t on ,r t the pi y T e cc

be undf""stoc.l l~. erno'"} n

..... 11'
fc __ 1 ') OJ h."
E.ngel- !;:l.ll ~ 1t Ren ... t"'1,; tJ.at ~
"f"~~.~ , c' : ,tL
' t ..... n" 1..+
\.1"'
~
gave birth t:o 'it~n<: L
'! 'tI t
I::'
.
_
of their pa~ siorls L.lld

(~r I,.t~t K
1.
~~
attained a !;U"")1 eme 1ar ~(J 11 (
JI!.
...
absolute 5011 tic n.O 11 -ro-'lcn ,,{ .. :.. C"'l.,let y harmc,ious humaTl per ::mality 5 anI '
~ ':;: 1!l ~, ... - so If'"'y
h we (I s, "Uqrr 1<I]
."<.1. ore JIJ,,"'R:'Ji'
nc
w h lC
C

.-

r:'

Wo

stud

"'VI.

fB'.

..

<

"

" it"" n' lpprov

, ,
"
rc 1C
,

qU")tca
j

,
tJ

Domo t

"

,I

", b.",.

" '" " -

r: .. I
'on

"

lifl

n
T

I'

, Co
.
,. ,.
,
ru,

V ,.

"

,.,

<

,
,
.

1\1

_ally

0<

, ,

0' _

'11 U

lUnist society will be incomparnbly more fruitful

n
f
oeom
I"
'I'
.
<lnd
, elevated NcvcrtI
lC e55, It IS \\'It 1 Immense lIltcrcst th
mOIC
.
.
I
Id f h
.t
'e submerge ourselves 10 tie wor
0
t c thoughts
"
.
' sC,nsc.
'SI~akcspcarc's
.
and
feelings
of Rcn~,ssancc
man. I ~l t Il~S
art
is an inexhaustible f~unt of 1I,1COI m.ltlol~: }hs comedy Th~
Taming of tbe Shrew IS the stOI y of a dCl.:IS1VC and ovctbc

I'
,ll
h
Pt
ingly self-confident youn~ man, L' 1'll,C 10. W 10 IS dctcnnincd

,,

,,

"

"

t/

f,
A

......
tb

...

...
In

wi:
of

K.
G.

ath
In..

....
....
oft

Iu.
levIbooi

..,.
wod
R

to make a good match, I.e., to obtmn as large a dowry

possible. His friends say that his is a problem easily scttlc~s
for there is a rich bride to be had for the asking in th'
neighbourhood; the ,only thing is t~at 5,hc is a shrew but, i~
this doesn't worry hm!. then everythIng IS fine. Pctruchio can.
siders this a mere nothing, he is too well acquainted with the
clink of gold to be worried by such minor details as a shrewish
bride. Finally. he meets the sht'ewish Kat.:ll"ina, tnrnes her
and all ends happily. This was a subject which existed bcfor~
Shakespeare, It suffered a great many transformations, but
only in The Taming of the Shrew did it serve as the basis for
a work of genius.
Shakespeare showed, as only an artist of genius could have
shown, how Petruchio, in taming Katarina, is himself tamed
But Katarina herself is changed, no longer the same woma~
she was at t?e beginning of the play. What has happened?
In The Taming of the ShreUJ, Shakespeare is a great deal
more complex and profound than his predecessors who wrote
the story o~ the Shrew, Before Shakespeare, the subject was
extre,m.ely Simple: feudal man tames his wife by starving her,
depnvlOg her of sleep, etc .
Shakespear~ in.troduced into the play a ruthless struggle
for ~uman dlg,mty. Petruchio is no domestic tyrant and
mlartmeftllas he IS often acted, He is a clever fello~ and this
'
c ever e ow-has fallen in love.
th!nst~~~get~d, fKthat~rilna anfd Petruchio are both conquered by
a
eu ave or one another
Shakespeare the hun
't ma k es It
" clear that the union
. lams
'bI
a f man an d woman IS anI
essl
and respect And thO
y
e on a basis of mutualleve
our struggle' for a h IS rna es Shak.espearc a great ally in
appy, self-respcctmg and strong humanity .
H ow d1'd we show
the'
.
Petruehio-the key t th
meetIng between Katanna and
to start taming his sOh e whole play? Petruchio is prepared
"
rew at onee a d h
'
mtenbon of putting up
h'
'. n s e entel'S With every
fellow has never imaginS~ i a ~.eslst~nce as this impertinent
n IS Wildest dreams, And -;ud-

166

dcnty. " a ~:>'1SI iracv f fc ng i~ bo:1 between t.hcn 111"

whole 01 thc resl o! t~::: play:; the ,storl \:' thl [urth r
dl.!vclopment of th s ~ehng . .When,.n llf' ~nulbm.at~
.. ~
pctrw. :hio and Katar~a fmall~ klS
1(" 1udlcnCC brCJ.ks t;;'!J
applause, because In $ JU~ w\: t they ha"~ been hop'~','l
will hapf'!' these arc two peoplc wltv ",u :~t L be toqcthcr.
got the
The spcctatl r .. .,plaud< becac.c. lt la t, lo\-c 1.
better of boll of thcre In t'l~ p:.y we havf fli ..: In eveN
pO~'lf'le W'ly
show lhl p- ~
f "lUI" 1 l -"g al t~
hand~ of I. vc,
We have tried to make 'car 11 c; V ~ P 'lOW Pe J(hlO.
in "taming' Kat, r'na, W,-S It the same tu:: _ ~ung '.J
out new, attracti ..- qUai til"" tn If' ':(
'11.-, ill 'I h~l"'9. LC'
tactics of elf-dcfenc", '-'15 inc on to IT.~., .' tl n _thad
discovcring mOl.:' subue v.; "l])on~ 'C' 1. stre gtl .. "y;, it, \, .
weakness past compare' . 1 t~e 'in l~ ''''ltar-nl turns mt t
be strongcr than PctruChlO. t;;J-., lJ.a . ''"llT)!..;_'v r ~ .. I 'n
this way, the final la~ t 51'ene doc~ nOl take I' ')) "r)'_
In Kat~nna, ;hakesp __ p
. nea 1 ",.:d:'
c
c_r
She wa! in a itate OJ total war \- 1'] Pe':T1.:_ . ,ld,:,::,:,c"',
in the lasl fcenC' rather s "'1_ _ .. " he"'-JI ~
."
the efltr')('tc. an in("om rehen_ e},~-,'_ . :. ~ s wer h
Katatina h . turn~d into a d '
- kh ,,".:.' - ...-;
time t.h~ \\0 lole
niter tl.~ 1--'. r-!""...f Dis quite evident y oope _ tj t ) -"'1 ..
-'-'.
., W
is at the botton- f 11?
-. .. ,
First and foreme >t it 1.
-'. , tJ- t ", J
oUl'Sc:ives c-I lTlislea~'ng 0-; cp~'::s -....... _.';,'
.l'
,
in the pky W m'lst tI1l't l' f c1<'::il !:.-_':;,'s
r-;_
speare, '.,r \\11< mi. wou d"\..., ~ 1; __ 1
.'...
.~':::
" :'. c l( t .:1 .... 'J " . '~-~'v'to d istort e c Ilvn. l~' trlt t':-l
:
I'
a moral poin~ sud: S ",,'~hJ 1C.. ..:~1 t1. . t
:ft,.~,,,:, ....
'fear" he:' hJ!,b.:mu Iheres nIJ ,~_'l, ,.:.;ht.: 1:" 3,.:~..:~d,
resigncd wif . In this play ':rc'""2 :. ~ ld-c:1 n>:' tar c ~atar: ".:
has changed her t,.(; . ~,s and t1"':.:.:geJ. \.'j ." mc:c ~:'::JI jdtn
sive movement .('lP :','sition ."f wom.:~ :.:1 feudal ~U"'l~I.\
inevitably forced 'le" L' .l~2-" C;:'tJ.l:l cunrur.:J ~U.~l' In . ( r
final speech Kat .... '11". ":.,(":',, c~ th" ,~citc ... :>:.l1"\

".n .

I am .. sha11'

oflr' "C

TlIell'.1l1

\,.)lj

. _. I!

lo<:,~.
.....

,'

'j

r.,: boo' ..

Ts "h"t, then, the sum of all the richness of Katarina'~

h J leter? OJ course not! And S~akcspcare would be n
~:J':nanisl h~r he decided th~ que-hon -f how to achieve 0
happy mar laqc by the. advice' :he woman, ou~ht to adapt
h:: 'Self t(' her husband s Cha"'lL c- and dJsgUlse her tI"U4
wishes from him
The popular "cma~ wisdom.
,Shakc~pc~rc. leads him to
rc .,Ive this question In the SPInto In whIch 1/ u reso1oed bl'
all nr. qre<;sive minds, The hapPiness of man and woman

,:

.. joyl.;l un'm be'we n husl1and md wife. is only POSSibl~

on one foundation. the best and the most steadfdst- on a
founjafon of love between tw-' st"ong pel'sonalities wLo
rc pc t "n(' another rus is exactly what Sh~ltespe~ ~ ill
strated in The Taming at the Shrew And t'U5 is w}:' t QUI

..
"

I.
'p

theatre 51 t '"It to t IUSI It ....

'{atarina,]e he oheys PetroL li(l'S v ry comman~ in e
I 51 ene s pcrfc~ ly well aWlre I t he is in
nf"SS, ~a+
v ry probably (as she rightly ucsscs) J.c ~"'s lCC:-ptl j :I.
Wlgcr :l.nd '1('1' S 1" way of gcttirg out of H. r 11 :Ugl1g h"
whims. h .. s saY"lIg to "hI W;f~ "211 her beir."1 I "l1 granting
Y"JU c"''11mand .. s i.1 re~uC" "'C;JU!;('" I love vou; bu dn't
TIl u C 0' S II
ake I,.~
of our kve, don"t t.: l('ler
'1
the SUI ty ... 1 ou 1... ...lr' ...
Here we Ill\:. t ' 1 on the sul- pIo o r n"" md
J(.:
In the play this rc dcs
;... idi:-y "" .... ur
v
... set I the ] 11 kn c' Petr J\..'110 nd K ..
ft
cn
If'$ v.
devote.o t'lr n t to $how tt"c
~ . r
r. ouge l!' t> P!-i Bi !c
f' 1:- 7C
~ 1 Jnrung
1 pc
j
,
pu"c uut"" rdl}' uhm I..
be:
n f t't u:w_ 1
I.", h c" .. -.1 y shows her ' u:
I uc C I~
C -I" of the <.IS
L 1( cntio '"
w 15 u "yp ~ll. rr't.:
n of R....,a, nc ncr t" 11. -Ie,~ t" ;:: :'t"" v
\. n - .!i frc"'":
lrc"'tal c nt "'1. whc ha. t
C ";1e undl the ~1
f r. penaps we LJuid

, h.:! )

..

-1

by BI

ell-is p r

Wr tt )

intu tl.

the
~p

;:J( ..

A.

,,

'y

..A

.,

'_

rol

t _
U

..
....

1':1"
O"1a luI' ' R - ..... s ,
t mak
s _...l
~"
t

--,

"11

~'"

,T>

.'

,,

I
I
I

.
~

fir : W ~ pldnn~d , put lO the ,lay with the ::;i .J!ogu('" Thf''l we
~ /II 'lat t gets 11 the way 01 .he basIc ideologicll conception
w'lIcb \\"C C ~~sidepd the play 0 convey ;\Od whkh we desil cd
oU' pI' .:lucH.o L' emphasise But why if it bOl1t:!cd OUI
theatre die: 1~ not bother the authOl?
We '1a... : ",0 answer to this queslOD. 00,
1""~ , S 1 l Jse for the theory thaI '1e P<' . 01 ~IY z'S ~hake
p1
SI')C rc wrote it has either been lost. 01 that in gen
11 t We]
nevI' Y; 1. i1 Jown bUl x'sted 1:- a ser c, of tC. 8 1 npr.:>v
S.1ti('lns :; n the commedia de1f ortc. In l)C' "1 W fi'ld SUI h
a.rC(. "n.
'While this i~ going on P':mtaloon i1 ke how
"Ie 01
0:' \l;hat a1' ut is leI"' 0 thr. improvlsal ~n of th
etor Sly pC.lk twice in the flrst let dght at the b~inning
" 'l( pi.)), and, 1ll the l'tllai'1ing 10Ul altS, he r. ,~ nothjng
tr Y Lit 111 And so we were wcd with the l\tcrnativ . .ther
t.., ret
infO:
lhlilicmal wi! v ,nc,; "in 1(" sty'c 01 chake
r ]1 ~ from
mr-" r <! 1( lei 01 keeping SlY tit; 1(' 1'S, ~
"ot hm
~ fil\. re ~f pftolvlT'im!: w thin 1(' pia:.
It would, d r r
h vc bc 1 r- 51. ~ t<'" n t ... ;11, nk
nr r n l ' c the ... re ... n u n Slv W ,,1(' lav J(
Jr1 W Y "rou~ h tt"l
y 1...1..'1. pi Y m~
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. Id detract attention from the general philosophic statc\\OU, abou' life which the play has to offer.
menS
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We treated Shakespeare Wit
t c. greatest respect. Having
decided against the prologue, we. trIed to make up for what
we had lost. Sly lends a fine pleb~lan ?otc to the play. Having
discarded him, we at the ~amc time mtr~duccd half a dozen
"Sly-like" servants-the re,tlnuc of Pctru~hlO and Bap~ista. This
army of servants, orgamcally \~'ovcn Into the action, work
as it were in the very tone and tImbre of the absent Sly
In general, a production's freedom from textual abbreviations is no proof of the respect in which it holds the author.
just as the number of interludes and pantomimes introduced
bv the producer does not necessarily indicate any departure
f~om the idea of the play. The whole question is as to whether
this is done in accord with the basic thouqht of the author.
Let us now return to our actual work on the play-to the
question of how we set about practically infusing it with the
atmosphere of the Renaissance.
The Renaissance was an era of extraordinary vitality. AI
this period, art had spilled over into life, had flowed oul Olto
the streets. The people had an ear for the verses and !>ongs
of their poets and composers, the people themselves pla'\fed
and sang. Sometimes, theatrical action t.,~c:amc C:I part of every
day life. I mean the "practical jokes" in Whll..h wllOlp neigh
bourhoods became involved: people agreed b wecn t}lc.-:n
selves, for instance. that they would persuade ~ome laivc
clt'zen that he was. say. not a doctor of medicifle bl't an
impoltant count. Of cour!>e, this provide co< rmous amll!'"
"flC"lt kit round. although it somctif)'lC$ c'lded tra(:.JIc(!'l y '.lere
W
C1Si'S, for example, when the victim o~ sut.." d 'leg ull'
t re.:odcd to have gone mad). It is oot hv
"lance t lat t'_s
o . .)m was reflected in morc than one of Shakespe:: ,,'S day
be fullbloodedness of life, the richncs') of manners and
cus~oms and the artistic flajr of man in the Rc,aissance
peno~-thes~, to OU1 mind, arc the ingredients wit'lout which
It s Imposslblc to conCClve of a play 'Jy Shakespnre .. t
t !gCdy "'r (:omedy
1\ few words about manners and custows.
.: &:':1C t-rwduc... the reproduction of the man"le1'5 ana
ct: .oms of al'"l ... ~=::h n the tht..!tre is assodat _d w th 1 davish
n . h
t ld~
ili~ f ev,,- vc. v 1i. ~ Den), 1fT the f lJl 101' o~ vcr im.'i
~s
pe 1. lch rod!'
1 'I.e t) pJay t ... :11
nd 111 t 5 L 11 ~Iy f... ,Jr.'. \\ .... : To real It..ltre. where~ ,

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. fact it i~ often a bad and cheap kind of theatricality.

~~ see~s to us that dislike of everyday detail on the stage 'is
h result of an exaggerated love of the merely theatrical.
k:eryday life and theatricality do not .go together, whereas
everyday life and the t~eatre arc not ~n th? least mutually
exclusive. AllY way of lIfe can be descnbed m the expressive

language of real theatre.

Shakespeare abounds in delectable real detail. colour.
f atures and this makes his concrete historicity (;ommunil
a~le and, if the producer proves himself afraid of techniques
and colours designed to reflect the actual life of the times,
then he is merely betraying his own immaturityboth philo
sophical and artistic.
Wishing to show the manners and customs of Baptista's
and Petl'uchio's households, we let loose onto the stage '1
throng of all kinds of servan~5. Hence t~ere ~ros(' :l numbt .
of purely background scenes-lOterludes1O which the ;ervant
take part.
In our work on the play we tried to avoid 'theat-ical con'
vention" on the one hand lOd, on the other. llnnece sary
svmbolisation of the chara( .er , i.e., the ..-eduction o~ my
single character tl iome one passion; for here we kne\\ , we
would be in danger of falling into eclecticiffJ'l f 'onfllslOg1
Molir"e with Shakespe'lre, wilL. a distinl. biaS in fa' ur ...
.. If' fo ne'
We were faced with the question d to v.'lether The. 1 :ln4
iny 01 the Shrew h. l comedy of C::lar~L .er or f, f latl~n
Had >He de idpd
is problem o. ell lr' r
we" ould
h ve be 'l the losers oth from th;- point f v ev. . <qual ty and of _he intcrpntation o~ the 101' ht ~f" the 11ay.
We removed tlll~ 'larmful and sc""ola5tlc elth '0:
and
.. ,laced it ',y thr> .impIc e n .lrt.. ion "anc:l" Wn l?!\\ere~
~hal Shakespeare W:.l! well able 0 'ombine t"r .e:1nqups a
tJ.. .. e 1medy of charae .. ~1 and thr> eL-.,e dy 0 f 51'l laoI on. 1- c
1
ffe s splendidly worked out chal "I e::- and dazz ng tage
situ_tions. The characters of The Taming 01 '1,,, Sill ~d l!~
c:1pablt:" of agile thought nor" subtle feeling. S~. w: liTh'
oUl3clve'), this
:1 'olTl('!d;r of lwrac fPr and ltllat ~"
l,,''''''d U'
show' 1(' pfYt: ok- Y f the char-:'t:~.r on 1
od:!! 00 o! Shaht:"'"
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The struggle to achieve one hundrl'd pCI' cent ('on" .

. II y rca IIS t"~c r~prcsc~tation of\Inn
profound and t hcatnca
ehng:
actcr was not casy. A retrospective incursIOn into r at
of the practice of other theatres did Httle to help and CC~tds
it did help it generally served as a warning not to'rwe cre
' Wc were constant Iy on guard against peat
old mistakes.
th
transformation of our actors into coat-hangers for effect" C
"operatic" costumes or into mere vehicles for the dcliv~~
of a witty text.
.
It must be said that, in Shakespeare's plays, almost all
the characters have the gift of wit, all of them feel-splend_
idly and deeply. and, therefore, in stage productions VOU
often get a kind of "dcpcrsonalising" of the images. That
is why we paid particular attention to the establishment of
character, even to the extent of thinking up a biography for
each of the dramatis personae. Baptista, for instance, is a
cunning old stay-at-home who keeps an eye on the housekeeping and does not trust his servants, and so forth. Of
course, he could be different. He only has to avoid being
nothing-in-particular. Shakespeare's characters need to be
touched up by colours from everyday life. We are convinced
that, in Shakespeare's time, English actors gave their characters features of such an everyday, biographical nature.
The epoch of the Renaissance was a time of enonnous
historic changes and of violent contrasts. Beggary, poverty
and luxury were mixed pell-roell. Huge squares with monuments of the greatest art and, in some alley-way within a
few paces, dirt and stench. Uncontrolled debauchery and
p?e~s hymning love of the highest purity. The depth of
Vlllal~y and the height of nobility, Belief in the power of
the mmd, and the burning of scholars at the stake. All these
contrasts g.a~e us ideas. For instance, they suggested the set
of ~etruchlO s country house. In the play we showed it as
a kmd of den inha?ited by a half-hungry: ragged but merry
and abundantly v.lt~l bachelor household. They combine
coars~nes~ and cYll1c~sm with extraordinary purity of feeling.
Katar~na IS bashful m her wakening love for Petruchio, but
;'h\!IV~S.. ~s good as she gets in answer to the saltiest
8~~ i~=rf~l1!~t~~d~d~~~:, is the chann of Shakespeare's image,
Sh Ekery Shakespeare play is a great school of the thea! r,
t a es~earehd?es not leave a single clemelll in the actor's
. ore 0 tec mque unexploited. He lcads the aL:, '1' tu high
172

thea t r e

to

lC te1li,.~

rC?reicnLt"on of

.. lj tic Luth

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th

SLJ~~at is the impi esslon o! an ."!Ct~r ...who find.. hmsf!

1" 9 Shakespc'lTC fOI th:: 6rst timet ~c>t of all, '"c is

aC I~k by the pow.: -fe l capa(.~ 'Y o~ Shakespe~ . .! 5 ..:haractE:'s
stru(
I"
, the CIJ"'Jtion,
.
for pasSion. Hc' e any I umng c
:lOy SUf:.]
dal understanding Jf thr idea of the play leads to Ini:\'ltable
and comp1ete failure
.
Everything Shakespeare Cloes 1$ on the grand ~ J_ ... his
should be felt in the, artist's decor, In t'le IJrodt!!,;ers re.:scn"sccnc, in the actor 5 temperament It doe-: not. howcven that cverything in a Shakespeare play must 1 shaWl:
?,f~11 length" or printed with a capitallette:
The next most important quality ot a Shak~speare p~y
is its extraordinary musica1i~y. It must
mUSical even m
those passages in which there ~ no mu: IC It ","<os 13tural
that we sought to pe1meo'il ~ our production . The i. 2min!:l
of the Shrelu with music.
.
What is the rhythm of the playt The -;..~ 10-:" ot e. '"
acters seethe and bub?le, fantasy beats_ .I~wa~ l:"f"'th'
fountain, wit sparkles like howenng dro r , e Silk 0
e
costumes surges bOI ing about the weare,Is. Ths ~a\'. .IS the
clue to the char..... 'er 11M r1:yU--= of ~ - .,la:;, Wought
this rhythm i~ the emotion.;=1 natuI't; of tJ-e :1:..;11 :tnd ~ ill
his movemcll!$ about th~ stage and e-;_' iJ1 _ ,: lY toe .... his cloak.
,
-'1tia1 ')vcments
A well-defined altematlo'l letweC'"l . ~:
. di ,olubl)
and movemen!"- on jJ smaller scale IS a ~atL - Ul.
. on
. this reason
connectcd with m(n .untltaI p ~ duc tj . . "
fl
the large mass movelllen~ v. 1ich takei up ~ wholt; oor.
~t..
.
<,.;d,,,1 ,eta arcner
t he stage an d the S:::,ure _f ..... _ Ula.VI ....
t
~ - s am -. lit::: arlO,
dependent. Small ..;.11... Il"ovemen en . d'
d 'wn "nbon the contrllY t'1f' largloscale mo\'ement Ie;. ..
,
small-scale movcmen~
In t'1c aI terna ti' o~ 0 . I: .1CS. move
mcnts lies the v,sua}
ch..;.~Tl OJ' d Shakcsp. arc pay
.'bl ..
'
. ly a- '10<;--.1
In this pJi!y We'! .aimed tc c:tpress _~~ c_c~ t "~ t'hc-'miSam pa1'fculal' c,mcept of the IT.J!' ~:1-~.l,.cne
a l::id making
cn-scene is not confncd to rlJ.cing ~n::: act~~
Jcmands
.hcm move ,lbout the ~tage in accor~ancc W1 reSSlVC of t1w
of th .. ~cxt but should fo!m a '(sua! Im~~c e~ ;;i!)eak of : hf
thoug~1 01 "lP ~I,;~ nt' .u.S .1 ""hoiC' T~erch re
'ling every
,'131,lctcr A the :n!s-c"1-scene would m~an ~Pc.; t"'c monu
thing .~a! h"!'5 JUs: i.::.'n s.lif! abou~ slylC, n au .

b:

:c

mental nature of the production, about the character of move

J11cnt, etc.

In our work on the productton \\'c found Our po' t

""
f
.
mof
departure in t he Criticism 0 our own prevIOus work and f
that of other producers. What we were most afraid of ,0
of playing Tbe Shrew with inane merriment and slapd""uh
heartiness. ,Often, w,hen one is watch~ng Shn.kcspcarc pl:S s
(his comedies, that IS), one gets the mlpl'CSSIOn that one Y

b!

watching ~~ldo~i. Often ,and oft~n th,c actors had to

reassured: . Don t, be afraid th~t It Wll!. seem terribly se.

rious, that It won t be funny. Aun at l'cailsm, take your part

seriously, and you'll be bound to communicate the infection

of laughter from the stage."

The struggle to do away with all abstract theatricality

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had to be waged first and foremost with regard to the

doctor. Lack of historical accuracy in decor is always the
result of a careless attitude to the epoch and to the every'
day life of the times. The aesthetic approach adopted in our
production was in many respects dictated by the necessity
of revising all the operatic. fancydress layers which had
settled over Shakespeare in the course of centuries. We tried
to find a background for a convincingly realistic comedy
which would suggest something of England and something
of Italy-a background against which the characters of our
play would seem perfectly at home. We adopted the maxim
that the most deadly things for Shakespeare on the stage
are plyboard, glue, chalk and all similar properties. If you
look at Renaissance pictures, at old English engravings.
you will see that fabrics of all sorts (including the wall-carpet
or tapestry) were an essential feature of the Renaissance
home. We decided in favour of tapestry. It is both decorative
and useful for dividing up space, With the help of a tapestry,
you can divide the room up into halves, curtain off a balcony
from an interior setting, etc. Having decided to use tapestries,
the. artist had, by his very choice, decided the principle on
which he would have to work, Le., he had found thc key to
unity of style in the decor. Tapestry became the unique
back9round I?ate:ial for all the sets, whether they represented
extenor~ or mtenors, In the last scenes the tapestries acted
as scemc ba~kdrops (representing a squarc in Padua or a
garden) a~d~ m the tapestries for the interior scenes, the artist
N. A. Shlfnn showed motifs from the everyday life of the
time,
174

way tapcsrrY served .-. -iu.ll i"urpose in ~hc ptJv.

I
" 9 both lS ] typl(,~, )( Co. so;-y of thr .it"mcsti( 'if, of tht:
J( t Ifl.
'h (in H qua I"t
1 y c:s a h angmg w - I-carpc~. lnd .as a
~re;trical back,urop simpl~ depicting place.
In the makmg of furnIture, doolS, f:c, thf': ':he.ltrc also
decided against ply-board, paper an,d glue, We c:,dcrcd c..:.rv
" 9' of Renaissance ornamental motifs from Shifrin's skctche,
In "
from a professiona1 woo d I,,;Clrv_~,
In order to escape the operatlc flavou~- of Italy'on-the'stagc
(in spite of the fact that the adiaD o! :~le ,play does in~~,-!
take place in Italy), the producer and .--~ :lrti~t "oth toe-to th,.tr
cue from England, from old English engraving~ an-:! fram
Northern "harshness" (by ,Ole way, tapestry, as it domestic
accessory, is more charactcristh, of the N.,rth than of Italy),
In the range of col( ur - used we tried ~o ,,",::-:d that sugar)'
quality which so often l( companies our the:,tr:~ll idea,> about
""
"
Italy.
The theatre tried to lOOK 1t Italv 1! It were throu~= Englllh
eyes, We introduce~ z cc:-tain hars)1ne- s and dOUln~ss into thr
production, not fearing the sharp CC~'1'a ... t WItt" ltal~ln
sunshine and gaiety.
,
I n conclusion, it is e-scntial h:. say :I. few , ,reb ~ 1 i. .. :
problem of innovation III ploductio.,~ o~ ~as.-lC p!Z' - .., !,i .. "
eral and, in patticular, of the plavs of SL-.'~ ... spc: ..
In The Taming of the 5hreo_, :-'le last thir.'J ",. .. werc doJrng
was arguing with Shakes-p... ll'c l.i''lough .:._rtam \,..:.~nT'~~, ~
who saw the play refuse tv Ut.:e\e 11'1 my "ucl: ;:"".Jdcstv .C'l
our part. Evidently boldness and oriiir.i..:!)r 10 t}1e }-mcllin,.;
'-~,,-- t.1."
of a classic-playwn~': :s 11Ilderstood as ,. -'-,' '~1~_ -- "'. .
part of the producer
,
.. "...
V
True innovaLon, how v~ - never i;.::angs _'l~ :l_ c_ .. , '
"".'
sprung from the c ~esr:.".. tl) be "Id
,'0
.md 0:'191:
-_. -, 1\ c.. ",."
- ~ and
producers' innovations ,,;e th_ reiuit of 1 !J;ofo~:-, mtcllc __ ual
and emotional insighl into thc wo:k w~:..': w:uch they have
to deal.
.
. 11 tl e
Unoriginal flal pr0ductions of the claSSlt'3 arc :.1~UJ Y 1
result of ~l t'hcatrc sliding ~~vel' the, surface of thc_,I.:,mten.~
reading the text for its sUT'~-acc nwanmg ,Jnly :llld Uklng .:1(.;.
e
ch~ractcr at sUl'f(lt',~ \'alue When ~~e thc3trc ..:.lnllot, ,md do
n0t desil',- to p~nctrate more c1,e'-1~ly in the l':n~tlon:llil~o
intellectual world ot CI work. It IS then th.lt t CY, a v'th
Ihinkiny U1' onginal intcrpre:Jtion:-; .lnd t.) argum~ \ I
the author'
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Any work of art which is also a work of ~Jl:nius IS in

and inexhaustible. The ridurcs of Leonardo tla V' . fillltc
.. War an d Peace, SI1a k
' s Hamlet thcr
UKI, l
TolslOIS
cspcarc
_ v

exhausting them, no getting to the boltom of lht'lll" 'len l Il~It n"

i
impossible to have the last word on lIn-tn. There would b ~
danger in three different theatres working on Hamlet if ~ ~h
in its own way was striving to give a profound and penet!"

MY It L,E

Ct:

iT B::C AN

interpretation of thc great work. This is a more I'diablca~.~g

to avoid standardisation than the desire to do somcth' Y
unrepeatable and original.
mg
Just at the moment it would be difficult for us to put on 111
Taming of the Shrew any differently. but there can be n~
doubt that if we were to stage this comedy again in two or
three years time we would do it in quite a different way,

because we would see completely new aspects of Shakespeare

and would be amazed that we had not seen them before.
Such is the law of any creative relationship with the classics.

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From the book "Tile .Laming of

tIle Sllrcw" in tile. eeJ1tral TIJcalr,
of the Red Army. MC'~. ~W, .en n
grad 1940

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< no )., ying ove:

11. '10'.: 1 had

and over tL myse'f th~ "'" (1 f \, T.!"
grJven them c."c' 1 n y ncn l'J m th b lJet 11 l' P( s bIt:
iL ) cmvc'
to dance poct V <lnd ro
in 1-1(," t
t
cvcn 5hakespe:: t
';.~ ,u-" t tat
,
Nhdt
11.
ITp
To dance Shakc)j 11
t.
tainable dream I Ami s, , I ' '_ 1. -111
n C~( _"..:"0' $, ':In Loke
The YC:lrs w t v.
Giselle.
Finally, I held in ny h I'ld 11
_ (.f
....,.'
Romeo and l'llleL 01.111': y r d . .n ..
_
in timc, sound: the' 1C"_ c 11 _~ I b{;ll l'
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confused, .mccl'tain A ft Cl':1] th.
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al .. ] '" hilS br:cn tr ln' -:: n i IJ , tioc
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the nos, ,'om .ntion_. ,. . j f l'

Wusiom on l "t,:'.1f' f :'.' U'll
th(sc wcr~ l:t prrc-" 1"~ 1]
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:hd --lett.
(l~ th... 'rc t f}
dnd tv' Vvnc r- -u t 1
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mf 'cqu:ntly

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I still think this. And regret that I did not h.ave time ~.()
tage ,"ncarnations of Desdemona or Ophch;l.
'
I
rea lse 5
And so, after long rchcarsa Is, W hc~ t I1C IanguJ.gr.! of tho;
's already mastered and technical frt.:cdom has be
d ~c e ,
I' b 105
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achieved. the search for Ju let. C9 "
I sought. in movement and 10 plashes, the most din:ct ways
from feeling to thought. And Shakespeare's text touched off

Oh so light a loot
Will ne'er wear out the ('uar/osting fiillt,
A lover may bestride the gossamer
That idles ill the wanton sUll/wer air ....

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178

~c;t struck. by ~e 1-.J.J:!piHar ......ith

ther traces attal,,:hed J It. The motht:. use..i the'll " I e Id~ca ins for the tittle boy ,,) that he should 'lot rm C:Wl)' or
Ing rc
b mp himself,
UH w far he ran, ;ough, how ~ ~ lh~:!~ of hl'l time l
M~rc powerfully, :no:C vita]'y I fe!~ I'lf' P"',::~-..:.!it}' of th'
laywright The glcltnt ,) 01 "lls w~rks wnich 'lave : .. t
grea t P
..
I
lived the Ce"btuflCS camel :.ve.,
My Julict ecamc even .. OSf ') 'ne

inspiration.

My own feeling for the world, my own understanding of

the life of today, had to suggest those colours. those little
touches which would suddenly bring Juliet to life not only
for the spectator. but for me also. In art, sincerity is one of
the first conditions of creative work.
Sometimes, after work in the rehearsals room and on the
stage, in the evenings or in moments of relaxation, I would
close my eyes and go in my mind over all I had just done.
I saw every scene, every pas. I tried to stimulate my imagination. Juliet came alive for me: to begin with-shy and
awkward, then reflective, inward-looking, then triumphantly
beautiful. Here, feminine chann was a vessel of true, high
courage. That was how I wanted to show her.
The part became one of my very favourites. I danced it for
many years. Something changed in me, my experience of life
~nd. feeling grew richer. And everything that I saw and found
m hf~ and art I gave to my Juliet. It was always a joy to me
to thmk of her and I always prepared for thi~ ballet with
interest.
During our guest appearances in London we visited Stratford
and I remember the tiniest details of our tour of Shakespeare's
t?wn. The gravestone in the church with the engraved exhorta"
tlon
t be th e man that spares these stones and cursed
hS
b h "Ble
t~ e 11 at mhves my bones." The sculptured bust against
q ~llwa af t e church. In the playwright's hand a goose
a~~u.se~h~k~~al one you can. write with. On the day of the
presented thpeare celebrations Shakespeare is solemnly
the statue, WI a new pen which is put into the hand of

WaS

(,. 'lOT:. ok

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INNOI\.EI\,JT 1 , "()",1'
'YI

SIlAKESI'~"\HF

. s set out fc J n '"" rc

lion
d nerti'" We q ,
bi!)n t
1_ Ie ded with LS n
)OP
. 1 showC du~i'
v

IN MY LIH

d landing by tradil il
r .lJ'I
1:: m 1 '1c I) VII n md
I
.Jl... r '\ _ J.Y
the
~L 1"._ L:lg.
A--rt
. Wl '1 y
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y~e ..

riQht

Y
d t g(
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from that. (
..I
I
vcrythinq 1 1 er
.
r: elTn -. GL;o C tL~t
~
like 10 a 11 11 . ("
y tLc v 11 nl ...
II you wl-tich will 1 ,r' 1:._. n
.1 .~ 'Y
fr I~ t1-11
rcer vc
)t,c 11tL th J- '
(Here hf! p... u
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W ~ would af" II II 1t r ".31 '
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IT WOULD probably have been \'er~ ca- y r _1' me :'I 19rcc 0

the request of this journal and to tel. them what I thought )f
Shakespeare before I started work on fiamlct. Oh yes, llat
would have been the bold answer of one perfectly Wf'Il'sa tisfled with his own opinions.
But now that the work is over ,md that strength. timr and
love have been spent on it, it is morc difficult to thcotlse,
almost impossible. After all, it's not my place to give an
evaluation of Shakespeare's work.
And is it necessary when people will inevitably find all I
could say self-evident?
I shall just tell you how I became acquainted with that
remarkable scenario-writer, playwright, astonishing contemporary director and good friend to all actors--William
Shakespeare.
How I shall go on without him now that he no 10ngcI
dominates our studio I simply don t \.now,
One thing I do know I! that I shall miss him miss hi!
masterly handling of 1e sc"uano, liS mazll ~'y ubtle
direction.
How precise and mc1y was thc WdY out he was mvuiabiy
able to suggest from 1~ most c,-~mpli(".)tcd ,itualon, ulmly
indicating its nat nalnf'::. and simplicity. And not only thh
but he took care 01 the ac~OI s ht'allh and oj his moC"'d, always
giving us the chance to rest before inknsc <:nrl pO-. titularly
emotional scenes. (He was ur profe~:;iondl collcaguf' md l~ cd
to say that this helpe.... him n writiJ!oJ hiS plays.)
Whcn he puts his director ~ rCQ 11 11::nt;, they <lIt: so elF'
and concrete that I am quitf! .1ken lb1Cl,.. H"lk was it that I
didn't notice them first go!
'dll
I kept s,lying to
But I coul??'t notice them fir t \:10
n;:se1f: but Its Shake,peare' He nu't ')(' 'onlPlicated, he a
phliosophc1
But, each time, the complIl ..11 on lurwd uut
be"l. a" ty
and simplicity mdn the, only
Likf' 1 db ectl r 01 thf! :ont~rrpol 1l"y chool. he
inted out
the ~ - I)S on the tai:way )f the l( til n W lkh W" lal to mount
to ~:: -h our
3.t an,,- War led u of the it 111 1f1' tl nrl r
10Q

'lat rc t)

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NIKOLAIOJ(III~OI)KOV

FROM THE PRODUCER'S EXPOSITION OF HAMLET'

Hamlet. Denmark's a prisOlI
Roscncrantz. Tllell is the wo;ld
one.
,?nc. a
H amlet. A goodly
.
m wluc11
many confines. wards a
lere are

Denmark being OtIC

( Shakespeare,

,lid, dungeons.

t Ie worst

Hamlet Act II, Scene '2)

... FOR HAMLET. the world is a prison

.
And a goodly one; in which ther
.'
and dungeons.
e ate many confines. wards
Dhenmar~ being one of the worst.

ere, Wisdom is put t 0 th e torture. There, the human spirit

is T
tonnented.
There lives Hamlet. wra pped10 gloom. as Walt Whitman
said.

,
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There lives Ophelia his I

re
, poetic creature,
i\:ere lives Horati~, Ha~~t~ t~~~hi"
f
ere walks. in groans and t .
u and WIse friend.
ather.
oiments. the ghost of Hamlet's
There the p eopIe. d espairing b
k
ocean overpeering of hi r .: . rca their way like "the
demand the truth.
s 1st lOto the King's palace to
All are captives of th
And there is no
IS same prison.
happ.mess to their parched
one toI' bea r so much as one drop of
amlet S k i p S .
H
thi
.
ee s to free him
seesk Ptr~son. Tragic is the fa~:I~/rom the cold embraces of
while th!tand aside from the struth~se of .t~e captives who
also is th army of the murderer gg e, waiting and waiting
blow for ~lofate of those who-toSo gro~s and grows. TragiC
ear y. or too late-return
This . w.
h
pnson has th k
. Ie walls whi ch .fl
uman, noble'
of barbarit . ms~~red. These walls
sh e all that is alive.
1'C<,cmble ir y, phlitstinism h
arc composed of an alloy
on grave-slabs.' ypocnsy and baseness. They
Here
. ,ev~ to exist is to suffe,.
.
?:e tl,.,
oppressIOn.
19". ".
'

. " ;;rodu( -jo

' the Vladimir Ma
. n In
yakov~,kv I'h a,.
b
M os..,;w

182

Here. beneath the black v ults :~ day. steps sound ~cho

ing1y. as in 1 great church But the Testament tu w'li"''l tlllS
place belltS VI, 1" S IS 1 Ie tdment of murd,"e
Here t"c echo long preserves -and multiplies ~'! cn~s md
groans Jf the ,Pnsoners. rcbound.'ng t- rn onc waL tlf 'leu
prison to '8st Itself a" the ther. as a 1::"" i flutters agains~ \...11
bars of its cage until. exhauste<1. it drops li.~: s onl, dead.
Here is the r~m o! melancholy and of SOtTLW So.raw fot
the evils of our life on Fllrth. that same W"Ztscbmer;z WIthout
which Hamlet wnuld 1]( t be Hamlet
How lofty it is here. )'low dar%.l Very. vc~ lofty! An~ hl;..w
intense the darknessl ':vcn w'lMl S~"De ra;f o~ .,unlight or :~
moonlight seeps through. it fr~ezr. in ts curse. def lted tv
n
the darkness.
aught
And the captives of thl' prsoDworld . havin
sight of the ray. stand stock till. enchanted by this ~1" of
Providence, and so stand. looking 'lP ard: for 1 I ":1g. ;;;--r
time to where. perhaps. there is a sun. to whe' ~ p- llalthere are stars. And there is no kno ';,ng wh:L":J.
~'!'ie
fantastic nvS exist !ndeed or whethe- _1.. _ are ... f=:.. ir:: n;:s
of the prisoners. bOlT- of the suo roundi:::" g1,)0=
They arc beautiful, these dre:l ms and Hamle_ ~k-} u ane
those of likc mind :lrC strug~lj..... t,.., h_ing a out t'"
- lisa"
tion. They are dreams of a rug
of
,. I md
friendship with faith unl mited t.r tr_ .-.unly "ind 7.':~ ....
HamIel dreams of a time -":,e."l ty:".!-', c.;
nd tC'll~S
of brass ar~ s..,ent" (CVlI So'-net) ~re~- of ee t.. _-m
spirit. of Man wi~h caPl, lJ l"'t+er ~Vf.l 1- s fa' 'It:. '-.- v
first and foremost for h:s 'lumaJ'll'y
'He was a n an t(lkc 'linl or '1 it: 11, "'-t;: [" .ni h),inee

bUD"ani~'

~ams

says of his fa! 1el

Yes, Hamlet _
of Man wi ' :I (.. .....ita! .. of 11 M-" of
integrity, of a Man who oves 'Humanity of a Man ~"]:. whom
and
the dirt and ignobility of 'ife together W,L, all hYPo,"::s-r
Ul
cruclty, arc sworn "ef1l1CS. 1C n ttl... what disg ;; . ley
may
choose
to assumC.
Not
fOJ the
croW". nor for power, nor fJr tht: <lion!':!>
his
arc
of these. All tha:;s
Hdl,:,lel
to him ... IS as thou' 1 lC . "llow. d 1D thr foot.'!teps 0_ .)emu{,;
r tu: wh, oore d(!clare,.J t1._" _? would rather cii.,c,'V~~ the
prime 1YlOvcr
the help of
,,-inc!
be
the
Shah of,' )I<l.' l F 'm't,:lad.1een lust )ltL: :"net- lrl'CSth
Don' hie he n qhl l-,......1 tht: l:":1 ell

fig.htin~i.

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Why should he doubt his ability to make] suee'" sful

at court: \\,hcn tens and ,hundred,s of othc!"S with ~c<1nt ~r;,;
less brain and contemptible heal ts manage to maintain th
selves comfortably in their places in the stln',
em
HoW' amazing arc Hamlet' 5 real drcamr r
He dreams of a life ordered by peace and renson, in which
the tics between man and man, betwC'en . pc?pic and people
should not be ba,scd on wars, on unpnnclp!cd s('iwrc of
other's la~ds. on piracy and plunder. Ham,let clearly perceives
the essential cruelty of wars undertaken 11l quest of plundcr
He speaks of this in one of the most important scenes of th .
tragedy. in the scene of his meeting \\,ith the host of For~
inbras. Here Hamlet. mocking himself. ridicules at the same
time with malicious irony all the idiocy of aggressive wars.
And, exposing the true nature of such skirmishes, Hamlet
thinks, dreaming, of another world, of a world of peace, not
of wars.
Hamlet knows that, in the "world of Claudius", man may
not stand erect, may not breathe freely and, for this reason
he is full of an insatiable desire for liberation; for the libcra:
tion of all honest men from the swaITns of traitorous, wo
faced and predatory masters of the "pri~ on'world", He dre:1ms
of sO~le wellaimed blow which will bring this whob pI SO"
crashmg down in ruin.
A p:culiar ac.ute~ess of thought. a pe~uHar pcrspic.:1city 01
heart IS essential In order to sec, in the crimes and low
stratagems of Claudius, Polonius, Ro' ener :1J1tz and Guilden'
stern, Ger~ru~e: Osric ~nd thei] like not only their own,
personal. mdl\'ldual crimes and stratagcIrs but all tne
clamour of a time given over to falsehood c...' the disjointed
1ge, all the rotten ness 0 f an cnoc h . Hamlet, WdJ
.
thO
possessed of
]s acuteness of perception..
..
. 10
.
arc essen hal
ordTrulyt noble ' and han oura hI e asplraLIons
e1' the
a perceIve
I
t

from
h . ht and
f to
h c\!a
ua e at one
rt:move,
as It were,
Elsinore a ~lg ~ t e. future, the life of the Realm at
. :; full ofs nhone.s o~tn Ide, :lOd the life f t'lC time' Hamlet
uc aspiratIon).
However shrouded i
.
,
HamlEt this future Wi~ -nlst", 1(' futUl :-nay appear to
BelinsJ v 1f' h
sUlly come. In the w rds f
a '" nrofound 'Jnders l]1r1ing of t:hc c""ing
V't

ti

I'

en c: 1

B ,.

':.tn' 'v infu n.; 1 z. ~

'341). Th
iO lth
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1

p I la. I"" "I n

he mtcrp. tation

o and of ... e rur-~ sc f lift"

Ii

-lit;

C'S In

t'1e futu! ~

of :3 "\r thiS rC_Sl n. on ''1(' L'1re hola of aC1I'l, ...... sen.1 a

"}o, c tntr
.! ~ tu"
....", -res d t b~, de
frlcne!
~c sat~o tl r--- r'" "'im end hi ClC'" ,. ..}.,. t_ the .1" ~I .11.1
r,.OI'1

t'1 t L ~. tl"l lture

HamIe'
s t S1 .,r-noIOql :: I 'h',
t r" ~ ''Ifar ceo
is why I,1P. c.:rtl'll l 1'111 C_ (.i f t
tl confines!oJf El ino:~ nd
0
nl-1 ':" -. real pr LI I1r.
'hCiCh '3(,C :ill ltuman ty 1"1'" tr - a' f B' .1J'\1 t 51nthmk
W
A
the 1991~ rf '}
ble oul of its T :.. on h ]t ' the ... n
~rogrc5sivc mank nd q<!~ 1 t t': d.: k f-;.
f r
.... t
throughout the ccntunl
lir 1
Although, to us of the tw It' 1
t, ~ v' '"
t .t99
to cstablish sociflli' t hUfT1an -;.. II m t t -1rc:ns L~' ~~ t",":'.
bstract, romantic vagI e 111' In cfi". . V , , - '
L"l
limitations whirh h:" t n P-j dl- 1 t.. - _J.'f
vf
go to make up a v gorm;1' 1( t ,t _~, -~ I J
:
~
of life and s cicty t Wi lL 1 , ... W
rp ... O. f - (
,
himself in 'Ie hadl w he I,.. :;:
,,, f
':"
as on 3 "spectal c.. h Il131 .. -:" .... ~
~
storms of 'ife il" ~"iV01V
...
,..

.
'
t

Wittcnrerq L 11vcr I.V w~

I
thought' It; (yflP.'
pol~ :;:~

1
time is out 01 0'11 ), -"d
clo.
"
this life-and-deal'" . u911 t.. 1.
world of Claudil. s
.111 . t 1
,-
thoughts of hUi lar ~p'" 1
t

,
took up the fight. :i p..
- f J
Claudius" an~
~. n t t- r.
~
him! elf w'1ich w :i( h y c .. }" L~
Hamlet w( uld nol b( f.'l111 ~
g
How dill (.l11 this '1apper)
~ ,
I c
To begin Wl1 ". h= s, .... C 11 .
11 tr
c ar .1.:'l
the road of tis d: . " . , , lr
1
_'- f e
beauty of lifl.; peot ~ 1.:11 rc

'0 ";":.c
The catasi ophl' which )..
'- __ " al'"
~s,
,d
of hi!' sfll'it W'I'
und.1P \\' th tr ,
. r' , ., t]'.
deat)'! o! h s bt~:;: n -:\ the J f.. ...
t,e.
t
this fir"t lo l' l' t lph_ 1
1
u d ('1
t.._ tt.
Iarmcl the 'divi 11" thinq of fc ~- .
19C5.
This

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himself lost ~lld l?~ely in this vas,t world which had beea
a prison to his spmt. He had put In to the coast of Dc me
standing on the deck of a sailing ship and, instead of ~mark
um
ing pennants. had seen the castle decked out in festive
Before the tears just shed for her dead husband were d ags
her cheeks, his mother had married Claudius. Shame. Himryl?n
Beast I'mess. T rcac h cry. He takes it lIa
'
han. Degra d ahan.
all
deeply to heart.
And so the gulf opened between Hamlet's fair dreams a d
this new experience of rcali ty.
n
Something aceuned like a sudden change of key. A
though the Haydn-like mood of the "infant clarity of the soul~
had been superseded by Beethoven's music, which releases
and sets in motion all the levers of fear, darkness, horror

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Sha

and sorrow.
Hamlet began to look more and more fixedly into this
world inhabited by Claudiuses, Gertrudes, Poloniuses
Rosencrantzes, Guildensterns and Osrics, fluttering blindly
about his head like evil bats.
Every day, every hour, Bamlet sees more and more of the
falsehood and ugliness of life. The Ghost, his dead father
tells him of the terrible crime committed by ClaudiUS'
CI~udius has treacherously murdered Hamlet's father b):
~Olson! Ideals, hopes, dreams, illusions are reduced little bv
httle to a state of grandiose collapse.
.
The .sharp contrast between his ideals and the rottenness of
h~e bn.ngs Ha~let to a t:agic awareness of existence, facing
hIm WIth .the dIlemma: eIther to fly from reality, or to over"
com~ all ItS fe~rful distortions by the power of thought and
of w~l1, by action, by furious struggle, Passionately, in great
anguIsh ,of soul. Hamlet seeks a way out~ "To be, or not to
be: that IS the question."
At. first, he is sunk in despair. The pettiness of life seemS
to hm~ predestined and not to be overcome. It seems that
therled~s no ~vay out from this stinking prison which is the
wor . Even m death there is no rest.
Hamlet seeks a way out.
Here is one way-Weltschmerz, sadness, bitterness, sceptiC
sm: ... These do not lead to the future give no key to the
~~~ce ~~d ~he ~aws ofbtl~e struggle which is taking place They
_
~ ea grow
md .md empty .
fake l:_ony~ Hamlet puts all people under the magnifying
glass 01 11,' trony and iarcasm. Bt:~re him there ar~ses. in
186

all its nakedness. the ugly :lnatomy of the feudal and

bourgeoiS psychology of those wno had sold t.hemselves to
ClaudiUS.
.
.
Hamlet wanders between HuSUJD'3 i:!.nd rc~Jity-but, lIas.
11 toO often he browlies on f .uts sprung lot from t.h.e good
:arth of reality but from 'the ethel of our bram"
He looks for real dee ~s to ~ d('J~1J~. but he is far from
narrow "practicality". and he S "'volt"d by the undean
methods of fighting which have been introduced by Claudius..
Hamlet seeks, seeks passionately. falling and stumbling, but
seeking always th~ ke~ to th~ understa~ding of 'ifr.. and of
.. .
the struggle in whIch hfe has mvolved hlM. _
One thing only he docs not seck. And that IS recono\tal on
with the crucl life around him. He could not become a cour~ier
or a submissive hcir"in"waitin~ or a f.avourite of C!audl~ .
Perhaps he should simply k111 ClaudlUs and force hI! m~.'l.
er to look her own deed in the fac,e? But. for. Ham!"t, .~1~~
arc not so simple as they are for Rlc:h:.t'd lIT . 01 Edqar KIng
Lear). or for Hotspur (,Henry IV),
Hamlet sceks a way out H(' knows the t 1e 1 -~ca.
by spies on every side r e ht surrounded by most unOlDg
enemies. Their suspicions mus~ be lulled ~ r 1 ~ '.17.:."madness, this enforccd pretence. is harel fot' iam._, ".u~. ~
is a mask through which he can look "\ut mOl:> boldly \~l~
the eye of thought" on that world who '1 FlU! t had ~1l
"the Kingdom of the moth... . He .looks "Tl.~1I:; h !dly::on 1 ~
acts marc boldly. This is his conspnacy .
It is hard for him, Parolel to let 5u\..1 1~ ~the ';"~o: ~'ll'f
of the life about him. Suc, 5 11 ;!.!1e SUC1 5 tam .}-.Jl'I
'
his nature,
f
Hamlet is a man L- deep passions lnrl of Jl it". ntJ'l 0
heart. All his feelings arc big. intL 3e rllS naKth_ Ii
which goes on inside "im much merc ,c ' ,
r It: furthE
Without hesitations 'l-tr ~ would bc no ta~lc.
~ ... t
the pendulum swings wl1"\ each new doul"ll j" ~Ir..'lUJ~_ 0
,
'I b tlo '
of 1 am ~I
i! 1
action, the more vivid fwIle
Image.
F
h'
. d P md
cmohon's
mmel,
ch aracteristic feature 0 . > rom
un der" ;el the ...'odd,
curious, subtle, pcnctratm~ e" t"'d
'f"
ne )te)-n
't b t lIi fur"t
nO l '11'1e
ocr his
1
-.,'!>'Vll;on"i,
t o ch ange 1, U
thought the wide' become
Ii obl('l.
,
become hlS
. '
t'
"erl0e'
the hIgher h s 11m 1(' more
.1 t: an_ - _..
'ling thl
inner contradictions, t'te 010'''' vl: ~~l< -'ill ~-f
. "'3.ring lights and prcc itate }I so
....
I Jjl

Hamlet hesitates not bccau~c he is devoured by n

reflexes ~nd a~athy, but b~causc .he is afr~id <.>f taking ~7~~
step ".'hlch n119ht go agamst ,hiS humalllst Ideak He de:::
not ' . .ant to become the playthmg of chance, Rejecting
S
. Itty, h C a I
d s unrcasona b
l petty
vulgar practtca
so 3VOI
C impetu . '
. " H
fd for the nrcscrvOSHy
is wary 0 f " mora I vertIgo.
C 15 a roll
t
. Idea
. Is, for t hc execution
.
. 0 f t IIe great duty whicha hIOn
of hiS
been laid upon him.
<lS
Hamlet's love for Ophelia is vcry
grcaL For him loveIS
a dream of the punt~ of the human so~1, of the nobility of
human nature. That IS why Hamlet so Implores Ophelia to

go away, to run, to run quickly out of the hell about them-to

a nunnery! ~amlet seeks to take all the blows upon himself
and to lead hIS tender and beloved Ophelia "out of the line of

,
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fire". To save, to preserve her, albeit at the price of a terrible

separation. "To a nunnery," he exhorts Ophelia to hide her
self. so that Claudius should not usc her childish naIvete and
purity as a weapon for his provocations.
In ~rder to preserve his most exquisitely tender love fOi
Opheha. Hamlet has not only to disguise this love bUl
?cforc al.l their acquaintance. to transfolm it into vuloa1'
ImportuOlty. and cven-and what a torment this must bc' to
Hamlct-into cynical coarseness. How hard for Hamletl Love
must now dim all its fire so that, in the future, its torch may
be seen ,to have burnt. the more brightly. So Juliet decides
t? decclve the enemies of her and Romeo's love by <1
Simulated death, by acting death, Hamlet, in spite of passinH
doubts. never re~lly ceases to believe in the purity and
~~n:sty of Opheba. The g~ilt of the one, Gertrude's guilt.
fro o~l not. extend to,Opheha. But love itself is not protecte
a IS why he tries to shove Ophp}ia out of
'th~ fiel~udlus.
of achon , to place her outside the -jl1g Alas shl
'lj v~rt h eless falls victim to the "prison-world"
'
,
HIS one-time friends ' Rosencrantz and GUildenstcrn
. .10
wh am h e h ,ad such faith ' t U1.n out to be mOre maltclous
. . 'and
:narc cunnlOg tha
dd
II
.
mockery of friendsh ' a f ~rs. A around-deceit, treachery
petly I)eople St 'd,IP, Valth a,nd love, All around- repulsive,
Bittt.;"lCSS' ur Ity. ulganty. Fnvy, All is empty,
~iamiet into :n rkvul!
again. t this existcn~,- Jlungc
bi
and glldually do~c '~t~S a despair Oniv w;~h gre' <;train
nering livmr' spnnS
fel~YC 0: thoughl makc out the :IBm
'.
9S Ole,
i('w umm: q:nably 1al ... it 1 f,r Hamlc: the S0n 01 hi!

'!b .!

i"rr

tlnH, ", to schhooc 1 howsr tc di ~:,d,~ .. e one lin:-I! hUm'lD

ml 1 of
.. .,d I mL I y
m.n
n.a ~:> c tabh 1\
~,ar S_I .. s a s, n ju qe wh k lOW n illon\qen 'C n thj
J1nc~t1on O,}u ~ JIJ n v llan 1
ICC u
,.I t.J'
I
Jam let u: ".~.
mI ct w ' 1
' . ' .:eptic -:: and
, J1l Hamlc We. te
en c. 11
i
e l i . ) c p ml
I:i~self. Yes, 111 thl
But Llamll 11 -' rr. -:!e (; "
i4 P !-ei dn..)
hut icd them l-ro~ th..
:> (,~
i
L ~
r .. d it
.1 clear under tandm 4 et 1:1
.It-"r il
--....1
n From the
world of book .. f r
nm.:
f _ .e"'r_ _~ve pt '')sop ,
he passed to the -no" . ( ~ 'c..
n liam;,t h N d
himself able to u~rool 11m~' f;'l1 tJ at W' y _ 11 W~IC 1
should have key: hi,:"
r I
in L
" f r 1,1L r l-ldj
ous existence of El! 1110:' d(
n t:.
rb f ::-:... ioe lot
subject him to itself an~ !l.uck '11 n '.l.1df'
{, rol t 1:
"'c
stood the cr JeI eo,... f h .'Jf' t ... It v v.ll L h,h . "
proved able to overcome hi' h.r r 11 tb f
l.e l'
which he ices aJ ll'oun~ ~ -.. ~., i' 1 lUl'l""
t
l..
off indeciSion and he5itatic n f -:! l- s ii
.1
too late!) thl fi st ute of ife tJ... ~'
y f r
Jnyie'c!;'ng stl"\l[:gle agaln't 11
~c '
~
Thc image of "fami
s -n
rl""" .. v..
J
I
many faceted, ". :lwn on Olaf v
~.
HamIel! neither p: .,fou-,d d~"o ~l.... "
- r
towards pc 5i\"l\(' t In til r.:s t )
~C
L
r '_
nOI pt:: 51 n Sl 1, no:- v..
31. 1, \
, l
in the livill\, spr'19s o fe it.:

,
pel.lo,)lty of 'lPut lllj
I; n

Renais. ance He 1 u"

ttIt:: nd
..,,.1 1-
biW
Volt c r ....1 11 ny .l 11m
,
1' .

'ntc
tender and lal\o' . ~ '- II ...C '

,
31
colour lnLl t'1e' b( d 11
Ie

,.
with pnn, uu t he 11.
melancholy, II vinC'l 1\ ~ ir
1';.
ell
generous anq4 "' _ fig t4.;
1y t!-_ t r~
t tal"
It would be' w nt
'l' \OW
, g.
:II ~ I
". t
(how nHny i, 1ll1j
\\' 1I. ~
"
mi<: ~1 11 If! f- "'l:
till I! l. , tl,
AI \\
lCJl t
vf l:Jl" e" -'9
hi..: c... p_cll v fOJ h ')1 m
l'
:J tt.
)u: GI C
tempI;; tuOUS :lna r di 111 fl"w
I ....,'
will ~o l.\llV ~Iaea 1 ,l. l( t
'"
p<,ge ",nly
n h 5 l( J._~L"
L

'"

1.3

.-

His many-sidedncss reveals itself in .struggle. in th

process of p~ssio~ate an.d extremely ~unnmgly th?ught.ou~
skirmishes wIth hJS en~nl1cs. The most lInportant thlllg about
him is that he is rebellIous-and a fighter!
In his humanistic aspirations, Hamlet is noble and beautiful.

Ophelia, after the meeting at which Hamlet tries to pack

her off to a nunnery, says of him:
0, wlJat a JlOble mind is bere o'erthroWll;
The courtier's, soldier's, scholar's, eye,

tongue, sword;

The expectancy and rose of tbe lair slate,

The glass of la5hiol1 and the mould of forw,
The observed of all observers. ...
Hamlet is loved by the people. Claudius is mortally afraid
of this popularity. In the last scene Horatio, as if summing
up all that has happened, recounts Hamlet's struggle against
the "prison-world" of Claudius in these terms:

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Alid let me spea1~ to the ulIhtwwing llJorld

How these things came about. So sIlall you hear
Of carnal, bloody and unnatural acts,
Of accidental judgements, casual slaughters.
Of deaths put on by cunning alld forced cause.
And. in the upshot, purposes mistooh
Foltn on the inventors' heads-all this call I
Truly deliver.

. Th~ cold prison of life which encloses Hamlet has made

him Its c.aptlve, but the captive has turned rebel. The terror
of the pnson has failed to cow his spirit.
What confines there are in this prison!-They are the laws
of blood-thirsty rulers. whose ambition it is to enslave human
honour, reason and conscience to their own service.
What ?oors. there are here! They are the covers of that
borok w~lIch ~Ight have been written by Cesare Borgia.
"G 0 d h as 1ost his worshippers".
Th n thIS "pnson-wId"
or
ey have been carried off to confines wards and dungeons
to the
th.cold . an d d amp cellars of the ' world. cellars which'
sa P . elr WIll-power. soften their;oul, disillu'ion them instil
.
,
ob ed lence,
There, . loneliness is born, a loneliness which passes like
an infectIon from one to the other.
190

From morning until ~Ol ning the bitteJ wmd blows dirtv
black. torn clouds across this world. cloud~ wollrn wiu.
human tears.
The very air here i~ ?oi".oned by the ~ypocrisy and Clnt
of those who are Iilttmg he:l.vlly on the ne _k d the
people.
..
People are cast mto thiS world c.S ':lto i;I crnc hIe. from
which. aftcr they have il been melted dow"]. -.:Qgctllet t
hoped to produce convelllenl lit e l ' ople of mall mol' 1
stature and no scruples.
Here, in. t~is p.dson. of the human spirit, all the pr; on
cellars are Jomed In an lmmensely complex labyrinth n whirll
thought can easily lose its way.
It seems impossible that it should ever find -ts way Jl
of the dead ends of this labyrinth. Thought is caught s :l
a lasso. on a silken, invisible tnre ld which is neverthe 1f>
firmer than any iron chain. the th eaa \;. falsehood. r .~Jghl
is dragged along the back-alley .. of ne.Jieval SC~10 astie im
and cynical practicality, along the prison ;o'-ridIC , of falSe
concepts and phantasmagoric ideas. Truly 1Pl JIC efforts
are required to break the perfidious silken thl': 0 md to
achieve the freedom and depLls of c genuine cognitiC"l ...1 :he
world. based on a passionat<> !'.ein.l for all the: - re_ ~f
the "mechanism of life. on suc'1 an understanding ..,f 1.
induced Hamlet. ;ternly and ruthle.;::'y tu cO"ld ~ t.
In "the world of Claudiu! ' all is po' on__ by f 1 .. 1C
and everything pc suades tl fal"e ide s. not tr<.r~ Dough
to contend with its )wn, gr":1.ter t 'seh .Here "cmpyricist.. like t"'c if1L. '""11y CO!lec nu n,:.."c esc
of what they have calIf' '"cu. RatIoncjsts iL" f c ~pi,.J
spin their webs of thei
W:1 5ubstaf1 l e
"s '"If' of Sb ...
speare's contempol aries wrote of th-,sc '1.10. in th
'l.tt~npts
to understand the '-'lorlc, become entar..,!"'d m l"p lC ~s v
their own one-sidcdnc: s.
Here. like shadow!>. nnantasmar r (; u':l~ md c -:I.e ~ >
pursue thc pl'isOnf'l. closing n on h m \ n nor,- pprc
sively than the stone wc:'ls of Ehll arc
Hcre, people have l"st lhe lif1c of c nunum:;:!.! on ,ctw~ n
"the mind' ,lOd 'the ob eet"'. Ev y ling jra\\ 5 nan 0'1 0
arbitrary lction and to un( ertainty.
Thought is tretched oul is onl 1 ... _ ...ibove tht.: ~rth
n
and there it s A splendid inmensitv wi110ul fcun?3UO
This is the world w'1ich Bacon ... ,-"l1~'- ,d t.,;:l latvnnth.

,a

Thought looks for a way out. looks for some new road
differing from the roads o~ err~r, so that the spirit of m~
might in freedom exercise Its nght~ to, a true knowledge of
the world and of the way to reorgamse It. .
And here, in this prison, knowledge ~s often condemned
to remain barren, the fruit of wIsdom rIpens slowly,
It is an axiom of this world to try to make it fr Jitfui in
argument and barren in deed. ,
.
Here every high thought 15 at once seIZed and borne
away ;r blown out by the wind of gcnc"ally accepted opinIon.

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Sha

The least sound or whisper l:'om those who venture to

look at the world anew and harness all the fire of theh
minds to breaking down the walls 01 the prison merely
produces still morc savage opposition from the jailers. '
And great efforts arc needed before phenomena are seen
in 111 their nakedness, without masks or drapcries.
Tagic trials lie ahead of Hamlet. But. however terrible
arc the catastrophes in his life, they arc like those earth
quakes which. on occasion, uncovcr 91 cat .. _lsurc'S in the
depths of the earth. So all the hidden r" ches of his poco c
and pnilosophic nature are cxposea
r amict fore s his way through the ... "ntnrllt ons ot his
ow 1 hara_ er and of life as through d dense am.. thorny
,'" __ t. Fcctin:; the qroundlcs!>nes!> of !ll~ hcsitatirns and
_::ing ~imsclf from 'all tr vial tond rcc.;rds. al
'W of
('"?Oks all
m ~ll pr 55U; past". slowly but su._'y .
I c'r03.t l. C) l!' moment of :utlon, ~UppOl tc by lit:: very
'>'- 11 t"f t .. 5. .;;1 ...' which le lC;tds agamst L~e p .. 5,"
wef
...he eo .Jlts 01 the jailers arc I..~nl: ..,trated on hiding
phenomc a. he effors 0: the pnS0ner
n :!\l 1.1 n9 l.t Ill:
.L he eff~;"s of he
al1ers are directed to connOl 19 man's
l-. n Wl~'un 11
I he... c' ts of th priSODl::-5 :) C _ 19
1 ~ the w z p_.:C o. 'le 9 oJ" \T ric:
h unp= sonea nind rf<=yS fo" and cy.pe_ help.
..he pI son G..
t only t.>at w iC'l rna)' 'S .. -V~ "0 mud llS
<
tv
r . lspil ",Ion f .~ mind
")('... :"I1(.;C lS 1('1
n .. ,-u
1 :l ':)1 the ubs. tutie." d cv cxpericnc... ...nd the mine!
f
"':1 lnd or.~
!:> latc t'l~.
9 tir'l\e Ham' S cks t';, .. tr 1(' lY
~
n wh.., ~ ...
"
... - _ ___d"
rve n~rc q Ul""
"",,"Cod
'r. h tl"lsr 01l 1!.1"_=tiOIl lamf t t
j

9'

he .;hlid ()f his lye, y"unQ. tn. f'Xpcr: 1( :1, 11 h rt :;ope .lt
OU , dyna011L; I?C! lonal
C"C:' t U
lien cn _ ~~~. h
lar ) waJ'lr"cr :C' rc h{! h' ta foot 1 ..... ~ qbt
...t
The-. ~ I' nJc 1 t k d I '1'111' nd f l-- ~

..... '\. 11
vill i! Gl .. '" ~~r'c I o' y
cd JJ 1
It
contracl'L. '1'}' th:)l'. '11 onl J n U'" I):
th
n' .~
of his phil(,'SOI h}, f fc ut]( in t,
l t
the wi.
d
chu Ol: C or by 11' n~: Jre
r: _ , ~nder
Belinsky laid the r U'ldatu c f 1 UP
standing of lIaJT'lk'
"Wealwe <;5 of vill. w }c n .
t .,,) lS ~ re 'J.lt
of disilllegra.io.1I, 10t by rwtU!f: By I tu '.. 1- role
tl 19
charader, hIS II n c 51 le ... '1, h S uCl<1 n f1 .. .. f mgc hi
passionate autbur' ts n h'
)I'l 'cr 11
n WI L t" DC .\.
his proud contempt 101, 01 1 r tr -i f r l.. L;
JI

bears witnc3 tc \ 1~ Oul and q.....

r H 1
J
and strong 11 h s weak](
- - a
1
r " t
in spirit i~. even n I mg,
. 1 ~t,
the height f h s poten <11 f P
The cas, e 0:
Ism I.: I t_
f
bubbling. r e . . . cll"', ,
traa

the remnants ('It

".!' 1; -::
~
Land witl1 the d1 v~~"pn-cnt)l r
were pl"par 119 to II -~'
~

1a:<:- lnt: ~ h.1narlSm .... i .

,"

e tal"ll~n
r ght .c "1al r \.
.
It w... nc"" sal y
1~ ~i' v
$: v
"l find \.. 'nv ""'l( ng

it ..... a! nc ~')J,l"Y t) fi 11 ~tnec~ s .. v to

: L " ' illv
had out their 001 C""'l ." '
r .
loving on9 f th {t

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that )ought h. ~ ll" l' \.. v r d h

who it w s th<lt \\ . dal p.ng l,
fp.trcl' of that ..
~J ~ 1 w1-.
to d( al ) fill 11, "y W , 1
n
cumc. n

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e,c

ql c t

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boc:

nowl {'~ 01
\
p ... r I..:ular
"l f 11
1~
{am ct hI life Bu1 f.
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Y;I til

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lac

were very real strategic questio~5. On their solution eVe _

thing depended for those who (like Shakespeare or Ham?
wanted to make an end of that dualism which was con~:)
boned by profound social causes and to understand in wh
their true action should ~ons.ist: which thought is a Sword, ilnil~
how effective a sword 15 lugh thought! For this knowlcd
comes ~ot frOl~l the sphere of abst.ract theory, b,ut from t~~
very thick of hfe, fro~ the very nudst of such villainies and
crimes against humamty that even the imagined horrors of
Dante's inferno pale before them.
In Marx's Chronologisc1ze AU5ziige, we find some extremely interesting remarks about that England whose fetid air
was breathed by the greatest poet of the English people
William Shakespeare.
'
Let us take first the England of Edward VI.
. M~rx .writes that Dr. Heylyn, a Protestant divine, states
In hIS hIstory of England "that the freebom commonalty
was oppressed by a small number of gentry, who glutted
themselves with pleasures while the poor comlllons wasted
by daily labour, like packhorses, live in extreme siavery."
Ma~ .notes that: "Unter Edward's VI Regime war die
Be~telel In England allgemein geworden. The 'pious young
Samt Edwar~' .... bega~ his reign... by Act, pUllislzing
begga7s, by burnmg WIth a red hot iron', and by making
them slaves for two years', with powers in their masters to
make them wear an icon collar, and to feed them upon
bread and. wate~ and 'refuse meat'. If the slave ran away,
or were dIsobedIent. he was, by this Protestant act to be a
slave for life."
'
~arx, compiling a kind of reference table in his Chrono'
lo~!sc11e Auszuge, wrote of Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary"):
.' There had been bloody Richard II (Volks-und Ketzermorder und Oheimmorder), bloody Henry IV, bloody Henry V
~~etzerverbrenner), bloody Edward IV, bloody Richard III,
E:ody Henry VII, the monster Henry VIII the bloody
,~ard VI (der sagar seine beiden Onkcl ke~pe liess).
b There comes ~fterwards the ultrabloody Queen Bess .
~:ff nur Marr-helsst bloody, weil sie den protcstantischen
enS~orn 1m Aug-wie nationalkulturkampfliehen Humes
et eo. Ie war of course e' 5
. Ihrer
,
, III aumen$C h Vall Natur III
.
'
qua1lty als 'Wfr fl' H
'
.
burgischen f I r e,g th e!lry s VIII und der spanischhabs'
lema e a enne (morose and bigot) ..
F rth
u er, 0 Queen Elizabeth.
.
194

arx speaks of "the lnfamous _~aractcr" ,of Elizabeth's

.M this "glol ious and good Be:;::. , ilS J final rc}uit of
reign, ctivities the whole country was plunged into com- I
..... hosec~aos. "Glonous. and g~ Be,;" bro.ke lDtematk~<J
pletc.
stormed t'troagn diplomatic :nt;tgue. C0mmitted
treaties,
.' . .
ordinary VillaInies.
extra
quotes Cobbett's wcrds ii', to how . good Be".:."
" M~~d all doubt, meant to marry teit;cste:', who ~:J.d, a"
beY
orld believed. murdered h:s cwn wife: J make way
ew
aUt h
h'
'dtihd
for the match". Hi~gonls. a
I"L:.~ant o.
~: fDt9UIS e _
lent ... states distinct y. th
. at
etCC~ er .
a e:,ward ~
ta .' d secretly a second Wife, and W;1t.:n she, up .. n hiS
marne
> hC pOlsone
.
d
. , to marry'a .
thad, re f use d to be d'lvorce....
wantl~~ (W. Cobbett. A History 01 the PI' ,~~'stant Re'orma'
her.
. . England and Ire 1an,
d Dubl"Ill. 192"
. "'n
;';'.
tlO~ .1 ster in spite of this. continued as favou;.lte :J the
, . et~e Gu'eeo" till the last day of :11S ~ife. For thu-ty year,
, vlrglll
d th
l ' En bnt:!
he robbed and OpPlC'~SC
e peop~. c:~ ,9 -, p~_.
,t At.,
"
d B " writes M':':':"lt, .Je~):nr <...amln n.."..
Goo
e~s,
d th"
wn tc the nai;":..J it:sue.A
passieren ".:hlch secure.
.. ero. b'
b ~tard c:c:-~c:?e:"l
h
b d' wodun;~ ]eder behe 1ge
?.
,... - ...\.
T~ron~r:e' und it was made hjgh treL'';;;: to c.~'1ly ~-:t ""~"
issue was heir t,o the throne:' "h -" ~ -).t'~ ,H"'beriPPcC ~r
"Queen Bess, Marx goei on, av;-'~ - ..,:~ .....~ . -J("-'.I c~~
racked till tbe bones came out 01 to. c':,' s;::~:~"'~ik::t' ::::.~L::l
etc . die Katholiken, nieM nu.: .w";:'t-s;~ ~;-t,;;v;~~hir.1theit
'for not practi~in~j' her rehglO!l~:.:~tl.~~.:;) ni~H ncr Trauer
nach Bartholomaus Nacht (24 AUt., ro:~~gatc C..:':.1rtw~;n . .'l1
allzuJegw sondc~'n she and :teo P
. '
.
h
b <:.sador in dee" r.;~'!4rnm!l' - ..
received the Frem; am a.
,
t ' S :Bet-.v wh(', th2~t0~
"1582: In d.em selbt 11 Jahr.3.,L 49 ~~t~ tooth~'cnd ~h~ gross,
well stricken III years, h",d stlLhJ, cpa... ,Jmour 1~A,'c,',;ter
betng.
~.
nasty, shameless old woman, er
. _ -,nlv ~8 yeJJS, Her
now 50, wanted to marry the dzU' d' Ahl~:lrn. '- 't . abel' a gentle'
ministers and die nation dctcrredublc.l'h'dvro rl ~llplllet (lgaillst
. I
ho h I f I) b e (./,
d W
man of l:inco 1n s nn, W
((;~; ht hand chopp!.' a .
tile marnage, rro!'ccutcd, .ha~ h.. . r gEn land CJst the people
The beginnings of capltahsm
9 "The prelude of the
into an abyss of poverty ~\Ud su . enn~i the capitalist mode
revolution that laid the foundation thO d of the fifteenth,
of production was played in the last Ir .. s" writes MarX
dnd the first decades of the !'ixteenth ccntulle ,
of that time.

ff'

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195

Land for
Wool was needed for the. new industries.
.
d
merl\'
d
under plough was turne l1~to grazmg grolln
for shceThe common lan~s werc forcibly usurpc~ by the feudal lan~'
owners. This rumed many peasants, latd waste lands and
houses. Many peasants becam~ hom~lc5s .wanderers. Begin_
ning from Henry VII and endmg with Ehzabeth and Jam
these homeless pca~ant5 were subjected to .terrible pcrscc~~
tions and cruel pUnIshments. They were whipped, their Cat!
were cut off, they wefe branded and killed.
.
Holinshed asserts that, in Henry VIII's reign alone, seventyt .....o thousand people were subje~tcd to the death penalty.
The life of the workers? Marx wntes that we can sec "the
gulf between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ... the

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English working class was precipitated without any transition

from its golden to its iron age".
The big landowners and the new feudal nobility "the
child of its time, for which money was the power of all
powers" (Marx), without renouncing their old, f 'udal
methods did, at the same time, further the bourgeois develop
ment of the country.
For the sake of an ounce of gold those in power were
prepared to slit the throats 01 their own father and nothers.
Treachery. ambition, intrigues. I.-lribcry. perjury, Clny deceits,
iny baseness, any cruelty were taken In their stride by th ..
ligher. "ruling" classes of society as they wen: by the ~ v ,
cigns themselves. Life became a pI I! on' for every honest nan
Shakespeare makes 'lis 11 lde to th s Ii ~ quite ear m
the LXVI Sonnet:

err

Tir d with all these fOl restdJI death 1

As, to behold Desert a beggar h ')cn,
Alld needy Nothing trimmed in Ollit,lI,
And purest Faith unhappily /ocswI-m,
And gUilded Honour shamefully ml' plac~1.,
Alld maiden Virtue rudely strumpetl..i,
And right Perfection wrongfully disgl"l.u:ed,
And Strength by limping Sway dirabJed
And Art made longue tied oy AutllOritv.
And F~lly (Doctor' like) cont /Ji'ly S/uJI,
And slmp,Ie Trulll miscalled Simplicity
And captIVe Good aU~~n1.ing captain 111.
Tired with all the lie, from Ihese would 1 be Jl ne
SUI 2 that tl) doe. J l::::'e my 14 ue llone

onnct is a sharp weapon of thought.

SUC a S are goes into battle for his ideals, first and foreSha.kc~~t1l1et. Othello and King Lear, wielding not a spear
roost III
but ~ p~n. Hamlet (called-almost-by the same name as his
H"h er~s
with the weapon of thought. With this weapon
a
son)e
l
1 t goes into b
att e.
Ham Cit . s not free of doubts. hesitations, indecision in
.Ham e ;c There is no denying this, in spite of the fact
g
thiS stru ( t . as we know, when he does act acts with vigour
that
~r~ment: he goes boldly to meet the Ghost: his
and te. P f madness is an action-and a bold one; actively
simula~lont ~qreat cost to his own feelings), he decisively
(thOUgh' a b 'lov~d Ophelia "out of the line of fire"; he him'
leadswr~~es cspceches for the actors,. h~vin~ plan~ed. a play
bl I to expose ClaudiUS cnmes; IIls)stcntly,
self
.
hich 15 pu Ie Y
d'h
\\
f.
Gertrude an acknowle gement 01 cr etTors;
he extrah~s lO":d through the arras in an attempt to kill the
thrusts his S\~l believes to be eavesdroppinq behind them
King W .om .e . 11
slays PoloniusL exposes hi!; "'/10 old
(but unmtentlOn<l Y,
d Gui'dn- em
but 'treacherous eompan~ons.' RCS~~~~!~~e ~~tte- WhICh' ~o'll
s pie' set on to watc 11m
:- l '
r him_~lf C"S~
'he ~xecution of these sPies n P 3.( e
d
th
en SUI C l .
es f'lJTl tne- "irate ; an, n
e' pes h.' 11e PIl'ltcS e cap
/"'"'
j
"th' blow 0' m

h'
t cncm~ Claudll Wl
"
finale slay.
l~ wor
dJo \s...from lC p ....isonc_ up
SWJld oand LV forc'ng ~~m~l~o?e maid that l- amiet I~ in.ct:e
AI .CI' all that II c::In
.
f .. rcmain' '1at e
" t'1at hc al.._ little Ncverthelt. s, 1]1 t~l. 'off . ~q le:l.Ly
ctrubts md heslt tes a gre. t dcal. putsuent~~' iV~I_S ~ction
fa!.s nto ct.mplc~e pesslmcism , idf~1 Shake peu hl- elf.
"ccause as Romam Rollan sa
1
'he refl~ct~ ..11 the
vulsi.,ns of" the ~fr Stude'll! of Sh~Kr..:
Well. what doP' ]t. ~al e r ... ~~ ~d~a wr!.1 iamlct em'
peare have much t ,c.y abou~ ~
Htth- < bout t}.e <11.
bodies, about hi!; ideal
ut t f"Y ~~Vll live nan, a l:1an )!
a
that Hamlet is first and fOI '1l0S1100K tr'lt'1 n the fae en ....
ntdlel
who dl c;; ot c_ tC'
h'
"ut al ,the truth
Only thc uth about
t:: ife l.oundoo~illm~~1f in thl faec
it,ut 11m I
II
11 t drc ~1
to If An/ he ,oldly
kes
f e re .u"re::; 1 :lrc'"'t ....c 1 f un_
'''''lve of t'1 ~'il ~
h' , 'f md hl~ Slowne s,
,m - t.he wil. , to
1{j
h l .h. 1~1( I' n" ':1d
1 h1ms, f i l
I ) h .. " tdt ...)O
'1(' mel tt"l_ l_q;.

H,::

.,

lays bare all his own faults. He rises against h'

against his own weaknesses.
Imsclf and
Hamlet does not admire his doubts and h . .
lights heroically against them. in search of ~hltahons but
harmony between "I will"
and.
"I do"
J e necessary
.
' H amctbrok
f etters 0 f a bstract humanIsm whIch held in h k . e the
thought. He was guided by his will arme~ ~c hh15 active
Claudius, "the world of Claudius".
was Ina atred for
anger against the enemies of humanity He 10 ~ Js;ssed by
"The first and the last demand which :.v.e m
or ~ruth.
love of truth" (Goethe),
a e 0 gentus is
Hamlet's capacity for action, his decisiveness and' ..
a,1'c one side of his character, one part of h'
InItIative
s~on, ~oubts, hesitations are his other side, ~~cn~~ure.
her IndedhIS bemg. The two sides are closely 'nt t . d
part of
connected.
I er wme and inter-

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.
Taken together, they are Hamlet A '
to Hamlet, and we are left either w'ith ;hlt-nel~he~ adds up
of Saxo Grammaticus' Cesta D
e enelgctic Hamlet
written in Latin around the y all~~~~l, or Historia Danica,
the Amleth of the novell bear
. ' or by his twinspirit
e
1583), or else with the w:ak.;\,,~l:~ls
Bclleforest (1530'
of the period when the bou/ .. am ct ?f German origin
powerless to shake off th
g~olsle felt Itself completely
regime and Freiligrath excf . yo de ,,~f the. absolutist feudal
amlet IS Germany",
Shakespeare's Hamlet b alme
these.
ears no resemblance to any of

Shakespeare's Hamlet i
spirit bursting its w
t~ a great effort of the human
at. the cost of pain anaJ blor~duigt. all ~oubts an.d hesitations
IS mmd and hiS heart burn
brightly and he carries' h"
the acut,e contradictions ~~ hi~msel~ the will to overcome all
The hfe of Hamlet is h
age.
tions. the basic princi Ie; ~f story ~f. a quest for the foundafor the key to th
PI
. OPPOSition, the story of a quest
wo~ld. ~rom far e o~.f.P ;~~tton a~d the rcorga~isation ~f the
which. m its turn
entel s a new period of hIstory
.
fart, and here he .isseems
faced to prom'IS~ peapJe but httle
comwhose threshold h t fi
by. that bitter school of life over
Man analyses t~ a ~s.t heSItates to step.
beating fUriously ~:~;r~~ of the epoch and, his own heart
f e pulse of the fevered world.
. He gains kno~led
discovers himself as !~l~ the world. He discovers it. He

This comes about pain~ul1y, tragically. Some (Uk

illS Roscncl'antz and GUlldcnstern) choose th
e Polo~uJg'ar
adaptation to life as it is. Others (l~k poCv\ertdY' of
,
h
t"
e
au IUS)
evelop t c serpen me cunning of perfidious a d venturers.
d amlet as to t rave J a Jong roa d of trial and t
but,
h
.
f
h'
d
.
onnent
H spite ~ cvcryt mg, a roa on which he is cleansed of
in
fatal illUSIons.
If history is "the most cruel of all goddesses dra .
her triumphal
over
of corpses not
of war but even m tImes 0 peaceful' economic develo .
mcnt", as Engel.s wrote,.
is
"a car of
as ~arx call~d It, then Insight l~tO t~e workings of history,
parl:icularly mto moments of hIstone catastrophe, was no
less tragic for people of Hamlet's age who had to grope
their way thr~ug~ scholastic mists a~d illusions to a philosophy of action m the name of the highest aims of life.
The time in which Shakespeare lived and wrote his
Hamlet was marked by the transition from the feudal
system to the bourgeois order of society. This transition had
a far reaching influence on the consciousness of the great
dramatist. It produced it, own characteristic mC'~s. a heavy
feeling of the bankruptcy of ideals and relationships whic!'l
could find no place either in the old or in the new worlds.
Knowledge of life tells tiS that the ~ate of man, his juys
md sufferings, are decided not somewhere beyond the limits
." the earth in a world kyond but depend upon terrestrial
.:onditions, upon objective ,,-odal and historical reqllisitcs .
Knowledge of the world affirms that man is not a plaything
:,n the hands of mysteriou~ "-pirits. that his fate is in his own
'lands, depends upon his own efforts, is achieved by struggle .
So Hamlet frees himself from "the warm cloak of prejudices", from pessimism, abstract humanism, before. follo~:
ing the "course of the river with its loops and sudden be~ds .:
he comes to the lock ".lfter which the way runs straight

ch~riot.

Pfi1e~
0: ~tself

(Romain Rolland).
YVe do not "wallow" in suffering and disillusion
but arc
'
for
d
proud of ovcrcomin9 them. We are full of a mlratlon.
the heroism uf thClught and soul which overcomes dualism,
doubts and hesitations' h0wevcr hard this may be.ulan
Andd we
re f eel compassion for the experiences of a great so
Joice in its rebirth.
" risonn
Let us then set wide the heavy doors of the ~
world". take (:lUI' brcwell of the infinitely high blue eave .
199

198

o~ly ing~i~~
Juggernaut~,

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t"kc a lilst deep brc.lth of fresh .1lr and. ,,,jlh a cant

of the heart. go down into the tbrkncss frol11 whkh ~~~IO
the hcav~ sighs of longing and. of landy thoughts, thO"~~r
there. willther our steps a~'c }~'H.hng 11~, the suffering 0 1 9
IS poured forth not only In the wondrous POCtic sYmph~,
of pessimism", as A. ~r. Lunachar.ky w~ot~ of Hamlrt. t-,'"
we hear also the hC~'OlC chord~ of a majestic hymn to the
crowning glory of hIS 11fc'~\"hlch S to 5L 'ugglc, to slruggle
for the high ideals of humamty
In this heroic reaching for the stars, these solemn chords
sound .JS a symbol of \'ictory over the d;\rk storms of life
and history, s~'mbols of the ultimate triumph of the herOic
mind and the heroic hcalt.
In this "prison-world", we understand from the mighty
echoes of the struggle with the jailers that mall is alive, that
the earth is not only a gathering of petty and malicious
human souls, but is also a fair garden of human dreams and
daring.
Man defends himself.
You and I have entered the huge prison of the world.
The iron clinks, the pulleys squeak, the hc_ vy bolts scrape
in their sockets and before us is :I. world of bars, an iron
spider's web of a \.... orld, in which h lIDall hearts arc caughl
pUlsating,
Silence. Fear. Cold.
We listen intently
Silence.
We set Our ear tr:) I,e :-ilt nc.... w .... look searchingly mto
:.ts dead face.
We shall see w shall h-'a'. "'If'> shall mderstand.
A gigantic struggle s 11 pn.)gress.
Cruel, ruthless.
No one has become reconciled. Nothing ha~ become
petrified. The stormy lightnings 01 I1rassions long suppressed
in the human heal tire flm ing up now at one moment, now
at another, t .... 1 T1Jle ""1 thei vokanl( pr w"'r' lightning! ?f
though illuIT'ine tht . ,:;! ,knt S 01 the pr!! on and 11'C agam
..:x': in 9uis;1ed in Ipparen: caIn-- whh. n erely \,.0..
.. s'lrw
r
:'-:-. "c1fcr.nt ol md slrg'oid of the 'wo carnp!j,
C tw
morc.l war ds w':In 'ire Jere .... '9ag4 ir mt;. ~l combJ:t.
Ham'et".:, 'He is '"hre ... tened ly the pe f'diou sJ.amele~,
hYPoCriticai faction of C'audiu whIch is
~t!y t01aVC
">I'oun.e to eVery :onv 'valle trck md dt 'c:t C!'t: IS pr"',arca
200

to v...":V

11 :J. tried ways of dcaIinuo \( th the live of s.;,

.a B" Co Jan Hes :ma Cial leo.

Giora~no

'(le

r~n.
hunt 15 up.
-11 pI OYC

,?

the "Ichm
Wht WI I t be 11 Ie to distin- 1:,1 the II fte l" n_
Will J- 1m e
L 'tine!. t'1(~ n~SKs of br~.'''';;'n
"our .... ~
,load hangmc~ '?""
beauty and Plur !y thai 1i tr lC cncmL re detked out in
W"n Ham ct sec

1
tIcs of I valty
h
the golden m~n
d h tt'ly mdi s r 1C C:/ut .~e s. nm 0
Will C;lau~lus an
alrnc!!y perc .. nf,'! t)- ligr.: Qf Itt.
reason, lIl~pn50ned r 1P( re it is ~.., late W 11 lIS .,. mmll
and rcbclltously 1st.
h
"n " 01 hL oo:",~~ nts: L..._~er
succeed in discovc 101:,. t e l

'l:

thoughts?"
bl deli ~ lt~)V an~ cunmngly to
W"n ClaudtuS prove a e
1.
1 "m 1..:;::
~ th futul e in ~:-a, pers,",~, " ! l l ! , e~ 1 t 1e
deceIve
e
f human u. 1 19 la' c
thousand! a f ye'us
human conscience,.
-I
~f'" Ie
0- .
verything here S
II 19 t", ~'.-, k
E~,
iIt.~ve
Reaction s pr=":.lrng
_ -I' ' . .
: ... 1.._
This criti,. 11 epoch h::.' pr~, a
" enh
r.. mr ~
Hanlet is encirclt :l ("'lOOp Y s of
~
. ~._h
.. -: .
traps ll:Jo ~ d'~' ,r- eyes 1110
, .,
sl :uned to l i uttcrn 1 t

,
Maliciou.... irol11
C~Wl - c: .. :'" ,
eyes, eye, -f powe~h
k ~-t trc
J .w'
,hosphore ~n4'e 1 c
f'icnds and exp("l _n"} [u....
th ... _" fl."" _ ~
.e
The st uggl(' is " l! ~ 't l tl '~
refined than th'" ba-I-' \ 1(' e ~
.ow
er
The pponents d't: t _rr Sl _
the . n" r 1. 'ow m
"
fylo.1"I
In noble pndt. now
1
,.
')w s"...
Tl._
~
nnt
h 1.: V I~
the str 1igh t- }(lL C t e n~ .. l'"
S n_
now .l: sinn(rs >cck ng 1 Sl l .
, ___ 'g
"
Pletons,
Evc''Ytn.1 K l~ .... ,101'11 19. \' rvc. _ .,.'"
__ ,! e '" p. n:1L - :---,,0
.. , r.

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1
tiO'l here
~ on~ , er -t;,..t~nc ev
I" t r. no
""h:o.. 1 --.'c 19 3!. ste,:'
tk,I nl ep Ibc
It 1 ,
"' cn
ntlv,
.J
bu ' 'y'"
eye \'Iv 4.._ ' P
. t . , _mesS, k 1P " :--' -V S 1!cima
bOlior- " gimlets, l'1, h' rc v.; II 1..nct.
wit't lr ... - 01.( ry V
. "9
-"

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.)1

Behind aI,' thi,s is hid~cn, a bubbling fermentation

passion, a gIgantIc tcmpclamcnl of thought, hcarl:,.. th C
like tocsins, souls blaze with a terrible. devouring n Und(!t
, Cal'I Cd I'k
The will of the contestants IS
I C a steel SPIarn,
a II'IS"r
'"g.
How powerf UI It
The action develops in agonised convulsions it b

'
.
ears
forward like the Juggernaut car 0 f hIstory.
crushing
jaile~
and captives alike.
But the victory goes to the C.1ptivc~.
Like a burning torch, lighting the gloom of a tragic life
Hamlet. eternally young and eternally alive, passes beyond
the borders of his own existence as a lasting reminder to all

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men of their sacred duty towards mankind. And the aUdience

loves Hamlet, although they know of his hesitations, doubts
and indecisions, because, boldly, from his first steps, he has
chosen that form of life which Gorky described as "not
smouldering but blazing".
The cowardly and the greedy select the former, the brave
and generous the latter, to all those who love beauty it is
clear where majesty is to be found.
History puts double-edged questions: to be. or not to be?
The answer is found: to be!. .. Man-is to be!
But "to be" means to know life deeply and to struggle
paSSionately for its great ideals, Then even defeat. even the
death of the struggling hero is transfOlmed into a hymn of
triumph. In the name of what? In the name of Man.
The struggle is for Man. For Humanitarianism. For
Humanity. As he dies, the student of Wittenberg University.
the Danish Prince, Hamlet. asks his most faithful friend
Horatio to tell all the truth about him to the generations of
the future, to "the unsatisfied". Such is the profoundly mov
ing, politically militant, spiritual testament of Hamlet. Like
a tor.ch it. illumines the story of Hamlet's struggle against
rea~tlOn. 111 whatever garments it might choose to dress,
behInd w~atever masks it might choose to hide.
And thIS torch has, since the time of Shakespeare, been
passed from hand to hand like a baton. by all those people
throughout the world who are united by the one wish to sel~
the world purified from every kind of filth and abomina'
.:on
c dnd ~o sec people oul wardly and inwardly free, able to
lJ:v
: :If"ndship and pe.ace and able to rC'ist any of the
~IrC:lhc:J e!:lpades.1ny ot ~ 'lC murderous I ricks and IT'achina .
tIons of the enemies oj humanity

;i1

~n

The lC'l.sons of Haml~t s life and struggle WIll instrut

others.
1 f!llcvcd thIS, Dying, it is as. though. le .implied
Hamlet)
t he ntnstcd to Horatio: Ef 51 mau' nunc
in thc . testame~t
that is and if thmgs go b=ldly now thEn
sic
en,
11011 0 /1m
b"
t lways C <;0
d d
it will no a
ied the day, dlthough he.:t ea .
.
Hamlet has c.an t ' ,'-,. <. r'val of FortinI ra!> 11 th'" eTla
.
. tory IS no In ~I
. k
f'
.
HIS VIC
ho "for a fantasy md lC (" ,imp W,lS
of the tragedy, w
a lot of land, belonging to anotler
red to annex
'ct-.V"... 'n thl
prepa
th P"fi vc du~ !t- '111t:: Vi....
country and ~ot hwar vcrcome 'tIS own tragi!. doubts and nl t
fact that Ha~ ct. as o'n thaI he had le-_rnt fp e sly to 'a,t
profound. hesltatlons'bIll of 51 ll"kling thought agamsi tht>
the flammg cannon a S
stone brow".
h he knew th:.t l:!s fight w~s one
Hamlet fought. althoug 1
ears to come In '1at ~ ,-le
r
which would c?ntinue f_f ?l~g although t is an Cf{4 -rt alwdy.
splendour of hiS e~~~ t rW~';. Beyond 'us death, bPyonc: lIS
off-shadowed by d.~ 'e t cal victory of humamsm
. tc defeat hcs 1t 11. )T
pnva

GRIGORI

KOZINTSEV

KING LEAR
THE STORM"

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SINCE the last c~ntU1"y, playwrights hav.e been addictcd to

giving detailed dIrections about every~hmg ~oncerning the
place of action and, the set. Compared w~th .theIr long desCrip.
tions, Shakespeare s remarks are astomshll1gly brief; Some.
times just two words, sometimes three arc repeatcd
monotonously throughout the majority of his plays: a street,
a throne-room, a heath, court of the castle.
It is quite probable that even these directions were not
written by the author. It is a matter of common knowledge
that the theatre of that time made no use of decorations. In
daylight under the open sky, all there was to see was a
completely plain stage onto which a chair was occasionally
carried. perhaps a table. The spectator understood this con'
vcntion very well and it did not detract from the impression
made on him by the play. From time immemorial thc"c see; ns
to have been a kind of unwritten agrC'ement between the ,
public and the theatrical company: if the actor has OSSCd
. "om onc side of the stage to the other. the place of action
has:h '"gcd and, on his way back. he is already in ~nother
streel ..;.nd perhaps in another country. A dark ~urtain hung
at the back of the stage means that the action takes place
<It mght. A light curtain means daytime. When three fence
. :.1n out onto the stage, it is a bloody battle between armies .
All this IS an old joke which e,"en the actors share.
But. .llthough the play was '1ut on in a conventionalised
S).:t(.;c, tht: d~.)matic poetry W-'1S clos. to re:tlism in :hat it

publi lcd an ~r ille 01 Illi c on Kin1

Le .:. r ,w. '. :h n prepal. nJ a PI .)du tion of ~he tl ~ge:!y 01" the MaXlm
~c.,,~ .301. .~I D..rna 'I.'hea~< n :.clm rad. was ;hu ~blc:o heck
tlC )rCI( .11 ,IS:UIr"::ltions by !:..... ~. 9 th( Ir
tually 1<_0 'JI in h
Tn

1~1

t;;C.tl . .'

thl jOWnl'l reliT

-:I th, tc t. oth. d.p~. 11<. faJ fr~chej. I fel. I wante:!

~ ~( I~~' th .~~ .. w,~rk. Th S is the us~ 11 '~~I c ..... a t:h 11 .. "pc .rc lOU
m
...... I( h .le, plSSC sed ,)ur lmagmlllon cm,jn witt-: u aU lUI
:' es. Y: al . p ISS.~~ l~i(m t-r.... ldc " - 0
w mOte ompJex. ~~ fin:
:1(;0

.s:.. .

!l pp a11 ..
..:r
I..
t .
.~"'.. c
~
-X).;l. ,nvJ!; . al sc. n to be c
..:onv n~n'J,
f..
,e.ldc~~ Ih. t they . -:- am c:11y cert.; In 1 -_~t! of th work
...
1
.1(t
I
~ :n"< .mp"'~n,"D
.... L.
.
.
"--...... '0.,. , : C
. ~e 'I'V" . 'C fin.:! stra I a
~. s ra I of v T n(.'IIT i,p t
_:1~"Yo

ht to reproduce the dctual surroundings. On ,.cading

sou~ pages now, in our own day we find that little cne .1gh
these
I d"
"eon"cntiona ISC
15 A u'dous contradiction arosc: before the eyes oE '"Ie audi
. c were three bare platforms. reprcsenting nothmg
el~~tsoever, but their car was tuned in to <1 detailed
W
.' tion of the colours of the dawn, of a wtnd so tr ng
desCllP ,.,npossiblc to stand crect. of fields gaily patt("nj d
it ith
wasflowers and grasses. N ature blo0t?cd an d f ! d. e1. snow
~riftcd circling down, pictures of the life of men tn ,,'3< ~~
d' broken down hovels opened ur ~eforc them.
anT~~ steady daylight illumined the sam~ ol~ boarll"S me.
. t
. nd the poetry transported the achon tntu sunoulld
calpe
s, p,opri
a
. d10 w h a t ('vcr p Iay W!..
'1te to the li f e d eplcte

mgs ap
~
I
I
.
and peculiar to that p ay a one
sholwl.n~b' I sets took on shape as the I)oeti< d( ve OPfllPnt
nVISI e d t f
v'~-d 11
went along. They were compose n
C~nVd\ ~
.
aint but of words. Sinc~ ltV only appe l re tn t t: magma
~.
. ' bl. pictu e w
able to e y ' 'nd lj )oI1( r
han, these lOVISl C .
I
t If' fanta
of the tho! re to infinity to transl rn- t
to I I I
ca1. to merge nature with the t:: ,r on: " ne
The v s::.' buill t'le s
It had :!- lite' 'lp. aur'itor nl t 11 specta!' . ne_:" S
'.he ~l1th,.,r w. u'd inb r1" Jpt t'lf
Y lOd l<k th
) ~ '1P If' erstan 'n
mal. me ~l L''1 t W's l:. ~""'1 I
,'0 A n
..lrthe de" orIfl' nt f t'1f 11 t, n T It: luI ~
. f
n
~ - 1d lnc _,1
11 to
lU\.-iel"} "> to Imaglf'e 01 "'9 (,;. .
of L.c I)hy
,.-rnllonal charact( r n.,t rc 1 "'-t:i 0 th sal j ~
": 01 He
..1'
'n ~ n Ir"")' r CV' .. 1C
would addles. t hc c! j!'l(
"1":C
.... :; usuallv nown l! { '1< 11 r I:'rolO '. I ',' In .Jnn
lln!=lY'lI ... rJmpC'.
Slmple~.
'rm 01 t 01V L"
.' t..
'1 0 Kmg -[U" ,
of handling the df" C1' pi on f t ~h~N 1~ t.fr f il _, .1(
murder r he "rpe ...rmr I, f If' \ . . . ',"
nv~ "lor
d'
'c"r~O'"
background wa~ skt::i. l.f' III '~C"d ~he- c Id ,.,f
1'.ht.
I-n"e V f ~ n the 1"" f.
the charactcr~ t wm .,"> dt'" (,; 1P
the blast of win(1 Alh \.; ~'cw}
lA
s .:lid r:
.~:tJ.
c n2 ked th the no'
W:!
I. ,,1;
-I
~ c. 1te lOn
1
eSllhli! h tlIflI :\rd ~la("c t-ut d 0 he P!C
_~ ou of n"
, onal tc"t.; .... f
scene 11~' t\!u the
,1al \.; ).
Klr
L.C:l1
.:t . 11;
Y
I . \. iO
n W " ~ f>.l. 1. hn~',a~
Ullt.... He
. '
plav. 11(' pll r ....f lal re
W. :< '
th th~ t nuti( .~, I.J
mrtiC-. we ' C' I .... ~,,::ncl.. .:l pot on "\; \

'I'

t"

the dramatjs personae, but with the development of

plot.
the
Causes of essential significance to the basic POCtic st
of the tragedy called forth a tempest, invisible on thcru~ture
but raging through the whole system of images of the' pay
'Ig,

,
,

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t
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....

..
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-en

From the most ancient times folk poetry has canta d

descriptions of nature. They began as fantastic imagcs.l~~
causes of all that went on around were unknown, ~a ,4
struggle to subject nature to his own will had not yet bC9~n
The might of the elements appeared unlimited. All-powerfui
divinities surrounded man and ruled over him.
The deepest strata of art-the images of myth, religious
and poct,ie-we,re later seen as a curious treasure-trove. Again
and a9am artIsts would have recourse to the riches of the
folk tradition; ancient images would be revived and would
take on a new content and altered forms. The reflection of
mythology shone through countless new configurations.
Most terrible were the images of storm and thunderchastisements sent down upon people by the gods. bringing
ruin and destruction. With a great roaring sound a run-away
chariot galloped across the heavens, the earth was blinded by
fire-sparks struck from the horses' hooves as they beat upon
the clouds; a flaming many-tentacled scourge thrashed the
forests and the villages. fires flared. people became possessed by the lust of destruction and of murder. Chaos was
let loose and all was turned to dust. Folk art and legend
so~ght to express the awe-inspiring majesty of the forces
whIch threatened man. These images were full of violent
mO\'7 ment , ill-will, belligerence .
WIth claps of thunder and licking tongues of flame, the
storm entered art as an image of calamity. of destruction, of
huge catastrophe.
In his introduction to the poem Retribution, A. Blok Wl'Otc
~~at .he had. formed the habit of collating all the facts about
l~fme h'hIch came his way from the most different spheres
~ 1 e-t. e most vital and the most insignificant-and that,
C~~~d t,~IS process of collation, there arose what the poet
k
a concentrated eUITent of musical energy". Mayako\,'thY SPhok e Off the rhythm "which passes like thunder through
l 0 a poetic work".
e woe
Of course, all this had nothing whatsoever Lo dt:' with

206

. tel' elallonships of ac _nt.!d In? unac..:cnted yll~bles.

the Ul "11' " urent cf musscll energy'. 'thunde:"
Jve~d
Th c. ler mot on ,hythm itself was .'t tl '1~c"" t.hc ~:.Jvy
an I11ncr'
f the sLl"btcrrdnean trcmc., c.c. hlstOry .L~I!: e_h~ of
count ~e catcd the grumbling thund.er-claps of events.
poetry Jing on ke thurder. the t:empcst .,a .cs lhrougl, the
Grum
'
~d C _ lnr . If' m
I tragedy; cv~ ts Iih
1 l anf sue C
e
who e
s of this concen: ated current of mUSIC:: ne:y.
awarcnes
th 15 tL_ n'wm
. d w.L - L;, bl ows th rougl'L
l1 of
.
the
mcanio
What IS
..,
L

out the play

1.

Pl.I'

alanchc Cdn beglO witJ.: the !r-:"': :J.p.. ~ ... ~ptil e

An av t f onc tone But fll nov=-,' lt i t'le suit of ~
movlcml~~t
0 f effort
bl' t 01 wind ~s n .. ~K... i ,lOd shiftr.d
mu tIp leI y o .
f
something already orse the de StrICtI'. v c.
n r.y ye .
ir h'l, }!: e...
h s been brought to a heau, ~.lC 5
t~e stone's cent"e 01 grav :; Lnd it 1a
J1"') r",!, c ~e~
h t bumps up le-ain t .....:. If'' 1m.::: ng dow!": t ,h
wlC
1
1.
d ' brJe"p
stones batter against ~ e'lL r' -...s n
e --...
in the earth arc GI 'ear'y roc. mQ.

The avalant:'1e ro~:; d,~, tc ..r .... .J ,I.p tre

'1 rc.
f
-- hp
__ I
reducing houses to a scatter "'19 0 v. - '
... ti 1,
years, has stood iIlU'lob'!"
n_ thE: t-~-~ e,,; '. t t'-:
and it seems t.l'lere l~ n") power mJ J
'
ali-destroying pressure.
~
Many theories have hpf''1. L,1ge.
_
tragic occurrences in Kingdl.t:w f '"
~~
-'.;,,'" ~ - the
L
lr 1\... \..1;"_
one cause or, even, onc d eCl 109 'H. ~__
_~...
.!
children, the autocratic character of tJ t; o.
decision to divide the king-do..,.
,
f .. t- .. t
Many pages have been '" "itten to cxp ., rie d
answer ,f Cordc 10:: w~h.. 1 OUl ':led off
L
calamities.
f .
th~ 're~ lnd . x~~ .. r. .tion
However altl~ug~ each 0 ~~~e h~' ,.~ d_votd :miy t<
may be conVllLCI:"I!.;11 t;"1 .nehL.,.t
cc. aIr \Ii~h'IL,'" -',_ tscll ,';, not
,
the fi.nal mov~mc'1t. L.'" pu
-"'b' On'y hqetf'le~ wit.l ~:'(
suffiClent to ShIll even <I SIll 11 p.... .c. h. l . .,1 to make U)
_
comple:<ity ot cont lL.'~.'-ry ,,tswu
,'t" .. Ie "',pil
alions 0 f "
t,,~
the epoch only in lt.; ,l.:l~h ot the we ';~m ~[ :mag... of Ki;1~
timc sit -ossiblc tOlT'dc r tnd ,]e ,v, t; 1 ene'~v' w"tc:J.
Lear the . on~~ Itrated ,-Jrr. . " of 'nustca
'~'

0;;;

_.

1S t'lC SL r 11.

It has been noted more than once that it is

'
note . to

collate t he time
sequence 0 f tL'h
vanous
scenes. Ccrt
suggest that thc action is taking place 800 YCillS ~n n,,11es
thc titles of Count, Duke and Lord transport liS t C. ~I.i!
another epoch. Oaths by Apollo and by Juno do notO .qt:;,1
with thc rank of captain or with the herald who su tie lip
the knight to single combat.
mIne
Each feature is sepa.rated from its neighbours by whe!
ages; any attempt to umte them leads to a confusion of centu.
ries and of (.ustoms. However, all these arc mere outs'd
references; it is enough to look into the essence of Whatl :
happening and thc outlines of the age immediately begin ;'
take shape. The chief figures arc already set out on the chcss~
board.
"1 thought the King had more affected the Duke of Albany
than the Duke of Cornwall." say? the Earl of Kent to the Earl
of Gloucester.
The King, the rival dukes with their followings of COuri'
ers, the united state which is on the point of falling apart
again. Beyond the walls of the King's palace we are given a
glimpse of the scenery: wild heath and povertY-Sl'ickpn
villages, stone towers upon high hills. The castle rules avc)
the less firmly fortified strongholds of the feudal brigands:
all around is waste; rotting, straw thatches, poor hovels, thc
gallows and the wheel '01' quar:ering are somehow essenti. I
details of the landscape.
The people who have gathered at the Court are uneasy
Gloucester's bastard son Edmund is debarred by Jaw from
any hope of the inheritance; the entailed family property will
accrue by right of primogeniture to the elder son Edgar, The
younger brother has been away for nine years. He has
returned full of envy and malice: his aim is to ruin the le~al
heir and to step into the shoes of his fathel', who inspires hIm
with nothing but contempt.
The Duke of Cornwall had secret plans to do away with
the Duke of Albany, fearing his advancement. From the conversation between Gloucester and Kent it is clear that the
King likes Albany better than Cornwall the feud which w'll
eventually le:td to war between the du\e" is 11ready matUling.
. Of the three hr.!.) to the throne, two' '{egan and GOllenl
.late the third, thel] younger sister Cordelia. They lrc Jolou'S
of the King's tavour '.e .~aughter and irC af I ::tiL alone; aBol l!'r'
thf"Y <Ire rivals in the 1ivislOn 01 .11" inhe ~it, nec.
of

,
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'"0'w

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in!

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vat

w'"

Sho

ZOo

.'

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f

The :King of france ~nd the Du~c of Bm:gundy have come

for the youngest daughter 5 hand m marriag Th

toassue
e.
IS
absolutely not h'tn,9 t 0 d 0 WI. th 1ave; the contemplated
h . gc is a dynastiC arrangement. The poetry refle t
marcIa
e
. try between proper f les and
possessions.
nots
bctwcc 3.
the hand of
is sought
"the vines of

;~v:.rs'

C~;delia

Franc~

by

andAmilk
Bur~undy.
..
neW of
gl'ouplng
<;>f pohtlcal powers depends on the match.
Even before the KIng has pronounced his doom, all these

cople have been prepared by the whole preceding course

Pf events for clashes, struggle, war.
o This beginning is reminiscent of the tense calm before a
storm. There follows the scene of the division of the kingdom

,
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Sho

which has so often been criticised for its improbability.

Lev Tolstoi-Shakespeare's most severe critic-begins his
attack on this work with the opening scene of King Lea!
which he considers peculiarly absurd. In the article "On
Shakespeare and the Drama", Tolstoi retells this sc enc m
his own way: ", .. there is a flourish of h:umpcts, md m
walks King Lear with his daughters and ions-inlaw me
pronounces a specch about how, in his old age 'u wmts to
retire from busincss and to divide his kingdom ,ctw"C:l
:"i5 daughters. In order to know how muclt ) glVt;: a( h
daughter. he announces that he will give the ql ~at' - 1f"
to the daughter who says she loves him more than '1.c otLc;
The eldest daughter, Goneril, says that there 11 n w,,:l!
to express her love, that she loves her fathf. no" e.. n
sight, more than space, mort: than liberty, loves him sa
that it is difficult fOl" her to blt.:lt}1r King Lear immcdi
marks off this daughter's portion, witt1 lc1ds
woods nd
rivers and meadows, on thc map, anel "ik. he s. con<l
daughter. The second daughter, Regan, say tl:1l. '1.er )1 tf"
has truly expressed her feelings. but not enough Snc Rc '~n,
loves her father so much thaI cveryth ng- apart 1. -:: '
love is revolting to her The King rcwnJs this eh
d~ughtcr,
too, and asks the youngcst, his favoutc ,.C"):d :..., 5
though dcliberatelv in
to
11 lerl says.
o thaI
llthough she doe love hc' lthcr aOU I! :Jra1 fu.n :lIm, f
she gets 'll
not ;!'l her 10\'- w 1 belo : to 1(r
t,~er, but she w '1 love 'If- h"l! b3n~ as well ~
. , ' :-tro l
~n hea~mH th:-::' wor-ts thc ~mg losc)111 ,1,; - C ::'t
md ImmedIately Jr _, h s LVOUlltc
w t)"l tl en

aJl~

ord~

n1.:~l.
'~ly

ange,~c.

~.r"cd, ~hen

~auqht'

tf Tiblc anrt str<'l"l!",c .ur -'. . '

U'

At first sight this account of the (,.\'C~lts J>l'{'ll1s fair ('nou )

In the vcry way it is told, however, 111 Its apparently dCb"19'
1 1cc1lIlique

a satlrlca
and precise nature, th ere IS
whkh ~"C
Tol
stoi habitually employed. I~ the same way he .ridicules the
church service in ResurrecllOJI and the opera In Waz- and

Peace:

t
I
1
I
~

A
U

"
k

..

III

"On the stage there were level boards in the middle and
on each side stood painted pictures representing trees.
Behind was a sheet of canvas on boards. In the centre of the
stage were seated maidens in red bodices and white skirts.
One. very fat. in a ""hite silk dress, was sitting apart on a
low bench to the back of which was stuck a sheet of green
cardboard. They were all Singing something. When they had
finished their song the maiden in white went up to the
prompter's box, and there a man came up to hcr in tight
silk pantaloons on his fat legs, all bcfcathered and bedag.
gered, and began to sing and to wave his arms about."
The satirical purpose is obvious and the thought is
expressed clearly: only in a society of parasites could such art
be thought necessary to people, in actual fact it is not even art
but a kind of nonsensical spectacle. The key to the technique
by which Tolstoi parodies everything that happens on the
stage is this: he carefully catalogues the materials of which
the costumes and decorations are made, the appearance and
the gestures of the actors. The only thing he leavcs out of
account is the music. Yet this is the very foundation of this
branch of art from which cverything derives life and mean
1I1g.
AU that was necessary for him was to block his cars and
the Singers and dancers were at once transformed into costumed idlers, stupidly opening and shutting their mouths,
waving their arms about for no known reason and senselessly
shifting from one leg to the other. Art had vanishcd and all
that was left was painted cardboard, a stout "maiden", a man
in a silly hat with a feather, and the prompter's box.
Tolstoi did just the same thing in paraphrasing King Lear,
In the language of an inventory he told ovcr all the metaphors and hyperboles, retaining the while the imperturbable accents of protocol, particulal'1y unsuited to Shakespearean vehemence. Having given a detailed account of the
facts of the action, he missed out everything which makes
sense of the scene, apparently not having noticcd the inn~r
thread of development. nor haVing wished to hear the poetic
210

1
the thoughts and feelings d the people
~ub tcXt. )n( ~o d outside the ,,,"'pc d (:lC paraphrd~e and
involved rcmla;~c "c wor,is .md c-:,...:nlc:. The w~;ds of p~etry,
all that WdS e ~ t l 'neir sense and the eve.nt became a
, hi
.C-t
llrose lO'l,
rcto l d til
.
nd;1.n improba c onc at Uld.
1 0 ceu
triVia
. ' rence,
who ,)J.ad ,an C"ltcePent undentan dmg 0 f mu,
s c,
The wnler,
dc~1 in ""rdC'!- to p!";":e that art, ....~en empty
rctcnded t~ ~~
W3" not necessary to pecr!c, In tht,
~f cthicorc1!910Us .\ ~~:~ deVl'.:lJn t.) this idea. Tolst-.:l C.:Imperiod of hIS p~~SI
ehy to Cl ploughman who had deCIded
pared a man wntl~g P~ng steps ,15 he b!l;:.wed the plough
to cxecu~c fancy w~~cr com,lderect ?C,.try nothin9 but l.mmC'rAt this time the . . the
int 2 view f-:-C!ll w'hKh he
a1 indulgcnce, ThIS IS
. : : no place for poetry 111 hiS
told King Lear. There :t'to ' affc~~\t1cm d a bnt.:cr
rC
All
that
l'cmalnen
were
_
account.
trying to plou~h, r
.'", daughtr; s l.2ve fo:, her Llth.l w~
The expressIon o. cal:_.
.
e 2f the inheritance' to
not intended
deClde the ::x;c::u~ot sparing :~ t::Xpl~to?,
allotted to her .. Sh~kes~ t the dh"isio!'! i.;; lb.'~1.dy fi.~,sh~d
detail to make It c e~r befol~ the begL"'!!!!..":; of t~~ .lo... c:m~
and done with some hme
;tL the ~c:.I't>~':-S :5 L'le fina.
.
The ~~ne
.. K L
-I
~!l thel!'
court occaSion,
.W,.:l t up ""L"I
"
~'
.. _
Gloucester, havmg xr.e .. "h,"'in the dlYbJOf'!
ceremon Y.
V - ElV ." "lm
-h.i
way to attend the c:remo~\ ' ~ . :~ 's~' weig~c.i tb,l~ C!JnCSh,

. d, " "equallt1es ale

_ _
01 the kmg em
. ! thC" .. :no:t:.\ .
.
th can mak~ chOice
0 el., ..
lk c'...
.. c- bvc In
innel er
"
Cordelilto~pe
thi~
Although Lear en10msrd
.. ht induce hir:l tJ grJ11
.
her W~'l s mlg
,,.. t th.ll1 your
th
t
a
.. _ hird m~"'r..: opu_l.:n
,lite'
such a way
bcst lovcd daughter J. t
Id in n.:' sense be tak.t:n
.
.'" this exhortati::m shcu
h
tw,),)f the parb
SlstClS ,
h . ' t \\'itn~'<:jcd ,CW
h \'/ I.:ould
rally; everyone a~ JUs
. . the elder sister,;, ".,) oJ
. f
d b ''''n given t~
1
have a. r~a y I.:c. .
her <l bettcr portion
.' answers
Cordclla s am;'W(,l J13W "d d not bv the d3ughter:; At thc
The divisi~n w.~s l\cl,:l. Cite another chara.cter'lf not to
but by consldcl".ltlClns ot qu L' . ;1ddrcsscs hlmse
.
- h
{'manY 1.:;11
beginning 01 t ~ cctr ,'r hUs!:-3nds:
his daughh~l"S hut to h (1
I Cornu,all,

to

f Albanv,
And V~Il: our PIll less lL)VJ'llg ~o;ifJ to pubiish strife
We l;al1e tlli!: ll~ur a C(:ZT~:wcrs, tJwt future
Our daughters st.' per
May be prevented nllW .. '
.

".

. Olit

son 0

]11

The preventing of "future strife". or, i.n other \I;\)rd

civil war is the rc~son for the equailly ot the P:t.rts ot~ vf
inheritance: even his ,preference .f~r the DUke of Alban ~c
not influenced the King. Cordelia s dO\\!l'l' Was also kY .,

in advance: her Burgun d lall

SUtt or as k
S In dower "no now,
than what your highness offered, nol' will you tender l:o~

The decision ha~ already b.ccn. made. !hc ccrcmonySSi~

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1ft

intended to end wlth each heIress cxprcssmg her gratitud{'

their words, for Lear, ~rc the fulfilment of an ancient Custom:
the daughters are obliged to speak solemnly of their 10 ('
v
for their father, just as the King, even after he has put
aside his power, cannot be expected to exist Without a
following of one hundred knights.
But this is only part of the significance of the scene: for
Lear, all that is going on is full of majestic poetry and deep
meaning. At eighty years of age he has no longer the
strength to rule but his action in handing on the kingdom
to his heirs before his death is wise and just. His daughters'
speeches seem to him more than an empty rite, the expression of their true attitudes: he has merited loving \\Iords.
Goneril is happy to observe the ritual. the whole trouble
is that she fulfils it rather overenthusiastically. The lofty
tone she takes is so exaggerated that the very form of her
speech betrays the absence of feeling. This very often
happens in everyday life; big words more often than not
express nothing, high pathos serves as a cover for indiffer'
ence.
All this is important not only for the understanding of
the Duchess of Albany, but also for the character of Lear:
absolute power has made him blind. It is not difficult to
pass off even roughly gilded tin for true gold to a despot.
The attitude of the various personages to this kind of
forgery is the touch-stone of their own integrity.
Lear sees nothing strange in the speeches of his two
daughters. Cordelia, who really loves her father, understands
that words in much the same style are expected of her,
Cordelia's answer has often been held to sound 3tilted:

. . . . . . . . I love your majesty

According to my bond. nor more, l10r less. ' ..
And, indeed, if we forget what has gone before, such a
form of address to one's father cannot seem natul".11. How'
ever, this is not a dec1aration of love but a rebuke to Hattery.
212

-'1 y.

each of them should tell him how she loved him and fi
comparison to express her love. The eldest said that n\a
loved her father as much as the most delicious of sSe

meats; the sccon d compared hcr sen t uncnt

to hcr lov Woo,
f
d "I'k
a fine gown. Th e ~oungcs t a~swcrc:
I C ,saI"
t . The eKinOr
was offended by thIS answer; In fury he banished his Youn 9
cst daughter and ga\'c away all his goods to the other t""S'
But there came a time when, exiled from his own kingdo~'
he was desperately hungry, and he was brought the simplest
food. but it had not been salted and was inedible. And so
the King learnt the value of salt.
The legend was incorporated into one of the chronicles.
In the twelfth century, in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History

,,
,,
."
I

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w

01

K.

G.
ot;
In.

...
....
..va'
....
....
ot

M,

.tu

hoc

of the Britons, appears the legendary Lear, Son of King

Bladud. Having decided to reSign his power into the hands
of his three daughters, Leal' subjects them to a "test of love' ,
This time the daughters' answers are more like the words
of Shakespeare's heroines. Goneril says that. to her, her
father is dearer than her own soul. Regan loves him more
than anything else on earth. The youngest daughter pro'
pounds a riddle to the King in her turn: "Could such a
daughter exist who loves her father as more than father? I
do not belie\'e that any daughter should be so rash as to
say so, even in jest. I have always loved and will always
love you as a father, If you want to get more oul of mt
then listen: what you have is what you deserve."
The angered King banishes Cordelia. and divides the
kingdom between his other two daughters, Latel ;av:,g
lost all his possessions, he becomes convinced of the truL.
of the words of his youngest daughter: now he ha~ nothing
and no one loves him. He understands that not he was loved,
but his riches.

Cast out by Goneril and Regan, he finds shelter wHh

Cordelia, who has married the King of the FI'anks. The love
of the youngest daughter proves true,
Hi~ tor .:ln~ ':)f literature have counted more thdi fifty
V"r -:-tions of this subject. It reached Shakespeare V way
uf l-ol nshc_' Chronicle and through the poems of Higgm!
anG Sl -:tee A.nd, finally, in the so-called "old play", The
rrue ,':ic07y of Kjn;, Lear end 01 r--l's Three Daughters, w'1icl)
Wa' put ~, lt ..... Rose Theat '> J ~ 594
h tlus play. th~ l''lenu... :v rtotif f the -ve" tel_cd
t" x:...st ir s O:1fmal r rn fu! work w":s -:If) lonqf ..
Z/4

, Ie but had taken on a considerable dcg~ce

ticular this was true of the opcmng
nd or a parab
Jcgc risimilitudc. I~ pard the ~hole of the old play and, in
of ve
Tolstoi consldcrc
distinctly artistically super or to
nC
sce . a1. its first scenc
rticul ,
k
pa akcspearc's war . Lear relinquishes his power be~u' ~
Sh "In the
pl?Y h is thinking only of the salvatl?n ?f
'og lost hiS WIfe:
hters about their love for him In
h~vl 1 He asks hiS aug k
h's youngest daughter
a cun":ing
daughters arc alre.ady
O\~ him on his Islan '
docs not wish to marry, smce

01~

hl~ s~ubY

dU~h~Otw~C~dc/

;h:omJ~~~'
n~~t
I~~~
~~ili~~::Oft
s~:
~~~t:~d
~~~~
K~~~r
fr~~
d h r and he fcal s a
5 C

offerc

c,

"

'fi tion secme

,_

unne l
far away., d f psychological Jush ca
but even con!ra
This km 0 eare--not only unnecess~ry tv Dar lying of
sary to
was nt
theil ouI! 1'1
dietory to I.
ht only of the sa va 10
ed toc
~e
kings who t,hO~9
tht:: old therne has cha~g hp\r-: be"-:'Il ~
Shakespeare sIcard bF'p.n dividt.'i bptw~en I
kingdom has a rea y
.
f- 'e elld, but
he "love test" bega~
. t m to the tradil .,~ c
~

" 'tsclf IS ;1 le u
. ru 1( ant
Tht: "teSt 1
1
d a cifferent 519
-~e central
'.
new p aCt; an
f
':1 comes
wor loman
f t f" younr
it is wen a
- d a of the
uc
""'he answ- 0
W
h
T e e 1 11
ditional theml.
1- '1'1lel::
__
meanmg 0 tl. . tra ffr V 01 Monrn uth L, n l. lighl
c
t
dau~ht fro!'1 Ge~,
crve
:; inte~pr(. a

Sh~~~S%oncePtion-he

~1V:nof

de

l' 'L thz" W'nl h

you have 1!.J what ~ opul 31 w sdim.
f the )1'IOSI pl.Jfoun p .
nan
ue wo
" ., l-IS
o Wn t
t that determ"n~sry a,
hI':; vall"'! depe"
'I
a
'1' h ltl IS~ - - - ,
~ strnr .
ltc has, r t~at w 1~ ~f' himse1f ~v~n w cn d ,hat s ~_
,ition in de or IS
hls W 1 fight. ln 01 an
I ,. .. <~'
V'u'.lf' 1;1,
l-e til:: W rth
w al
po_. _~->J( n
wc .uth !lOd
th - V1J le , c t"
relationship bet~L 1 t
1l~ l~ U 'II
)r e
"c
'fLle tc ,tmg'"
t; ITlner Jcv,-, Jr"T1: nt. s! _ mt 11
qivp' t'1c tragedy ts,
01 th s trJgIC
'pu 1al'" ""11 ]r..
)C';I.lPlt bUl
sm~J p'f t 1~ ~. ;ur.:.:!v. l.11! "11 Ih'c 19atn1
I .... 1p Y
the arH
.. "-tty. c::,oc .:1
In t}lc
C
,iti( n of l':.Wcctn ell:
',.0r. ,n ... -:tl ~ly ... 11 ~Od'l"V' d 1 19urc
rc- ~"
, . , .. 1
al" 1t ugr II
Xl'
k b" lr
'
; c''''' erne,
the
-ct"r ue :: nt, be
,.v lr'Jl(.;.1 1\.1 Ltiellb In uOU"ld c l 'I"L.
'tv"'!":
i As 11' ~ p'v...
h t
,ir.5t t h C 11 ,.'
. tr rdillL~J J.-I~_
we tru ~ en ""11 - t
n-"_ .0 very C.
timl (,( ~er " ';1\. '\I
;

_J

old King's inabilIty to distinguish false notcs did not

so unlikely either.
.
em
Life itself offered the ex plana lion to what Was gain
The exceptional merely reflected the habitual.
9 On.
Under the heading of the habitual could be indud d
' (Or instancC .all
forms of flattery. A ny auth or 5 d Cd'lcatlOll.

tended to create a halo about the name of his patto:'

surpassed the efforts of Lear's cider daughters in their' . '1'
vile attempts to please. In the environment of any SUpr ~CJ
' people Who
ernE
ruler of unlimitc.d pO\~cr were "
ooun d
to :Xlst

t
t

I
t

,
f

.
~

t,

w
of
K.
G,

0.1
inc
of

st,

M(

...
..
stu

bot

val
"'01

$h.

were ready to lick hiS boots. to wors~l~ tyranny. And

almost always. those who ,~crc on the l'CCClVlIlg end listened
with pleasure; and, even If these great ones were clever
and experienced people, their cleverness and their experience did not prevent th:m from losing their ~al'l:t>l' ~alsc notes
and credulously acceptmg at face value tillS e~ahc attitude
to their own personality.
This phenomenon had of old taken on such proportions
that Dante did not hesitate to allot flatterers a whole pit a1\
to themselves in his Inferno where they whined and grunted,
foundering among evil-smelling garbage and sewage.
It is enough to conceive of the tragedy as taking place
not in some legendary realm outside of time and space but
in the real world of despotism, and the behaviour of Goneri1.
Regan and Lear will appear sufficiently true to life.
The way in which time is shown in King Lear docs not
correspond to the historical accuracy we have come to expel t
from realistic dramaturgy. Shakespeare not infrequently
expresses the essence of events through forms which super
fidally appear to contradict that essence. Sometimes he tells
a tale of one epoch in terms which evoke another; unfolding
his story, he describes real happenings. interweaving histor.ical facts with legend; he makes mistakes in geography, IS
uncertain as to chronology,
It would be a rash statement to maintain that all Ius
anachronisms are introduced on purpose. But it would be no
less irresponsible to consider them as altogether the result
of the free and easy way with reality of EIi;;abdhan dnma
in general, or of hurried work.
The :auses for the interweaving of epochs and cQuntrc:
<:Ire qUlte frequently to be found in the actual plos,"'dy \)
the play

of C.. mmon know;c'~ge '~t. whati-I. ...r th~

.
maer
tt
It I~ a. ht ,hoo' c to designate <!s thp place o[ adlon and
author mig
he might give to the d"amatlS personae.
whatever na~e:har.:tctcrs of his plays \\ere :lways ~nnected
the events an rary England. But this assumption, dthough
\~'ith contcmpo
'h Id not be he1d to imply that th . milku
,
lly
true
s
ou
h
t
nha
esse
.' all the tragedies. or t at tht: events "'~ pa~
waS the .sam\1O depkted were nothing but d masque'!de
ages which t ey t . d to transfer Hamlet into the w"):-'~ <No one has yet. rle to play Otlle11o in the ~)tume fI.;.
Romeo aud ~t1lCt, t~: coun~ 'ies :md ccntur~e' m w'lich th
Macbeth. An ~o
. supoo'e~ h .. be takinc plac~ at<,; mi.
action of the pays IS .
altogether beside t~hca P~I~~re correc to say that thIS ao:tion
It would be pet ~l" t. ..than EnglanCl and in some )thl:.
takes place both .in . Iza : the ,lay) thaI it t.akes plac :n
O ne 10 dIC:l.te d m

(
h
country t e
~ ~ but t-.,,:... :ll: featu
~s ~ ano t1..'IeTl a9'
the age ".f S~akedP~c..
play are mi ged with the ~. lIS
(the one mdIcate tn

thf'

time.
d h' shi ft of time anCl ;cen ?

Why did he nee t 15

d ife Sl1akt:: p:' .
ugr'
In his atte~p' ~o u~d~?t:;iru 5. 'cODfT 'nte~ ~Jma ... th
the deep-de1vmg o~~ life w th ' .:m.tt: np ~T "'"Y oas510n_
reality, a pas! W::lV
chs af'l C" untr es he 1 und . p
In this fusmg 0 f cpo
,ha' is ~f' ~ ""7_'i. ~~ on.
portunity for comp<ul: on. eIll' 'of d fit. .1.:.-:' t'ml:.
lot
n
In King Lear. also L.'" {US1 g f the'King n._ h daugt.:-.
fortuitous. The lc_gc~darv _1a~~"S ~ot only beC3\! e l..'-..c ~ w r~
were preserved III e, t~~ 1 olden times. Nc el W 5
the names they la~
r tained, whiL tl -.. ~- -;. .
fortuitous that thc, nan t. we
fll .. ti0"(l
1
~ s. r1j ~eonl
"1.'" i(
- ..... ,
,,-_
of others, given t 'J""
u-: ~:. \an;l.U
sembles ~hal 01 othi _It ,I.( tel'S ".
nto th~
altered.
1..
_. ~Jl. ted ':Jo~
A shadow 1 rom anot I
19l W ('~.
lC -'ot In order tu
central fi gure \nu" ,nt the r.::~.,. urs
cs will li f uII ~t c of

tl"d
show up conteml 1'<1 v l"-'
o WI I<.'~ea
contrast.
~1... \1 h_ 0 of onq 19 . . r us he u
The story "It ~ nlY c t' .. diftf . 11 ,UJ.lI'V .
,'bee!
111.;
th
~ y"
ac1.in a n( w 19C an rI 1 " , (."
. 'n\'ol\'cl
lf!
. ' . 'atln(e
became In 1m ~ll.. ~ , ]ti."''1~
d' fers from all
and oppos~'d ~"' tIl" r t~ of 11. 13t ll_~ Lear bt thosf>: who
In r.:: tall"1 ......1 ~<l i - t lpart. not . ~.:~ Ing
t.ho~ e ah,ut :tIm. it s s
I

216

,,

,
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II

.
~

M
I,

.,
w

ot
K.
G.
01]

inl

ot

",
,"u

..
..
....
Me

boe

val

woo

stand beside him. And it is just bccuu~c he is thu~ Set

that he can make such tremendous mistakes und '. ap,trl
of no less tremendous insights.
IS capable
What distinguishes the image of Leal' from elll th
characters?
'
C .:lthr
first of all, the scale. Leal' is given the poetic statUI\:
t~e hero of an.cient Iege~d. ~\'ery movement ~hich cxprc~s~~
Ills character IS filled with Immense force. ThIs being See
to belong to some other, older race. And, nlthough Re 11s
is his daughter and he is eighty years old, it seems as tho~~
he had been born several thousands of years before ~is
daughter.
His figure is silhouctted against the flame of the patriar'
chal camp fire.
Sometimes he appears to have comc out of prehistoric times
from a heroic age when, according to legend, the earth wa~
inhabited by a breed of people mighty in good and in evil.
Supreme power was wielded by the oldest. the wise patriarch
of the tribe.
Sometimes, it is as such a patriarch, a figure from the
legends of the Old Testament. that we see Lear. In his comrie.
tion of his Own rightness there is more than simplicity 01
madness-there is poetic majesty. His image is bound Up
with legends of the time when people were only getting to
know the price of gold, when people had not yet growl
devious and cunning. had not yet learnt to differentiate be.
tween words and thoughts.
In King Lear there is an abundance of biblical imagery.
Old Testament curses thunder in the poetry. The despair oj
Lamentations. the ecstasies of Prophets infuse its accents
with power and passion. Ancient symbols and allegories
create mighty similes.
The emotional appeal of Renaissance oratory was often
a.ch~cvcd thanks to the denseness of tone given by such
SImiles. And, what is important: the biblical words acquired
a rebellious ring. When Luther translated the folty.sixth
Psalm it became, as Heine remarked, "The Marscllaise of thr
Refo~mation". The prophets Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekie'
prOVided Thomas Munzer with a fecund source of quotation.
H.0wever, not only these "loud and ironclad old W01.~S"
(Heme)-:-the vein of legend glittcling through 10 to m:,.1.:
up the Image of Lear. Indistinguishably merged with the e
2/-\

thcil form :md t.lcir v;:-y esscnc .

. e nt fClturcs. m od(ymg
.
anc
.
t
.
other t!C!u eX1S Ie cndary Image obtrude true-to If~ f~turcs
Through the ~
it s CllSY to find out how he ldmml
of the. dc'.pOI ~:~ ~c coined mLncy. ",lirtcd soldi.crs. Many
tcred JustIC~, t to th~ time o! ll.L reign .,Jrr.~ out In .th m Cl
f the t"'1 t arp onne(. cl With Wdr
d tails pCrtll1c~
C
TI pictures 0
r
1~ 1.._.,1 ta ht
scenes.
Ie
I od. A wart 00 king. ~c hlmse. ,~. u~
. lenec and b O d
'Jo..... tring t...... Kmg t''1nCl
v~o
ldiers how to _1' W 1
,
hl~ l~o d the sword it: 1 lrn gnD.
Wle c
1 day with my good biting tw,blOn
I have seen t Ie
, I..
ki
ld bave made lu~:n S "
1 watt
h
t l?v thoughts ot violatr.d .l~. e but
He is not only aun co
b memories of Wd
y
d 1 t stratagem, to she
It were a e lea e 'th k't 111 put t n proot

w; fn upon the-.e :;rtS;n'la!1

ATh"d tvt~l LiJ'tfr'kill 'i]1 kill!
en,
'

A troop of

h~rse

!')Cl~~e ....

V."11 1

Cj

l',

If we fOlgct :11, t~a\ 1. figure 1. k t lJ4t .it v; f St'h~ \..;l. ~

poetry and statu~e f~il ~I'" g["si' all r"e: n:r... . O( IT 1 p'

these featurC:111
b
~l ~ru1' !N:' 1
,1world, ~hcn we lo~e 0.: .;'. c!d:_ ,:' . . . 4 &e 1]
Lear h~s understood th
f' tl"""
am d \. 1.:. .: ,)1. 5
rules the world, bUl o,)"~\ hlr=.
!
'J.
~"'i
his own forner "ulf' w,u . ..
.. I.. ,:1 ~ r
\.:.
cn -th
In the WOS1 t :1CH
1 - />I!. W'- 1 h_ hi~~e ';J
abstract idea )f powe l , u. '- ey... er , t IJ'I to '"
.. 1
formerly \..":el~e-:- Now, !U( lI; rble du:e d
unreasonablC,rlm n ...
1" 'atioo~\. ps of
)~ e
m~sery . reflect ~he ci\car reign
L
t', 0" ~.'.n
misery I' the _)ul
1 ."" f"
,t
j. c~ of
.
dy lies not only
.
l.
'" hcl~
I '-' I
h
e
T c hilge
i ut U"lglll- 11
'.lO li\c.J
daughters havt:: tenl.
I..
L "'... l:l\!.1l on s...
re .c
tL - I . "
d 0 001 S. lor.. .. t'
his rOYill ll'<1 I C; t y I' cen. teO'
t rr")r:11
only b~ VII' U
power st,ong
, hI
_
II lad ~n
tive onl,r a t'1(" w"ro. 0
m t1:'" Klf'
I
.l.'n s
True fe 3.1
1. h
_0;;
1. i iipp.l: In( \,; c.
on1v. the ext
ior 01 pc pli..'
J fo' hi, 1. '"'"hi.
.
h'
h
and .._ .. ttl n lp
h c
I) 01. at.;
1... ,x,- uS!On
A Lli _ lit ... 'l,\;'"
-"1 .':d ... n hi! 11In"",, tv
1 r
1. ttle w,""r10. ha d eel
~ \""1.,'

sb

\-or ..

,;1

dd

'L

'/~

of real life. Flattery 11ad blinded the old King H

took f:ho~g~t

. . not onlv 1.0::.. wlJo puts queshons to c~is

But nOW
lS' t If propounds 1 nddle to ~~,e old l:i..ing:
. LII.tr else
6:
daughters.
which i!O the !,Tl0 tim'r _rL..anl to 1 nan .wectmcats, 'lnc

expression of this greatest of human errOrs has behi ~lC

clothes,OI salti f1at ..c'V Plev... ,ts thc

from S('c'na '"lie
The fog of h t t .
cJntmue;
look (0; truth onlv
ignificance of. tl e e. Id and it is there that h. . S~CKS the
5
IItt e wor
savou(
1Z~ mnmC1Is 0 f 1"
.10 his own,
.
'
'lg
.~c
answer. The old Kmg IS

had

~c~scd

to

mil'~or

~s

life

,it was

~?d

he

imagmmg,s for realIty, Th~ m.lCI'OcOSIl1 of JUan (a fa\~I<t.~c

philosophIc and psychological IIllage of the Elizabeth juntc
been substituted for the "macrocoslll" of life. Th~l1S h:d

tradition of centuries and

p~c It l
knowlcd;su~

Bacon with evident

recalled the words of Heraclitus, "men seck

lesser worlds, not in the greater and Common World." C In
Lear had sought it in his own little world.
The King had deified his own person. It had begun to seem
to him that it was not in the least the absolute POwer he
wielded which determined his place in life but the inner,
immutable value of his human virtues. In Lear's mind a

,
,

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."

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~

I,

0'K .
G.
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In,

...0'
....""
..
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boc

q)

_01

distorted picture of the real interaction of one thing on

another had gradually been formed, a kind of mould taken
from the facade of relationships, whereas all in the immediate
vicinity of the King was pretentious and artificial. The mirror
of his power of perception grew tarnished, bent-and began
to distort. The world changed, but the dim, distorted microCOsm of the individual consciousness, protecting itself from
Hfe, remained the same.
The images of these two worlds are evident from the velJ'
beginning.
Underground tremors are shaking the big world more and
more Violently, One more blow-and everything will collapse.
Everything is already rotten to the corc; all aspects of human
ties and relationships are held only by the finest of threads.
One more effort-and not only will the kingdom fall apart
into three, but the whole order of things will fall to pieces,
break into smithereens.
This is what Lear docs not sec.
He sees the gilt the smiles, the handsome garments, heal'S
only the ecstatic words. In his little world there is not one
cloud. There, an idyllic calm reigns. Everything that is going
on is beautiful: the wise and just king is executing his last
wilt he is about to take the crown from his head and, su~
rounded by general. well-merited love, to hand over h.l~
power to his heirs; now it will be for them to maint~m
justice. The white-haired patriarch is exercising his functJon
as
for the last time. The ancient ceremony of th~
lovelaw-giver
test begins.
220

Kin~
~o

~'lr

happiest
day - t Ila. t swcetmc
He answers

~s

::ld tine

C~;lt" _

arc morc

important than sa~t hte. ,. ursed and bi.ID,hd. Keot. ih<

The youngest f <lugancient creed of l:i.onour, intcrven(;:i Ot
last preserver 0 an.
'"ruth she rcprc-.... ~~ ..al Glouccsh:.
anCient
Cor d eI"I a '"for thc
uite
unable to con_'" ~ d'I c!_ hi'. - -v rClgn ev n
the courhel, q h' t be wrong, is slle'lL
whi'n he knows 1m 0
t ' stone lUling
.
The puff of wind has se l~
Its ,"ery founo..1tion:' y tlmc
Everything, already shaken t~o coll.:.-,se T'1e de Il!:lht of
I
L
'-;,ao
has begun t 0 s way
". to dmo\'e.
the faces-ther.:
IS ~ ..........
__ . n'1
:t
....
Ii htning has muml~c
d reed h-vt: tran 'Ol'l:W th~ m
9
h
. predatonness an q
_
C l of thun __
about t em. 1
f beasts. A long, le:.vy
. t the muzz es a
h b gun
J1l 0
The storm 35 e
.
.._ 1 ~ E.. r.,ky
" ..
'b d the state of mm 0
f Shakespea1.t: _ L "S.
desert e
d d to almost any c
. t:b lif bee lU'
which can be omen
extent ~e slappy and contl.l~~
,e, from h.IS
"For the
l src...-) _tsclf l~ 1. e ... Infancy
as yet reahty has D?
.5 ~ondi_. n ), C"._._
. 5 h a condition
~ b --inte ;ral1Ol'l
dre.ams. uc.
i bi be foIlowe;l Y Cb ~ t- ... '~i('!n from
which must I~ev ~a lelinskv's wor('5.. s. ~ ... " s3.thf~ tion
Disintcgrah.on,
harmo~y and spmtll3.Jj-pr; eq'l!;.sitc
infantile, inshnctn c
1
'hic~ ~rc CS:-t:ll a
nd t 'ugg e, '"
~ armo'lY
~.,,;:mlY and L'0ns":IO~S L To Jc:::;in wit :~,
to disharmo~~ a
of the transitIon to . 01 Leu's develop_:.. n. With the :neV1
This
Wly . 1 scl~-53Iisl,Jct10n. h 'ponies :ne!t
1 isf also the
and
"pl'lila
l.. 'lluso'V
ar::
7
mora m an y . d elo menI5uc'll_
_;. rc are no iron
tability of hlstorlc31 ,ev I ~gh~ of :e.:i11ty ,~c '.)nsciou<.;,nes
s
away before the fi~ s\ ons ~qh to shle~d man s c
barriers . iml?r,~gnab,lc enou.
:lhantom~ of the
;'001 obJc,,:~wc rocl1,ty
.md sClll.: ::lg the. -m"
Swecping ,lway .l;u~~cn t 'n Of' the micro..:.)~, .
''lUI', SI
imaginatIon. t he s t 01 m 't'c'1'~.-')l-J
,. . t c gla I ~... '"'The result L "Ism

SPii~S~~e!~~c~~n~~ Moc~adlo~ ~et~.!a~ ~~~~~ -df'scriP:iO~

.~

n:

1:

Then comes the time \\I hen the ill'l'o Pl'ITl'h'l'\ th

\\'orld of social injustice, rccogllisl's it for ",,'hat it
C va I
from recognition to rejection, to a ('all to (.'omb"lt I~, Pilot; ~
even though he docs not yet know by what lll{'~lIlS. nJuStill
Such is the scheme of development of the Illajoq
Shakespeare's tragedies.
l'i of
In King Lear the situation is made morc intense by the

fact t.hat ~hc hero docs not. ~nly com~ to know reality but

t
t
I
t

,t

...

..
....
Ir

that, 111 thiS mon~cnt of ~ognttlon, he <:hscovl'I's the essence of

his own self, of hIS 0\\,11 lIttle world.
Lear is mistaken not only in his cOllception of life but in
his idea of his own importance in life. It had always seemed
to him that this was not subject to change. He might give
away his power but, nonetheless, it would be only proper for
him, "every inch a king", to be followed by all escort of one
hundred knights. The intrinsic value of his being gave him
the right to first place. The sacred quality of this place is the
foundation of the existence of all other inhabitants of the
realm, the position of each of whom is determined only in
accordance with their proximity to the person of the monarch,
So Lear believed; it was not just his own personal aberra.
tion, but the accepted opinion of the age,
In the scene of the division of his lands, we are given a
clear picture of the fast-frozen immensity of the state hierarchy. Everything is arranged strictly according to its place,
immovable, subject to an unchanging order. The highest place
is the King's, after him-the heirs to the throne, their husbands,
then the first dignitaries of the State: Kent, Gloucester, his two
sons, the eldest first, he being nearer to the throne, All stand
motionless, as though eternally fixed in their various places,
Lear lays off his crown. It seems to him that nothing has
changed, he is confident: the world stands as it stood.

of

It.
G.
011
III<

'"

Ito

.......
..
;:
II<

MADAME GREED

Feudal. h~erarchy found expression in dogmas and degrees

of submiSSion, in the tiered edifice of scholasticism, an
~rtificial order in which all things were supposcd to be ~xcd,
Isolated one from another, particularised. All that had bcmg,people, things-had become identified with their place, thclr
ackn?wledged importance, their rank. Everything could be
classlfied. unhesitatingly and once and for all as good or bad,
virtuous or sinful.
'
222

l leI ord

,-:.,tinucd .....yond the gnvc Dante

Thl" ~ res r 'Ircle~ of I lell, nil~ of Purgdtc.ry, ,md nine
dcscnbcll f.ii(
lplOC 'I s
[acb lilnn W.a3 -:1df"lllncd t,~ Ins I ow'].J
I I,;
spheres a
.. ~ f .onncn. one tl r'ue could not bt- "-p.;;tt:C:.l
particular k ~h a C wzs 1 hie' lfCl-y d EaHe"':I1g just 15 the)",
by anot~C"r. her atoncm::"ll me' e hi "'arc!:J.y c~ ctema~ bliss.
Y,'as a }lIcral c ~yb~yond undcrstanc:nq, pow.:; ~ond dl<,pull:,
Creeds. wer
of the st"'-' I ordL' tabhsned fo~' evt:~ ..
the relatIOnshiPs f the Gothil Cathc""'r,1'5, I,l~hakt:"l by ::1f
In the pore~~s 0 1 onl" iI:lrthcr, t'1eir ~JCS g,;.Z~nq \)ut inl)
9 a JI lured {o:m( . f kir!;~, wnnors, :nonks,
wind,. not 1001 IIl
ty S loou t hc s. P
.
'
._..... '-'--,'oms'".
tl-1c
ctern! ,
.
bnts
of
stone
In
',:!e:r
'_"
pm
and women das
9k n p Its place for a1: tur.t: e':e~'yonc
human. race ~ad ta f~u~d their appointed ;::: 'Ill~n, no C1C
belongmg to It had bl
I mo v ::1g them from thl!-. ?l.:i~c, 01
'1 C 0
f
'.. 12nt"d
a nd not h'm9 \-."as 1,;<1'
.:'
h'
d
..
'entu
.
es
0
:Jnqce,
,
h'
tton .... ,owe '''-changmg t Clr pOSl. '.
. n<! C:""1l~ -0;-:19. C':::'1e sum
, d
So they Will <'!.W-avs Sll
,
WlS om.
....,t
wint_T
'.
',,,
mer, come autumn or -. .. the st:.~':'" ~:-:- .. ltS n;._ c':._ ai, vc
t _ . __ i.. t-'J.e king I:; ,ct
An d J'ust as thL statue) ,I
,
k ~ ran'\. on ,,j,IlA, .,
th
the other ran,k o~ ran ke i!"c-e t.>,:, : ,_:lded 1t -,~\ :na.,
'.
above the d~."', .1t du
. ..,' __ ~
landed gentleman C.~cve the ~,s:, be d::~.nc~e~ b_:.::'~ ~\"e
And nothing change) no. c
",",_ :-'.. e~ f~_ L,:':,l fer
heavens opcn and :he las': L:mp s, .lr._.)
the Day of judgemelll
w _"J_ . ':~ :~.~_ :.:'0 f..".... er
In the meantime, WlJn c.: ' B'-:;':''''9-;at~ ~~rri.t:~ ('Iff m(':--e
he 131.....
.
I
'
eand
t
"
... ~'tsts
people, CpH emles rag
':le' _' ('ldic-s ,~nd peasan.~,
~ ..
people but ~I:'~ more 3re, m 5 . "';a:"" w:lhin the sam...
n kin s. Ami all this, tU:"IlS . :'\~' .
t~'l l:~ o.....n plaa.
i-;,,:o
'. lig':.:!: \n:]
Shakespeare',,; poet:-y rL ,l. ~eo,l
.
, struc k t h'\<:; 1m"
. 'n 'Jl1blc o:-"crh f1C tr":'~iCc.y
~.15 cl ~vmhohc
which
'.
, he
The storm which ra(iei throug
t'on 'f the .:old or.1c1, t
~ h d' .,.,tcgra I ,
J i ,hat
image of th~ bre~k-up, t c h\S~i~- intL" the fr..1g~n~n;tc , c .....
transfol'matlo~ 01 the n~~n% into ~omdhing Je~pls ... d. ht<:; fedhad been consldf't'cd sar.:l(' dy-e vent ,;, pc.:-ple. thoU9th';eaftcr
Everything in tile tr,lg~ - d "d only i.n order
h
b 'n mtro U t . : C .
. t, to s ow
mgs se('m}- l.,. 'ldVC,., CI~l'on int~~ its own 0t::POSI:~ original
to tl'an~fonn 1t.Sf'lt .. e..l ,." . ~nd t.:- confound Its 0
a comdctc1y dllt'::h'nt ~ldc
.'
thc fac.::s
~LJIc",
. n , t ":ltisc 0)0 pa1DtlO~,
horses
Describing ;1 l'..lttle ..;cencl'l 311~;ld dust. galloping
,
01 the lTI.l dd cne d p(' ~~ P'lr . 'OOl ~

::;.<;

~lo~ed c~dcmd cverythn~~ ~~~ ~~ ~t.:~~ - ,~, '-,~

"J

dragging their dead riders, and the rolling eyes of the d .

selecting only those details which ,,/Quld Com'cy an irn}1 1 g.
sian of maximum power, Leonardo da Vinci ended
advice; "And let there be not one smooth surface ex t e
perhaps, footprints which have filled up with blood."
Cept
In this way is written the tragedy of King Lear.
The system of images of this tragedy, expressed in th
poetic generalisation of the storm, echoes the processes o~
the epoch of primary accumulation in "a concentrated curreN
of musical energy",
It seemed as though, under the terrible shocks of the
subterranean quakes, the earth itself were in motion. Everything was confused; the groan of death and the cry of hirth.
The whips still whistled in the medieval torture chambers but
the clicking of the abacus beads was growing louder and
louder. Lawless feudal predators wcre discussing the pri( e of
wool. and rumours of ncw manufacturing processes in Pando
ers got mixed up with reliable and deta. led inl:ormation on
witches' sabbaths.
Greed, unchecked by the old m' ,]th~n~, had c1l1i"td it::
the world. The prologue to a new dgC hold begun.
Peoples' minds we"e still suLject to scholastic- v ltUl:" 3.~...
,'1e new epoch appec 2d to them as C': tc r ~lp ~i:.'lrC .. othca
In i.~1e allclOrical ganncnts of the Middle Ages.
p, -''lchers cried ut from the pulpit against the s';:'Verelgr )
f i..'lis:1ons[cr She was .... :llled Madame Greed. The 'ominr
of her \ingdrm was cried bel ore her In hcrr.:r it
s
pl.)phc cd that she wodd dev-t:; .... '1
ings nd. f J. r
vii.; 'l'it us march we' e no: J. 'tcd. wouh., :lestrov all 1: c

O:rh'

.
'.,"
".

of

""'.'

.....

..
....
....
of

1('

cuth.

One &olmuIa of pprc S10. Wl.S rc ."lacc .... by 3.nc ther

"lc seal cJed m ... lns f Ircdw"" or, the tiny 1.. InS f _p
C v repi ,-. ~ntcu y
1C sm '. to .JJdiT'g the hal d t; s "t _ h
l. pr,mitive t- _1::, :: wOlk them. the TIl :TlblC ;1Ot5 ]J the
were .. -t..:en"'ned t d, .tr JI =n Th
'Ie rd f fcuo..ll
(" oms U'j,. gul d clatkn .'ip w 1 :J. cnd. '1(, P_W ul.
b. ke L"'_,~ rre_it;;"l fetters In 11C na11L \,of 'he 't_.~
C
,', d pew
r.-: c
roduct:t
..: o! t If f
lrw

~!l11 re

r.
t

.ildar..

t (rc
-.

p.
;- ... & n!..*l y m
Grec_ 'lac' c. lptcd 1tL."1 U'
lr -:, c

:l d 5

Jrn:i to p ~
en Y met w t~ nagL
wer...

'!ads

for
1

1.
-:It

Ii" _

I.e

C. 1'" L f L~,
C
I"' II rc
I top~'.J
tlng one'
'f't.. e
1L

flAM I.E
"i,Jt'lcI,, 1m
.
V /{ 1/1111

IS/

'or

M"y"l~

'aWl I V wm

t<:.v

19
r (J II
T 'rc A,f()5

I)'C

II

~l

t
t

I
t

1
)

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I,

w
01

K.

C.
otJ

In,

...
........
.....
......
ot

K,

bo<

land became something to be traded for money: those who

used to work it were c~propri~tcd and turned into beggars.
Nomad bands camc mto bemg, terrible caravanserais of
human misery, wandering about the country, ragged, weak
from hunger. searching vainly for work. They staggered along
the roads, leaving behind them the corpses of those who bad
not the strength to go further.
The future army of hired labour was on the march.
.
They soon came to know what to expect of the new ways
The executioners were heating their irons and sh~rpening
their knives. The citizens of Merry England were to be
branded and to have their ears lopped off-so the law rdaincd
the treatment of those who were henceforth to be kJ"lI \Of 1
as "tramps".
Such is the age. There is not one smooth !iurface in
"Except, perhaps, footprints which have filled u:-, with blood'
To set off the new century, the opening scene of King Lear
brings onto the stage and erects before the au(iie nl ~ all that,
it would seem, is most stable in the attitudt; oj people to onc
another, all that is most essential in human relahon~ h:", 11
that has been hallowed by custom lnd, in accordanl:e with
fixed conceptions of right and morality, h_S acq lLe,.J .....rf;;
force of law. They arc brought on only to demon. tr....... n i..
course of the events which follow that these relatior.shlj Sire
no longer valid, that not one uniting l( 0] e 'Tl3] 1~ betwe .,
mdn and me: 1: nothing, not "ne single fOl 'l) 01 oeia] e)(i~ tenc"eve:rything has lbandoned its OW!1 place (.. 11 thing~ have
been tom nughly from .heir well-walml -! ncsl , :lestroy~d .
Jill re rcmalO" onlyk~cpl've outwlfd 'ieen ing Whl h cov rs
mould, wOl1nholes, (L'il '11 ~gration.
The c")nceptto n of ~'le I'vine ight of kings exists no n'u ~
The King IS nl longl' i..n mternediary between earth mel
heaven. The h('i ,to the t"rone rr._k ~ a mocke v of the very
thought of the intrin:.tl worth or t:'1e 'f,~ 1!! 3.5 an individual.
WitJ11 ut his t'ops, the King :5 f'oth ''1g bUl lr old nan in his
dotage, full 01 stupid whin~
Sacr~d tS th.:!t inv',te,! with r11t~rv powernd ,\'c .. lth,
" ld
th:..f.)unoatirm
alone
'T'hc
' c: the f,lmliy ... ;e bl\Jught ~ l~h'ng dew',
In f;; ni~'h! in the l t.O~""', daul Mer lV " le' lOU':: 11 '1' ':tt::r
~u: oj the lstlr into) :hc or.'l'OUl"try wt.rc ...,rr,ll'~, r.!'n
isst-m9 od thcr.:: "~10t
111\.1 a.1 bu~,!l fo~ ,helte:.. A
.m 'lO(-l'll~ '1':1l :,0 death, ~ 'rot her ,-'..: Idy ~"I CXcl.!lte

,.

,,
I

b otht>r' sisters hate one another and, in the cnd

hI S f ...
bl
h
. One
kills the other. The young re e agamst t c old. Kin murders
n Not one uniting factor between people remains. Nath
kI .
d
I .
b
In9
Neither the bloc tie, nor re 1910n , nor su jeers lOYalty'
There is only the sway of Madame Greed.
.
Like a titanic landslide, in King Lear there begins an ir .
sistible avalanche. of furiously poun,ding. and grindi~
confusion-the debns of customs, rclatlon:hlps and bonds.
The social system shatters to a thousand pIeces, broken and
deformed fragments of all that was once whole and unshakable arc hustling downhill. The state is falling apart, rebcllio!"
is up, foreign troops arc advancing into the disunited'
tortured land. The smoke of burning lies heavily over th~
ruined earth.
A bloody glow illumines the wandering crowds of beggar~.
the trees with men hung from their branches. On the tartur'
ers' wheels rot the stumps and chopped off limbs of human
bodies.
Poisonous fumes steam upwards from the cal th T1C)'
gathcl in threatening clouds. Thc slorn thunder; vcr Ull,;
earth.
The tiny figure of the outcast King tries with .11 th ~
strength of his "little world of nan" to 'o;-1bat ',e fu v . .'
th!" e unle:3.shed forces of destruction.
r lC ave t:est becomes 1 tr al y il on an~ '-ly loed.

,ur

"
'".
b

of

K
G.
ot

'no

...
'"'
..
...
01

M'
otu

bo<

val

woe

THE :te BE AND T 'E MA,

In the . ast and in the Wt:-;t the e' :1 egl...nd cf I he Klr

:lnll of l.... ..; King's Robe r1.e King went to bal"'c Vc caMe
t'lc rver andressed, lcf his robe on "he bank (.l.1u. d.ve
Into lC wate While he WJl~ SWlmming, tlleV.;!:i 51 11 h's
rOI ~, T1(' King 'lad to r(:~uf') home "3ked. I- ~ camr "'I 11
Pi. : ~ lOll orde" -d. the gates to be opened, 'lUt he guard
would nut 'et him in- they did lot r""cogn Sl.! him WIthout
I 1C nv 11 , .,bes. ':-Ie saId thaI "e was 11" I\.C'9, but no '''1::
\Or. uk believe h'm
Soldiers carne and l cor~ d the nat.. ... i
rr._n , ff 0 pn: on, i....... t:n .... e WaS brough: bel re the . "'U-~ and
c ndemncd to b~ flC'J"ged It-e puLlic square f')l '31.n: 19
t
_. 'l.l; Ktl

tr...
...

i!( ('

'J

(m th

yf,.~fi

r. C

I X, h

_riG. t\

ti-:~ In

D 3.r.:;

",

N. lltk.

pp
v

rtL c

So the King ceased to be King w~en his robe was stolen.

tnesS was in the garment. not m the man.
Grca Ivet mantle trimmed with ermine covered the should'
A f~he ruler of Britain. But as soon as he divested himself
"rs o I nds-the mantle was ,tolen. And at once Lear ceased
oftS3
.
h
be a recognisable Ktng.
to Th' 's the theme of the scene in Goneril's castle. Lear .
. 15 twith 'his daughter, suddenly notices that he is not
s~~~t~~d quite as he used to be. He becomes aware o~ a new
a . d t his person, He cannot as yet understand 10 what
attltu
O
,ctl e
this change
consists..
Hls eyes 1Ig h t on the D~r he3S'
eX3 ;d Oswald. Lear calls him, but he goes on h1!"' way
wa
S~~thout
so much as turning his head, Lear-who ~ot lon~ ago
WI
ower of life or death over every. one of hIS subjects'
had. p after the menial in blank surprtse. It does ,not en~er
stares . , head that the man existed who nllght fisk
the Kmg s
.
.
~cliberatclv insulttng him.
h
h
... Again Oswald passed acrosS I.e'll' 0:. field 01 ViStOn.,.s t aug
dt
e clO~"'l . he is conVlOe \.. i
he had not notic~d him.
T~e~ orders hllll to sto~ an .0 com
~.'
'n fuJI .0
th t Osw lid, having rcahsed hIS W 1 neg ly..: 1Ce, ~ I k
11; knees, he r ificd, 3rd imrh rc (orC) ve~ci~ ~ut t e ac ev~s
fa(.;c IS UJ m..,vccl. rl: continues t.O ehave lO th' ami I)l
bv 'y familiar mannc
.
sCv lJ"lt k lOW U 10 tarl(~')
T~e:: aShS ; d('< ) the conl ~l hi Ie
fOlio! "lIm'
::. t'L D'lC h
{orne .. ,he an we' yeo he dc..: k l( VI.
t
father
b
I' '?I 1 p. .;n
r' rth: _ck~y.l~lr
.nor'1mt. ul 'te i l l
~
owner u F t~(" ;{inq s ..,bf'
11
ghl \, m' ~ll
1:
Jhe ~l ":;lInes: ..,f tht:' III n Whl ~ ~ u.
11 fl.r~., hI! 0'<'
l(h 1 kin!" ~urncu ,-,ul t\) .... l( qual fYt~: powP' whtc'1 c
nature but lTerc'y "'c ~ n ' uenc..: f .... others Inrl r sc_
hdU w:eldcd hC! W:;1! hst1l1.guIsi1f~d
~
, the oble\..
,
b h'
1\Ict 1''' It h;>' ....
dbov ~ them only 'Y I~ r ....
ti When t oN l! ~ ~lcn
01 :1I... u1 OIl lru fllt ~ly . . u hIS rnaJ"l (".
r, <;0 L~
tl
1
d\..

n
l( King W'lS U lfec .... gnt. 0.1 bl c. cve
.
~t
r.;;
11
<:""'d
e :1 k ng. ic \.. rcn \ . . . J
thc 1:001 LId hill.
k W:~ III th n9 bUI Lc s S.lal oW <
1,;

1.(" l!-. h r1 ~t ut. 11 Ie ng "til nc"

ut 1('1 .... nc ~. d
f c h d told (v -uoni tha. he w a' 19'J 11'"11 i~ d, 'nd
,
d
hlrr \V ~I ~
c"eu h1ll
pIC 1al y 1r. 11

,...

r ... Jtre

')

be complained. pleaded. cursed. Then he understood. he

,Mge! needed the stolen robe. for in any case he Would ~no
..... It again. He was ,,,.. ring the end of his journey N or
be DO lODge! said that he was different from others he
wille to uda. stand the,t he, like all the rest. was but a men
This was the end of his long road.
The ,..,.al of the story was that. in order to find out the
true wotth of things. it is necessary to discover ordinary

h:

lIfIe.
to lind out all those things which had formerly

"-

his expelience; he began with simple thing,

,pbk" toucbed him closely and then went on to the leas

bDmedIate. discovering the general and leaming to understand

tIae. c;t)IiUectioD betiecl'j the simple and the complex.

answer of his youngest daughter disturbed

of his existence. Lear fell into a fury
"-use Cordelja
dared to flout his wish. Later. when the
oOf hii elder daughters became clear to him. he felt
the
he had done. He began to consider his
minor fault and himself as
opinion. nevertheless been

lau ll .
- Cordelia show I
in
IONn.., , "

...

my frame 01 nature

. Lear. however. all t~at is 9?in9 ~n is still CQUtaind

fOI I' . tcd circle of lamIly relationsh,ps. A elrama of tbiI
in the 1~1 ht have happened in a yeoman',
esd or
nature t~lhg ut-anywhere where thele was a famj),: oIdn ad
pcasan s arents and Ch'ld
I reno
r
younge. ,;atitude of children was the first thing lear laW ill
n
The
rId This was the beginning of his "ad
the rca wpooss~ssions. power over people-all this bad IIIIIIed
4 '"
. Crown
rivate property to Lear. He had distributed J'I!II b
'
h~e ~.ld n just as a landowner might beqtlcan* his boule.
h~' ~ 1d :"nd his herds to his children. He had p1OfG1b!4 hII
~1S 'h:ers with a vast inheritance. and ~ gzadged !be
aug p 01 his lollowing-a mere hundred bigll"
up;ee titudc-here is the basic vice. And !be ,,!""t tIaIb\e
nra tation of this vice is the inglatitude of cfrild~~_
manl e ,
t f roc, OU5 form of plmisbmlnl- Leer w . - As the mos e
. he has had '"
if
Goneril the experience througuchessh
wh'c~ Alb.,, may
a child is to be born to the
a ~, it grows up all its mother scare:
leel
.
.
...
tlwtsM
may
. . . .
~. it
HoU1 sharper than a sapen! s tbO
To have a t1umkhss chi14

farm,

.0

In the very coupling of th ese unnaturalness. contrary to laws which

Is it not as though this _ .

For/ilting lood to tf
Filial ingratitude is the ,",At
time, the
And so. for the
duced into the
Now Lear
precious
and of fine
yet to Jearn
The King in

he ceme

to

was fOICIId

).

J'i:'".t

And then, before the King, .who has. touched on the lowest
rung of lifc's ladd~r, there anses ~he Im~ge of another kind
of injustice. Deprived of everytlllng, famt f~'om weariness
and despair, he at first feels the hardness of hIS lot to be the
same now as that of a great. many ot~er people who have
been through the same expenence of life as that which he
himself is now undergoing.
From his own particular problems Lear's thought passes
to the objective and general.
The eyes of Lear come to rest on the Fool. Now his jester
is no longer an amusing toy but a man in no way different
from himself, the King, feeling as he feels. Lear has under
stood the measure of the other's suffering.
When Kent suggests that the company should seek shelter
from the weather in the hovel, the King sends the Fool in
before him.

In boy, go first. You bouseless poverty'

Nay, get thee in.

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The thought sank in ever deeper. Life was beginning to ')C

reflected more distinctly in his consciousness. Not only Lear
and not only the Fool \... ere dragging out a piteous life of need.
A thousand pictures of misery arose before Lear. Tattered,
hungry and humiliated, his country now appeared to his
mind's eye. His subjects passed before him dropping with
weariness, faint with privations.
The real world has broken in to the microcosm, flooding
every cell of his consciousness. The infant harmony is gone
He has become aware of life as it is~ a world of discord, a
world of sorrO\.....
Already he has forgotten his offended self-esteem as a
father, his wounded pride as a king. The action is now going
on in the family of humanity as a whole, in the boundless
srace- of History. Vast and intolerable, Injustice has re.'lred
up 1n Lc,-: s path. She has -risen to her full titanic: height and
cast ler siladow ove- all h!s new 'crceplions.
r . . . . lI~JU! bee of his ehi1u~...'" w-s bUl a r-lalively srnz" _".'lr~
ot all thIS concept Lear had bee me lWCI,e oj t;f' ba!;s of 31
~latij nsh ""ls' SOL _. ini'lstice
He had p:: cc ved the ' ue lC e am.i. 'lapc of tht: t me'
In t ..... e mom_It of 'lis deepest sorow he W'lS llre<ldy 1ink
l~ not ... f him"(;~," but of 01 1j 1'5
230

whed wretches, wltereso'er you are,

Poar bide tile pe 1tmg
' 0 I th'JS pJtl
"Iess storm,
Tbat
HoW shaJl your Ito useless heads and unfed sider.
YOllr looped and windowed raggedness, defend you
From seasons such ~s these'? a I have ta' en
Too little care of tIllS!
, neither right nor law, nor morality These conc\:pts
There IS currency, they
'
h
' h
I
1
serve ternan
WIt d ve vet mant e
f I
are aase
d his shoulders,
rOun
e the sovereign defender of these can, epl~ now
Lear,
one all. The Kmg
'k
ks them
spea ! 0 I t he nature o.I power,
moe.
tl e idea this way and that so as to expc. e Its every
turlllng 1
facet.
. the law of his kingdom. See what he make! of
Here IS
I

th~~laewhow yond justice rails upon yond siID?Ie th~d. HarhK,

e
I
d handy-dandy whICh s t
. thine ear; change p aces; an ,
In
'ustiee, which is the t h'l"
Ie .
._
J The thief and the justice are not to be ~Ol i a~.... f
n
A cur breaks from his c~ain a'1d fhngs h~~~. ~r)on l~!
ill-clad man. tries to bite him as a beggar
I P
, I L - sees .;( cur as a syml 0 .
from the fierce amma. ca.
"h
ht( heh~ i the
'There" he says to Gloucester t au ml~fc .'
,
f
h't
dog's evedl0 IJ .t:
:treat image 0 aut 01'1 y; a.
d'
r' r 11" "W ~ive
The word "law" is part:lCU._ ly eccp IV .
dd.drcsse~ its administ -tOl

dv

han"

Thou rascal beadle lie, Id thy 000,

Jz:!On hJr.
Why dost thou lash that WhOl e? St if!. t I 'lr
ThOll hotly lust sf t'J "Sf. Ill" 1"1 fJzl-! t' wa
For which thou wJupr)st lIe'

Morality is the SClvdnt I,)f

th
mantle.
_ r ard( 1! i;luu'tl '
Adultery... That ":. n( cr uc T .., P
King 1e~ds soldic' s.
51 con].11d U) w'l: t
Picture" one 11'\.'11", v vd than 1(' d mOl" ~.., -""te i
..,1'
"vl::' g( mq
n "1 the -0' nl y NOl111
'1/"); t1: ttc v Ie W.. '
from' fc: }'leithc-' w:1lb, '1cr vd""l~~~ ~ut 'h.:> 1] n':icU It th:
1('11 -n'y ~--lllted '"
nc VIC "" 01 red 1. . f.. '1(' ..Crier 'le h",
('entr" f'.v ~ nt "Cram th" hi~;( p~fC
t 1 ln~ o.Wj~
.~ -jW .1f' 1 the
C me dLW~ tl) t~f" H.ry owe~t
... :JTouro.

Leal' had found out the \'alue of s.:11t.

_
He did not find it out when hunger forced hun to hy
unsalted food.
.
He found it out when he dl.scovcrcd the taste of tears.
Now he is already familiar \\'lth the SJlty taste ~f Sorro ......
and not only of his own, but of all those to whose eXIstence he

t
t

I
t

.
..,
..
II

had never before given so much as a thought.

In the lives of almost all Shakespeare's heroes there is a
moment when each begins to realise that the sufferings
which he himself is undergoing have been brought about not
by some one malevolent person not' yet by a concu~Tcncc. of
circumstances but arc a part of some great eVIl wluch
threatens the majority of people, the causes of which are
hidden in the depths of the social structure. From this moment onwards a new passion appears in the hero's life. All
that has happened up till this moment, all the agonising
thoughts and flare~ups of emotion have been nothing but a
prologue to the birth of this passion. The violated trustfulness
of Othello, the shock Hamlet received on learning of his
father's murder, and the despair of Leal' on realising how
mistakenly he had judged his daughters-are all but the
beginning, the first steps taken by these heroes on the road
of their destinies.
Now they are possessed by one sale passion-'one and the
same, common to all, devouring them in its white heat. This
is-the passion of cognition. The aspiration to discover the
meaning behind what is happening, Man begins to think not
only of himself, but of mankind. He sees before him not one
villain but the evils of society. The sword is useless against
this enemy, Claudius may die, but his death will not mend
the disjointed time, the death of one criminal will not put
an end to social injustice, Injustice will not cease to be when
it sees Iago subjected to terrible torments, nor will Desdemona come to life again, nor is it possible to resurrect the
belief that such feelings as Romeo's love for Juliet. Othello's
for Desdemona can exist and prosper in such a time,
.
Lear's sufferings would not be cured by the execution of hIs
daughters, the return of his crown, The passion which has
taken possession of his whole being demands another form
of satisfaction. He has to see with his own eyes and find out
about all that has been hidden from him. to discover the
reaSOns for injustice, Blindness has lasted too long. His eyes
are now opened.

23Z

mcnt life is '"!um'ncd ... v .11:mj~lant !ight. Abysmal

ro~ .1 jar "10r ... ~ns ;....~n into sight. 11c light IS so I:-right
dept ~~ new pitlur..: Imp"'1Jlt"d upon the (Jnsciousness I;::
th~t t~ to behold. The pil..... :rcs follow ~U upon the othe,' In
pain Jmor ~ .apld SUt cs .... ::1, rse;llhg ever 'lCW fcrm~ of
ever

ms

tice I 10K" power and ueh pC! le.,;ute b:s examinatien

Learrtpu that
S
h T mm
"d _....
"" . t, . .....~
"d L'" str.xining l'~c<;"urc
.
of r~a I Y h
T'lcv wound, plerc and 1 un, t~e sufL.:rinq
of hIS thougbl::. bie !'ain shor" .:1r~t!~~ hi whole bl"ing
becomes un c_ 1.

, out "11m 'Jt '. ~ "!".! r~m.

Lear cr~es in . in Cordelia'S ter.t, !"te 'Jeg:,; f!2t to be brou~ht
Awa cn g ,if he 0 (":l!o ;1i e";,." he will !q ~ fil"l~\ hIm
back from slecp,
hPJ _ E".~" v. '1t wi1l i
".:-:-:nit no C'~('
f "b
d upon a w ce '- -~, .."'~
.
,
sci
oun
. when he is dY~'1g. wo:-c!s w:i~1 br:.n;J t:w 0~d
to speak to him],
A d on~" ...... h ... .,rtlt:<:<: y:.:"ldl1p,n tJ;c
rea
Ity
nn
'J' . ... to
man b ac k
.
1. 1.,_
, " ' ~~_ ,."
"
t
ugh
wrr'd
tr_tcl;
nlll!
21t!_
, __ )jl . .
k h
rac 0 t 15 0
.., f'~ n,tl-. .... ~:~1t: '"C' .:hr:2_ -:- .1:'.: a ft,.)tu~c
Metaphors take.. ""Tho . - ld;s 3. r;~'k J::J:-~ t;";" :'JC"k IS
of the whole tragedy.
c wor. '.,. ..~.
stretched the rran who ODC"~ :-'~l~~.~":-:~. :::.~-r:: c~ ::.: ~~::nanlty
The human he:Jrt, ~~~~~ ~o . ....; ;~ the 1:-:-.',<. with e,c r)
But it Tc:><,:,p0nds, :::ll~ h ... L ,. h:. ... ~~ ;s :~~ ~.:'~ ~,~ s.:' many
shuddering be~t. to the p_1D "'".~~~:.'},' d :.:-:m~:-: f;1.ilcd to
people whC'se ex!sl.em,~ l.~ m... ;:. ...3
IOjU!

I'

,t

notice.
, m'~ t~ ; , ,:-\f\I'rh;~l..::cd
h"JITl""""\
'~ ..... ,
I ~
1
At thls poinl. m..:n "J:"tI ~,. 't:le
, "~': l ",:'~.~ '~";"n .:'~ in,iiddua
. t~, ....,h."
a!; a unity. The .:xrl.!n,n~~ ":",. . Il';
. ...
sorrow with the sC'r:' ow 01 ;.nlLl,(,:l.S~i~ h.J.~ "Cl':) life ;1' it I'c.111,

This is the cxr~rlencL' .0, LC~rl-.,~, '~mes

is, He goes out 01 hI:' WltS ~'l ' -

", 1,

c1 VI- 1",'

m:l.n.

OTlJFIl H)l ; 'I.'

. ",age!:: which ..~xpressed

.
d
t..,
A..;>nt Jill 1 1 1 ,
.
The
Perfect w~"'rks 01 art use ......
J'
. 1 'ontradicuons.
\..
.
but
the c"senee ot" t h cmos t d C"l'P+l'('..;>tc
d h SOCIa
ed
with
the
times,
! 'rm' ")f these contrJ.didions ha e an g d poetry created a
..
....
.ned unrcso 1\ e .
in l'~scnc~ they had rcmal
h oetic idea.
kind of extract from that cssencc-t e P nturies and the new
Tht!sc id~',\-imagcs outlasted the ~e't of its own times:
" d'm them dthe
spmthe very com b'III aUon
epoch still recogmsc
5 uls
In Gogol's prose poem Dca
0 octic idea, capable of va~t
of the words "dC.ld souls" was : ~he institute of serfdom In
genl'ralisations, covering not on y

233

Nicholas 1'5 Russia but the whole world of predalory acquisi.

liveness, always opposed to the" ~l('vclopn~.('nt of ofWard.

looking humanity-to the wo:ld,of lIve souls

There is also such a poetic Idea or generalIsation 01 \Vh t

is most important to the action of the play in K illy [..I' ~

Shakespeare saw life as the dominion of deceit and co:':
tcrfeit. He fc~t social rclationsl~ips t~ be inhuman 3?d craz~.
How was It that these rctationslllps not only eXisted but
even bore all the appearance of stability?

,
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E\'idently, they could only seem human and reasonable to

ullseeing eyes and clouded minds. This thought, and together
with the thought the comparison, provide the Sources of the
poetic idea, Let us try to trace its origin and develop.
ment.
At the beginning of the play the stage is peopled by
statesmen, advisers to the King, men close to the throne,
but not one of them, clever and experienced men though they
are, understands that the division of the kingdom will bring
about the death of the old King and the disintegration of
the realm. This was not understood either by Kent, 01
Gloucester, or the King himself.
And still there was one person \./ho foresaw everything.
He understood everything which proved beyond the understanding of the wisest.
The. only .sensible person is the Fool. the jester. It is he
who, ImmedIately, in his very first words, foretells what is
about to take place.
The King of Britain is eighty years of age. Yet experience
has bro~ght him nothing but naivete, Everything that he
doe.s whIle of sound mind is madness. The cursing of Cor'
della and the banishment of Kent arc the actions of a mad~an. But. Lear committed them while in full possession of
hl~ facultIes. The King was mistaken in everything: knew
?elt~er how to value his own children nor how people lived
tn hiS own kingdom.
Bdut no SOoner does Leal' lose his wits than he begins to
un erstand the true sfi
1 h .
Th
Ign~ cance a w at IS going on.
c
Fool had be
-lct d l'k en the only W''iC man. As c:: reasonable man, Lear
. Cd I e one out of his senses, As a madman. he achie"c~
ms_.
Tlt.t.;c paradoxes
.
d
.
fi
T1w
' . were mve~tc WIth a profound slgIll '
goinQ' PoetICI l~ea, expressmg an evaluation of what was
- on 111 rea hfe, :educed the foundations of the state
(..lI1('c

,34

.ystem ad Clb5U~dlltJ 3nd sho ...... ed the mre1So1lable~1 ~ c1

. I .elation"'hlps.
,
.
SOCia was t possible to sp~ ." t,::; e-gn an<! who 'l, d
H~w ortunity 10 glVf' 'XL rcs ion to SJ.C'~ though~s and to
thcPP
hd
his hf'"<ld on hsou.
c-.,l
kccP I
c pc-son was"'" prv!CJj 1. Th- only I)cr ,m n
On V on
h'
..L
hc wllolc state who had the lIj
"\ speCu\ "I t 11 way W2.
t
Fool. Hc W15 general y ac!,;;."Iow1edgc? !~ .. f<X?l :md
thc h
k the tr Jth wilhoul J
f re tbuhon. Thl v a'
mtg t spea
v
h
h is only privilege
Thc melancholy 1.aque of As -"4 LIke It (lrcams ?~ t t:
possibility of becomIng Sl.: :1 a r
on'

Invest me in my motley; give ~'" ell' b d ~r.~Jugh

To speah my mine and I '111 thr' ug an
Cleanse the loUl hodv t Ihe If ..cted rId,
II they wm patiently rec~1I r.:y med1cm
From ancient times, ... opie h..
r.:_n ~,L 1Jll~- _ t tP~
eharactf'- dcpij,.:>d as the n". t too ;.1 P~ht::" C'l
wisest wor~s. The .iefenedess le,tCT
...t'v - l-'. t
-1.. I.. nc
I
false values. A
01S."I
Je ~ 1 I
'y;
1_ J i
:T ,,~:..,.
formed into d nOL ~ery cf .,. 1
t It
13
be honourcd.
_ f
...... --y
In the de- th. of t"e h'lI' d~Jf" A~_
5"_. 'appcj ~
of Old Mothc r FOl Y W l ,u.c _ ~ ~C>;_
ld kmq,:
he
fool's C"lP onto the J e u. V
r ,. .., 3.' tl: 'u,t. pc'" "lQU
authors 01 c e t ous eSl t~ uq.t"t . tfl~ . te-'
Is :u'u'~
specches could ... e 'It'ard t'1c r: nql ~g 0
t1-. l.. ,1 ~
L
- If'!
r .... .,"If'
I'
that asses eal s could ) j S ~Il po..
luxurious hC31.. dres. cs
,t of Focls: I n d'i
F
\
"
i
r;;.
,</Irs
cr~
IntlecUlCCS
h h
I
. I'~pc v,1 ,,,1 \\;tS e rc .'el,
was dragged into "c cLu 1.."1,
\\, H1C crul"C
~m0 k c .,.nu
,the censer wafted ] 51 IlKlOg
L

,-f.

'0.1.-1

was turned into a l'u"~' 11

.cr c tL. c ord~r 01 ..
The ann .us 0' the t'l(',~: I; h c '1 ~ '''t-'''' I.. .ip"Ci,l mto
French King to I ~'- tJ"1c ler: . .:-~ Wl~~'"
M(lll( F lIy
il')ns .. lld '1ailcd 0: to P son ~hr a
t Jm Ii n' tf1~
,
ro 1 ",e ~.na
ruled '1 "1;; K ng P II..

,,;'w

peol lj

\\'CI vwi:tcrc th~' spl lng

gl1ild~.' . -=,rdf'l's A r'lol:
. f-Wa1\.1 th:- ell~ 01 tflc fi
WaS W IttL"
1 GCl mrn 'v
0.;

Hi 1( t:
c>

."

of how fools gathered from all over the world to sail

to Narragonia-the Land of Fools: fashionablcs, dC:t~ay
bribe-takers, pedants, astrologers, card-sharpers. On
cover of the book was depicted a boat crammed full of
(
pIc sailing across the sea. Above the heads of these mari~eo.
wa\'cd a flag sho\\'ing the he~d o~ a fool in ?- jester' 5 c~~s

th'

What was the reason for thiS reIgn of asses ears? Greed-

t dramatic parts o the play, lies in the fact that all

the mos 'qucnccs of the "upsidcdown life" which they

the CO~S\s shown in scenes full of pain and angcu
cclc~ra. C age of wi!>e folly was supported by another w':lich
T he l;cfine q its content, that of the ;ceing blind.
furtHaVing
c~
lost his eye; , GlouccstCl sayS
. that '1f': dol"S lot
Illiss them;

which was forcing people to forget about the common wea(

From now on the world was t.o be ruled by Lord Pfennig.'
Already it was not the medIeval dogma of "original sin"

which was held to explain the monstrous ugliness of the

world but reason which pronounced judgement on the social

I
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order.
In the sixteenth century the number of books devoted to
the glorification of Folly increased. Old Mother Folly herself
mounted the rostrum and announced for all to hear: "Folly
makes the state, is the prop of power, religion, government
and justice. And what, indeed, is all the life of man, if it is
not a prank of Folly?" This was Erasmus of Rol.crdams
III Praise of FolIy-a book of militant humanism. The thought
was pronounced openly. It was shown most convincingly 'lat
the contemporary social structure only existed because ~e
majority of people were fools incapable of I ercciving Ie
essence of state institutions, the very foundations 01 wh t.,
nade a mockery of common sense. In as much 3S all LiS
.:ontinued to exist it must mean that ''''e world w~ s 1"llled by

lolly.
Rabe1ais wrote: "The World is vilelv abused.
. We SI'I; ~
our Souls to keep to the Theologues,' who fOI Lhe gre:1ter
-art are Hereticks: Our Bodies we comrrit to the Physicians,
who 'lever themselves take any Physick; And lhen we n
tnst our Goods to Lawyers, who nevet q( to T lW :1gain! t
anI" mother'
Folly and madness lcse ire _he loundJI ens of ocic'v
. d oes w~lK 3houl th:o ol'b IiI e the )u~
-r"'l"- V 511',
shncs eve yw\zlc say' the jes, . 11 Twcll~1J 'Vioht
Unaer 'le sun of {ollv everythlOg
grow1ng Isid( ou:
A"h
~I
."
.,
e w..)r.1, 0] t~e tInt" ~e;lg, is w31k lL drounU 0':1 5
lap ~ hC3C _ownwud. n King Lear th S IS th'" theme t the
~ ' h
..
_. s _ng, ] ~ i.!plct::. are :1 p_:'lliar corn c echo 01 th"
L a -) pu: 1] of he LXVr S )nnet
Th he - lC~!S _:c ~.lT fro." em~-i <= play of DetTY nonsen
c trcn...-l of inl - puns and wittiL. me; introdUt ~d 10
II

I stumbled whpFI I

(!lW

te erroneouS ideas about his sons, about the

d
I
Hc
. 13 ofqUl
thc state. Ensuing events Ioreed h1m t ( 1 ~arlse
bUSiness
of these ideas he achieved a differ!'nt md
the wrong~e:cs estimate of thd situation. In such c ;t::"S t 1.
more accura h
man's c es were opened. But if his ~ycs
usual tal say: t c~t at this ju~cturc then it follow' thaI be'ore,
were onb~' o~el~he poetic idea 01 the .ck 01 corresponae :'U e
he was m,
..
<:.
resent thlough lit 'lc
between s~~in~f atto~~~~~~~~niear' Coun" llor hap goo.a
developme
h'
The compar1son Wll1 the let
.:!ycs, but he saw not l~n.gble to his every :1Ctj ., 1. bli a. v
a ~lind man was app Ica b
d the 1)UK .' C ","';!ill
tr"lstcd Edmund, blindly 0 .evp.
v 'C
.'
'I,
ooked, he gazed, '1t:; exarntnC_ rom e er)'
but h~ S:1W nl th '1.f1.
~t h h d ~5, 'l.1~ eye~ .
it; e' '1 ,J ~ec \)nlv l~ er , I
ie Wa ....- linded, i:'1~ his eyes w 1 0- _vd., ,u.
lim to .mde 5111 U t'le wor d.
c e:1
Tle
maX .f ')nakcsIl;.ll_S 1-'
GIOuCcster 'n 11.;: lire
"
'Z h,_ we hIl ..

pI qzw wh w: 11 ,;w:::.
.
h
lUJ'ltarU" lI'CV tl 'C n , ~
MadlT"t.n rul'" "nd t'l.e :;! W 0 ~ 01 50cie ty r 1
~ iI lin
bI" d 't th
llJ to ce: 11": ITHU n~w,
, pll:P 1111
10 1
tV
d
1(0"1,; Wh .... l S
b ,c.,fi mpr' by r l'rr d pal h
rnOl 11 tv nd rir t-t arl,;
t 1ere cx~ct'y nd ID v.l.c. ',W
wn
"
"
ucc
uo
'1own Il!>1 d (' ... ut dll
n }- j.;.,;tUo.I1I,)nc "11 ana
rl-I,;: C"ll
t h...... \I;.::tu ne
"
t"f I "'II 1 WI ~

1.. , ?"'(;J1T'E' 1 he ,'::1..>1

..
PO! 11 Ie ns.
1f' K 1fT lao
~ '1 the WOI d . II S. 1", .....
nan, the L I 1( n 1 h S, - th JTl;1c-1m an to::l be)m l I)t,
v"'uth r vc liKC
J]I he
e
Ti!

l lP tl1np'

>

I\"')1 P
I
In
t

1T'<:1I 11 .

nuth

s,

ct
n
C ldi.1 o...al
A'nda
~p
ot"-nC'.
p~ t!'~ 1 ~ Il'Y t ' the Dent!' r,..
f the tr ~~cif l~
on
1 tl.,.. ~ 1.
n wI-! c' t~ lC~ n
l-_ U

laid. To live in a prison-state is the greatest possible .

for man, but if such is indeed his true position, then pm~ery
it would be better to seck happiness in a real pI Cr ap~
confinement?

ace of

Lear pleads that he and Cordelia may be led off to .

as soon as POSSIbl e an d h e d
raws a
pIcture of life inpn'on
tivity which makes it sound like a joyful holiday:
cap-

Come, let's away to prison.

We two shall sing lil{.e birds j' the cage.

In the kingdom of Madame Greed, prison is far from be-

ing the worst place for a man. Behind the bolts and bars
man is no less deprived of liberty than in his everyday life
wh?r~ t~e lib~rt~ of his existence is, seeming ~nd the l'eig~
of Injustice wIll m any case fettcr Ius best aspIrations, feel-

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ings and thoughts.

Three distinct images reflect the chaos in social relation
ships, each in its own way. Sometimes these three charactcrs
form a single ensemble, they become interconnected, then
thoughts are concentrated on one and the same thing. icy
complement one another and, in all three of them, in spite
of all the difference between them, there is 1 certd n nn_
similarity.
They are Lear, the Fool and Edgar Each of them CXPJ ~s! ~s
thc theme of madness in his own way.
The madness of Lear is a genuine sickness.
Edgar disguises himself as a madman to escape pul "UII
this is an impersonation of madness.
Thc lcster plays the part of a fool in order to amuse- thll
s a form of humour.
AL: three talk nonsense, but it is enough to spend a 'ittle
thought. on. the seemingly senseless strings of words and
cverythmg IS. s~en to contain some meaning. All three are
thmk.ers. Their mterconnection is complex.
It 1: lot casy to define thc relationship between Leal lnd
the FooL not only their relationship with one anothe-r 'lS tw
, nple bu~ 'le interrelationship of .1.C pochc image'
Tl:lt traits 01 the Fool's charactc, 'character ,tics wh I,; 1
I:lave _ f>11 c:med by real rCllmstanrcs 'al enol hard
c __ .' 15 -=~:; .:l.e to rel,;::-Sf uct h 5 biography to unde1stand
h k.nd f e he had e.... bcfOl" lis fir t aprCll'ancc on
} e 5ta};91: It W3.S III oh to make ...0;;3.1' sm Ie to ~ s~ract t"in
_::1 L.S s~>d thoughts. One: of the games W'lS t lat the

'csters would tal~ to their ma~ters as t~ough they were

J ddressing old fnends, even Wlt~ a certam degree of can"
a pt This was the most amusmg form of foolery which
tem lutc
. monarc hs cou Id pOSSIbl
.
They laughed
y
Imagme.
b O Sh
a
heartily, but for t e Jesters t hIS game was a way of earning
a living.
.
.
Shakespeare's jesters develop thiS techmque to a partIc
ulady high degree of perfcction. So they arc in the habit
of speaking to one another .as though on equal te.rm,s-t~c
st powerful man in the kmgdom and the most mSlgmfimo t But the jestcr was an intelligcnt man who looked on
ffn . ot only through the loop-holes of the King's castle, and
i e n w this insignificant man, many things of which the
he sa ,
I patter, WIth
e nonsenSlca
t powerful had no notion. In th
~~~ch the Fool used to amuse his patron, grains of truth wen.,;
scattered. The Fool was taken from amon.g the ~ond servl~1
of the King, and his wisdom was the blUe Wisdom f he
poverty-ridden people.
The ancient popular image of the ~an w;o Ip~':!ars to
be a fool but is in fact wise and lrscelng w s lr'o~,o11td
in the subject of King Lear
.
.
,
The Fool's behaviour was eompllClt&.o by ~_ n~. l~l tl ~~
Jf palatial halls he found himself out on. ': w .... ~ lea~ t
hi! once powcrful master was now 3. ..... 1 qm ) Outl ~ .. ~
thIS did not alter the Fool's attitude to .... "',,_ 11 \.\ S genr,uln r
attached to him and, In pite of all the changes n \ f ue
of the old King. continue to serve hln:t as ""': .. -sUy fc,-( ~~
He did his best to go on fulfilling hiS dube and, "
o .erve wa~. to amus."'. HoweV"l jolted _:mt of h :; "tU'lto~a ~
.
1
h
t d by 'la- --lsh]l)' 11.. e) e
conditions of I e, ex aLS C
h
mile be arnc
new vein; impel'c~pti~ly even ~o "In~~t h(; l\f':~'er cel~ .. :l to
.a wry grimace, hi. Wit gl.ew bltter~
Ion er abll tr wllk
play the fool; likl a soldier WhO
nOh ~eti .cd from ~'.'
S
as a civilian walks, even thoug h :Ie
etc.
S
service the jcster could not IcavlO off Clng ad ex e !( 1
.
complaints
turne d to pum I1 s unhapPlr s :mn
in clownish trick
ov.- 1 : urn. 1 h~r
rle Fool has hiS oW" 111graphy. lIS ~ 1 . the 3.1
aC(e1. But thi. Il nol thl b::: 111 and III t.1 )~3. til }cncrali"}Behind the
11 featu
0: thc 00 l~f a
,Ie fh s
1th
tion w lir:h i~ ,-'50 an c~.cn.tlal fca1r:k traditl n dcvol u ,
cr... Sdl on s cvn l~dcl.o with. 1('
Madnl s. ' C" 11 stagc
.he: sal H gl-:~ific-Jti, n uf FoJ y anc"

.1

,,

the fool is their plenipotentiary. cDt.rusted with the task of

providing a commentary to the actIon. He Surveys event
.th the eye of a true philosopher because, when all ffi ,s
\\'
IS h C W h om others hold
,ns
brains arc askc\v, the on1
y wise
man
to be the most foolish.
.,.
The Fool is not only the King 5 Jester but a philosopher
clown, rich in the bitter wisdom of a crazy age.
His cap and bells are familiar to all. It is clear from the
moment he appears who he is and what he represents. He
is not only one of the participants in the events of the drama,
but an image which exists outside the drama and with which
the audience have been familial' since childhood. They have
already seen many times how he has shaken his bells impertinently in the faces of kings, rich men and even Death
himself, The audience is used to accepting this figurc both
as a man and as an allegory.
The Fool's relationship to Lear is complex and involves
not only a biographical but also a poetic reciprocal action.
The basic features of one object become clear in comparison
with another: in outwardly dissimilar phenomena it becomes
possible to discover an in".:ard similarity.
The jester at once amuses the King and explains the sig
nificance of his actions. The Fool accompanies the King in so
far as the King acts like a fool. The court clown takes on
the likeness of the King's shadow. A shadow which has
grown ass' ears. The King is followed by the clown, ':>UI
together with the clown the memory of all his fool s'h acs
,tumbles along in his wake.
All this bears no resemblance to the static definition:- 01
the symbol. The poetic idea is in a constant state of develop
ment, new links are formed, new aspects of life arc reflected.
The shadow is not merely cast by the man's figure but
cnters into a very special relationship with it. The man roars
with laughter at the jokes of his own shadow. Time passt:
a.ld the man ceases to laugh. His shadow has told him some'
1m!. which he long since suspected but which he feared
,) ack,nwledge even to him~ elf. It is no longer hi:' ,hadow,
cut hiS conscienl ~_ The Fool has L ~gUf" to
~:tk 'he secret
thoughts of the King.
The h! h' .:.'1anges.. The shadow grows n, w shorter lOW
long(" becomE:: i a parodv of the:> contours of the body from
Whll.l it is ..:st. But it s' :1. t by :1 bray and
15 insep_nt'lh:!
from t
ft

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'40

'lfAMLET'
,9 8 I 0
Sloetdl 11
ll~.
I
, Va ~ ltallgO T' Il tl', 1l,fosc
AI "51 IS{lC Ral' . }i,.1

I(./(

III

11

, .,

The FoC"l loc" not only fc"11.ain at L~:.r's side 't:.>ClUSC h

_ Jcvctr.d ) him. The Fool lccompanics the K,ng b
C
is
t I J
f I
e( au' ~
the King las ;it. {'~ - .... l oc

That lord tltal counselled thee

To give (lwa.v lily land

place him here vy ml

Do thou for Ilim stand.
The sweet and bitter fool
W ill presently arpea!
The one in '21otley Itere.
The other found out there

llle

The st~gc life of the Fool ~nds in the third act. 11.~ dis..1p
pears without trace, and neIther his final w ds 101 le

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lines of the other characters give any clu(' as tl '1r rt. ::011
for the disappearance of Of'''' of Ie .-hid '1al letc' n tht:
middle of the play
Besides the unusual ndinb, 0' the n~: there i. 1OO:1er
str lUge t.hing about the dl \'c1opmcnt of ....If' 1m ... ~ w' .'1
ha!s o.)tten lttr lL ~~ the in"c e t f I. "11 lal). r :! Fo 1 :md
Cordelia nCVf'l meel. T"lesc rgurc'S ire in so_r. nyv_~nl':
Yo' iY interd~ penden,
)0 sooner dope (.01 ~
di..- ..r
,.,
lhc 1"1 (.)} ipnCar It I! nough fOI COl ~ ..I .) re .lrn ). U....
Fool ., Jisal pr'lr
51 mp. Si,;):',-H<:.. S h -vc pToduce.-l mal. 1- to
~ 'L .. t 1.e
wo PQr~~ rn: y h.lVo! 1 een p'_ycd b}' on and L"lf> ...::'!.~ (...J.J_
A. pncti(.;ll comp1k3tion W 5 C'ub<tih;,,'-''.l 0: o.lii
:llC'K-

'y.I-:'ow... ver 'So 'itrnlc

quitt; F l1 S

,-.1

:) Cd rv COl v

x -lanC1tion
I.. Ll(

The

11

":l~ ~
~u Ir

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f.

1.

,u"n_
(J,

)earancc of the f <.0 1 a I:! -._t t.) 00: ";

\.11" Ii ~1l' tiC:~
of Burb~gc' s tr U"lt; 1 ut iT' le very . )cnc" .,t tl'e f . . l (
idea The ide'" w-.s W vught Illi tu I' fi 1. ' m~x ~hc~/S
eXIstence _1M! .0 a"l cnel ell _thcr Yo' th . le 1m".;.; "' .. 1.
eX1 res: a.. it. a bel tl-t10wh th:: Ii . . ' 19 Fe turc) (;1
') r-e_ V
re~ bIe hum~ 1 bc'n(1
,
.1h.. Fo(l c.i~)Vnllfed .... c; < :' .') Le:tr 1ad !, :S,',(l .
l~ mfic m:c f wh.ll W1~ g( ing-'" 'NIl- th __ ~:,..,m,:'I1 L'W
'" 1 It:;- f b (
..... the
n'l' t h ... ~ay c I31 ~. ,1
- ."
.-..,i
' . . r.!ttl
man
1 ..I :l 1~
l~ r W en the KlOg be.'
Uoo:
n'If l~_J :0'" cr ,,~
d . u.;ll ,ad'
,~t'lr,t.
un
h " 0'" with lhe l~
'ompall: wllh
fod. \.'I~ Nit t h cr F().
,~,
"

~d

41

The adjective had fallen away from the man, the eOlllnar SOli
had lost all meaning.
In this are the reasons why the Fool 1Il110t nlLet Cord r
Thc Fool's cap cannot be clapped on the head "f thc Q C H.
of France. The father and daughter who havc Coli last r U~~Tl
.:ovcred onc another ha\'e no par' in the guild of fOOls. t:: IS

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Sba

Madness ,..,as the ne~t step from. Folly. ~ht.: Fool's c.:luplch
were always on the bnnk of detcl"loratmg mto the muttet'm
of madness. In those days not only fools but madme'l to~
were a form of amusement. Men of fashion enjoyed 'xpe:litions to the lunatic asylum; they would go there -"is if to tne
theatre to have a good laugh at the grimaces of the mel
tally ill.
Clowns and madmen were outcasts. They were not even
regarded as human beings. They had no place in societv.
They were outside life. They could earn thell living oni y
by transforming folly into an entertaining kind of
disease
The inhabitants of Bedlam lived by begging, t :lmping
the roads and trading on their madness. They wc-,.; t le mOSl
miscrable of all the beggars. A man could fall no lower~ot only were these people stripped of all rgJ ts. bUI ~
reason too .
The heIr 0 1 the house of Glouce"ter take' un I../"'e .... U."N~l:l
':~m of such C:l man. In the pc.:._ t of Edgar. the ,,~reme) l
~11C I:luman ..:ondition meet in one perse n ~ 1 lC r:ll.h mara 15
tU:::lr.d mto oJ beggar, the courtier int('l (:l t ....m
r,~ I . ~nsfor-:nation is effected before o~r vc 'Y c Veo W h
~:~onu hmg !..pced. The case with wh ch lIS c'1angf'
n
(""';..:! eXl:,tcnc.:: to another is effected '5 thr- cs' ennal
"nt(.ll
of"Tthe SC1P.
1 fl" h I '
.
I....:l.
Ig t. t l~ enougJ- til l'
th~ ex "IenSlV
q-~ "11~nt, (I ~l1tV the fal'e, tc ruffle lhcd cf l11v
r
<'!d
1al. lilt!.. l.:ngles and In th
h
tan":s a half-W'tt d'
1 P~ lce OJ 1.C cou t d~l1u.y t e
Poo' tom has 1 C . ragbamU'ln Edgd
~,c.: 'pcJ.rc.
come mto eing
Ai alw ':J With Sh 1 ~p ,
-d
uJ '
<--.- cal ~ ..... mdg~
!':.
""""lan" r - I ~:l
. rr ti- :gmtkant . S ~I t'
'
t ex,
_.J. lC"'l 0 th"_ m_ 1
,",u'P

!Sex.
t v.-

1 lUJL:: .!~_ fi. t aro

~ from d ~ ....Jt cL.s"

"I F0

:>

e r ~:1 1( .. r"" e.l,

ex; ~ 1C e fl!.: .... -~.
-'f 0 ""'h"-= Ill!
u. Dr oj tht" peorlf'
'L..;3,.ly .",
t..:
ceive 11 ; ~ netlv , ~'e'
In. ce ,ocs lot SI much-'I
~
SLit
.
~.
S eXIS~Cnl:c
ir. the spc_ ~..
~

'p('or, naked wr'ckhcs. whc l e,oc'c 1 you ~I<'!" he j, n, t 'link.

. of ndividud people but I f il fcaturclf'"
cruwd The
ll1g . -I, 01 many thousdnds IS mc' Jt.!d in one
Ilme '~Ul Ibl,
-ng Ul !)
'..
. hi
h
"
u1'sh it is stIll ImpOSSI c -r lID to lJ1akc out 11c 5 In
ang
,
.
h i '
,
h crowd 01", 10 t c gene'l woe. ~n lnd~Vldu3.1 fat
l eAnd lhen this fatc. is pre~cnl ~d .~ hi~; the {al'e turn, oJl t
be close at hand, It can be exammed tn e-,- .ry : IiI rom
to es leaping out of IllS hovel Hl'Iwlhg and muttfrng
cOOl
.
hC IppelCS be ",- ~ Le t:'io
. ....
gibbcrmg
'lonsense,
..
,'sm'
cxo , l:
.,
d m f nt,p lnt b,Pl
C
f
st
they
h"ve
met
m
a( e ~\
c
1
I
a a
b'
the King and hi~ su J(.
Two men.
Two images of madncs!
Lear has lost his reason because he hI) bequn t,., 1 del'stand life.
.
Edgar is feigning madness because It L lP. only w ':J 1(
can stay alive.
. .
This is the beginning of '1 scene ull f L"' mmo,... ... ords
md profound meaning. T'1e P' r ragged fpllow, t , . ~!;j
'lnd raving. cnmpletely 11 s(\rbs the lP-all (.r. "l1n~'
j
King. It seems to Leal lat onlv the
!('ltv o~ 1 :n 1 S
daughter 'Juld have reaUl ~d hI n [c;" 1 I He Hi wanl
a ~f'd Tow' stl)JV (:l'1d asks h m about hi. P 5t
.
. . 'he transl r lation oj th(
GoT
f GllJ~~ :.
, mIlL
5

1 beggar f am 'cdl an ..'"'0k P 1ac... b~O~tlt:t:

~ .
\..

ill d len I e

E1gd
''1c

...."'(OW
,
\..I'C

0PT'OSI C

'"

\. ..

,POD

~.

r~ 1 ~q, lr: '}C -.,

'I..

t 1

"ne5

e gal' esr"ibes the fc o! 1 1....

a
III
y,.ih. ~'1('1 lvm cn!'il 11 but t 1e ht d the ti.ll _1"
t..
e :>t'"TlCe, 11 is 1 pc fe .... i.ly U! t
11.er ng.
"Wh",t 1PS~ ~hou been?" Lc r ~ k'
, ''11 11 ~
It Sf>rVlOg' n n, pl ~ud m he __ ~ 1d -r.lOu
'"'1V ml . o.
L
I'~'
t.rved
lu~.
131 , wur ~ ::J ov :> 111 my
~I
.
S\.... r(. 5 r".. "y
11:..1
nd lid t.ll. ,Jr' 01 dar\m.~ ...... Il,' 1(
1 1. sv.' ~
c
Tlll!.. ~. I ."I~kc wOld!, ''lld br"lk thL 1
, ~ }Ie ,ven."
d 11 P kc;;:1 )1
rr
'
f gar C
d
'U
la~
v , U l ' W 1 F t"W
r ers lnd ~ rell
tylgn r"e r 1, kl~c1. h <:. be uj . 1( uc:::: W tf1 51 I
'Sf k
,I
.
r
...
"lUOe)r1(
thome:; p'n! t 1e
1 1l~
rn
I!
howl~ ::"'4 tu ..., S
...hu thJl s11 t iT' '"'e .,ntr: v ng
t Wine we
dt ly, di'. de lIly
n )urc.l "1.:; fu k '

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Such is the onc pole of human existence, .1nd here '

th~r: the pictures of Edgar's life fade and th(' inh b~ h
~f ~cdla11l, Poor Tom, tells of lzi.~ life:
a It I
"Poor Tom; that eats the S\'olmmmg fr?9, tl,c trld. .
tadpole, the wall-newt and the water; that m the fury of ius
heart, when the foul fiend rages: cats cow d~ng ror saUcts.
swallows the old rat and the ditch-dog. drInks the 91'
mantle of the standing pool."
C
This is the raving of a starving man. Edgar describes the
life of those social outcasts who have been reduced t~ tram
ing the roads and begg~n~, of. all those who might ")car t~
name of mad Tom. TIus 15 hiS lot-the common experience
of those who arc "whipped from tithing to tithing, and
stock-punished, and imprisoncd".
But are not these documentary pictures just as unnatural
as the visions of a genuinely sick mind?
The King examines his subject with fixed attention. P
looks at the dirty, tortured body, at the face distolted bv
suffering. All the powers of Lear's mind and hed II \ fl."~e moment, subject to the onc thought W'lkl is devoul -}
him: with pcculiar concentration, obliviou~ to c I .. \ lC
studies the tramp, as though there were SOT'1(; n'y~tcry ....
cealed in this beggar which it s essential t'1at he. Leal
should elucidate.
Leal is convinced that now wh~~ he sees belorc tum
that basic factor which "'ill somc,ow pIOVl'C hill with LI,;
's~nh.1l ...~uc to the understandiJ'lg of eve yt ling which IS
g01119 on around him .
He looks and already '1e sees nc tLH r fom n( r 1 ..igal 10
ary o~'ler man wit~ any I)arti, ular lamc 01 h.s own. Wr. t
:,e see" is :nJ.n l..e:~r's thoughts are con, ""ltnL
n ~i..... 11
the ve~v c,,,ence of this cone "nt. It seem. .." lil 1 th hiS
csu:ncc ha~ 1ppl,;..J.r~d before him if" v sll Ie {olm'

Helc he 's'

l11Q I.

T::-qc~'ler
Sh'>',pe ltC, I 00, 1, .'.5
II mal 11
t'"-IS
deml wu'l
i t Lell
h
.... ~"
.... cJ,.... Y,J, .0 wThorn ~'1f;;; hum_,ll ts ,~d .mg s .... ch 1~ pm:':
...
... ' . prus.e
....... h
b
(. v~;, ::l('W wo~'ds ~ , . t.: l~. o~, 0 wur n ird( c t a
~ rel t : c in' :u.;.. l' ures ... f Lrecc~ -I
R -c fr ~
'.
e 1..I:"\n~.w
l. k
'... c c-ngl ....
C li . \ > ' "
' i . e Wl0
10W~
"
V 10 ....r.n
"
t
wh
e ~ L... ltt".:ne:l _ th \:: mtu t l( cpL s o.
cal.,
PI oJ ~. M,ran"' 1 e m ..'~ f thc ~ph~
.
.... ~nwr'
\.."
"-~e" p ncqyr c tu 11f"l

h' "

d 1 fty calling of man, to whom it is given to attain

divine an h' ~ he aspires and to be that which he desires" . .
that to Wh'C, Lear has bent down over the writhing figure
There e IS.

01 the beggar. more than this? Consider him well. Thou owest
"Is man no s'lk thc beast no hide, the sheep no wool. the
the worm nfo I 'Hal here's thlee on's are sophistiClted!
t no per Ulne.
.
"
ca
th thing itself .. ,
,
tripped of all his "lendings", of all that IS
Thou art e
S
5u,ch is' .man
natural,
inalienable property. M oney, croo kedl y
not hiS own
fine facade it hides the essence of man
. d. creates da 'lk All this" seemmg comc1
15 nc..hmg
game
mess
n
under vc1:et :t GS~ld' can buy thc law which protects this
but ~ gal m~ ~!;, soldiers and exec~tio~ers protect t~c nch
sccmlng. Ju g I thing which distmgulshes one of he ew
garmcnt, thc, o~ Y
Ie
from the maJ~l'lty ~f ~~~~ti~n and gratitude all the.:: belong
Th' . the pnce of <he
Love and lespec ,
'n
but
to
the
garm~nt.
IS IS
not tu t h c 11M ,
garment.
11 v luc an ehe IS c)unte
has lny
~
f 'cople hell
O nly the :Ioti'ing
. b
ht the aopeal anwe 0
fe ~ fverylHng IS oug,
hilo' oph( s 'lave th ught up
. ne s for money , 1~ g' eatnc". 0 f l .I::: g<u,"
......... ' nt
W'"
3, 11... ~'

3 falrc Wisdom w'1u'h "C)(Plill'l. vc w ;1 en 'Jrautil JI 'ord! in

but nOI .. f t~~ man
oeLS '1
ht '
~i< se~ hpl fathr
9 q. n' cnt "'hf> Jbjc
llI~"
ot
th~
gal
mcn
The
aU
Pr,d hc s k .nq t h(' Ie.. c
,
f h c.'
K' . the uhie,t I ... wmg
1
'.15 11 his tnee~ bcfOl ..
lf"
mq
be ... rc th:: garrn enl ,
~
in("s serve 01 v ") :udc
.All
-11. ~ an(l '~1 ntc r
31 h
. cval.l<. ... ' of 11
,th<>
enccte....
J na( om
the
~cn('1... \., 1a I I.
tl-i' ev lU<1' on
TIdn no'
f '1, ~_. trt.nty tlcrc \ .
~
f('rkt a01m J
"-lOdal ~ n " 5 nc n 01 but ~lt(' 1 poo. ~)

10C Jr.

IT'llk(' ul1

'Ull

'In

b _ Inted the ,"pp1rtum'l

C.l'tr"1~e h" l)c'om(
pe,"<' now 'liS lC"l' U Ins YJra
r h' ",''1.0 rc dcv.:,d
,
f
pIC of t as,
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The storm has torn the King's robc fro111 his should
and he has become th~ sam~ as . all other men. And :h~
majority of them are lIke thiS bemg who has Just appcarc e
before Lear-Poor Tom o' Bedlam.
d
poor. bare. forkt animal-here was what the reign f
Madame Greed had made of the \'cry concept of man
0
Metaphors involving clothes and the naked body
.e
common in this play. In the way they arc contrasted
possible to catch an echo of the medieval debates bet 1 IS
naked Truth and velvet-mantled Vice. But that is onfcen
distant echo. A tragedy is not a morality play. Shakcspc~.~'~
metaphors do not express an argument between fixed con
c~pts b ut a ~~ dd en and complctc changc of condition, a
\'Iolent tranSltton from onc statc to anothcr The
t'f f
h'
h
. . '
mo I
C angmg clot cs-very frequent In thiS play-is important not
only for the stor~ but also as an expression of the instability
'
of the characters constantly changing worldly for~unc
T~e storm has br~ken into the littlc world of man. It roal'
unhmdered
o\,er thiS
TL-14 Chaos
I
t
1
: now
' undefended exp.nsc. n na u~c 'ccomes one with the chaos in Lcal S thoughts 11
oses hiS rc~son, The rhythm of the storm "cnct ate) . ttli"
JulWlrd aCh.on. and thc train of thought, and the develC"'n.
?I cnt o! feelIng. The whirlwind sets evcrything In IS see
In 'notlon'
.. nc
. '. ro aI'S th roug h.ItS cvcry part.. It we I b- h-':l
\th\'h,odle of worl? lite"lturc anoth!,,1
u
. e 11' act of K1llg Lear
Evcrythng in this at
.
de"ree These co 1 C IS tense to an almo, t unbcar INe
~gon:seL! by ~h~ r~ne a~~er~ken by, the storm rc nc~ on!y
stolm!, arc "Iging no 1 t c.. colld, In cach of them spir 111 I
Iboul ""
F
ess \ 10 cntly thm
'1'''c c en -t'"
"In or on the hc th
h
- .
;:lC t'C :5 3c,u~dy a bush: ,were for many ..,ite
roun
i )gC'thcr whom life has
or shcltcr, only those II e met
nrpe Here ,Jt arc (ug/ ast oU and deprived of namc an'
In the5c ... cne', ~~1 ~~;e~ un cr s~nl ,"n, e of death.
tU':'":1rd 'n< de oul n ,\..
. elaLonshl],s betwecn pc . ple 11
b. cfere. The OUfdwed
. 0 :l1ng
Ed IS as it s eCIl!, noth ing s as
Wa
-na~kc..: finu'
f ,'"
,gar meets the' x led 'I( nt bOI\.
~ 0 ~'::l1val C
d
,.1CS ":1 sa"1:;: r,....
h .
on emned to dC<.l.i') GIOll('es .. r
' I ,~"'. F...;th'....... ! W.O,
.. e '
e 1f
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L1rcar-'14' 'v h ... w1
n
.
cr .11S tr "I!'og .
e ,~' - lr. as tho h h
'. . J'"IIL.~ ,0Jl
ricnci;! Pf'1k. '
1". J. ... n bl
ug t ey lal! .,
r'
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a ~ f' "7. ...n A ~nadm~n : '~ ',.. TTle
IS -" t ,mad, ~ n ,-nd 1 '-'01 "I,~l. :::.. 1--hl1os, phy With ~ p: - lei14 S ihe c: :'IU'TIenl. JS h .. ...: I

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, tand w,",o is 1" "lIly ""H\, wt":J IS frigning )lly who

under! w, . . . lnd \\"'0 'S ul f their ~ind,
I'tru
HereV t'1('1 ; c:. .... 111J nJ. t '.1rll I '51, uatIOn!, no 10lmdl w\"ord"
. omary loll urh1..).
,u~hcre i~ n( t \m~ .moj)th pt.c\; 10 thir scene
Uole;s bc Ie
r'lts w'1kh hav fllleClIl) w th blOOd
T lC ~ n(' is dr~wmg t'\ d 1 c.nd, The nler \:I! B~tam
on 1b 1 .. t roye court of )l,lCkcmf'nl I~:, nJt 'OrtUl"
m
sUIll
' d e end
'
toU~ that the w'hO I
C CplSO
SIn?
pn~dy n f l :0\' "
'ustice, It IS devotcd to the thp~~ ,of OJ.l! hc e 3;r~ th-.:""lCige
) f the judgc i!' its natural cuImll ;!tl< n
HI.; ,,!ill
o Leal" is prcparing to judge hi~ two da1 ;Jhtl
judge injlls.ticc: The Ki~g ~rci.l~es th ~ le>ter ll1d ~ 1P nadmln
his fellowJustlccrs. Injustice I":; ... be ;jrr qne~ b.)1 C!
'001 and e haH-wit. At dCi3.d of nig] t the Kmgs tnl ":\;"1
~onvencd in a poor f;umhow . The madn~n 5'pe.1ks 1 h
nros~tut on, "-c F oj 'ordll1 ; tnl x mm tu 1, th - to :.!!~
U10.,.,3.n is lpl Jin!
" 1,4 -1 man of jlIC~'
1 th i
~"", thr 11 erit: ~ f the ch l' ten. C T1 nL
'
\,II
Y 1mb, 11 .. ,If' Lear ' L hoM ~
1"'}
fai.IOQ, El~' ., C":'" u. ted y the. ne ... '!>, t" II.,. 1- fr 7':t
,
I r
). 'enc, th"' C'i~ r c-t ,!" om
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.. talilV In th
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judi ement
le, \ )0 -1
11
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... "tter v
lish ,r ~ p"ss
I::
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h' .~
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huwlil !of
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th )U, h -'1 11 \\. 1I
nhll 11
mnat r)1 - lV nns,
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r,-l
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Hil 9 ). t1-c ~rr I l:l!!'L
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"
be
te11.ll,
s
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tI,:) :iC Ja' rd.r WhK; ...i.c . vYC;,
,;.,
b,-'
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lung ne the'" l'fl /u h
be
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.olf is such that a .

description
of what
the verse 1t S...
. d
Id .is in fact
.
. ndered with prosaic cxactltu C WOll
Inevitably
g~~:~ ~~ ~~und like myt~ical hyperbole after the first few
l'
Ob'eet and companson arc often not so much set side
~;c:idc brought into head-on collision so that they intc
penetrate and change places.
..
The stann reflects now. the . c~ndlhon of nature, now a
cosmic flight of apocalyptIc Vl~lO~S, ~o",:" th~ stat~ of mind
of the hero. He talks to it, and It IS withm him. It IS at once
the chaos of his own human heart and the chaos of the
society in which he lives.

15

HEARTS 01' STONE

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Goncril. Regan, Edmund and the Duke of Cornwall are

devoid of human feeling. They have no hearts.
In the Lives of Plutarch there is a description of how
Caesar ''''hen officiating at a ceremony of sacrifice suddenly,
to his horror, discovered that the sacrificial beast had no
heart. Plutarch writes: "This was a tcrriblf' omen, or in
nature there is not one animal without a heart. .
The world hostile to Shakespeare is expressed by tr'"
poetic image of the heart of stone, When Kent talks 01
begging Lear's elder daughters' hospitality he speaks ,J
~cir "hard house-more harder than the stones whereof '. S
liscd' Their hearts are carved in stone. The most teY-rib~"
*orm of ingratitude Lear calls "thou marble-hearted 'it :1l ",
As ilways with Shakespeare, the image takes on 10
~dt)cndent m~terial being, it is possible to weigh it, measure
II touch t With the hands, Lear demands that Regan should
be anatC'rn1sed to "sec what breeds about her heart. Is there
any C3.use n nature that makes these hard hearts?" Shylock
and RiLlarct, too, had hearts of stone. One could 'have
Sharpened. knives on their souls,
. \\"'("11 O(h .. ]"O be:omes convinced of D("'dcmona's infidelIty his hC3._rt tuns to stone i-Jc say, that, when he it ike
hI 'rc3.! t. It lurts li hand
~'I'lds on a cry' addre'Sse..J f 11. "caple' '0. vou
il _Kinlj
nen L.ear
of tl)nc

;}~. '''j ~l o"k . cs:

'ould have PC-TIl: ~d C.Ol de Q S t. c~th

I
h row unmoved JPon 1t r b("lrJy
Pe _pew
a h e h1n
t'
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t';,
d
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e greater p- t of m ....;tk II lOto
19
an mals 11 - ~ot _v 1 me 1, t'lcy arc c~anqc lS

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A p"slc' adl'~-'Ii~jl1~l 1/;(" .\'{lI't/l-OssC/ic T I1eatr,'

<,I ,.'vlusic Gild Dram,f., 1948 1'fodll'/i"1: af

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and. wc"C the anatomist to open up the breast of such a

changcli~g. he woduld find there nothing but a cold" stone
Only theIr outwar appearance seems human, in ...: nc~ th
wild beasts. Shakespeare compares them to pre dator:;
ey
are
a"d man-eaters. T hcy conceal themselves, marking d
r
t f
h
own
their pJY, t hen 1~ 10 .W~l o~ t e moment when they will
le3-p out Jpon the'''' vlet-m. smk their fangs in his throat
c.:at hI heal t with their talons, lap h 5 blood, r ccd full o~
hUJl'Ian

"'!:.::;h.

Me lphors r~llti"g to wild animal' Jfe freql! nl in Kil1g

Le'.lr. Br'1ind th:- ,mgry fae. ~ wro se~." to glimp... tJ-o 9 n
ninq snout of wild boars. PC slav 109 iaws ,f :(It an..l
w')) And 1ftcr these bestial muzzles cr ~~p a :;tri;nQC tl lin

/"'.'"

of impr )bal.. lc qhouls. wcrcwolvc and vam Jl C5, unhclll

J rnonst osilles 01 SC"
,md ocean, neither be,.:;, 101 devI's,
but thr- h d( "'us ngeny 01 fear lnd de'>pair,:l1
c" d
'1m nq c;aos, <1
dllenge to relson and hurl' n tv.
I e pozt y show w. I tr .. gic pow r .... OW th...
... ture t
S . 1 m ...cy drag!s n '1 ba(' to tht. lv:}gr V
.I h .... r

c! nnrritivc E IS .... r ~ ~c ton'" h~

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behaviour to her father, to which his wift' ]'Cplie

'<;aCe-1"

than trust too far.

..
Macbeth fcared too far, J:ic. kIlled .m onl('l to rid him. If
of rh'als. then in order to c1I1TI1nalc witnesses. l-ut "'lith eVe
murder he callle not only .1 step l1C;lrel' the suprC'lC pow Y
. C'
. d
.~
but a step nearer to ruin. ,nme comnlltte La relieve fell
turned to horror- the assasslIl murdered not anI .... Dun( _n's
sleep, but his own also,

'Tis safer to be that which ll'l! dC'!itroy

Thall by destruction dwell ilZ d(lubtiul

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Goncri.l is a poison?r. Her wcapon is poi!..Cln, Watching

the agonies of the pOlsoned Regan, she l'cmark!'> jn a bmi
ncss'like way that, if her sister be not sick she 11 "necr
trust medicinc."
This would seem to point to iln experiencc widl'r than
that involved in her sister's murder only and to indicatc
previous suc~esses in ~he same field. In most of hcr apPC11
-incc~ there. IS somethlll~ convulsive She has c:""mcth n9 in
common Wlt~ the frantic cxpressivencs:, of t"). lam "'O"Vlr'
~othlc In ~lctures of thi! tyle there s :1 .... u iiu combina'
tion d styhsation in the por "'ayal of .. ~ 1]. 1TC" distcrtcd
a'. though :>1 some fit or Sf ZU-', their leg, .. '1(' am s w ",'chr.d
out of place against aJ' thc law- f anatomy nei Clf 10- if v
IIlg n~.turalj~m in ~he depk' on f ('v""Vt lirg pe t, III ng f,
tC'1'ture-.. .lnd execul 'on~
"h~ :)uke of Albany calls' is wife ~ "gil-te~ C ---"cn' ,
Prl bably her outW:l""CI apf\elral1C e
hou d r
the
b"tbarh .~xury of the timc tr3J"1S101'-n'11 W III 1 Ci~tl 1
fan a<' c 11101 swath d' h i '
1:er 1~' C '
e In e.:lVY ve vct IPt..o pI it.. - s r- 'ddc,
C. . q I!-- bound up with one 01 t 11 aJ egl r ...
1"11
~ PI:C~ ?~wald ~:"r senJ'9 h: 'v1rit\l 11,.. pUpl -,t" ""J11 ,
w~ tJ'c" V.e of .:me of j1
fi
'
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the fa '. that G , ' ; lP gures oj till ll0Ti! 'ty lays' nd
,1.
,I onL1I.s comp..:rd t th .. figu
en - {ng
1
~tl,!.lCJ~rVl(-'
h
'.
, .. r< "d t d h"" gives US.3 nl lIS
1e charactn
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t [,: yc: 10
F..a '1 '-:::s '~-:'-~1:' tH'''~, Rqan IS reselved, il(.,t
Al'.........d t '''";..' \\-In?, then ..:wn, n"~,ld" on.
e.
..
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11
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1 k nl' c .,tc
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c;-.. !l:,
- wh
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crc ...W '1 1(,", nd b::-' ts, ,
enman .. n.~ t h e qrm-_;:if'q rr:.:- "{

'"c

\\.111(h "TlJ,r.

<.Ill

obsccn~

parody of his ways and man.

ncr!>I' 'LOI Imitation of a man drouses the partico.h.r rag'

T}(ps I oni of I- h
"
h uman bemgs.
.
c genUIne
The nam s to
of IcnK~nt tl'_"1t5 him ate instructive
",'lie
1 catcr
. d.h un dI':d 'p~und,
"An
of on,k C 1 mea t s, th rCC-sulte
h wor~ted,<;tocktng knave, , .. glass'gazIng, sUy~," servo
tit
finical rogu("!; one trunk inher ling lave one that
Icca Ile:t l,e a bawd, 111 w~y of good service
p:md<..
\\'oU ( S
,
cullio nl y ba1"ber~ongcr
... .
Th outward SIgns of ClvIl!sahon bl::d no little part in
. I~ t In Henry IV Hotspur tens with J; mething of the
thIS IS.
. 'h
d
thlc1c;! of t lUIf'
same fury of a courbit' W 0d~ppeaTh _o~ . e .
t
dressed as though for a we Id~ng.
1- (" ..... nthllmg a a
ncet-box, ordered the so lers not ._ car y ~. c ,. p .
PfUtheir comrade!'> "bctwir: the w,ind and'11 nobll~t.Y., f'
h
b'isk he smelt !Ow,,::t In(l ooked ike a popm'"lY A.
; one I
"
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h d th -" Hamlet 0 c
. ihr figure
appear;:, . :lrc t e ea
."
~~o ~'did' comply with lb dug Letore 'le sue ".ed It '_
'spc of the new age , .. l~ somehow refL tf'd
ht..
O nc '.'
cl
d
,.... 11' h"e~<1
Ii UI ", Amidt the bloc
n sor _w .. '" - i!
-\
9 - h h ~ "Cln'y ot ttJt: tu 1( C thf' tim~ 1d outv:a~
m(:n wlo a t ' a ble .I of stop at ."'1ino cal er. ~
habit 0
"\..vUfl er
.
'sh'
,ditn_ 1
his t ibe ll111tipl ed wtl" ,-5"1. 1l:9 r_1
~ fi 1 I.e
c dv to t...'!'{E pal t in any v11lamy. beg~J"I
r aIss c .
_
h pte' n
VI:
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hal. c-[ ."msc' w'lt;re thc'c v e l
_
_ any e
c. c:s '11 v W\!fC re ...d~ to "t '11-- no
J :J~~ ,0 h.....- j '
who widded powc- and to te_r .oJ .... -:
'Pfledtoberu t otf4-v-u,.
c~i n
h"
-r-o
v! wald be\o1"g~ t('l ont 0 f 1t ] 'I" d If' r'\1 I" 11 ~d,
f h
' md ,",r~
v c
h
UISh]11~ f e 1fC,
en rea
G(\'lf " SCI"' _nt ~
but he t: nOI Y : the pClf~_: _pe._.n f the e;:....rtie ,10:- tl- l'
nol yet 11 quo CI,.o th'" dand] ]f:i a1,) 0, ue~n noU-: ~ _~: lnd
!ll ected TJ"I ... nJlcr 01
pC,ceh He 1~. 1 f...;Jdai c~tdtC10I In
I.:h( oled 1 n
e p"ovlretal dt pth'l ~ 'aV '_ 'lal \)sw:lid Y. .)~.
'" .. baHr', n~c: 01 thr lp tal. Ken. .'llauC or by "at'lfe but y.,-- t .Lr b
rl Jp w,~h '11.1 roJC
If e r~'ll C"S, \.if the "1\;11" \\'~s oun '_ th~,~ ~'l tl ell
lP'l th
wl- )IC ~,~ e ,f the e"lC1~tc: :c~ -'

pi. n i. , W
II th
Ii, .... ry . " '_.~d n~-' tJ hl"i9L:, ' ,
h
ll"C, 1c th:1 1
1 .... ~ . ,:.>ubt th.t ',e hun- If .1
gen Ji:"' fUI Y fo' t'1("'1,; Cln t.,',~( 'ent l l , .1,. n thlOlv \p
pe-.k ng f t l( 1 ifl thc w rd. ,f K .

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",,"cular1\' fitting form of execulion for Oswald: "

[
a pm.
I wl'l"II t[rca.t 'h"
b
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you will give me leave,
k 15 l~nh olted villaUl
. t mortar and daub the wa s 0 a J.1 C1> WIt him"
m ~swald is the lowest of the low in a world of false valu
a little cell of flattery, boot-licking and impertinence. ~s,
bobs up wherever there is injustice, wherever someone i~
preparing to finish off a man already down, whe,rever there
is a demand for those who can find greatness m vilcncs~
By him. GoncriJ's trusted crony, it is possible to judge h~~
reign. the result not of such ho~cst l~bot1r as a stone-cutt!:'r
or a painter might have put mto It. but rather of the
:' fincmcnts of the tailor and the barbeI, straining every
effort to plcase the nasty tastes of their client
He is killed not by a weapon, but by a stiek.
If Concril gets rid of people who cross her by a pinch of
poison, Regan's technique is less refined. She is as good a!
any man. Her weapon is the sword: not a light rapier, but a
9l'Clt battlesword as worn by the castle guards. The chate
aine seizes . 1(' ;word from the l'ands of her servanl and
stahs the l'eh...lious villein. She lS not only capable of k'lIing,
but 01 inflicting tOILare, 5h(" jdns in "e questiining f
CI'J( etc' pulls his gllY hair, IS qllitc i~ Cann1al'l' 01 the
tcl"tu~cQambcr

md the Du l , " of (0;' wlll, clTk, "l(\untd

~gurc "3J"OP the roads f -am cdsde ~ c" .tle woomg loy...:.l.
bcs, ~,~olvinY" t~e.ir va so's, "'cttif'g one agall!st 11.; other,
f:alcu atmg.n_!tclouS pI ine.. ing~. ,pi: in~
IC state V
th r endl'" sntr ques.
In . "'i::. palOS all the marc",l uclty 0: e 11 e f iron
th".fl 'TId} br::..Jnd_y of .,e mm' r rJle s. r'1cy h_~c bUI n"
an'\\c~ to cv 'vthi"~ t L Vi himn~.) t~c stock pU
t t,:
eYes
J: " JI. k }:-, .'0nr, M 1,;.d'leY.1J execu" onrrs. "hey CO'" 1 ,
.~... v') ,.,'1 b.:n :'1 .1 l~ungeon, bch nd them W'" sec ruck an~
1" truIT:
. d wit h .. r.wn sk I, In lc-r
"
, "t of tortu .~ c'n.;, ~vc
;l~l~Y"I~.Y It ,... J'npo'" ible to di,tingllish ont:" "'pt,.l k of

4..

'11gL,. shf>

Crety 1
':
I
;,i dau .... ~'cr',
_ v dis"lgU 'lOg
'L: ' ~t 'd
.. Wh 'It!" lni ther'?1 1cs,s
1
' 1

.,
f,ther IS .eli'y
I
~ !l r
., '" ht
f '11"! lrsuffi
~'. I , I

val

'h
1..,

'...

l:i I' n'1.

,{ h
l.

"'

(th

fc~ Jrc c Lc r
11 .. mtlc_ n

';' .. ' of 101" Cl.

... n.y
! s.tpc~ _
ha: d 1t w -I
'1 cc

hou ~ ",rl th_ ' :1g

, ... Ad' "ire to humiliatc her father !it ill fU\th~ ~

What i' tlll'i
.c; the mind of thL duchess with ' ~ys at
""0- t s just t led w~\ ("1' hidden in the folds of her ~kirts
)' _ bell lJ'ld a agg
tc. ~n' to work.
~"
u
being
replaced
by
nc\'(o
"''tcxt to
td forms we r
,
1he 0
,
.
fi U"(. of Edmund.
_ .
"rnwJ,ll arl-;CS t c. g anc'e" is mo.t -c'1diJy l~SO(1atec1 wlt'l
\...
d "Remuss
h
t,
The WOl
.. t bending over annque pare mcn
the f1~urc of th ~~~:~~'in lands, 'the poet 'clebllting m ':11,
the dIscovery 0
f man B1 t no Ie ) '-- 'ut 01 thl!j -,och
rsC the greatness 0
.
....1 r 'adv 0 ,,1" his sword to
vc
d tt' rc the mercen. J
'
.
~.
- the con 0 IC,
h .
t d y against )re fl." llle tomol
~~e highest biddc,r. ~gth~lllioeo a~ains_ hi~ allirs of ~~stcrday,
. w in the ri.lI1k~ o. 15
' : l that '1aturc hal; allottr \
~~ld the mcrc~ant-plr~tc. ~obn~~~~: welker .han hOm! "If
him strength III ordcl to 10.
rc fam ically,tervove1
The aspirations of humaOlh"m w~e bl', hment of "'1e fre lorn
"d
'dsm T e c<;,a 1.
wit 1 unlimlte cyOl
. f
. y"h,;_' ~ ,( lC individU<ll was 1. a1'
)m 1~
olini"W 1 ~
h 'tronc;
- Pohtir~ had lost its lllcSl( n
rd\"ili
y u:-i .~e c W;ll_
~ "li IdWS cr~aled for th:- w. '11, "';1 -I ,d \'v...
. t)
n hs -Dia,oyue .. he insi~tc~ that IJ gIn '1
_, ~,r onlally Col fOlm of lw""lrcaklllg, that
."

'l

d d d ~c ~i( . (.. lrl r.,

(UIC il L i l del "1"1 c
t;\",'
~ 's .n \,.
f
f
-pi'""-c,,n
'
ul".ti\ 111,1~ oree v
d-bul the de 11_
p;:; e.
\ re fOl t'1c pubJ c gO)
m, :1
'1
tr- 'I, - pc: ..... a1' ~
l\ft eh <.!v " ql rfit_ t c
., q c
L
d 51 P 11 n'J_ ,
" . :l
h
ood and
n vow U
t h
the .11" ..
n

)U !Ificiltion_

Al1cl.in('c-~ oj

, f

.. ,'"

... II

Y , .~I' .. ~~n.i l;),~l'

A new tu n_n .Y' , .. ' ' ' I : q t
thc thc ll)g:cul
'111.
hU 1L ~l rell,
" \ 01 !luti,:
Vo'll
f h'
'l' ...nc
c" 'eli i C:lr..;.~~t:r
,III ,; :l :lc.1,
d
,!.1C 'c<;~. p'l ,'1 If
":11 :,UllU,l ,\,;-'
I C
f h - "11,J A ,-"')m,, Y'
h w lntl.d I,'
tiv the r UC '11 ro 0 ~ e I ' h .' .. ',),_"l',i,e ,e
tht"
\\"1
n'~Jr I 11 "'no('<"t 'l<'t, o"""''h','la~ti(i,.;n. butr..l t"
' (..
~..
<; n
,'om 51 ....
'}-l
n',,"'
~ 1(" TlanClp~"C:' 01 1'~f ~'Il'~di\",~<' v.h;,,~l 1TIIY l~;' 1T'.ln:v
In ,rd,
to _ 0 lW 1Y Wll., J 1 thl' ~ ~pcm~ Cf
,np',.,.
t c '- the ~"'i'; ,apcr. . '~.,aJl",'H' 5 \\,'"c'
1,;, I.
d t LIf! _: 1( L
111'
-11:1f"
. 'hev
.1.'
.. ' 1'!,IV) . ,
h ~ ,Ie .'.~ueh"
he 11 u .5 ! t c
'
I ~'.,ai'_L~Pl.:l' S
- , tui.l l :,1
mc1 f J ] _ f '~rt'll::,ti('n
n ~K1CharJ iI! l~ J PC'r'l" ':..::1;1
l(fll

'f...vc

pi
1

,,'

,lr',", 1l " ) .",c t s.

, ,
'V. lfg' t ' he'. . 9, 1 , ,)

11'

1 ..

, ,

In

1
... nG'C
the ,.\,,',
,

chiavcllism is shown herl' as ,\ ~listOl'ic 11 nhcnc lIcn~=1

tlo " ~a tl destinies of the body politi":: of en lil
t tf' .
i1ff('ltll1~ lCthcorcticiJn. The evil which he thinks U') h llu
. n

Ia~~'lls
a. '0,1
pradlc.i TaIS

d'clre. Jealousy and thwarted ambit ~n ar,

.
ffi
I
..
. ,.
but outward motl\'CS, msu elent y convincing. He
nolllng
.
h'
I
>
't were an experimenter, h.'sting IS typat ICSIS as 'the
as I bl C bestiality of man's
nature.
Ill' ilssC"rts the s, '(;l1glh
Incur,)
..
II
, . o"n personality, dcsplsmg a men.
f
o 11:> ..
II
l
I
Edmund is a man of action . IS ~Im~ arc 0 1Vl0US' - 0 ~n!;..!re

,,
,
.,"
I
t

11<

.,
I,

w
of

K.

G.
01.

in,

...
of

........

II,

..

bot

val

"oo
Sba

the inheritance, the title, to get all m ,the world by Illilnlp,ulat.

ing feudal intrigues. Ho~'cvc~" he IS ,not only ~l medieval
brigand, but a poet 9101'Y1l19. 10 the 1111gh.t .of brlgJ.ndry . In
this, he is a hero of the RenaIssance. He ndIculcs. cverythmg
which might serve to limit the un trammelled exercIse of man's
will. All things are subject to such a will. And success depends
on nothing but will. Nothing is sacred to Edmund, neither
God, King, nor father. Illegitimate child of the Earl of
Gloucester and legitimate offspring of the ncw age, Edmund
despises superstitions and creeds. He sneers at astrology, the
thought of superstitious loyalty and family devotion make
him laugh, He is one of the destroyers of feudal and patnarchal relationships.
The concepts of Nature and of Time, usually at odds in
Shakespeare's works, find, in Edmund's philosophy a peculial
unity. Edmund glories both in the wild lawlessnes! oflature
and in the dictates of an iron age.
He is a dissembler, skilfully changing masks. To GI~ ucester,
he presents himself as an obedient son, ready to betray eve"}
his own brother for love of his father. He betrays his father
to Cornwall, acting the part of the duke's devoted lIly. He :5
ardently in love with Gonern, but Jover Regan w th an
equal passion.
A highwayman, his hunting-ground the: meeting place ..,f
two epochs, he has ridden out onto the L"t'ookcd crossroads
of the centuries in search of plunder. He will not let any
booty slip through his fingers, and booty to him is ~lI1ything
posses~ed by weak-willed fools hampercd by tl'adition~J
preJudices .
His day had Come, the day of the timeservcl wiLhout n~mc
?r fame. strong in his complete freedom from .111 r, ,tral'ling
lIlfluenecs.

th:'beke.spcarc Saw not only thE' eVI: 01 the old w('r1d, but
stlal aspect of the new. He knew that tilt n'edaJ ,.olJ1cd

~.
h 1 .",. I~'- ) ~ :l

n
L.,he 1c_
.
I..
'
.',f !. lIe 11
'R.
m t
r
lag
r
o
lk t~
f.
rt J
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t
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.oil
n
t h011 ..,. , e n - 'I _ \em- e---~
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,';-_i n~
-ag('
S 11 t p.
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In
ll.h (,1.
fin)1 C I)
III (
E l "! .... :,
't, e (
T...
ffi' ~ \ 1
A "11_ t\ lire _ vc to
1-lier. -: bni t
. e~'
~ r
~
.
t
)r Bt t th
wo;n

t- .

--

I' 11

J~_

.;ll

.. th
lil\..511' ...
_ E'

hb
the vi
~.r
/\fter 1 -
.,. d
, >
I noted c.
r th
('
,
Ph
,I
.... clu Co.llo C"'_.1te .'" n
te .... 1... ':1L n9 hI n e n.... 1 n und .. tl . f
a note 1 h
t f t
I h.> t"lIS ct t r wa-y .J 11
con~~ "1
h L I" ro;,v~I)1 to: lim )1 d
t '" l!_ 1
~ ..

-- -

'1E~

"

file tItr. ... 1

II

t..ltir~ly,

91
LlJ"lu5ual' r
r

i/J :

lIm':J.

L.

an mal fudt er

d pu

)1

th

xc It
0

'toe

:0

001.1 ),

pui

10

The then

t.

l("tc

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'UI "II JI

thL

10

f'
1

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[1('\\ ....

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ft:

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1

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I

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"Ilkn n

til

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the n.
n ...... r ~ III

~ 0',

tm

lS

1:

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If

Illtbc.l._1S
r'll~ .::ldi
,a~ atrc';
h , 1 11'< -\11 h
r ,
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n rdt - t... h "G

h C1_:!-

tt. i'

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.,in,

.,...

...
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....
Itu

VIO'

....

become unbearably cold. a leaden chill grips the heart. How is

a man to keep warm?
W1crc em he find !>omc I :>tugc from
the prevailing cold?
' . .
The first words of Poor Tom commg frul~~ mSldc the hO\'el
tell us the whereabouts of one such place: Fathom and half
fathom and half!'
.
A fathom and a half beneath the earth is the proper depth
for graves. Tom advises: "Go to thy cold bcd, and warm thee.
Through all his wild words recurs again and again the
complaint "Tom's a-cold", The cold of the iron age is too
much for real people. Perhaps there, in the depths of the earth
tormented man will find rest. There, there arc no prisons, n~
hunger, no executioners. There, the kind of thoughts which cut
a man to the brain have no entrance. There, there is no com.
pulsion to seek for a way out which, no matter what you do,
you will never find.
$0 Hamlet puts the famous question: to be or not to be?
Is there any point in remaining alive when injust cc reigns,
power ~s the most evil, dignity i~ trodden into the mire
Pel'laps the best way out .tor t.hose whise misf r Jne it las
'Cell t('l undersl1nd all thb s to retire from life? -.. . haps
jcath s the only way to ease the unbe.1nhle pc: n rom the
wounded mind?
Together with ~is thought the tlle~.: of :-,ulcidC appears
n tf:o~ tragedy. The possibil"ty of thi- way 'ut 'inds exprt!s:;ion
.n Edgal s raVlng~, EViden! y, the son cl Gloucc)te has 3.t
t~:ne fl: t this tClllptat on, In": desp~tir ha~ tc:' __ " po' ~_ sion
_

Lear and Gloucester have been mistaken in th h'ld

Bo th
ff d h I '
CITe I ren,
they have su ere t c same at-to be tiltreated at the hands
those to whom they gave much and to be rescued b th
f
o om they reJec
. t e.
d B u t th e simi
. 1 arity of the situat,oy ose
1
h
W
' t h e pro fd'
nonv
erves to cmp h
aSlse
un Ity of the inward contrast
..
s The basic feature of Edgar's father's character is submissive.
ness. Hot-tempered and ~espotic in his Own home, he is
quiet enough at court. I:ie IS a vassal. AIl.his views are bi sd
on this concept. The hlerar~hy of rank IS to Gloucester thl
basis of the world, somethmg outside man's judgement.
his own way, he is honest and kind, but these characteristics
arc limited by the ideas on life of a feudal seigneur, a star
of medium brightness living only in the refle:tcd gloVv of the
main luminary.
He is a true son of the social system and, whatev>!' hap
pened, to attempt to alter the accepted order ~f thing.~ w."It.11d,
in Gloucester's eyes, have amounted to rebellion. InJustice IS
rifc, despotism grows for all to see, "~1 authori1y m~ins
authority. And Gloucester remams Sl elL. He '_5
<>nt
throughout the division of thc kingdom. saId not ol'le word
when Kent was banished. protested but fee?ly whe 1 ~e
King's embassy was thrown int~ the stocks. WllD Lell him'
sell the sun of yesterday was "Isulted 'Y CO lynU. lOW !
VC:'j great star indeed, Glouce:;:
tried to c mfor+ th.: K ~
to ex ... lain the difficul es of the ;ituatii..:
N i dear I,

v, U kllOU: the fie v :{uatity of fh I)ulu

HQW Ul1I nu vaole ...n::! fixe',./. ~p i,

I.ll"

T1C f1 ul .11'1d 'las laid kriv bene~th ro.1's Pl't. w nd

~al~c~ In hi: pew hilS lLbanr 'ly hiS L lrridgt;
L Lagr fought down these though!
fa lie de W 1 1-'1 I
_ld. d md v.lltn h lTIseIf there ro"came th~ bs<:: sive des1 ~
.1, fa1 'lc

,."~ p"rClUrl

pJ0t in P."JCj t.cat t'l~ ~tOIV OJ Glouc .c" nd

"v I ~ sor.~. 'knowa ::0 '>C boaow :l rom pilip SidJley's
stJry .... (Li; HOW~VCT. only the outv. .... I1... fc.::ltu
... le
.
e em
__ no flC '1nl ~l1t and 1, r:u"c
'lave
_iut: d quj"c I Ii 'YeT... n ~.qndt .1ce
fnc dC" ....-n ~ . .-Co.lT:if' 'l1' iau-L ,
.

h f t
Ofthel..o.. ~
(
.
1.1 I
IS,.; .. 10e... l~ t c ap.
-ouct
'1
'\
c. :ii i 1(' 1"'l0:1J ....
I-n u~ 1 conpe ~d wiL 'le
-:- p ev.
p.1,; 're.:f 11' t tr .........om..
n 'r, _
the only
fu 't,on "f
. "Ie . >N~ s~ ~ ;;:ilnot r-.
1
.... the aT.:- -I
-...
n Y cJnnvtCi....... t '~T'tr.!~tt:"-i .

.L '"

..nrc.

III hJ5 01011 ~oursl

A new lUlrin,llY has

nl:lcd ~e FndJ'1'l.t:nt. ...,,-mw~
be orne the sun, now l'Ic is Ie rd lnu snv :9n "nu tpr e_
va~:;al ~an do i!:o 0 hoI i h pel' ~ _
b r d th~1 IJI~~'
In il "w oh' Wf,J lU; vf c1' CI! m 11 ..In e ~t"l ! 0'" bom _at
to 5 donm
1(; direL"L
U.t f hlqh(,T 1'e~~,1 ~ t 'I,.J fClthcr"to
of wedlo( \., E.lm 1f1d
th ~ c USf' 01t ,s r S.L C
mor
1
.
U
1i n
-i<:ath Th:- r'1iL 01 511 t'11 n '-!-l n
I
foe 1 c Id( a
s nOI ~c m, ne to ,vhal (l( tu_. y ~ake ~ a( ~tP. unnm ta1 !t'llt.:
,"11 th~ 111'1. g:- , c.'lll.." s, H ~ nal y tunc. tc~
a ked tv
he .....11.4 ::Jal whl\ le)( s G ou('es~cr
'"
lpvc h m'
L

w"

....lIt_yJ'

rc

1. 1lO]

Gloucester:
I I e 1/0 way, and therefore waul

110

eye.,>

1 ;:Z~llbled when I saw. Full oft 'lis seell,

Our meallS secure liS, aud our Hll're defecls
Prove OUf commodities.

,
t
t
1
t
!

It
I.

....
..
...
......
....
...-
...
or

K.
G.

1..

at

lie

Gloucester speaks of "the superfluous and 1~.lst-dictcd man".

"that will not sec because he docs not feci the depths of
privation to which man can ?c reduced, ;:md pl:ays that such
men may be made to feci qUlckl;y. and to 1?crcclvc. W~cn the
true state of things became eVident to h1l11, he deCided to
commit suicide. Submissiveness had taken on a new form,
had reached its final expression.
What arguments might have served to induce him to give
up this decision once taken? Edgar found these arguments: he
persuaded his father that the thought of suicide ~ad been suggested to him by the devil and that to put a vIolent end to
his own life would be an act of rebellion against higher
powers. The son brought the father back to the idea of the
necessity of submitting to some authority higher than himself,
Gloucester, a vassal. And the old, blind man resigns himself
once more:

, could It...t l!~" by unmOve::' c.;).d v:u-:1. Ll~ old llJ

m,n rcd The ervln" ;ir~ h s word to kiL hL ''1~rditalY
to,tu
.~
( thO
',.
t r The sign! l( lnee o.
IS nr \. .>vul i I "'l1t'n
'le
011'11' .cn I li<'cs his weapon let onl}, ~g ... nst the lei J.uk;)l,lt
.... 1 CI
h
h'

h d n al thllj~S
.
.
st
the
J.W t at t C ..wer o. _rs 5 U..U
a9.110
. h
.
bmit t- the l1Y er
sU The starn ngcs no
nli 0\'
1f> 1It..:- II'
I cd d
Gl uccster, .lU over tLII angry one f I.e~: Ihc c! n:~nt .. f JII
o t hC',o-on
wi:.' th(' r,rr y' '1l..manL n~g".al
tllCC 5
'
The gcntle~ar whoIT' Ken~. ncc~ ~ ..c 01'" t1 1 hIm t
.>!. t.
LC.1r.s beh.1V10Ur 01" the hr._ 1. IlC Ij C
might of his dcliJ.n('c
Kent.

Where's tIlt.;. Kulq

Gentleman
COll/4.:11dl1lg U'Jln tne I :c

Henceforth I'll bear

Affliction till it do cry out itself
.~ Enough. enough;' and die.

LL

"

,/

Bid, thj wind bIO' II',.:

,/01 swell 'Iz :lrl... r1 U,lt
'"
That thzngs tl 'j'ht c~ p' C

...... t:

St II es .1 t"e 1; .'e we ~ f
The to-all.!- ~ro . Jn/L

-."

n' n

The dd m",l ,,)f drh v d1 .1;. __ 3.11 ~--!.

d. -. ~ _._
has not yet founr -n:\,
__ t vc c. ~.:'.:: - >-t;~ --; ~_.i. I, VC:;
to submit to ~~ve W'l\f 15 .11 d \ ; __ .. - -to Co' ' ___ C ,_\.~

..I
t
q' c~
...
.. ,
might o~ thIS ~nw .r" re ,- ,n:: ... ~ !J..... 5. tr._ ~J,dl;~'~ c
personalIty :~auy tu SL.lDdp
the social order
_
d . . . . .:;1:-"(' cl! .:. '\(. :J,
c ,w.o;..
0'
l -.I",D, S'l"pe
LeaL"raisC5 rC1C,
,'...
c
ln1~ "~ dc~.;.:".,
.
t ' ' p '' \, dc,
lL
~th' \\",:.~.,'
"
,.I.l

he l'lSCS
agmnst
::11U' lL, ......
""'-',
"0 . "
. - h(,!ud-,<,)~
I +L ndl'r
judgement, lac k '11fT ",I .. '
" 111,')'.
.t1" on the' w::d ~lr.", .:IU ''-1
He p'"1,'11CS to: '11 hllh .. lll(..,
t t"" "',~,-' \vlunU.l v
,,~~
.. JI:,~mp ,.-",
.ld be
to :cbcl. Far f'om 111.1kmg .".W ~, t\.,~ 1::, l:~"lf "~O:1

from the ',,',ts "f ::'C he .dr;,,..~, :~:-,~~ . rhJ.t ~hin~J:=: mlgh
c: h anged. He 1~l).' l IC\\:' .
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Centuril;"' hdve ~ . I<::Sl' d, ,lnwins'
1, .'-"
P'

The thought of the powerlessness of the individual to

wrestle with social evil. and, hence, of suicide as, perhaps, the
only way out, is put forward in King Lear and in Hamlet. But
it is put forward only in order to be refuted. The very spirit
of the poetry, full of struggle and movement. is in itself a
refutation. This thought is expressed by the actions of the
characters. Quite a different way out is shown in this tragedy.
The world is not all men of stone. Live human hearts are
capable not only of love, but of action,

Every man's conscience is a thousand swords

To fight against that bloody homicide!
says, one of the insurgents against the tyrant Richard III.
. \\ h~n ~loucester eventually scrcwl:d up courage to raise
hIS VOIce m defence of Lear he did not find himself alon(>. The
Duke of Cornwall's servant took the part of Glolll.:estcr. Thi~

2j8

'C ..

.>9

''

;vhen Shakespeare speaks of what, to him, are the highest

.\ s usic and harmony appear amongst the imagery. The
thi09 , man has music in his soul, but the man who is not
y,.holed"b'y music is not to be trusted (The Merchant of Venice).
. such
Ie are very dangerous
!J1 ove
does not love mUSlC,
peop
CaSSlUS

the elements, man is faced by new, threatening forces, just

as unknown to him as once the clements. ~csc ~rc the forces
of social relationships. They h~vc called mte bemg ruination
and death in fonns more terrIble than those brought about
by earthquake or drought.
Lear curses these forces. But those who submit, who try to
be patient, will perish ingloriously. Gloucester paid the price
for his silence, the Duke of Albany was too gentle, and how
many sorrows came of his gentleness.

r IS Caesar).

(]~

usic sounds as if from nowhere in particular. Lear

e
eyes. The cure begins to work. Everything that the
opens 1 and hears as he returns to life is unfamiliar tv
~an ~eeehas been canied onto the stage in a sturdy c.hair and
hun..
is like anything he has known before. He thmk. t1-al
no.thl.nga dream and that all that he sees around him ha~ n""
thiS IS . t ncc is only a part of his dream. What is so uncxrealt;;l~~out' what is happening? Why do his daughle.!
p~c
ords seem to come from some strange drea~?
.
Simple W h.
.
world of human beings. Everythmg that I!
Befo~e un IS a under this one heading of humane beh~v
~appeDlngK~om~ad known the false world of flattery, besha~
lOur. The l?g I
ed but he had not known the worH 0
rage a~d amma ~:\e~s before him human face and ~ye
hu.man~ty. ~ow k" dl tears. All this had seemed ... 1lf'Josslb~~
bnmmmg WIth 1.n Y " I." A.,d Lt: 11 thought _le w s tl 1
Mt to be found 10 t h 1. 11_.

The stonn has passed over the world ....

Nothing is left whole on the face of the earth. Nothing has
escaped destruction. It would seem that everything has died
and only the last refugees, desperate with sorrow and horror,
are still clinging to life, sheltering beneath the ruins amidst

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the darkness, the rubble and the ash.

The night is over. Morning has come and we see that not
all is destroyed, only what existed on the surface of things
has been swept away; all that was rooted deep in the earth
has withstood the storm.
Lear has returned to life. Cordelia's soldiers have taken up
the King from the fields and brought him to camp. The doctor
gives him a sleeping-draught. After a deep sleep the exhaustp.d
old man awakes. Before the father stands his youngest
daughter.
Lear and Cordelia have found one anothe;
When lago set out to bring about the ruin of OLheIlo .a.nd
Desdemona, the lieutenant did not only make it his bw ine ~
to defile their love, it was essential fo] him to ruin the h
mony whkh had so unexpectedly arisen out of chaos.

Oh y~u arc well tuned now bUl I'll ~el

down ~hp pegs that make OTis lllusic

"~in ord~: t? s~ve

her fathel the youngest daught r hds 0

nd up hIS untuned and Jarring senses"
. Together with Cordelia, the theme of hal mony enters thl'
!:'l~d~. ~e proc~ss of t~7 summoning of Lea' udck to !ile
.g. n w th musIC. Nc_ . 'le tent where the sick man I! JylO;:1
muslclaD~S ....:-c standing by Cordelia ordcl ~ them to '--lav. A
premODI '~n .1: th
b"l"
,

.
C POSS1 1 Ity' 1 reas( nable and happy ex.sl
en C dnakes l~f"lf felt f("r the 5rst time, he hannony of these
~~nbc'" Th.e premonition is sUI VE: V v:J.gue and musIc . the
..
lOt IUlted ~o convey .It

;'S

aslecp.
~II t
""C"'I 'I of ~;~ scen" 1
The lyrical clement u s 11" h
'er ,bowel
delnEd
1'
ndtscara.
spedal kind of Yl'lC1S~ ~
tone 01 she'tered softness or
Tle image of Cordeha IS no
..
in 3. t nt c_
"d d
. s (ordeL' I. .lVIng
iisembodle
reammes..
f mail tl! Queen c.. Franc 1.
breast is pr~tectcd .by a hIY1:("",,1 v f her c'l~;~_ ( ~. c ose 0
at WU, she 15 fightmg. The p rh thm ot W':UdiS mal li
the tense feeling of the ballad, ~e y f1
leI. rhe h _ 1
b . h the Images 0 en I.
f th
,1C colours far from rlf' I ' d . 'd d from le
und 0
c
quality of Cordelia is not to be. IVl a ~celing of inn r fim n .
Vo;; :se, the vehemence of expr
.Ion'th singing of thOSI
gAll this bears little rcsemblanc~:~o s frequently compat,o.
with whom Lear's youngest hel.
t c nly a daughte s 10\ e
The theme of Cordelia ~prcs~~ ~~l'f!: the truggl~ of ~an
fOI !ler father but omcthmg fa,
gb t l' -, nnl 'lly
,
nge't u~u
1
.,
against inhumanity. V1.1 5 you
fOUl u.I atl lC
the heir of the King la symbol 01 f
a grelte, Cl',ll
o
a
J
"htor
Sh,}-"", peate), f:he s tf'!'- 10
er
s whu'h nan h!s W on o!'
She s a guardian 01 lo~e llO 1 U
me 1.

Z6'

The Duke of Albany expl~ins. to Goncril that a daughter

who has disowned her father 15 lIke a dry bough cut off from
the sap which feeds it. The bough has broken from its stem
and is doomed to die. Nothing which has been torn up by its
roots can go on Jiving.
Man is obliged to know his own roots. They go back into
the depths of time, growing ever stronger, growing upward
with the development of all that is great and good in history.
For Shakespeare, the way of humanity is no aimless meny-go_
round. but a worthy labour, and the word "humane" is no
empty sound. It is a concept achieved by the hard work and
suffering and courage of many generations.
Shakespeare compares the social order which will sec the
coming triumph of humanity with the generous abundance
of flowering nature. Two fine people find onc another, and a
high humanity comes into being in such relationships as that
between Romeo and Juliet, Othello and Desdemona, Lcar and
Cordelia.
Their love is not only the passion of lovers or the natural
a~achment be~een father and daughter, it is a !>ymbol of
wlsdom. Love. 10 Shakespeare's poetry, is a militant image,
a challenge to the ideas of the iron age.
'
The mom~nt of hannony is so beautiful that. in compal1$on,
the ~t of lIfe see~s as dark as the pit. The optimism of King
~~ IS not only 10 that the wicked people arc brought tc
Justi~ .or ~ilI one another, but. first and foremost, in the
conViction It conveys of the triumph of the worthy over the
unworthy, even though this moral victory is at the same time
an actua1 defeat.

G;n~l is

Lear's and Corde~ia's last scene together. Edmund,

ha be and
n Regan have achleved their aim: the French troops
It
rout~d. Lea: and his youngest daughter captured.
eelll
Ed
d 'C
at their enemies have gained a total victory
mun. onerit and R
h
'
helpless old
egan ave only two enemies left: a
are alone in ~an and a young woman. Disarmed, captive, they
the 'Wi,,"''''', e ~~y camp. Just a little effort from any of
.....hu.ted y~ th len ankd these defenceless people will be
'l"her'
ese wea people are the victors.
h.
are III Jiiimand of the situation because they are

:oul:

K~)

de!;~ OBe another and the

tb

moment of hannony
briefOil ~owever I ttle may remain to live. lear
Ip ce as a WIse man. He has understood

262

which is the countereit and which the true value. Now he

knoWS the worth of fine clothes. of sweetmeats and of salt.
All that has been won by Goneril and ~egan is a pile of
glittering trash, but Lear, at the end of hIS days, has found
true wealth.
The moral victory, however, cannot become a real victory.
The harmony can last only for a moment.
For Lear, it lasts for just so long as he can hear Cordelia's
heart beating. When it grow~ quiet the world falls silent and
it seems as though the earth Itself were dead ..
TI e old King has reached the end of hiS road. He has
1 d to know human misery and the anguish of others has
1carne
.
has become h'IS own, H.c
b
e one with his own anguish,
h~~o~arned the lesson of co-inherence, understood that one IS
responsible for all.
.
d
He has stood up against the ragmg of the storm <1n not

Yie~~~d~ remains in our memory. illumine.d .by ~ashes of 1i~ht

ning. a white-haired rebel, d.(mo~ncing InJustice, demandmg

t'1al \ hings should change or tea"\...
1962

ABOUT 'THE Al'TI-JORS

AT

ex

I\, rDE 1 IlLa ...

)..1 21}

Alexandr' Bb~ Wll ! ;,reat p::.. Aftc ..':te Octobe: Re-;" l'
tion, WI:1J(" n' pl. ed lome of the highe t lights of BloK S
poetrv. he was ....nong those r",...
.. _~lVes of the cauclted
classes who. toge"her with Y_lOm C.O:Ky, put all their l"~"-l'
ing and cxpc- ic,ce en t..1C servi.:- o~ the pc.. pIr n urCler t
y

the foundation' of d new .. V'olut:?nr.?V C.ll 1-'. At L'3 .mf':

he was workln~ r lP. pt:.... 1 ::;tlI~ l:~"'" w rV _te" :atUl.!",
j

organised on the. imtiJ.ti ve

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M:!..'UJ1l Gorky,

eparing foreign

classics for pubhcation in Russian. }- s w():,k touc1:ted . . ., the

theatre-he compiled f r the repe~ ~; .~ -;e .... on of 11 tJ: 'atr" 1
department of Narltomp:",!" :l !i' t o~ .. !371 fur t3.gi 19 1 If
people's the,-~ __
As chairman of the boz.: "- 0: producers J.i:-e ting teo _ ,.ties of the Bolshoi Dr'lJl:;: Tbe3.I-_ in Leuingrad, B!" al:'l
worked together w:th the , . . ~ "'1"5, d.liycring a 1. cture c., p cb
new play to be pe~-=-n-e.l be'"o:.:- "'as p_"~! re}, -:.l,J In
1919-' 920 he devote~ ml 1 n ... ":0 !die: ~ s 'Ute ..;
HI;;
talked on Much Adn Ab( ut r thzr., ~ _"=!': -. 1 '- 1.
1919) to an audience of Red A"J.j 'C diers ~ :--=-~ ... .:
in the' lutre. On Octo~ 15, 1<'19, 1" __ lee' or: 1 1
forthcom ig production ot L the' 0 _. .!" ~.. t1:: ..! ~
lectured 0 the 3.(to:s OD
'\..: Hiddtl l't'_wng of tl!-e
Tragedv Othelle
Shakespe-re's King Le T
1(" t '11' P -l..li!:~ __ n t'- S 1,.:' lee
tion, \If"!. ds! v..-itte- fa: t-h :1.( ~ -s f t.lte E- c D.:un
Thcat:'_ on Juy 1, no, . . " i was first -ld at:l. ~c
on
given 1'1' tl( ]{'Iurlal Tlot;; 'S!;"J. ,".,,,,,0 .. '''f' i. ~,n It wa~
nrst pub1isnpA n :l.b::I, .J f )'m 1 nder tre ttl. /I. )(_Uf
Warning' (' Zh )\ )l\uYc P edC' ter ." e). 0" Septe'T'l '~r ...n~
21,1920 nth new la] t.~ Zr.. '1 I J,:'ssit'u. T'lo'> :mslal r. )
made dl 'ording ~.:, ~ .c co t, r. ot BIClk co!''''ct. d W'1 ks:
A. Blok, Sobramy~ ~O_ll I11;.~' v vo~:
TO:-'akr. VOl 6,
Mo:'cow LcnUl~](
'll,. ...
" N -0 ny

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ANATOLI

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..... olk on a new study c! the (un

A distinguished statesman and public figun'. one ~ the

ive workers in the field of arts ,md culture 111 the
t
t
mosac

AVL
h
early
years of the Soviet state, Ac:a d
ellllClan

. una,," arsky
was an expert on Shakespeare and had done much research
into the playwright and his back~round. HIS ~r:st works"on the
subject date back to prcrcvoluho~ary da~s. I he l~st, Bacon
and the Characters of Shakespeare sPlays , on .Wh.lCh .Lunach
arsky was working during the last years 01 hI!; hfe. was
published posthumously (~hc translatio~. is from the text as
published in the journal Llteraturny KrJt!l~, 1934, No. ,1).
Lunacharsky's numerous articles on Shakespeare mclude,
"Prince Hamlet" ("Prints GamIet") (1922). "Excursion~ into
the World of Shakespeare" ("Ekskursii v Mil' Shekspira")
(1923). "Shakespeare and His Time" ("Shekspir i Ego Vek")
(1924). "The Solution to One of the Greatest Mysteries"
("Razoblacheniye Odnoi iz Velichaishikh Tain") (1925). and a
number of others. In these articles. we see Shakespeare port
rayed as a great humanist by a committed man of action. a
man of our own time. who turned to the best which the herit
age of the Renaissance had to offer in order to make this best
work on in our day_ "There can hardly be any feeling on
which Shakespeare did not touch." wrote Lunacharsky in his
"Lectures on the History of West-European Literature at Key
Moments of Its Development". "He looks at the human soul
as if through a magnifying glass. dissects it to open up the
most vital features. but never says what he is thinking about
any~ne nor on whose side he is." Lunacharsky laid part:cular
stress on the realism of the great playwright: "Shakespc[.- ~
unnot go out of date. His time was one in which a man could
:lnd scope for the expre! sion of all the many-sided ness of his
.leing."
IVAN AKSYONOV (1884-1934)

G.
01

LUNACHARSKY (Il1i~-llI3:J)

Iva~ ~ksy?nov-Soviet writer. translator and public figurewa!; jlstm~Ulshcd by the wide field of his literary interests.

He SaW active service in the Civil War and. during these same
e :u >. was working on translations of the Elizabethan drama
~sts. In 1930, Aksyonov's first book on Shake,pearc. Hamlet

nd Other EssayS- was pubU hed. H's death

In

1934

11 ;hort

F JI title Gamlet i ur'lgiye OPI ''!t, v Sol! v (viye C /. nescv' n ;

Sn k ')Ic. Jogii.

-+i

n c-t plot in "5haketp_ re's

play!

Aksyonov's;J cI
-'1~ din" f .. ~'lumow f)ubliCltir-:t S},al~e,pe'Jre (Mt IIC w, 19:'J
.:-n thiS 'Jock IS t.akn tb
11 cle we h.. ve ehos""1 publish h
&<

A A
the S ;.ret T
:r m
liter,ln' s~olars. trom HH) ) lq: 8. If'
1
r 2._ e
University of Peter bu 'J Le mg-ral I.L~ ar' r 1Q'
thl
study of Shakcspc_-_ I :l~ th-.
11 ~ t A c r rr. v s
academic interests. Hi!, I ~ k lv rc'lrsLa 2 pi: 1 V. ..>
published in the U.S.A. u,de _.~~ tit~ ~n..k: D'ate A ~(JfXJ t
Interpretation, New Y rk 19.)6. n.. 1D part, _ Ucm. n
Dcn ocratil Republic (Das Wer'-z Sh:J7; r; -_, Berl:". 1 ~!>.).
Smirnov is ". Sr' the authol .: t 1m 1
1
' e T)C
! -1
to '"It rely xtolog1' a1 C; 1 .. on (f cnl
:;til 1 ti
t
tuu.ie, f Shakcsp~ lre apt: .. nQ
W
1 -, ~
..
United St....tes. tl Soviet
~slati(,' Sf' -;,
-1
Shakespe'lfe
SlY"
Ir
t
b ~ ~
JI
puhlished po t'lUmt \.:SlY'

1
r
ogcth( Wi '1. ... S. Di n v
A. A f t
dited w diffe.~ 11 edi" n .. c I e r
=. _ W L ~
:.pe Ire iJ'l Ru ;ian'" lJ'l
tit \ ~~:)' ~
1

The nti\.. e tr_1'lat :l.

W

I
, I l'
l(t in.<
I l 'I'f.il'f.grad fir.
t
UIIll'nSJ'eLa). 1946. ~o_ 1
I:le 'ate A

S.mrlOV W1

C 14

-?

IlO\LllC

. I

t t n"
,,'It th:: c.;.:w
w ..... rks
r
Ii
1(

Mikb::til Mot .ov I' "'(

guished Sh ' ,.. pc .. r __n
iln nternation I 1 uta' "'n. The )
ginmng vf

'\1'01 ... v
1t: 11 re J rom

~C. m

s ~

e
rdrt.. e

t ",i ti .
l( .ull

thl ~e
-=b 19_~

;1.1 'n md
A
~
" , -t"d 1:.. If

"

'le
the l.
,
>,nl~"l;t
to !,nak e51 ue r
uc.. e
~
'-'1c Snake
31 \: l. 11 IP
fv~n:: '1
..
e"')a!:v.~ r C:l ""1
Rl .... ~ he t _ 1 )t_e V 1
If';!
~'l ;r.'lke ... lre,ln ecnferen 5. tI ,: t , } '
..
lf~.1l11 19;Jf;l, Th_ pu:-O l ell Z"1 ~ S kc 1; m.. loe \\.
. l'
n
ti~ ~ wes ( re t dj
o 1j JI ..

01

'07

of the compilation of the first Shakespeare Collection, 1947

(Shckspiropsky Sbornik. 1941, Moscow, 1948). Morozo\,
",'as also actively involved, both as an author and as a
member of the editorial board, in the preparation of the
il'st two volumes of the History of English Literature
(Moscow, 1943, 1945),
.
M. Morozov's most important books are his Commentar es
to Shakespeare's Plays (Kommentarii k Pyesam SheJ~spjra)
(1941) and Shakespeare (1947). His Shakespeare all the
Soviet Stage was published in English in London in 1947
The article included in this collection first appeared in ~hc
book: M. M. Morozov, Selected Articles and Translations
Izbranniye Statyi i Perevody), Moscow, 1954.

ALL'XA~DFR

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~IKSr

(b. 1910)

Alexander Anikst is a specialist on literature and the

thctre Hi!, particular interests ar' the listory of E- li!h
and kn'lcan litE't.3,ture the If"al'' of Wes~.ln rou: pc an:..
2.rs;\etks. Many of Anikst W)r is arc devoted to Sh<: ~
spc.are 1963 saw the pUblication 0: lis book The wc;-~ c,
~hakesp~are (Tvorchestvo Shekspi I) ma ' ::64 iJ H' lphy
m the panular, ",.{lshly illu! trated sel ir.s Lvcs vf Remark
~! .. People
'''0''';. \er with A. A. Smirnov Amk t "it." tb~ (ol1e te;l
Worns t ~itakespeare n R l' Sl i eVe!s. 1 n 1S.,.)7~6(,). He
wa ah, one .o~ U"'t:: edit", .)1 the S",1akespr.are Col'e "on,
1~ S (~neksplrOtHk- Shor'tik, '9,.;.. MOSI'OW,
r - , (rom
w ,'). IS taken the uclc 'Sh kc: 1-1 e d W 11
~ ( the
be,'plc". We publish i~ her.. as abi'dgf'd by the ... .IL I '"

IVAN

.I\.'NI

(I

T {I)V

1 '::'1)

..;"t"' ,An' imovwr:.tr) So~ct

l:tera:"y
L.:: !od
:.n the -:uddle twent cs

chol_ m. d ..
. .
t r
. -h ICe
... '",... .....tf
A "
1".
.....
";~5', ~ L
!"~:: .. ~:1 an~ W t-EUlop:'.ln ~ Le~!1 In.. . ;:'!ce
, 1 Wc~
~ """~ .r.a "t.t,;' 11" P_
f dr.:ec Ior 0 f t h e C 01 k y -5. "'It_
\.0
T 'lli
er.... ture of the ACldcmy ~ s( ell_es c_ th ..
J"

ri' ...
..j

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,.,;

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L.t.>
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"

......

. ~,"d r:!!:::'y studiE's to 'le History !;if

.!.: l l r .:uts je Russia. Puolica.tian
D

"

which he has been involved both as author and as member

of the editorial board include the Academy's Historv ot
English Literature and History of French Literature, and the
books Modern Literature in the U.S.A. (Souremeliliaya r
teratura S.S1z.A.), Interconnection and Influence b1 twe n
National Literatures (Vzaimosl1yazi i Vzaimodeysl'Jjye
Natsionallly&h Litralur). HWllanism and Modern Lit.' Iture
(Gumanisnl i Sovremennaya Literatura), et alia. A coPection
of 1. Anisimov's articles has been published under th4 title
Tbe Classic Heritage Qlld Our Tirm (Klassicheskoye
Nasledstuo i SoVremel11l0st), MoscoW'. 1960.
The short article we publish here W'as written for the 1( WSw
paper Prau~a o~ the occas.ion of the 4?Oth, annivcr y of
Shakespeare s birth and printed on Api'll 2.), 1964.

KO"{-TJ\~rIN

\'V~KY I"C '.0

<,TA:tiiTS

Komtanl n St.:midavsky (real name A,exeyev). 'e phA ~.d oj the ,>ovict Union, world {, mou! pI 'du 'er. ]( tl
nd thcor~1 cia] 01 the l~atr, bC;:Jan lis .te!
re t.'Ift' ~
t'1e C ld of ~hp 1870s. From 18,,:; to Ib98 It ... v... dl.
.,1
11 Me CvW '5, t: V f. rAt :10~ Lit ltl~", I Jd r th
l~qjS 01 Whh.l 1(' ;egan h s lnno\'< hc" ln~ c v10
the tre. In 'R R, I
.... "Ir"'lko. he fou'ldoo

t}'lt.;

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11

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th

ALEXANDER OSTUZlIgV 0871111.';:1)

Alexander Ostuzhev was ~l, distingui~hed aclor .and

People's Artist of the Soviet Umon. In 1898 he W.H 'Htadu~d
to the Moscow Maly Theatre. where he aded p.uts from
Shakespeare. Schiller, Ibsen .:md Ostro~5ky .. His ,forte Was
intense emotional power and psychologICal mtcgnty,
Ostuzhev's Othello (he first acted the part in 1935)
became a landmark in the story of the recre.1tion of Shake.
spearean images on the Soviet ~tagc. His .interpretation of
the part was remarkable for Its humamsm. He played
Othello not as a drama of jealousy but .JS a tragedy of trust
deceived.
The article published here is from the book OsluzhcuOtbello, Leningrad-Moscow, 1938.
ALEXEI POPOV (18fl:!-1961)

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or

Alexei Popov was a distinguished producer and People's

Artist of the Soviet Union_ He began his stage career in 1912
in the Moscow Art Theatre. Between 1918 and 1923 he worked
in an experimental studio-theatre in the small town of Kostrorna. from 1923 to 1930 he directed plays at the Vakhtangov
Theatre and from 1930 to 1935 he was first artistic dircctol
and then chief producer of the Moscow Theatre of the Revolution where, in 1935. he put on Shakespeare's Romeo and
Juliet
In 1935, Popov became the chief producer of the Central
Theatre of the Red Army (later renamed the Central Theatre
~f the SO~'iet Anny) where. in 1937, he staged Shakespeare's
he Tammg of the Shrew-one of the most successful Soviet
Shak~speare productions. Here, too. 10 1941, he produced
A MIdsummer Nights Dream,
T A .. Popov's article is taken from the collection: "The
am11lg
A
~f the Shrew" in the Central Theatre of the Red
K rmy .( Ulm?shch~niye Stroptiuoi" v Tselllralnom Teatr'!
ra5nOl Amm edited bv M M M '
gr!ld.1940).'
.'.
orozov, MoscowLemn-

M,

Slu

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wo,
SIu

GALINA

ULANOVA (b. 1910)

Galina Ulanova th
d
Ar':st of the U '
ee3en ary SOViet . 311crina. People's
u'ungrad Acad~!~" ~egan he'f stage Cln~~'n 1928 II the
e3.LI.; 0 OPC-l and Ballet. Since

dO

,.

danc.;~ fl r the Be shOt Theatu In

19... l
MI' .'-~W.
llanov 's ""1 is
nguished ") nt. .. dramati;: DOWC
yr,., I r ~rc II nina perfe tl00 , of c ~:l1qUC Besides e-,r
cer\( S .. .1liet .her m~ t bU,. e .11 mc.unala:'d . ere t'-oe
lding P
IC r h
"IV ky. Swan 10
ani Slecpmg
~eauty, A Adan' Gi cllt, B. V ~fiev'. The f :m! '~ ot
Bal~hdti5aTa, nd S. ~ Prokofi..,. (md4 re~ In 194(\ C i'
lin... Ulan' Vd
)peuc in p.)x.c;~. Romeo "JIL.:'"
lC n'" led 1 , r 61.
rl~ nt..J .. pU! 1: he l] C 1 fr 1::1 the J J.f01.I Oac )o .... k

lev

,!

No 11.1904.
IC

CV

K"Y

C"VI"
Innokcnti 'lml k" lOVI i.
; n (.~ :'">.
in the title' role 01 i c: it t
JI -1 t t _ (J
Tire ldir l wh 1.;'- :_Ii
..
Theatre n Lc:rll l~r d in 1~, :I. f e \.
.y to dnl .qu_1Iv
c h, 1. "" t1 1:._ ~
, 1 .
he stage lnu on ,. One Year ct, lia).
III honou o! ti.r ~Cu'tb V'" Or;:
, c'
~hc 11m- :tirector G. Kozi.1.t_
L
collection) maac a E'rr f P , ~_.,.t
Studio. J Smo'- unov!-"y J<I} '(l
'for the p]{~mierc of thl:: In 1 _.
,"
rlf" ar clt:: nul-'ist. d 1--_""
l ..
Teate No. t. lQb'l.
~I~)L,\1

l;"

.. L

NikOlai Ok 111 pk -\' ~i. br ~ L

People s Art" _ (.)f the ,. t L ~ ., c_
caree in -k.1t. 11 191 1 1 ) '"/') c r '
l~ \ '
1930 0 9 b '"' W ,[
1 (;h:
.:: IJ ...
h t:"
from 94,)
Thcltre I"'t Dllna
In.
t
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where, n 1954. he p. '..'UI.; i S 13
... lC -:til C pl.ll Ii he. 'u
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GRIGORI

BII3L'OGRAPHY

KOZINTSEV (b. 1905)

(A ilasic L !If 01 'Wore lmportal t Sf' die,)

Crigari Kozintsev is a So~ict film,-dirccto,: and script'r'ter who has been working 1fl the cmema StUce 1924. To
\\1 and to 1. Trauberg thS"
him
e OVlct cme~a owes one of its
most distinguished achievements,. the trilogy The Youth of
Maxim (1935). The RetuCll of MaxIm (1937) and Vyborgshaya

i,
o

1926)
AKceHOB

ra~nl'T II lI.pyrll
In;,{,
'1I'CTlI! IIIIOH WPK lllPO C

YI. A.

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n. c.

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e

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Ba'!\< ~:I rpa,
Q,\
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(WilliaJ'u
931)

"

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II.

.:

(HamIe and Othe f says.

'I. n
\'.0_ la-A.e IIl1tpa
Mo;c w Le in ~ra(
Si>'litesDecr

(William

Of

.,

I..

BII.\b~M WeK l p

COPII ~e B.

11<

I. \1')Cw

.,,1

A"TtpaT),pbI

WO

(L ,tur"', on the History of Vie"'! 'uro",:::;::

r.itc'dure m ": y Monel1s ('I It~ Deu I, e
11 111
I, M.o )w. 192&)

~t.

lti. tHWU:r. Mc,..;eIlT..., T.

1
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t

Ip

UI J. HO

1924

Storolla (1939).

In 1941, Kozintsev produced King Lear at the Gorky

Bolshoi Drama Theatre in Leningrad and, in 1943, Othello
in the Leningrad Academic Pushkin Theatre. He has made
a film of Hamlet which was shown in London during the
celebration of Shakespeare's fourth centenary and generally
released for the British screen in January 1965. The film has
also been bought for general distribution in many other
countries outside the U.S.S.R.
In 1962, Kozintsev published a book Our Contemporary,
Sbahespeare (Nasb Sovremennih Sbehspir), from which we
have selected the chapter on King Lear for inclusion in this
collection.

O~I:J

H~B

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M

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A.

,llKIIBf.\CrOB

ill!.""

(C6 u pHIIK.)

YlTa.\IIII.

\I

omit [IJOlHII":, 19j1S, :\k){l

(S}Ulkspcar~'. A CrJllccti.:;: of Art! !es.
Moscow, 1959)

6a". 1938, NQ 2

("Shakespeare and Italy", Literary Edu:=tion

No.2. 1938)
,
{(60pHIII,.)

OcnmcB-On.\,\o. MOo:B.1.)\nllmrpu. 1938

(Osiuzhev-Othello. A Collection of Articles

(C60p1I1IK

Moscow-Leningrad, 1938)

Wc"efllip
1564.1939.
ACHIIHrpa-l-f..loCl'Ba
1939
.
(Slwkespeare 1564-1939. A Colle.:tion 01
Articles. Leningrad-Moscow. 1939)

t\10po30B

CT3TCli.)

t\1. \1.

;:lpaH.lCH 1\ llicKenJlp.
Y'IC'lIbIC Cld. !I(K.
ACHItHrp'-leKOrO YIIIISCPCII"CTiU, 1944, lIblnYf" 9

WC"Cllllp. --

B tamrl'-

114

1, 5b1nyc

AIITCPaTYPbI, 1

TOp'"1

2 :\'10

~(111

rru. 1945

1
1

("Shakespeare", History of English L:.era

ture, Vot. I. Moscow.Leningrad. 194:)

.x . \,

(MHpROB

,
1

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'
(SI.::du P=7rC Mr, 'ow, 1941 llnd Zna cdi~lon
19~ )

.
~

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\I/.

Mo,ilO

T
W! KC 'HP
'1 C)B C .oii CU.!"
, AbHbll a.'h H x,., 1,}47,
::11 a 6
'Shakespcne on 1e Sovi{' Stagl" Ttj(!"'

at
w

of

cal Alma1/( c 19<!'. Bo:'!l. 6)

K
G.

f947 M I<
A C )lle tion
-Arti< e

llluenllp<,'Ilc "" 1.:6C11 III<

01

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01

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au

stu

""
.....

WCKcnllp, peRee':;,l'" 1\ 6apoKKo

.B(
11K
ACHHHrp<lAf"OrO VlUlB4-r' IlreTa". 1940. 'W 1

('Shakespeare, the Renaissance and "he Age

of Barocco", Herald 01 L ningrad Un v r
Sltv No. t, 1946)
We ~nHp. Mo K 3, 1947. T) ~( H3UIII e Z

CN]

H'8

\..

- hak J; 'Q.
M<"'!:::)"" J HI.)
1 a' Hblt' CT ~ ..~ , n
t';l Art;
.5 anrl T
11C' >4)

lpc. -A

lib!

1'('

II

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K

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th

1-

274

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and
t

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t'ACHltI

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__

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~alcP:ll
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'.ar.-':~C1e

A,

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194.

ii,

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(S/wkespe re m thl S( u et

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r.

II.

UI

C'lBpCMl"UI 11K

CK ;.t,

Ta.t

1960)

196))

1962

We

n tp

hall ~p

1960

St~gl

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rp

III

re,

A
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:linl raa

Moscow 1962)
AIIIIKCT

A.

TnOp'IPCTBO

(He

A.

~C.:10B<lll\u1 ,:

pl!.

We"

(The Work of

C~.fI'PIiOB ;-\.

M3T(

HrAlI1\( "011
"8a

1960

(Ow Contemporary

("Dryden and Shakespeare", Transactions

Leningrad University, 1944, nst. 9)

Mrs(

ACHIIHrpall.,1941

H. ll.

"uTe')aTYP.

(Foreign Literature. A Collccti('1

(Commentaries to Shakcspearc's Plays, Moscow-Leningrad, 1941)

:-'lop.J3C'B

~Iocua.

KOMMclITapll1l K n!>~eaM WCKenilpa. 1\10,,8,

t-.l

BCPXOBCI(UK

Japy6c:>tl:llall

Hc.\!>c

9j9
, XI,

nil po

,\bI).

nllp . Moc
')h~k ,:;ea. ,

_, 1963
Me

9U)

Wn,cllllp. ACIIIIIlrp ;'t.Moct:Ba, 1~.)

(Shakesp a.J
Leningrad-Moscow 196")
BII,\hR~lllICI<:llllp.

UTN!.:':

Till

lS64.1964, fl.1,
e
(Wi/li:zm sh 'keSJMare. On
he iO )th Anniv r~ ilry (, h
,akl ~p....l. " ~osc v.. 1S I
p))

11111

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ILLUSTRATIONS

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"HAMl.ET"
Hamlet-Vasili KacJud

Produced b e d
ou
Dicecud b Y K or on Craig
Y onslanti Sl .
Sulerzhitsky
n amslousky. Leopold
The Moscow Arl Theaiu, 1911

"HAMLET'
Ham1~t- Vasili KachaloD
IAerl~s-Rjchard Bokslar1Jky

The Mosco", Art The4're 1911

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"HAMLET

Hamlet-Mikhail Chekllov

"HAMLET"

Gertrude-Olga K .

Claudius-NihoJ . ~pper.~~ekholJa
The Mo
OJ
assahtmov

scow Art Theatre. 191 I

produced

by

Alexander

Cheban,

Vladimir

TotarinolJ and Valentina Smysl1layev_

r~ Secmd Mosc?w Art Theatre. 1924

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'he pray
produutl by Nikolai Okh! )plwv
Artist-Vadim Ryndin
The Vlat'irnir MI yaJtovsky TI~e. /If 0'0II1 1954
/. SCt'lU Irolll

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'HAMLET"

"HAMLET"

Hamlel-lnno~lIli

HtlmJe/-Boris Freundlich

Produced by Grigori Kozinlsev

'-'nliln!" Studio 1~4

Polonius-Yuri Tolubeyev
Produced by Grigor; Kozintsev
Artist-NaUm .... Itman

The Pushkin"Theatre, Leningrad, 1954

Smoktunol'sky

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"OTHELLO"

Othello-Andrei Abrikosol.l
Desdemona-Vera Yanukovu
Produced by Nikolai Okhlopkov
The Realistic Theatre. Moscow, 1936

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"OTHELLO"

"OTHELLO"

Othello-Alulki Khorovo
Produced by Allah; Vasadu
The Shata Rustaveli Georgian
Theatre. Tbilisi, 1947

Othello-Vag-ram Papazyon
The Cabdel Sundukyun Arm~n lr. Dramatic
Theatre. Yeuvan. 1948

Dramatic

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"OTHELLO"

"OTHELLO'

Othello- Nikolai Mordllinov

Produced by Yuri Z/lvudsky

A ballet by Alexei Madzavariani

Otlll'l1o-Vakhtang Chabukiani
Produced by Vaklltang Clzobukiani

The Mossavet Tl1eatre, Moscow, 1944

The

Zakhari

PaJiashvili Theatre of

ami Ballet Tbi/isi. 1957.

Opera

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"KiNG LEA.R"
Th~ Foo/-Veniamin Zuskin
Produced by Sergei RadIo!.>
The State Jewish Theatre, Moscow.

"KING LEAR"
L<:zt-S%'JIcn Mikhc.-'s

{he State ].-,,'sh T,._ttI

1935

Mos, Jill

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"KING LEAR"
A scene from tile play

Artist-Alexander Tyshler

The State Jewish Theatre, MOSCOfll, 1935

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"KING LEAR"

'0'

Lear-Nikolai Mordvinov
Produced by IritzQ Anisimollo_VIIlI

Shl

The Mossovet Theatre. Moscow, 1958

a.

wo

'KING LEAR:

Uar- VladimJr Ttlllpsttyev

~ he Fool_Alexander Slakou
-oduced by EleJUl Marlloua, T ....~lre, Ord..
,;.. DramatlC
""'"
The North- 0 sse .....
)njJr.idze. 1948

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"ANTONY AND Cl.EOPATRA"

A scene from the play

Produced by 1Imar Tammrlr

Artisl-Rener Eldor
The VilaoT Kingisep Theatre
Tallinn, 1955

of

Drama.

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"'ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA"

Cll!opalra-Aino Talvi

Slu

The

Vlktor Kmgiup
Tallinn. 1955

Th.Ai>t-,
....

'ANTONY AND Cl.EOPATRA-

of

Drama,

Cleopatra-Veriko Andzhaparidu
Produ.ud by Vakhtang Tabliashvili
M Kate M<1.rdzhmishviJJ Georgi2n 'T1u;
)[ Drama. TJ,iJiSJ 1951

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'MACBETH"

"JULIUS CAESAR', .

Macbeth-Millhail TsaryolJ

Julius Caesar-VQsll, Kachalol.J

l.ady Machel/I-Elena Cogo/CUQ

Produced by Vladimir NemJrovJ_h Dt..1U IJe 1-

Produced by Kans/anlin Zubov and Ycvge.

n; Velikhov

The MOSCOW Art Theatre, 1903

Arlist-Boris Vo/kol'
Th Moly Till 2tre, Mosc

"t

1955

ko and Kans/antin Stanis/ausky

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'JULIUS CAESAR

A scene from the play

Artist-Victor SimoIJ
The Moscow Art Theatre, 1903

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. RICHARD Ill'

Tile final scene

Arlist-Alexander Tysl!ler
Tile Maxim Gorkv Theatre 01 Dr. :r:l. ullinurad. 1935

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"ROMEO AND ]UllEr'

A scene from the ballet by Sergei Prok.ofielJ
Produced by Leonid Lavfovsky

Artist-Pyau VJ1yams
Tl1e Bolshoi Theatre, Mosco"'. 1946

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OMI-:O AND JU'IFT

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d by Alexi POT:_
Pro1u,,'
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"ROMEO AND JUUT"

Romeo-Mikhail Astangov
Prod.uc~d by Alexei Popov
Tile Theatre of till' Rf'lmJulioR Moscow. J935

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'THE WlNTE8'S TAl.'

A scene from the pJay

Produt;tld by Mikhail Ktd:_ '

Mtist-Vadim Ryndill
Til Mas:. 'Ill A1"t ThtCJirt:, 19S8

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;"'TWEL.FTH .NIGHT"
alvolto-MlldlQ'J CI
Directed b B ,J
1C1dwo

"TWI.fTH NIGHT
,\ SCI!/zC Ir011l the play (Maria-Sofia Cit/lsill'

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Y OTIS SlIslliwuic/
II lO of the MoscolU Art

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Fool-Sergei Obraztsov)
PrNiuccd by Sona Giatsintova .1I/ti
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G(ltoutselJ

Artist-Vladimir Favorsky
The Second MoscolU Art Theatre. 1934

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"TWELFTH NIGHT"
A scene from the play

The Second Moscow Art Theatre, 1934

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"TWELITH NIGHT"
A scene from the play
,934
The Second Moscow Art Theatre.

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-THE TAMING OF THE SflREY.'"

A St:entt from the play
Produced by Alexei PopolJ
,Artist-Nissarl Shifrin
TIle Celltral Theatre 01
COW.

1938

~he Rc(1 AI nI.V_ Mas"

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"MUCH A
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P scene from the pI
NOTHING"
roduced by I . oy
Artisl-Vad" osJ! RapOPOrt

The Yak]

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Ryndin
aliqov Theatre

o.~co/U,

1936

"MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING"

A scene from the play
The VakhtangOV Theatre, Moscow, 1936

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"AS YOU LlK [T"

A scene from the play
Produced by Nikolai Khmelyov

and Maria

Knebel
Artist-Nisson Shifrin
The Maria Yermolova Theatre, MoscOW, 1940

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"AS YOU LIKE IT"

}aques-Vsevolod Yak t

The M ana
. YermolovaIi Th
eaire, Moscow, 1940

"A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM"

A scene from the play
Produced by Alexei Popov
Artist-Nissan Shifrin
The Central Theatre ot the Red Army_ Mos-

cow. 1941

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"TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA"

A scene from the play
Produced by Mikhail AstangolJ

Artis/-Nikolai Rogac1!01J
The Theatre of the Revolution, Moscow, 1938

"THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR'

A scene from the play "

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