http://www.pipingguide.net/2007/12/pdms-commands-piping-commands.

html

A Process Design Engineers Perspective on Using Equivalent

Lengths of Valves and Fittings in Pipeline Pressure Drop
Calculations
One of the most basic calculations performed by any process engineer, whether in design or in the plant, is line sizing
and pipeline pressure loss. Typically known are the flow rate, temperature and corresponding viscosity and specific
gravity of the fluid that will flow through the pipe. These properties are entered into a computer program or spreadsheet
along with some pipe physical data (pipe schedule and roughness factor) and out pops a series of line sizes with
associated Reynolds Number, velocity, friction factor and pressure drop per linear dimension. The pipe size is then
selected based on a compromise between the velocity and the pressure drop. With the line now sized and the pressure
drop per linear dimension determined, the pressure loss from the inlet to the outlet of the pipe can be calculated.

Calculating Pressure Drop

The most commonly used equation for determining pressure drop in a straight pipe is the Darcy
Weisbach equation. One common form of the equation which gives pressure drop in terms of feet of head
is given below:

To obtain pressure drop in units of psi/100 ft, the value of 100 replaces L in Equation 2.
The total pressure drop in the pipe is typically calculated using these five steps.
(1) Determine the total length of all horizontal and vertical straight pipe runs.
(2) Determine the number of valves and fittings in the pipe. For example, there may be two gate valves,
a 90o elbow and a flow thru tee.
(3) Determine the means of incorporating the valves and fittings into the Darcy equation. To accomplish
this, most engineers use a table of equivalent lengths. This table lists the valve and fitting and an
associated length of straight pipe of the same diameter, which will incur the same pressure loss as that
valve or fitting. For example, if a 2 90o elbow were to produce a pressure drop of 1 psi, the equivalent
length would be a length of 2 straight pipe that would also give a pressure drop of 1 psi. The engineer
then multiplies the quantity of each type of valve and fitting by its respective equivalent length and adds
them together.
(4) The total equivalent length is usually added to the total straight pipe length obtained in step one to
give a total pipe equivalent length.
(5) This total pipe equivalent length is then substituted for L in Equation 2 to obtain the pressure drop in
the pipe.
See any problems with this method?

Relationship Between K, Equivalent Length and Friction Factor

The following discussion is based on concepts found in reference 1, the CRANE Technical Paper No. 410. It
is the authors opinion that this manual is the closest thing the industry has to a standard on performing
various piping calculations. If the reader currently does not own this manual, it is highly recommended
that it be obtained.
As in straight pipe, velocity increases through valves and fittings at the expense of head loss. This can be
expressed by another form of the Darcy equation similar to Equation 1:

K is called the resistance coefficient and is defined as the number of velocity heads lost due to the valve
or fitting. It is a measure of the following pressure losses in a valve or fitting:

Pipe friction in the inlet and outlet straight portions of the valve or fitting

Changes in direction of flow path

Obstructions in the flow path

Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of the flow path.

Pipe friction in the inlet and outlet straight portions of the valve or fitting is very small when compared to
the other three. Since friction factor and Reynolds Number are mainly related to pipe friction, K can be
considered to be independent of both friction factor and Reynolds Number. Therefore, K is treated as a
constant for any given valve or fitting under all flow conditions, including laminar flow. Indeed,
experiments showed1 that for a given valve or fitting type, the tendency is for K to vary only with valve
or fitting size. Note that this is also true for the friction factor in straight clean commercial steel pipe as
long as flow conditions are in the fully developed turbulent zone. It was also found that the ratio L/D
tends towards a constant for all sizes of a given valve or fitting type at the same flow conditions. The
ratio L/D is defined as the equivalent length of the valve or fitting in pipe diameters and L is the
equivalent length itself.
In Equation 4, therefore varies only with valve and fitting size and is independent of Reynolds Number.
This only occurs if the fluid flow is in the zone of complete turbulence (see the Moody Chart in reference
1 or in any textbook on fluid flow). Consequently, in Equation 4 is not the same as in the Darcy
equation for straight pipe, which is a function of Reynolds Number. For valves and fittings, is the friction
factor in the zone of complete turbulence and is designated t, and the equivalent length of the valve or
fitting is designated

Leq. Equation 4 should now read (with D being the diameter of the valve or fitting):

Calculating Pressure Drop, The Correct Way

Notice that use of equivalent length and friction factor in the pressure drop equation is eliminated,
although both are still required to calculate the values of K1. As a matter of fact, there is nothing
stopping the engineer from converting the straight pipe length into a K value and adding this to the K
values for the valves and fittings before using Equation 7. This is accomplished by using Equation 4,
where D is the pipe diameter and is the pipeline friction factor.
How significant is the error caused by mismatching friction factors? The answer is, it depends. Below is a
real world example showing the difference between the Equivalent Length method (as applied by most
engineers) and the K value method to calculate pressure drop.

An Example
The fluid being pumped is 94% Sulfuric Acid through a 3, Schedule 40, Carbon Steel pipe:

The line pressure drop is greater by about 4.5 psi (about 62%) using the typical equivalent length
method (adding straight pipe length to the equivalent length of the fittings and valves and using the pipe
line fiction factor in Equation 1).
One can argue that if the fluid is water or a hydrocarbon, the pipeline friction factor would be closer to
the friction factor at full turbulence and the error would not be so great, if at all significant; and they
would be correct. However hydraulic calculations, like all calculations, should be done in a correct and
consistent manner. If the engineer gets into the habit of performing hydraulic calculations using
fundamentally incorrect equations, he takes the risk of falling into the trap when confronted by a
pumping situation as shown above.
Another point to consider is how the engineer treats a reducer when using the typical equivalent length
method. As we saw above, the equivalent length of the reducer had to be back-calculated using equation
5. To do this, we had to use t and K. Why not use these for the rest of the fittings and apply the
calculation correctly in the first place?

Final Thoughts - K Values

Conclusion
Consistency, accuracy and correctness should be what the Process Design Engineer strives for. We all
add our fat or safety factors to theoretical calculations to account for real-world situations. It would be
comforting to know that the fat was added to a basis using sound and fundamentally correct methods
for calculations.

REFERENCES
Crane Co., Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Crane Technical Paper No. 410, New York,
1991.

Hooper, W. B., The Two-K Method Predicts Head Losses in Pipe Fittings, Chem. Eng., p. 97-100, August 24,
1981.
Darby, R., Correlate Pressure Drops through Fittings, Chem. Eng., p. 101-104, July, 1999.
AIChE Center for Chemical Process Safety, Guidelines for Pressure Relief and Effluent Handling
systems, pp. 265-268, New York, 1998.

Reader / Author Question and Answers

1. "Could you please give me in layman terms a better definition for K values. I know that K is
defined as "the number of velocity heads lost"...But what exactly does that mean???"
Well, I'll try to give you the Chemical Engineer's version of the layman answer. Velocity of any
fluid increases through pipes, valves and fittings at the expense of pressure. This pressure loss is
referred to as head loss. The greater the head loss, the higher the velocity of the fluid. So, saying
a velocity head loss is just another way of saying we loose pressure due to and increase in
velocity and this pressure loss is measured in terms of feet of head. Now, each component in the
system contributes to the amount of pressure loss in different amounts depending upon what it
is. Pipes contribute fL/D where L is the pipe length, D is the pipe diameter and f is the friction
factor. A fitting or valve contributes K. Each fitting and valve has an associated K.
2. "It appears that the K values in CRANE TP-410 were established using a liquid (water) flow
loop. Is this K value also valid for compressible media systems? (Can a K value be used for both
compressible and incompressible service?)"
Crane also tested their system on steam and air. Now, this is where things get sticky. As per
CRANE TP-410, K values are a function of the size and type of valve or fitting only and is
independent of fluid and Reynolds number. So yes, you can use it in ALL services, including twophase flow. However, as I point out towards the end of my article, there is now evidence that

shows using a single K value for the valve and fitting is not correct and that K is indeed a
function of both Reynolds number and fitting/valve
geometry. I reference an article by Dr. Ron Darby of Texas A&M University which can be found in
Chemical Engineering Magazine, July 1999. Dr. Darby just published a second article on the
subject which can be found in Chemical Engineering Magazine, April 2001.
I don't believe there is any question as to the proper way to use K values in pressure drop
calculations. The only question is whether industry will accept the new data.
3. "When answering my first question, you stated: 'Velocity of any fluid increases through pipes,
valves and fittings at the expense of pressure.' When you say this, you are talking about
compressible (gas) flow right? For example, in a pipe of constant area, the velocity of a gas
would increase as the fluid traveled down the pipe (due to the decreasing pressure). However,
the velocity of a liquid would remain constant as it traveled down the same pipe (even with the
decreasing pressure). Is this a correct statement?
Sorry for the confusion. Yes to both of your questions. If you look at the Bernoulli equation, you
will see that velocity cancels out for a liquid as long as there is no change in pipe size along the
way and pressure drop is only a function of frictional losses and a change in elevation.
However, the K value of a fitting is still a quantifier of the head loss (frictional loss) in that fitting
and this head loss is still calculated as the velocity head of the liquid (V^2/2g). So in essence,
you still achieve a
liquid velocity at the expense of pressure loss; the velocity head just happens to be constant.
Read section 2-8 in CRANE TP-410. They define the velocity head as a decrease in static head
due to velocity.
The big thing is not to get too hung up on the definitions and just remember you can't have flow
unless you have a driving force and that force is differential pressure. Also, in a piping system
there is frictional losses which comes from the pipe and all fittings and valves. The use of K is
just a way of quantifying the frictional component of the fittings and valves. You can even put
the piping friction in terms of K by using fL/D for the pipe and multiplying that by V^2/2g.
I hope this helps. If you are still confused, let me know and I'll just explain it again but I'll try to
do it in a different way. Sometimes, a concept just needs to be re-worded and I'm willing to
spend as much time on this as you need.
4. I'm reading the Crane Technical Paper #410 and I have the following
questions/comments:
Page 2-8 of TP 410 states that:
"Velocity in a pipe is obtained at the expense of static head". This makes sense and Equation 2-1
shows this relationship where the static head is converted to velocity head. However, there is no
diameter associated with this. So is it correct to say based on equation 2-1 that if you had a
barrel of water with a short length of pipe attached to the bottom that discharged to
atmosphere, and in this barrel you had 5 feet of water (5' of static head), the resulting water
velocity would be 17.94 ft/sec (regardless
of the pipe diameter).
Maybe the real question is how do you use equation 2-1. Do you have to know the velocity and
then you can calculate the headloss? And why does equation 2-1 and equation 2-3 seem to show
headloss equaling two different things?
Also, why does it say that a diameter is always associtated with the K value, when as I
mentioned above there is no diameter associated with equation 2-1?
Maybe I'm trying to read into all of this too deeply, but I still do not feel that I fully grasp what
page 2-8 is trying to reveal.
You need a diameter to get velocity. Velocity is lenght/time (for example, feet/sec). Flow is
usually given in either mass units (weight/time or lb/hr for example) or in volumetric units (cubic
feet per minute for example). To get velocity, you need to divide the volumetric flow by a cross
sectional area (square feet). To get an area, you need a diameter. So the velocity is always based
on some diameter.
As I show in my paper, equation 2-1 is just the basis of the velocity head. To get the frictional
loss, you need to know the contribution of each component in the system; pipe, fitting and
valve. To get that contribution, you use 'K' (equation 2-2). Each component has an associated 'K'
value. You multiply the velocity head by the appropriate 'K' value. Equation 2-3 is just another
way of expressing the same thing. As you can see, this means you can calculate a 'K' for a
component such as a pipe using the formula fL/D as shown in Equation 2-3. Again, I explain this
in my paper so I would suggest you re-read it.
I would also suggest you look at the examples in CRANE. There are many of them in Chapter 4.
'K' is associated with the velocity and therefore the diameter. Look at the values for 'K' in CRANE

(starting on page A-26). You will see that for the most part, K is a function of a constant times
the friction factor at fully turbulent flow. This friction factor changes with pipe diameter as shown
on page A-26. Again, re-read my paper and look at the examples in Chapter 4.
Courtesy: The Chemical Engineers' Resource
Link to the article:http://www.cheresources.com/eqlength.shtml

OIL INDUSTRY CONVERSIONS

Crude petroleum, and the refined products made from crude oil, are
normally measured either by volume in gallons and US barrels, or by weight
in tons or tonnes. The relationship between volume and weight is usually
measured by density in the United Kingdom (the alternative measure is
relative density or specific gravity). American oilmen usually reckon
quantities of oil produced, moved or processed in barrels per day (bpd
or b/d). The loose but simple rule of thumb for conversion is that a barrel
a day is roughly 50 tonnes a year, but the relationship varies according
to density and so according to product.

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR OIL

----------------------------------------------------------------At 86F (30C)

----------- Approximation ------------------Liters
Liters
A.Gallons
A.Barrels
Product
per
per
per
per
E.Ton
M.Ton
M.Ton
M.Ton
----------------------------------------------------------------L.P.G
1,864
1,835
484.6
11.54
JP.4
1,355
1,333
352.4
8.39
Jet A-1
1,274
1,254
331.2
7.89
Premium
1,375
1,353
357.5
8.51
Regular
1,440
1,418
374.5
8.92
Kerosene
1,293
1,273
336.2
8.00
Gas Oil
1,197
1,177
311.2
7.41
Diesel Fuel
1,177
1,159
306.1
7.29
Fuel oil 80 CST
1,082
1,065
281.2
6.70
Fuel oil 180 CST
1,067
1,050
277.4
6.60
Fuel oil 230 CST
1,064
1,047
276.6
6.59
Fuel oil 280 CST
1,061
1,044
275.9
6.57
Bitumen
994
979
258.5
6.15
----------------------------------------------------------------1 MMSCF of natural gas
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

=
=
million cu.ft. of natural gas =
=
std.cu.feet of natural gas
=
m.ton of coal
=
m.ton of lignite
=
ltr of fuel oil 1500 sec
=
kg of LPG
=
normal cu.m. per day (Nm3/d) =

172.3 barrels of crude oil equivalent

365 x 1,000,000 scf
18.91 tons liquid
1598.69 cu.ft.liquid
1000 BTU = 252 kilocalories
4.879 barrels of crude oil equivalent
2.053 barrels of crude oil equivalent
38.9 cubic feet of natural gas
47.0 cubic feet of natural gas
37.33 standard cu.ft. per day (SCFD)

[flow rate of gas]

1 ton of LNG
(LNG conversions)

1 ton of LNG
(energy equivalents)

1 barrel per day (b/d)

1 barrel of oil equivalent

= 1.14 1.4 x 103 normal cu.m.natural

gas (Nm3)
= 52.3 x 103 standard cubic feet natural
gas (SCF)
= 55.0 x 109 joules (HHV)
= 1.22 tonne crude oil
= 0.80 tonne heavy fuel oil
= 0.91 tonne LPG (commercial composition)
= 1.91 tonne coal
= 50 tonnes per year (approx.)
= 1 barrel of crude oil
= 5,487 cubic feet of gas *

* Natural gas is converted to barrels of oil equivalent using a ratio of

5,487 cubic feet of natural gas per one barrel of crude oil. This ratio is
based on the actual average equivalent energy content of TOTAL's natural gas
reserves.

1 barrel of crude oil per day

1 ton of crude oil

1 ton of oil equivalent

MMSCF
CST
A.
E.

= appr. 50 tons of crude oil per year

= 1 metric ton of crude oil
= appr. 7.3 barrels of crude oil (assuming
a specific gravity of 33 API)
= 6.6-8.0 bbl. of crude oil with 7.333 bbl.
taken as average
= 1.16 kl. of crude oil (average)
= appr. 1,125 cubic meters of natural gas

Million standard cubic feet

Centi-Stroke
American
English

VOLUME

1 American barrel

= 158.984 liters
= 42 American (US) gallons
= 34.9726 Imperial (UK) gallons
= 5.6146 cubic feet
= 0.15899 cubic metre
= 3.78541 cubic decimeters (dm3)
= 0.136 tonne (approx)
1 American gallon
= 231 cubic inches
= 0.133681 cubic foot
= 3.7854 liters
= 0.0238095 American barrel
= 0.83268 Imperial gallon
= 0.0037854 cubic meter

1 Imperial gallon

1 liter

1 kiloliter
1 gross ton
(shipping)
1 cubic meter

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

277.42 cubic inches

1.20094 American gallons
4.54609 liters
0.028594 American barrel
0.160544 cubic foot
0.004561 cubic meter
1,000 cubic centimeters
1 cubic decimeter (dm3)
0.035314 cubic foot
61.024 cubic inches
1.7597 pints
0.219969 Imperial gallon
0.26417 American gallon
1,000 cubic decimeters (dm3)
6.28981 American barrels
100 cubic feet or 2.83 cubic metres of
permanently enclosed space
35.315 cubic feet
219.97 Imperial gallons
1,000 liters
6.2898 American barrels
264.17 American gallons

WEIGHT

1 oz.

= 28.35 grams
= 0.453592 kilograms
= 0.009 cwt.
kg.
= 2.20462 lb.
= 0.01 quintal
cwt
= 112 lb.
= 50.802 kg.
metric ton
= 0.98421 long ton or English ton
= 1.10231 short ton
= 2,204.6 lb
English ton
= 1.01605 metric tons
or long ton
= 1.12 short tons
short ton
= 0.907186 metric ton
= 0.892857 long ton
= 2,000 lb.
These conversions are based on the assumption that all weights
are weights in air, which is the correct basis for computing
bulk commercial quantities of petroleum.

1 lb.
1
1
1

1
1

PRICE

1 US cent/AG
1 US$/BBL

= 0.42 US$/BBL
= 0.163 Baht/Liters
(Based on exchange rate of 25.9 Baht/US$)

PETROLEUM SPECIFIC GRAVITY VOLUME PER TON

---------------------------------------------Degree
Specific
Barrels *
Long tonne
API
gravity
per metric
tonne
---------------------------------------------25
0.904
6.98
7.09
26
0.898
7.02
7.13
27
0.893
7.06
7.18
28
0.887
7.10
7.22
29
0.882
7.15
7.27
30
0.876
7.19
7.31
31
0.871
7.24
7.36
32
0.865
7.28
7.40
33
0.860
7.33
7.45
34
0.855
7.37
7.49
35
0.850
7.42
7.54
36
0.845
7.46
7.58
37
0.840
7.51
7.63
38
0.835
7.55
7.67
39
0.830
7.60
7.72
40
0.825
7.64
7.76
41
0.820
7.69
7.81
42
0.816
7.73
7.85
---------------------------------------------* Approx. figures 60F
141.5
Specific gravity = -----------131.5 + API

POWER AND HEAT UNITS

1 HP (UK Horsepower)

=
=
=
1 PS (Pferdestaerke)
=
or CV (Cheval Vapeur) =
=
1 kW (Kilowatt)
=
=
=
=
1 foot pound per second =
=
=
1000 Btu
=
100,000 Btu
=
1 calorie (dieticians') =
1 Therm
=
=
=
=
1000 kilocalories
=

550 foot pounds per second

0.7457 kilowatt
1.014 PS (or Cheval Vapeur)
542 foot pounds per second
0.986 hp
0.736 kW
1,000 watts
1,340 hp
1.359 PS or CV
737 foot pounds per second
0.00136 kilowatt
0.00182 hp
0.00184 PS or CV
0.293 kWh
1 therm
4.1855 kilojoules
100,000 Btu (British Thermal Units)
25,200 kilocalories
25.2 thermies
29.3 kilowatt hours
3,968 Btu

(Large Calories)
1 kilowatt hour

=
=
=
=
=

1.163 kilowatt hours

1 thermie
3,411 Btu
1.340 hp hours
859.6 kilocalories

LIQUEFIED METHANE

1 Ton of Liquefied
Methane

= approximately 16 barrels
= approximately 50,000 cubic feet
(1400 cubic meters) of natural gas,
depending on methane content

PRODUCT SPECIFIC GRAVITY RANGES

--------------------------------------------------Spec.
Barrels per
Gravity
metric ton
--------------------------------------------------Crude oils
0.80-0.97
8.0-6.6
Aviation gasolines
0.70-0.78
9.1-8.2
Motor gasolines
0.71-0.79
9.0-8.1
Kerosines
0.78-0.84
8.2-7.6
Gas oils
0.82-0.90
7.8-7.1
Diesel oils
0.82-0.92
7.8-6.9
Lubricating oils
0.85-0.95
7.5-6.7
Fuel oils
0.92-0.99
6.9-6.5
Asphaltic bitumens
1.00-1.10
6.4-5.8
---------------------------------------------------

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FULES

Rough gross values in Btu per lb

------------------------------------Crude oils
18,300-19,500
Gasolines
20,500
Kerosines
19,800
Benzole
18,100

Ethyl alcohol
11,600
Gas oils
19,200
Fuel oils (bunker)
18,300
Coal (bituminous)
10,200-14,600
LNG
22,300
LPG (butane)
21,300
-------------------------------------

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF EXPORT STREAMS

---------------------------------------MIRI
Bintulu Labuan
---------------------------------------API Gravity
33
35
32
Pour Point
45F
15F
45F
Wt. % Sulphur
0.07
0.1
0.07
---------------------------------------PRESSURE
1 Bar

1 kg force/sq cm
1 pound/sq inch
HEAT AND ENERGY
1 megajoule

1
1

1
1

=
=
=
=
=
=

=
=
=
terajoule
=
kilocalorie
=
=
=
kilowatt hour
=
=
million Btu
=
=
=
ton of oil equivalent =
(toe)
=
=
=

INTERFUEL CONVERSION FACTOR

0.987
750.1
14.50
1.020
14.22
0.070

atmospheres
mm Hg
pound/sq inch
kg force/sq cm
pounds/sq inch
kg force/sq inch

238.8 kilocalories
947.8 British Thermal Units
0.278 kilowatt hours
0.00002388 Mtoe
3.968 Btu
4186 joules
1.163 x 10-3 kWh
859.8 kilocalories
3412 Btu
1055 megajoule
2520 megacalories
293.1 kilowatt hours
10000000 kilocalories
41.868 gigajoules
40.047 x 106 BTU
42.244 GJ

Whilst individual crudes, coals and gases vary widely in quality,

certain standard qualities are often assumed for statistical
purposes:
----------------------------------------------------------------Reference
Barrel Oil
Ton Oil
Ton Coal
1,000 Cubic
Fuel
Equivalent
Equivalent Equivalent
Feet Natural
Gas
----------------------------------------------------------------Calorific
5.8x106
43x106
7x106
1x106
Value
Btu gross
Btu gross
Kcal net
Btu gross
Conversion
Factors

1
0.14
0.21
5.8
7.41
1
1.57
43.0
4.71
0.64
1
27.3
0.17
0.02
0.04
1
----------------------------------------------------------------Based on these qualities, the following equivalent rates of
consumption can be used with reasonable accuracy:
----------------------------------------------------------------LNG
NG
OIL
OIL
COAL
t/y
106 mmcF/d toe/y
boe/y
tce/y
109 Nm3/y
----------------------------------------------------------------1
1.41
1.22
25
1.9
0.71
1
0.87
18
39
0.82
1.15
1
20
1.55
0.04
0.056
0.049
1
0.076
0.53
0.74
0.64
13
1
-----------------------------------------------------------------

CALORIFIC VALUE

1 magajoule/cu m
1 megajoule per normal
cubic meter

1
1
1
1

kilocalorie/cu m
megajoule/kg
kilocalorie
Btu/cu ft

1 Btu/pound

ENERGY VALUES

= 25.84 Btu/cu ft
= 25.368 BTU per standard cubic feet
(BTU/SCF)
= 2.388 x 102 kilocalorie per normal
cubic meter (kcal/Nm3)
= 0.016 Btu/cu ft
= 429.9 Btu/pound
= 1.8 Btu/pound (exact)
= 37.38 kilojoules/cu m
= 9.410 kilocalories/cu m
= 2.326 kilojoules/kg
= 0.556 kilocalories/kg

Btu per lb:

wood: green
dry
peat, sod
lignite
coke
coal: bituminous
anthracite
oil: fuel
gas

4,400
7,310
6,200
9,000
12,100
13,000
14,500
18,500
19,500

==============================================================================

NATURAL GAS AND OTHER ENERGY EQUIVALENTS

The following are quick-reference equivalents. All figures are APROXIMATE

VALUES only for use where precision is not required. They are based on:
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

for natural gas:

1,000 Btu/ft3 = 9,500 kcal/m3 (Groningen gas 8,400 kcal/m3)
for LPG:
an assumed 50/50 propane/butane mixture with (r) or (p) indicating
that the LPG is either refrigerated or pressurised.
calorific values, MMBtu (gross):
per tonne
- LNG 51.8; LPG 47.3; oil 42.3; coal 27.3
per barrel
- LNG 3.8; LPG (r) 4.45; LPG (p) 4.1; oil 5.8
per cubic metre - LNG 23.8; LPG (r) 28; LPG (p) 25.8

Natural Gas: Cubic Metre Equivalents

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1 mrd m3 Natural Gas per Year

per year = 0.04 Tcf gas (38 trillion Btu)
= 890 000 tonnes oil
= 800 000 tonnes LPG
= 725 000 tonnes LNG
= 1.4 million tonnes coal
per day = 100 million ft3 gas
= 17 800 barrels oil
= 23 200 barrels LPG (r)
= 25 200 barrels LPG (p)
= 27 200 barrels LNG

1 million m3 Natural Gas per Day

per year = 0.014 Tcf gas (14 trillion Btu)
= 325 000 tonnes oil
= 290 000 tonnes LPG
= 265 000 tonnes LNG
= 500 000 tonnes coal
per day = 37 million ft3 gas
= 6 500 barrels oil
= 8 500 barrels LPG (r)
= 9 200 barrels LPG (p)
= 9 900 barrels LNG
1 m3 Groningen gas = 0.88 m3 (9 500 kcal)
1 m3 (9 500 kcal) = 1.13 m3 Groningen gas

Natural Gas: Cubic Foot Equivalents

------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Tcf Natural Gas per Year

per year = 27 mrd m3 gas (30 mrd Groningen)
= 24 million tonnes oil
= 37 million tonnes coal
per day = 2 700 million ft3 gas
= 470 000 barrels oil
100 MMcf Natural Gas per Day
per year = 0.04 Tcf (37 trillion Btu)
= 1 mrd m3 gas (1.1 mrd Groningen)
= 860 000 tonnes oil
= 770 000 tonnes LPG
= 700 000 tonnes LNG
= 1.35 million tonnes coal
per day = 2.7 million m3 gas (3 million Groningen)
= 17 250 barrels oil
= 22 500 barrels LPG (r)
= 24 400 barrels LPG (p)
= 26 300 barrels LNG

LNG: Volumetric Equivalents

------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 million tonnes LNG per Year

per year = 77 million ft3 (liquid)
= 2.2 million m3 (liquid)
= 14 million barrels (liquid)
= 0.05 Tcf (gas)
= 1.4 mrd m3 (gas)
= 1.1 million tonnes LPG

= 1.2 million tonnes oil

= 52 trillion Btu
= 1.9 million tonnes coal
per day = 140 million ft3 (gas)
= 4 million m3 (gas)
= 37 500 barrels LNG
= 31 900 barrels LPG (r)
= 34 600 barrels LPG (p)
= 24 500 barrels oil
1 million m3 LNG per Year
per year = 460 000 tonnes LNG
= 6.3 million barrels LNG
= 0.2 Tcf (gas)
= 0.6 mrd m3 (gas)
= 500 000 tonnes oil
= 560 000 tonnes oil
= 24 trillion Btu
= 870 000 tonnes coal
per day = 65 million ft3 gas
= 14 700 barrels LPG (r)
= 15 900 barrels LPG (p)
= 17 200 barrels LNG
= 11 200 barrels oil
m3 = kilolitre

LPG & Ethane: Weight, Volume, Heat Conversions

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Barrels Per Tonne

Ethane
Propane
n-Butane
C3/C4 mix
Pressured
17.6
12.4
10.8
11.6
Refrigerated
11.5
10.8
10.4
10.6
Cubic Metres Per Tonne
Ethane
Pressured
2.80
Refrigerated
1.83

Propane
1.97
1.72

n-Butane
1.71
1.66

C3/C4 mix
1.84
1.69

Ethane
2.79
4.27

Propane
3.85
4.41

n-Butane
4.35
4.49

C3/C4 mix
4.10
4.45

106 Btu Per Cubic Metre

Ethane
Pressured
17.6
Refrigerated
26.9

Propane
24.2
27.7

n-Butane
27.4
28.3

C3/C4 mix
25.8
28.0

Propane
47.7

n-Butane
46.9

C3/C4 mix
47.3

1 Barrel/Day = Tonnes Per Annum

Ethane
Propane

n-Butane

C3/C4 mix

106 Btu Per Barrel

Pressured
Refrigerated

106 Btu Per Tonne

Pressured
Refrigerated

}
}

Ethane
49.2

Pressured
Refrigerated

20.7
31.7

29.4
33.8

33.8
35.0

31.6
34.4

Natural Gas: Inter-Fuel Price Equivalents (US Currency)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------ONE CENT per MMBtu

= 5.8 Cents per Barrel crude oil
= 6.4 Cents per Barrel fuel oil
= 5.2 Cents per Barrel naphtha
= 4.5 Cents per Barrel LPG (r)
= 4.1 Cents per Barrel LPG (P)
= 3.8 Cents per Barrel LNG
ONE CENT per MMBtu
= 0.42 Dollars per Tonne crude oil
= 0.40 Dollars per Tonne fuel oil
= 0.45 Dollars per Tonne naphtha
= 0.47 Dollars per Tonne LPG
= 0.52 Dollars per Tonne LNG
ONE DOLLAR per BARREL
= 17 Cents per MMBtu crude oil
= 16 Cents per MMBtu fuel oil
= 19 Cents per MMBtu naphtha
= 22 Cents per MMBtu LPG (r)
= 24 Cents per MMBtu LPG (p)
= 26 Cents per MMBtu LNG
ONE DOLLAR per TONNE
= 2.4 Cents per MMBtu crude oil
= 2.5 Cents per MMBtu fuel oil
= 2.2 Cents per MMBtu naphtha
= 2.1 Cents per MMBtu LPG
= 1.9 Cents per MMBtu LNG
ONE CENT per US gallon LPG = 10 CENTS per MMBtu

Oil and Coal Equivalent

------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 million tonnes Oil per Year

per year = 1.1 mrd m3 gas (1.3 mrd Groningen)
= 1.5 million tonnes coal
= 815 000 tonnes LNG
= 890 000 tonnes LPG
= 0.04 Tcf gas (42 trillion Btu)
per day = 115 million ft3 gas
= 3 million m3 gas
= 30 500 barrels LNG
= 26 000 barrels LPG (r)

= 28 300 barrels LPG (p)

= 20 000 barrels oil
1 million tonnes Coal per Year
per year = 0.7 mrd m3 gas (0.8 mrd Groningen)
= 640 000 tonnes oil
= 525 000 tonnes LNG
= 580 000 tonnes LPG
= 0.03 Tcf gas (27 trillion Btu)
per day = 75 million ft3 gas
= 2 million m3 gas
= 19 700 barrels LNG
= 16 800 barrels LPG (r)
= 18 200 barrels LPG (p)
= 12 900 barrels oil
10 000 barrels Oil per Day
per year = 0.6 mrd m3 gas
= 500 000 tonnes oil
= 780 000 tonnes coal
= 0.02 Tcf gas (21 trillion Btu)
per day = 58 million ft3 gas
= 1.5 million m3 gas
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Rich Gas = natural gas having a gross calorific value of 41,868 kJ/m3.
This term is used particularly for the natural gas from the North Sea and
from Algeria.
Degree-days = the number of degree-days of a day is calculated on the
basis of a reference temperature set by experience at 16.5 C; it gives the
difference between that reference temperature and the daily mean temperature
if the latter is the lower.
The number of degree-days of a year is the sum of the degree-days registered
for each day of that year.
G-factor = invoicing factor representing the average monthly cost of
natural gas at the Belgian border in francs per gigajoule.
1GJ
1Gcal
10-6 Btu
1toe
1kWh
1m3
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1GJ
1
0.239
0.948
0.024
277.778
23.884
1Gcal
4.186
1
3.967
0.1
1,163
100
10-6 Btu
1.055
0.252
1
0.025
293.1
25.2
1toe
41.855
10
39.671
1
11,626
1,000
1kWh
3.600 10-3 0.860 10-3 3.421 10-3 0.083 10-3 1
86.011 10-3
1m3 rich gas 0.042
0.010
0.040
0.001
11.626
1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------gigajoule giga
British
ton oil
kilowatt
calorie
thermal
equivalent - hour
unit

What is a Heat Pipe?

Introduction
A heat pipe is a simple device that can quickly transfer heat from one point to another. They are often referred to as the
"superconductors" of heat as they possess an extra ordinary heat transfer capacity & rate with almost no heat loss.

The idea of heat pipes was first suggested by R.S.Gaugler in 1942. However, it was not until 1962, when G.M.Grover
invented it, that its remarkable properties were appreciated & serious development began.
It consists of a sealed aluminum or copper container whose inner surfaces have a capillary wicking material. A heat pipe
is similar to a thermosyphon. It differs from a thermosyphon by virtue of its ability to transport heat against gravity by
an evaporation-condensation cycle with the help of porous capillaries that form the wick. The wick provides the capillary
driving force to return the condensate to the evaporator. The quality and type of wick usually determines the
performance of the heat pipe, for this is the heart of the product. Different types of wicks are used depending on the
application for which the heat pipe is being used.
Design Considerations
The three basic components of a heat pipe are:
1.

the container

2.

the working fluid

3.

the wick or capillary structure

Container
The function of the container is to isolate the working fluid from the outside environment. It has to therefore be leakproof, maintain the pressure differential across its walls, and enable transfer of heat to take place from and into the
working fluid.
Selection of the container material depends on many factors. These are as follows:

Compatibility (both with working fluid and external environment)

Strength to weight ratio

Thermal conductivity

Ease of fabrication, including welding, machineability and ductility

Porosity

Wetability

Most of the above are self-explanatory. A high strength to weight ratio is more important in spacecraft applications. The
material should be non-porous to prevent the diffusion of vapor. A high thermal conductivity ensures minimum
temperature drop between the heat source and the wick.
Working fluid
A first consideration in the identification of a suitable working fluid is the operating vapour temperature range. Within
the approximate temperature band, several possible working fluids may exist, and a variety of characteristics must be
examined in order to determine the most acceptable of these fluids for the application considered. The prime
requirements are:

compatibility with wick and wall materials

good thermal stability

wettability of wick and wall materials

vapor pressure not too high or low over the operating temperature range

high latent heat

high thermal conductivity

low liquid and vapor viscosities

high surface tension

acceptable freezing or pour point

The selection of the working fluid must also be based on thermodynamic considerations which are concerned with the
various limitations to heat flow occurring within the heat pipe like, viscous, sonic, capillary, entrainment and nucleate
boiling levels.
In heat pipe design, a high value of surface tension is desirable in order to enable the heat pipe to operate against gravity
and to generate a high capillary driving force. In addition to high surface tension, it is necessary for the working fluid to
wet the wick and the container material i.e. contact angle should be zero or very small. The vapor pressure over the
operating temperature range must be sufficiently great to avoid high vapor velocities, which tend to setup large
temperature gradient and cause flow instabilities.
A high latent heat of vaporization is desirable in order to transfer large amounts of heat with minimum fluid flow, and
hence to maintain low pressure drops within the heat pipe. The thermal conductivity of the working fluid should
preferably be high in order to minimize the radial temperature gradient and to reduce the possibility of nucleate boiling
at the wick or wall surface. The resistance to fluid flow will be minimized by choosing fluids with low values of vapor and
liquid viscosities. Tabulated below are a few mediums with their useful ranges of temperature.

Wick or Capillary Structure

It is a porous structure made of materials like steel, alumunium, nickel or copper in various ranges of pore sizes. They
are fabricated using metal foams, and more particularly felts, the latter being more frequently used. By varying the
pressure on the felt during assembly, various pore sizes can be produced. By incorporating removable metal mandrels,
an arterial structure can also be molded in the felt.
Fibrous materials, like ceramics, have also been used widely. They generally have smaller pores. The main disadvantage
of ceramic fibres is that, they have little stiffness and usually require a continuos support by a metal mesh. Thus while
the fibre itself may be chemically compatible with the working fluids, the supporting materials may cause problems.
More recently, interest has turned to carbon fibres as a wick material. Carbon fibre filaments have many fine
longitudinal grooves on their surface, have high capillary pressures and are chemically stable. A number of heat pipes
that have been successfully constructed using carbon fibre wicks seem to show a greater heat transport capability.
The prime purpose of the wick is to generate capillary pressure to transport the working fluid from the condenser to the
evaporator. It must also be able to distribute the liquid around the evaporator section to any area where heat is likely to
be received by the heat pipe. Often these two functions require wicks of different forms. The selection of the wick for a
heat pipe depends on many factors, several of which are closely linked to the properties of the working fluid.
The maximum capillary head generated by a wick increases with decrease in pore size. The wick permeability increases
with increasing pore size. Another feature of the wick, which must be optimized, is its thickness. The heat transport
capability of the heat pipe is raised by increasing the wick thickness. The overall thermal resistance at the evaporator
also depends on the conductivity of the working fluid in the wick. Other necessary properties of the wick are
compatibility with the working fluid and wettability.

The most common types of wicks that are used are as follows:

Sintered Powder
This process will provide high power handling, low temperature gradients and high capillary forces for anti-gravity
applications. The photograph shows a complex sintered wick with several vapor channels and small arteries to increase
the liquid flow rate. Very tight bends in the heat pipe can be achieved with this type of structure.

Grooved Tube
The small capillary driving force generated by the axial grooves is adequate for low power heat pipes when operated
horizontally, or with gravity assistance. The tube can be readily bent. When used in conjunction with screen mesh the
performance can be considerably enhanced.

Screen Mesh
This type of wick is used in the majority of the products and provides readily variable characteristics in terms of power
transport and orientation sensitivity, according to the number of layers and mesh counts used.

Working
Inside the container is a liquid under its own pressure, that enters the pores of the capillary material, wetting all internal
surfaces. Applying heat at any point along the surface of the heat pipe causes the liquid at that point to boil and enter a
vapor state. When that happens, the liquid picks up the latent heat of vaporization. The gas, which then has a higher
pressure, moves inside the sealed container to a colder location where it condenses. Thus, the gas gives up the latent
heat of vaporization and moves heat from the input to the output end of the heat pipe.

Common mistakes in process design/simulation

- When designing scrubbers or separators, people take the Standard Flow for Actual flow and they calculate huge
volumes
rule of thumb : Actual volume =~ Standard volume / pressure (barg)
2- When dealing with gas compressors (especially reciprocating), people have the tendence to believe that compressor
discharge pressure is set by the compressor it self. Which is totally wrong!
Discharge pressure is the backpressure exerced by downstream equipment.
(In case the downstream equipment is a control or a globe valve, the discharge pressure changes with flowrate, which is
controllable on the compressor it self)
3- When using HYSYS for designing distillation columns, people have the tendency to use short-cut column and to inject
the resulting tray number, reflux ratio, feed position, reboiler temperature,... into the column model and run it...!!!
They spend a week trying to converge the column... Waste of time!!!
I recommend you to take only the number of trays out of the short-cut method + 2 to 5 trays and take the feed position.
Then, you should specify the light key content in the bottom product and the heavy key content in the overhead product,
and if necessary, specify one of the product's flowrate based on the inlet composition.
This will converge immediately... then it's up to you to OPTIMIZE!
4- Some people rely on HYSYS to determine the H2S content of a stream... WRONG! HYSYS doesn't deal correctly with
H2S solubility in water and in HC. Be Careful!
When designing a process where gas Chillers/Coolers are used, and when calculating the energy consumption, people
have the tendency to use the Chiller duty (say 1MW) as an energy consumption.

However:
- if the chiller is a propane refrigeration unit, the duty to be considered is the energy absorbed by the Propane
compressor's driver + lube oil pumps (if electrical) + condenser fans.
- if the chiller is just an Air Cooler, the duty to be considered is only the energy absorbed by fans.
- if the chiller is just a sea-water/gas heat exhanger, the duty to be considered is only the energy absorbed by the seawater pump.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF VALVES FOR PIPING NETWORK

Valve is a component used for controlling & regulating flow of liquids or gases
to maintain the process parameters such as flow, pressure, level etc. Valve as
a final control element plays an important role in any process plant. To slash
cost of production and to increase productivity, majority of the valves are
automated in modern plants. The important aspects to be considered while
selecting a valve are Performance, Reliability, Compactness & Energy
consumption. Thus the user needs to have high degree of awareness in the
field of valvology, automation & control accessories.
Valve:

Valves are broadly classified as:

By design &
By function

Design:
This classification is based on the motion of the valve stem.
The available designs are:
1) Liner
2) Rotary
The types of valves covered in the Linear category are Gate, Globe,
Diaphragm & Pinch type where as Ball, Butterfly & Plug valves belong
To Rotary group.

Function:
This classification is based on the application of the valve.

1) On/Off or Isolation
2) Control or Modulating.

Normally Gate, Ball & Plug valves are preferred for Isolation i.e. On/Off
application, whereas Globe, Diaphragm & Butterfly valves are preferred for
control application. Ball & Plug valves with characterized trims are used for
control application.
The third category is of Non Return valves where swing check & lift
check Valves are available.
In all the types of valves number of variations in construction, material of
construction, seat configuration, end connections etc. are available.

Gate valves:
They get their name from Gate like closure member. The varieties available in
Gate valves are Wedge Gate valve (Solid & Flexible wedge), Split wedge gate
valves, Parallel slide gate valve, Knife edge etc.
Globe valves:
In this type the seating is parallel to the line of flow. These valves are normally
used for modulating applications. Possible variations in this type are valve
with parabolic plug, Double seated globe valve, Angle type globe valve etc.
Diaphragm valves:
Normally recommended for Corrosive, Abrasive, Sticky, Viscous & Aseptic
services. The two designs of Diaphragm valves that are available are Weir type
& Straight through type.
Ball valves:
The variation available in the design & construction of ball valves makes it the
most popular valve.
Design: Floating & Trunnion mounted.
Construction: Full bore & Regular bore.
Seat configurations: Soft seat, Metal seat, Primary metal & Secondary soft
seat.

Butterfly valves:
Widely used for On/Off & control applications. They are available in centric
design, Single/Double/Triple offset design. Variations in the seat materials
available
are soft seated, metal seated, lined etc.
Plug valves:
They are available in Lubricated & Non lubricated design. Pressure balanced &
non
Pressure balanced type are available in the Lubricated design & Lined &
sleeved type are available in the Non Lubricated design.
Few of the critical applications in modern industry where valves are required
to perform are
Valve for Cryogenic application for temperature as low as 196 deg cel.
Valve for hot reformer gas for temperature over 1100 deg cel.
Valve for vacuum system to 0.02 torr.
Valve for high pressure Synthesis gas at 400 bar.
Valve for piggable line.
Cavity free construction food grade valve
Valve for high-pressure drop with anticavitation trim.

From above it is obvious that basic valve selection is a complex phenomenon

& is dependent upon following key factors:

Process fluid
Temperature
Pressure
Concentration
Permissible pressure drop
End connections
Safety regulations
Frequency of operation.

Automation:
Automation or actuation of valves is perhaps the most critical & important
aspect in the valve automation system.

Automation is commonly used for:

Inaccessibility (Remote operation)

Continuous valve operation

Sequence control
Ease of operation
Operation in Hazardous environment
Reduction in operating costs
Fail safe requirement, etc.

Methods of automation could be:

1) Electro - Pneumatic
2) Electric
3) Electro Hydraulic
4) Self actuated
The key factors involved in selection of actuators are:
Energy source available
Hazardous area classification
Control requirement
Process response
Valve characteristics including torque
Operating cycle
Valve orientation in pipe line
Over 90% of the automated valves in the modern chemical process industry
are with Pneumatic actuators. The types of Pneumatic actuators available are
Piston type & Diaphragm type. Pneumatic actuators have the significant
advantage of achieving Fail position by just introducing springs.
Electrical actuators are normally preferred where Pneumatic lines are not
available & where fail safe condition is not desired.
Electro Hydraulic actuators are used for higher torque requirement, can give
fail safe conditions but are expensive & bulky.
Special application in Refineries & Petrochemicals MOV demand Fire
protection for Actuators & control accessories in addition to the valve with
built in fire safe features. There are many proven & certified fire protection
systems available today. They include fireproof enclosures, Fire Jackets;
Special epoxy based fireproof compounds, which are moulded with the
equipment.
Control accessories:

Based on the control desired & the area classification, selection of control
accessories has to be done. Control accessories include Solenoid valve, Limit
switches, Proximity switches, Filter regulator, Manual Override, Speed

controller, Quick Exhaust valve, Thermal fuse, Position transmitter, Positioner

etc.
Thus from above it is clear that the selection of valve is a complex process
which requires expertise in Valve, Actuator & control accessories. A valve
manufacturer, an actuator manufacturer or Control accessories manufacturer
in isolation may not be able to supply the appropriate system. Today there are
many organizations worldwide who can design & supply a tailor made valve
automation system as they have acquired the necessary expertise in field of
valve, Actuator & accessories & accept single point responsibility for the
entire system.

Fabricated Tees & Area Reinforcement & Flexible Analysis

Fabricated Tees & Area Reinforcement

Paragraph 304.3.2 of the Code provides explicit direction on the proper design of branch connections.
In summary, this paragraph states that branch connections must be made using fittings that are inherently
reinforced such those listed in Table 326.1 or fabricated and sufficiently reinforced using design criteria based
on area reinforcement principles. This presumes that a branch connection opening weakens the pipe wall and
requires reinforcement by replacement of the removed area to the extent it is in excess to that required for
pressure containment. The Code is fully detailed in the necessary calculations. These calculations can be very
tedious, time consuming prone to error if done by hand. A computer program is advised for productivity; a
spreadsheet based program is more than adequate.
No calculation is required for branch connections made by welding a threaded or socket weld coupling or half
coupling if the branch does not exceed 2 NPS nor the nominal size of the run line. The coupling cannot be
rated for less than 2000 CWP.
Multiple openings are addressed by the Code.
The area reinforcement rule can be at times, be overly conservative; in other instances, this approach can be
deficient even within the limits of applicability defined in the Code. Code users must be aware of the limits of
applicability of the Code rules which are given in paragraph 304.3.1. Jurisdictions such as the Alberta Boiler
Safety Association (ABSA) have defined additional limits. WRC publications also have guidance on this issue.

Flexibility Analysis
Stress Analysis Criteria:
This stress analysis criteria establishes the procedure, lists critical lines and piping stress/design liaison flow
sheet to be followed.
Lines to be analyzed:

All lines attached to pumps, compressors, turbines and other rotating equipment

All lines attached to reciprocating compressors

pressure relief valve piping

category m piping

lines on racks (with discretion)

lines which the piping designer is uncomfortable with

vacuum lines

jacketed piping

tie-ins to existing piping

non metallic piping

steam out, decoking and regeneration lines

lines 16 and larger

lines 6 and larger over 500 F

lines over 750 F

lines specifically requested by the stress department.

lines specifically requested by the client.

The above list is actually very conservative and discretion is required in applying these rules to ensure
economical approach to piping analysis.
Paragraph 319.4.1 lists the conditions under which flexibility analysis may be waived.
If formal analysis is deemed necessary, follow the requirements of paragraph 319.4.2.
The other Codes will have similar provisions.

MATERIAL SELECTION - PIPING

Material Selection

Key Considerations

Material specification

Chemical Composition

Mechanical Properties

Brittle fracture toughness

Carbon equivalent

Inspection

Repair

Welding Procedure

Lets discuss a couple of these considerations at this time.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture refers to the often catastrophic failure of materials when subjected to stresses at a lower
temperature which the materially would normally be able to withstand at higher temperatures.
A transition temperature can be defined at the 13.5, 20, 27 J (10, 15, 20 ft-lb) energy level.
Charpy test results for steel plate obtained from failures of Liberty ships revealed that plate failure never
occurred at temperatures greater than the 20-J (15 ft-lb) transition temperature.
This transition temperature varies with the material and is not used as a criterion.

Transition Temperatures
The transition temperature establishes the temperature at which a material goes brittle. Its major
shortcoming is its imprecision and non-repeatability.

Charpy Testing
Impact testing provides a repeatable means to establish the impact toughness capability of a material under
temperature. The more common method is the Charpy drop test measurement which determines the energy
absorbing capacity of a standard specimen.

Impact Testing Exemption Temperatures B31.3

Refer to Figure 323.2.2 in the Code.

This figure provides a correlation between material group, reference thickness and exemption temperature.
Material group is defined in Table A-1. For example, SA 106 B is given a Min Temp rating of B. Entering
Figure 323.2.2A, this material is impact testing exempt up to a thickness of 0.5 down to a minimum
temperature of 20 F. Curve B rises to a minimum temperature of 75 F for a material thickness of 3.
Minimum Required Charpy V Notch Impact Values (CSA Z 662-1999)
Table 5.1 provides a toughness category matrix. This matrix is somewhat cumbersome to apply as it requires
cross referencing to CSA Z 245 and makes use of toughness categories I, II & III. It is not intuitively obvious
what these categories represent.
This Table also inherently provides for a risk based approach by bringing in service fluid, test fluid and pipe
design operating stress parameters.
Case Study:
Below, the Material Requisition Form has certain boxes marked off to indicate inspection needs. Not all
marked boxes are appropriate! Do you know which?

SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER: CORRECTED LIMITED LMTD

Heat Exchanger Design & Log Mean Temperature Difference

The LMTD is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger less the temperature difference at the other
end, divide by the natural logarithm of the ratio of these two differences. This calculator computes the ideal and true
mean temperature differences for one or more shell-and-tube heat exchanger in series. The hot and cold fluids are
assumed to be flowing countercurrent to each other.
The ideal LMTD applies to the double-pipe heat transfer arrangement where the convective heat transfer coefficients are
more or less constant. For more complex heat exchanger arrangements involing multiple tubes, several shells passes
and crossflow, it is necessary to apply a correction factor, usually read from graphs and charts.
Here, the correction factor is derived via Bowman's solution for an exchanger with multiple shell passes. The number of
shell passes is automatically incremented until the resulting correction factor just exceeds the minimum desired. This
task is accomplished by the iterative solution of the following Equations:

where

LMTD = Log mean temperature difference

CLMTD = Corrected Log mean temperature difference
F = Correction factor

Th1 = hot fluid inlet temperature

Th2 = hot fluid outlet temperature
Tc1 = cold fluid inlet temperature
Tc2 = cold fluid outlet temperature
N = number of shell passes = shell passes per shell x number of shell units in series
P = temperature efficiency
R, X = terms for convenient grouping of variables
All temperatures are in same units (i.e. all F or all C).

GAS COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

Performance of Polytropic Compressors
Compressors are gas movers. It is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. There are two basic types of compressors: the reciprcating
compressor which is well suited for high pressures and low flow rates, and the centrifugal compressor which is preferred
for low pressures and high rates.
Compressors are rated in height of compression head developed. From the point of view of thermodynamics, real
compression processes are polytropic processes, which lie somewhat between adiabatic and isothermal compression.

The polytropic head and discharge temperature are given from the following expressions (from which horsepower can
be derived):

where
H = polytropic head
Z = average compressibility factor
R = universal gas constant
P1 = suction gas pressure
P2 = discharge gas pressure
Rc = compression ratio = P2/P1

T1 = suction gas temperature

T2 = discharge gas temperature
Mw = molecular weight of gas
n = polytropic exponent = Cp/Cv
Cp = gas specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = gas specific heat at constant volume

ORIFICE SIZING FOR FLUID FLOW

Sizing Of Orifice For Liquid Flow

The orifice meter is a device for measuring the rate of flow of liquid and gas through a pipe. Typically, it consists of a flat
circular plate which has a circular sharp-edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. In chemical process
design, an orifice is usually sized for known flowrate and presure drop.

For liquid flow, the commonly applied equations are:

where
d = orifice diameter, inch
CD = maximum allowable vapor velocity 0.62

D = pipe inner diameter, inch

p = pressure differential, psia
W = full-scale upstream mass flow rate, lb/s
= upstream liquid density, lb/ft 3

PARTIAL VOLUMES OF TANKS

Horizontal Cylinderical Tanks
Tanks are used for the storage fluids in many chemical process industries. For a horizontal cylinderical tank, the two
ends (heads) of the vessels is usually both flat, dished, elliptical or hemispherical. It is commonly required to estimate
the quantity of fluid in a tank when it is partly filled with fluid, and only fluid level is known. This partial volume is made
up of the volume in the cylinderical shell plus the volumes in the two heads. The partial volumes can be estimated by the
equations below:

Partial volume of horizontal cylinder:

= {r2cos-1[(r - h)/r] - (r - h)(2rh - h2)0.5}L
Partial volume of dished heads:
= 0.215483*h2(1.5d - h)
Partial volume of elliptical heads:
= 0.5236*h2(1.5d - h)
Partial volume of hemispherical heads:
= 1.0472*h2(1.5d - h)

where

L = side length of the cylinder shell

d = internal diameter of the cylinder
r = radius of the cylinder = d/2
h = height of liquid in the cylinder
All volume equations give fluid volumes in cubic units from tank dimensions in consistent linear units.

SIZING OF LIQUID-VAPOR SEPARATORS

Sizing Of Horizontal Separators

A vapor-liquid separator (or knockout) drum is a vessel into which a liquid and vapor mixture (or a flashing liquid) is
fed and wherein the liquid is separated by gravity, falls to the bottom of the vessel (settling), and is withdrawn. The
vapor travels at a design velocity which minimizes the entrainment of any liquid droplets in the vapor as it exits the top
of the vessel.
The size a vapor-liquid separator drum should be dictated by the anticipated flow rate of vapor and liquid from the
process vessel. The sizing methodology implemented here involves using correlations for maximum vapor velocity
factors, the Souders & Brown equation, coupled with the liquid surge capacity as described in Coker.

The Souders-Brown equation is given as:

V = K [(L - V)/V]0.5
where
V = maximum allowable vapor velocity
K = vapor velocity factor
V = vapor density
L = liquid density

FORCE ON A PIPE BEND

Forces Due To Pipe Bend And/Or Diameter Changes

When a flowing fluid changes direction, a force will act in the bend. Thrust blocks are used in pipe bends to

withstand the forces on the pipe caused by momentum change and unbalanced pressure of the fluid flowing in the pipe.
Consider a pipe bend lying in the horizontal plane with or without a diameter change. The resultant force and its
direction can be estimated by the equations:

where

F = reacting force on bend

= direction of reacting force with respect to x-axis, anticlockwise +ve
Fx = x-component of force
Fy = y-component of force
Q = average flow rate
= angle of pipe bend, -180 to 180, anticlockwise +ve w.r.t. x-axis
D1 = internal pipe internal diameter before bend or size change
D2 = internal pipe internal diameter after before bend or size change
P1 = pressure before bend or size change
P2 = pressure after bend or size change
A1 = area before
A2 = area after
V1 = flow velocity before
V2 = flow velocity after
= fluid specific gravity; water = 1
= fluid density

GAS PIPE FLOW: FLOW RATE CALCULATION FOR INCLINED

PIPELINE
Flow Of Compressible Gas In An Inclined Pipeline
For a slightly inclined pipeline, flow rate predictions are obtained by the modification of the horizontal gas pipleline flow
equations. The elevation change (positive uphill, negative downhill) is compensated for by adding the static head of gas
column to the pressure loss calculation.
The four commonly-used equations for long-distance gas pipeline are:
- Weymouth Equation
- Panhandle A
- Panhandle B
- AGA (American Gas Association)
Another equation was recently derived by Ohirhian via the manipulation of three basic equations : Weymouth,
Colebrook and Reynold's number.
Each of the above five gasflow equations is based on some assumed expression for Friction factor , a dimensionless
correlating function. m is the friction factor (also called the Moody friction factor) that is commonly tabulated in the
Moody Charts. Quite often the Fanning Friction factor f is used: f = m/4.
The equations for each method is given below with the eS and Le terms accounting for elevation change :

- Weymouth Equation:

- Panhandle A:

- Panhandle B:

- AGA (fully turbulent):

- Ohirhian:

Where:
qsc = gas rate at standard condition, scf/d
P1 = inlet pressure, psia
P2 = outlet pressure, psia
Psc = pressure at standard condition, psia
Tsc = temperature at standard condition, &degR
Tm = mean temperature of line, &degR
Tg = ground temperature, &degR
= mean gas viscosity, cp
= mean gas relative density (air = 1)
Zm= mean gas compressibility factor
d = inside diameter of pipe, inches
L = pipe length, miles
Le = effective pipe length, miles
H = Change in elevation between inlet & outlet (ft)
E = pipeline efficiency
m = Moody friction factor

f = Fanning friction factor

Ft = transmission factor ([1/f ])
= absolute roughness of pipe, inches

The mean values of the gas properties (Z & ) are determined at the average pressure and temperature, derived as
follows:

GAS PIPE FLOW: FLOW RATE CALCULATION FOR HORIZONTAL

PIPELINE
Flow Of Compressible Gas In A Horizontal Pipeline
The four commonly-used equations for long-distance gas pipeline are:
- Weymouth Equation
- Panhandle A
- Panhandle B
- AGA (American Gas Association)
Another equation was recently derived by Ohirhian via the manipulation of three basic equations : Weymouth,
Colebrook and Reynold's number.
Each of the above five gasflow equations is based on some assumed expression for Friction factor , a dimensionless
correlating function. m is the friction factor (also called the Moody friction factor) that is commonly tabulated in the
Moody Charts. Quite often the Fanning Friction factor f is used: f = m/4.

The equations for each method is given below:

- Weymouth Equation:

- Panhandle A:

- Panhandle B:

- AGA (fully turbulent):

- Ohirhian:

Where:
qsc = gas rate at standard condition, scf/d
P1 = inlet pressure, psia
P2 = outlet pressure, psia
Psc = pressure at standard condition, psia
Tsc = temperature at standard condition, &degR
Tm = mean temperature of line, &degR
Tg = ground temperature, &degR
= mean gas viscosity, cp
= mean gas relative density (air = 1)
Zm= mean gas compressibility factor
d = inside diameter of pipe, inches
L = pipe length, miles
E = pipeline efficiency
m = Moody friction factor
f = Fanning friction factor
Ft = transmission factor ([1/f ])
= absolute roughness of pipe, inches
The mean values of the gas properties (Z & ) are determined at the average pressure and temperature, derived as
follows:

NATURAL GAS: Z-FACTOR & VISCOSITY FOR GIVEN COMPOSITION

Physical Properties Of Natural Gas - I
This calculator takes in the fractional molar compositions of the natural gas (and gaseous impurities, if any) and outputs
estimates of 2 physical properties of natural gas - Real gas deviation factor (Z) and Gas viscosity (), as well as
the Specific gravity (sg) of the gas. The 2 properties are listed and plotted for the specific temperature and pressure
entered as well as for pressures in the range zero to 5000 psia.
Z-factor is computed using the Hall-Yarborough direct method. This consists of 2 equations:

where:
ppr = pseudo-reduced pressure
t = reciprocal of pseudo-reduced temperature
y = "reduced" density (an unknown).
The gas composition values are first used to determine the constants in the equations (specific gravity, critical and
pseudo-reduced pressures and temperatures). The second non-linear equation is solved for "y" using the NewtonRaphson iterative technique, and the result is plugged into the first equation.
Finally, Gas viscosity is computed from the correlations by Carr et al.

NATURAL GAS: Z-FACTOR & VISCOSITY FOR GIVEN COMPOSITION

Physical Properties Of Natural Gas - I
This calculator takes in the fractional molar compositions of the natural gas (and gaseous impurities, if any) and outputs
estimates of 2 physical properties of natural gas - Real gas deviation factor (Z) and Gas viscosity (), as well as
the Specific gravity (sg) of the gas. The 2 properties are listed and plotted for the specific temperature and pressure
entered as well as for pressures in the range zero to 5000 psia.
Z-factor is computed using the Hall-Yarborough direct method. This consists of 2 equations:

where:
ppr = pseudo-reduced pressure
t = reciprocal of pseudo-reduced temperature
y = "reduced" density (an unknown).
The gas composition values are first used to determine the constants in the equations (specific gravity, critical and
pseudo-reduced pressures and temperatures). The second non-linear equation is solved for "y" using the NewtonRaphson iterative technique, and the result is plugged into the first equation.
Finally, Gas viscosity is computed from the correlations by Carr et al.

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: PIPE DIAMETER CALCULATION

Flow Of Liquid & Compressed Gases Through Circular Pipe
A common engineering problem to be able to determine the losses (analysis), or velocity (prediction) or the conduit size
(design) of a piping system. Flow in a pipe is characterized by 7 parameters: Fluid viscosity & specific gravity, Pipe
internal diameter, roughness & length, Flow rate/velocity & head loss/pressure drop. Based on which of the parameters
are known, four types of computational problems are identified: namely the Calculation of i) Pressure drop, ii) Flow
rate, iii) the Pipe internal diameter and iv) Pipe length. This task is accomplished by appropriate rearrangement,
substitution and iterative solution of the following Equations:

Reynolds Number Re=VD/

where
Re = Reynolds Number
Q = average flow rate
V = average flow velocity
= fluid specific gravity
= kinetic viscosity, centistokes

D = pipe inside diameter

L = pipe length
= absolute internal pipe roughness
= friction factor
Z = change in elevation
h = pressure head
hf = head loss due to pipe friction
Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc. (length equivalent)
P = pressure
g = gravitation acceleration

Flow Of Liquid & Compressed Gases Through Circular Pipe

A common engineering problem to be able to determine the losses (analysis), or velocity (prediction) or the conduit size
(design) of a piping system. Flow in a pipe is characterized by 7 parameters: Fluid viscosity & specific gravity, Pipe
internal diameter, roughness & length, Flow rate/velocity & head loss/pressure drop. Based on which of the parameters
are known, four types of computational problems are identified: namely the Calculation of i) Pressure drop, ii) Flow
rate, iii) the Pipe internal diameter and iv) Pipe length. This task is accomplished by appropriate rearrangement,
substitution and iterative solution of the following Equations:

Reynolds Number Re=VD/

where
Re = Reynolds Number
Q = average flow rate
V = average flow velocity
= fluid specific gravity
= kinetic viscosity, centistokes
D = pipe inside diameter
L = pipe length
= absolute internal pipe roughness
= friction factor
Z = change in elevation
h = pressure head
hf = head loss due to pipe friction
Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc. (length equivalent)
P = pressure
g = gravitation acceleration

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION

Flow Of Liquid & Compressed Gases Through Circular Pipe
A common engineering problem to be able to determine the losses (analysis), or velocity (prediction) or the conduit size
(design) of a piping system. Flow in a pipe is characterized by 7 parameters: Fluid viscosity & specific gravity, Pipe
internal diameter, roughness & length, Flow rate/velocity & head loss/pressure drop. Based on which of the parameters
are known, four types of computational problems are identified: namely the Calculation of i) Pressure drop, ii) Flow
rate, iii) the Pipe internal diameter and iv) Pipe length. This task is accomplished by appropriate rearrangement,
substitution and iterative solution of the following Equations:
Reynolds Number Re=VD/

where

Re = Reynolds Number
Q = average flow rate
V = average flow velocity
= fluid specific gravity
= kinetic viscosity, centistokes
D = pipe inside diameter
L = pipe length
= absolute internal pipe roughness
= friction factor
Z = change in elevation
h = pressure head
hf = head loss due to pipe friction
Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc(length equivalent)
P = pressure
g = gravitation acceleration

REYNOLDS NUMBER AND FRICTION FACTORS

Flow Through Circular Pipe
The Reynolds Number (Re), is a dimensionless parameter for characterizing fluid flow. It is the criterion used to
determine whether flow is Laminar, Critical (transitional) or Turbulent. Usually for laminar flow Re <> 4000.
The Darcy friction factor is a Reynold number-dependent factor used in the computation of the pressure loss due to pipe
roughness. Friction factor is commonly computed via the implicit Colebrook-White equation and more recently by
explicit equations by Churchill, and by Swamee & Jain. Colebrook-White and the Swamee-Jain equations were designed
for the turbulent flow regime, but will be used here also for the critical regime. Churchill's equation spans the entire
range from laminar to turbulent. The Fanning factor and the Transmission factor are derivatives of the Darcy friction
factor. The relevant equations are given below:

Reynolds Number Re=VD/

Fanning friction factor f=d/4

Transmission factor F =2/d

where
Re = Reynolds Number
V = average flow velocity
= kinetic viscosity, centistokes
D = pipe inside diameter
= absolute internal pipe roughness
= friction factor
d = Darcy friction factor
f = Fanning friction factor
F = Transmission factor

Heat pipes have an effective thermal conductivity many thousands of times that of copper. The heat transfer or
transport capacity of a heat pipe is specified by its " Axial Power Rating (APC)". It is the energy moving axially along the
pipe. The larger the heat pipe diameter, greater is the APR. Similarly, longer the heat pipe lesser is the APR. Heat pipes
can be built in almost any size and shape.
Applications

Heat pipe has been, and is currently being, studied for a variety of applications, covering almost the entire spectrum of
temperatures encountered in heat transfer processes. Heat pipes are used in a wide range of products like airconditioners, refrigerators, heat exchangers, transistors, capacitors, etc. Heat pipes are also used in laptops to reduce
the working temperature for better efficiency. Their application in the field of cryogenics is very significant, especially in
the development of space technology. We shall now discuss a brief account of the various applications of heat pipe
technology.
Space Technology
The use of heat pipes has been mainly limited to this field of science until recently, due to cost effectiveness and complex
wick construction of heat pipes. There are several applications of heat pipes in this field like

Spacecraft temperature equalization

Component cooling, temperature control and radiator design in satellites.

Other applications include moderator cooling, removal of heat from the reactor at emitter temperature and
elimination of troublesome thermal gradients along the emitter and collector in spacecrafts.

Heat pipes for Dehumidification and Air conditioning

In an air conditioning system, the colder the air as it passes over the cooling coil (evaporator), the more the moisture is
condensed out. The heat pipe is designed to have one section in the warm incoming stream and the other in the cold
outgoing stream. By transferring heat from the warm return air to the cold supply air, the heat pipes create the double
effect of pre-cooling the air before it goes to the evaporator and then re-heating it immediately.
Activated by temperature difference and therefore consuming no energy, the heat pipe, due to its pre-cooling effect,
allows the evaporator coil to operate at a lower temperature, increasing the moisture removal capability of the air
conditioning system by 50-100%. With lower relative humidity, indoor comfort can be achieved at higher thermostat
settings, which results in net energy savings. Generally, for each 1 F rise in thermostat setting, there is a 7% savings in
electricity cost. In addition, the pre-cooling effect of the heat pipe allows the use of a smaller compressor.
Flexible Solutions
Heat pipes are manufactured in a multitude of sizes and shapes. Unusual application geometry can be easily
accommodated by the heat pipes versatility to be shaped as a heat transport device. If some range of motion is required,
heat pipes can even be made of flexible material.
Two of the most common are:
Constant Temperature: The heat pipe maintains a constant temperature or temperature range.
Diode: The heat pipe will allow heat transfer in only one direction.
Mega Flats
Flat heat pipes are typically used for cooling printed circuit boards or for heat leveling to produce an isothermal plane.
Mega flats are several flat heat pipes sandwiched together.
Some of the flat heat pipes manufactured are:
XY Mega Flats: Surface maintained within .01 F isothermal with concentrated load centers. 6" X 6" Mega Flat:
Dissipated 850 watts from a printed circuit board.

Weight Reduction Mega Flats:

Standard - aluminum construction.
Lightweight - the weight of aluminum.
Very light weight - 1/3 the weight of aluminum.
SEM C and SEM E Mega Flats in stock. Low and light weight coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) Mega Flats - any
CTE from 2 to 10. Alloy H: 70% more conductive than, or 40% less weight than copper clad invar.
Cost Effectiveness of Heat Pipes
The cost of heat pipes designed for laptop use is very competitive compared to other alternatives. Cost is partially offset
and justified by improved system reliability and the increased life of cooler running electronics. Heat pipes, in quantity,
cost a few dollars each while an entire cooling system will cost between $5 - $10 in production quantities, depending on
the final design. Standard design products are available to reduce cost even further. Heat pipe manufacture has been a
difficult area to compete in. Simple in concept, but difficult to apply commercially, the heat pipe is a very elusive
technology & holds the key to the future of heat transfer & its allied applications.
Courtesy: www.cheresources.com