THREE DIMENSIONAL NUMERICAL MODELLING OF

ABANDONED BORD AND PILLAR WORKINGS

S. Mackenzie, Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd
I. H. Clark, Geonet Consulting Group
Summary
An increased number of proposed multi-storey buildings in Newcastle and Charlestown has
heightened concerns regarding the long-term stability of underlying abandoned bord and
pillar workings. The workings are approximately 100 years old, often irregular in layout and
have been inundated with water. The last large scale pillar crush occurred beneath Newcastle
in 1908. The lack of subsequent crushes demonstrates stability since abandonment, however,
possible deterioration of pillar, floor and roof material due to the effects of time and water
may affect future stability. A proposed eight storey development in Newcastle West required
the assessment of abandoned first and nearby second workings in the Borehole Seam at
approximately 64m depth. Three dimensional numerical modelling using the finite difference
program FLAC-3D was used to assess pillar stability and subsidence over time with
consideration of first workings, secondary pillar extraction and inundation of the workings.
The paper presents a description of the workings, investigation work and the numerical
modelling methodology and results. The pillar stresses are compared to estimates made using
empirical methods for various stages of mining.

1. Introduction
Until recently, the assessment of abandoned
bord and pillar workings for proposed multistorey buildings in Newcastle has been
undertaken solely using empirical pillar
stability formula coupled with experience
and judgement with regard to mine layout
and working method. The empirical
methods are however limited to the
situations from which they were developed.
Although empirical methods may be useful
as a first approximation, their validity is
questionable for abandoned Borehole Seam
workings beneath Newcastle where:
Working layout is irregular;
The workings are more than 100 years
old;
The workings are inundated with water.

Numerical modelling can provide insight

into the effects of such features and allows a
comparative assessment against empirical
methods. Another valuable feature of
modelling is the ability to study the
importance of particular parameters on
stability including specific local geological
details such as stratigraphy, bedding planes,
jointing, faults and insitu stress.
Meaningful numerical results are dependent
on how well the model represents the true
ground conditions. Hence considerable
effort has been made to define subsurface
and historical conditions. Where uncertainty
exists, the model has been used to assess
various scenarios. For this assessment, five
boreholes were drilled with down-hole
geophysics in each and closed circuit
television inspection of encountered voids.

Accurate modelling also depends on the

ability of the code to simulate the stressstrain behaviour of materials in various
geometries and stages of loading. In
particular, the post yield behaviour of pillars
and strain hardening behaviour of goaf
material under compression. Such behaviour
has been studied using FLAC-3D by Badr et
al (2003).

2. Geological setting
The subject site is located north of Parry
Street, Newcastle West on Quaternary
alluvial deposits that form a flat, low lying
topography.
Newcastle
harbour
is
approximately 600m north of the site.

SITE

Map reproduced with permission of UBD. Copyright Universal

Publishers Pty Ltd DG 09/04.

Figure 1 Site Location Plan

Underlying
approximately
27m
of
Quaternary sediment is the Tighes Hill
Formation of the Permian aged Newcastle
Coal Measures (Lambton Subgroup) which
typically comprises interbedded siltstone
and sandstone. The Borehole Seam coal is
approximately 64m below ground surface
and approximately 6.3m thick beneath the
site. Underlying the Borehole Seam is the
Waratah Sandstone, the basal member of the
Lambton Subgroup.

The Borehole Seam coal is bituminous with

minor stone bands known to the miners as
the Morgan and Jerry Wag. In the area
beneath the site the Seam dips to the
northeast at approximately 1 in 90.
Tectonic stresses incorporated into the
model were inferred from Enever et al
(1998) with the principal horizontal stress
equal to 1.4 times the vertical stress
orientated
in
a
northeast-southwest
direction. The minor horizontal stress is
orientated northwest-southeast and is 1.1
times the vertical stress.

3. Description of workings
3.1.

Overview

In 1861 the first shaft was sunk for the No. 2

Pit by the Australian Agricultural Company.
This pit later combined as one with the
Hamilton Pit. Initially the seam was worked
using the pillar and stall method and after
1875 the bord and pillar method with
pillar drawing in some areas. In 1889 a
pillar collapse killed eleven miners and lead
to an inquiry. The pit was abandoned in
1901. Gregson (1907), Kingswell (1890)
and Wilson (~1932).
Beneath the site, bord and pillar workings
were conducted between 1890 and 1892.
Pillar widths were typically 16 yards
(14.6m) with bord widths of 8 yards (7.3m)
and cut-through widths of 3 yards (2.7m).
Pillar lengths were between 20 to 50m.
Second workings, approximately 60m to the
southwest of the site, with extent parallel to
Parry Street, occurred some time between
1894 and 1901.
3.2.

Extraction Height

The extraction height for the Hamilton / No.

2 Pit is variable on account of the variable
thickness of the Borehole Seam. From
historical accounts, it is understood that the
Morgan and Jerry stone bands dictated the
stages and height of first workings.

Figure 2 Stratigraphic Section

site

Figure 3 Plan of workings (RT566)

Based on the available historical

information and conditions encountered in
the boreholes, the working height beneath
the site is expected to be less than 4.5m.
For the purposes of this assessment, a
working height of 4.0m has been adopted.
3.3. Condition of the Workings
Closed circuit television observations of
voids encountered in two boreholes were
made. The conditions were typical of other
observed Borehole Seam workings of
similar age beneath Newcastle. That is,
significant roof fall has occurred of top coal
and roof siltstone/shale. Upon falling
through water, the coal and roof material
has bulked by an average of approximately
1.4 to 1.5 times its original volume. The
resultant rubble material covering the floor
of the workings contains significant voids
and has variable resistance to drilling
penetration.

4. Numerical modelling
4.1. Overview
Many of the assumptions made in the
tributary area method of estimating pillar
load can be overcome by numerical
modelling. In this project these included:
Three dimensional effects of abutment
pillar loading;
Overburden, seam and floor strata and
differences in their relative stiffness;
Interaction of pillar, floor and roof and
the subsequent load redistribution
including the effects of roof falls;
Insitu stress and Poissons ratio effects;
Effect of inundation of the workings.
Modelling was performed using the finite
difference program FLAC-3D.

The boundaries of the model were set to be

a minimum of 75m from the development
site to ensure that they would not influence
the pillar loads.
Stress conditions in selected pillars close to
the abutment (A1, A2) and directly beneath
the site (P1, P2) were monitored during
mining; these are shown in Figure 4.

N
P2
P1
A2
A1

Figure 4 Pillars selected for Monitoring

The coal seam and overburden geology
were built into the model, including major
lithological types, bedding planes and insitu
horizontal stresses.
The various stratigraphic units were
modeled as elasto-plastic Mohr-Coulomb
frictional materials. The bedding planes
were treated as frictional interfaces.
The initial mining height modelled was 4m
which effectively increased to about 5m as
a result of roof falls. The sequence of
mining extraction was simulated in order to
establish the stress conditions at each stage
of mining. Three stages were simulated as:
i)

First Workings

ii)

Secondary pillar extraction, and

iii)

Inundation of workings.
4.2. Coal Pillar Strength

Pillar strength is a function of coal strength,

pillar geometry, floor and roof conditions.

It is therefore not possible to accurately

determine
pillar
strength
without
consideration of all these factors. Empirical
pillar strength formulas solve this by
limiting their applicability to the conditions
from which there were derived. Numerical
modelling of pillar behaviour is not limited
in this way and is capable of predicting
pillar behaviour both within and outside the
ranges of empirical methods, assuming the
model satisfactorily represents the true
ground conditions.
To ensure that the stress and stability of
coal pillars is accurately represented in the
model, the mass strength of coal has been
simulated including geotechnical details of
the coal seam.
A coal sample of
rectangular shape with width to height ratio
of 0.5 was constructed and numerically
tested. This geometry ensures that the coal
strength is simulated without the effects of
geometric enhancement. The results are
shown in Figure 5.

results it was concluded that coal material

behaviour was being accurately modelled.
The compression behaviour of a pillar 16m
x 20m x 4m (w/h = 4.0) was then analysed
in order to provide an understanding of the
mechanism of squat pillar behaviour. The
pillar was loaded to a stress of 50MPa with
no slippage along pillar roof and floor
contacts allowed. The simulated stressdeformation curve, shown in Figure 6,
shows elastic behaviour up to 11.5MPa
followed by a short strain softening
response leading to strain hardening. The
strain hardening represents effective
confinement of the pillar core.

Figure 6 16 x 20 x 4m pillar simulation

The same exercise was repeated for a 4.5m
x 25m x 4m (w/h = 1.1) pillar with strain
hardening and ultimate failure observed
(Clark, 2004).

5. Results
Figure 5 Simulation of Coal Mass
Strength
The Youngs Modulus for this sample
was thus determined to be 6.3GPa with
respect to the elastic limit of approximately
11.5MPa and 2.2GPa with respect to the
peak strength of 15.5MPa. Based on these

5.1. First Workings

As shown in Figure 7, overall stress
magnitude increases as pillar size
decreases. The final equilibrated stress in
pillars A1, A2, P1 and P2 are presented in
Table 1 and compared with those estimated
from the tributary area method.

FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West First Workings [ch3-02.sav]

FLAC3D 2.10

Step 7000 Model Projection

22:45:46 Wed Jun 16 2004

Step 17000 Model Projection

23:54:39 Wed Jun 16 2004

Center:
X: 7.650e+001
Y: 9.450e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 90.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 0.000
Size: 2.059e+002

Center:
X: 7.650e+001
Y: 9.650e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 90.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 0.000
Size: 2.059e+002

Plane Origin:
X: 0.000e+000
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 2.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 0.000
DD: 0.000

Plane Origin:
X: 0.000e+000
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 2.000e+000

Plane Normal:
X: 0.000e+000
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 1.000e+000

Contour of SZZ

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West 2nd Extraction + Roof Fall [ch3-04.sav]

Contour of SZZ

Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000
Gradient Calculation
-4.0000e+006 to -4.0000e+006
-4.0000e+006 to -3.7500e+006
-3.7500e+006 to -3.5000e+006
-3.5000e+006 to -3.2500e+006
-3.2500e+006 to -3.0000e+006
-3.0000e+006 to -2.7500e+006
-2.7500e+006 to -2.5000e+006
-2.5000e+006 to -2.2500e+006
-2.2500e+006 to -2.0000e+006
-2.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
Interval = 2.5e+005

Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000
Gradient Calculation
-8.0000e+006 to -8.0000e+006
-8.0000e+006 to -7.0000e+006
-7.0000e+006 to -6.0000e+006
-6.0000e+006 to -5.0000e+006
-5.0000e+006 to -4.0000e+006
-4.0000e+006 to -3.0000e+006
-3.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
-2.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
Interval = 1.0e+006

Boundary
Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000

Sketch
GEONET Consulting Group
Brisbane, Australia

GEONET Consulting Group

Brisbane, Australia

Figure 7 Vertical stress inside coal pillars

after first workings
Table 1 Average vertical stress (MPa)
after first workings
Pillar

A1

A2

P1

P2

Numerical
Modelling

4.8

3.3

2.3

2.5

Tributary
Area Method

3.4

3.0

3.1

2.9

Figure 8a Plan of vertical stress inside

coal pillars after second workings
FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West 2nd Extraction + Roof Fall [ch3-04.sav]

Step 17000 Model Projection

00:11:18 Thu Jun 17 2004
Center:
X: 7.650e+001
Y: 9.650e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 0.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 270.000
Size: 1.647e+002

Plane Origin:
X: 7.510e+001
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 90.000
DD: 90.000

Contour of SZZ
Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000
Gradient Calculation
-8.0000e+006 to -8.0000e+006
-8.0000e+006 to -7.0000e+006
-7.0000e+006 to -6.0000e+006
-6.0000e+006 to -5.0000e+006
-5.0000e+006 to -4.0000e+006
-4.0000e+006 to -3.0000e+006
-3.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
-2.0000e+006 to -1.0000e+006
-1.0000e+006 to 0.0000e+000
0.0000e+000 to 1.1275e+005
Interval = 1.0e+006

GEONET Consulting Group

Brisbane, Australia

After first workings, the numerical

modelling predicts lower stresses in the
intact pillars P1 and P2 under the site and
higher stresses in the abutment pillars.
5.2. Second Workings
The situation immediately following
secondary extraction is illustrated in Figure
8a and 8b. Pillar stresses along the edge of
secondary extraction increase to greater
than 8MPa. The high stresses are generated
in abutment pillars by being wedged by the
subsiding roof strata. This is a transient
condition that will be relieved by roof falls.
The effect extends approximately 60m
behind the limit of secondary extraction so
that stresses in pillar P2 are only slightly
affected.

Figure 8b Section of vertical stress inside

coal pillars after second workings
The extent of stress induced damage is
shown in Figure 9. The immediate roof
strata have failed in tension and tensile
cracking may have developed up to 30m
into the overburden strata. Following
goafing over the secondary working area,
some minor surface tensile cracks may
have developed under the southern side of
Parry Street.

FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West 2nd Extraction + Roof Fall [ch3-04.sav]

Step 17000 Model Projection

00:06:11 Thu Jun 17 2004
Center:
X: 7.650e+001
Y: 9.650e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 0.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 270.000
Size: 1.647e+002

Plane Origin:
X: 7.500e+001
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 90.000
DD: 90.000

Block State
Plane: on
None
shear-n shear-p
shear-n tension-n shear-p tension-p
shear-p
shear-p tension-p
tension-n shear-p tension-p
tension-n tension-p
tension-p

GEONET Consulting Group

Brisbane, Australia

Figure 9 Stress induced damage after

secondary workings
The evolution of stress is shown in Figure
10 for pillars P1 and P2. Note how the
stress in the larger pillar P2 remains
constant whilst the smaller pillar is
progressively loaded. There is a marked
increase in average pillar stress in pillar P1
as soon as the roof starts to converge over
the area of secondary extraction. This stress
continues to increase as the roof deforms
and equilibrates after roof falls have
occurred.
Average stresses after secondary extraction
are summarised in Table 2. The stresses
from the tributary area method are
unchanged for all pillars except those that
are partially removed by secondary
extraction.
As expected, the numerical modelling
predicts higher stresses than the tributary
area method where pillars are affected by
the nearby secondary workings.

Figure 10 Evolution of average vertical

stress inside coal pillars
Table 2 Average vertical stress (MPa)
after second workings
Pillar

A1

A2

P1

P2

Numerical
Modelling

8.8

7.2

4.6

2.6

Tributary
Area Method

N/A

3.0

3.1

2.9

N/A Not applicable

5.3. Inundation
Pore pressures were initialised in the
rockmass corresponding to the measured
water table depth of 2 to 3m below the
ground surface. Normal pressures equal to
the water pressure at excavation depth were
applied to all excavated surfaces. Under
these conditions, the buoyant mass of the
overburden strata was invoked.
Pillar strength estimates for the inundated
case are an upper limit. Potential softening
of clay bands was not included in the model
as these conditions were not encountered in
this area of the Borehole Seam.

Simulated stress conditions after inundation

are shown in Figure 11a and 11b. Under the
development site, stresses have reduced
from the dewatered stage to levels similar
to the pre-mining stress condition.

FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West Flooded Workings

[ch3-05.sav]

Step 20086 Model Projection

00:30:15 Thu Jun 17 2004
Center:
X: 7.500e+001
Y: 9.450e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 0.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 270.000
Size: 1.647e+002

Plane Origin:
X: 7.510e+001
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 90.000
DD: 90.000

Block State

The extent of stress induced damage is

shown in Figure 12. The zones where
subsidence cracking is predicted is confined
to the rockmass directly over the area of
secondary workings extending to about
10m below the ground surface. Again,
some minor tensile cracks may have
developed around Parry Street.
FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West Flooded Workings

Rotation:
X: 90.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 0.000
Mag.:
1
Ang.: 22.500

Plane Origin:
X: 0.000e+000
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 2.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 0.000
DD: 0.000

GEONET Consulting Group

Brisbane, Australia

Figure 12 Stress induced damage after

secondary workings

[ch3-05.sav]

Step 20086 Model Perspective

22:21:59 Wed Jun 16 2004
Center:
X: 7.500e+001
Y: 9.709e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Plane: on
None
shear-n shear-p
shear-n shear-p tension-p
shear-n tension-n shear-p tension-p
shear-p
shear-p tension-p
tension-n shear-p tension-p
tension-n tension-p
tension-p

The evolution of stress for pillars P1 and P2

is updated as shown in Figure 13. This now
represents the average pillar stress history
for these two pillars from pre-mining to
present day, a period of over 100 years.
Average stresses after inundation are
summarised in Table 3.

Contour of SZZ
Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000
Gradient Calculation
-6.0000e+006 to -6.0000e+006
-6.0000e+006 to -5.0000e+006
-5.0000e+006 to -4.0000e+006
-4.0000e+006 to -3.0000e+006
-3.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
-2.0000e+006 to -1.0000e+006
-1.0000e+006 to 0.0000e+000
0.0000e+000 to 0.0000e+000
Interval = 1.0e+006

Boundary
Plane: on
GEONET Consulting Group
Brisbane, Australia

Figure 11a Plan of vertical stress inside

coal pillars after inundation
FLAC3D 2.10

Job Title: 118 Parry Street, Newcastle West Flooded Workings

[ch3-05.sav]

Step 20086 Model Perspective

20:21:56 Wed Jun 16 2004
Center:
X: 7.650e+001
Y: 9.450e+001
Z: 2.500e+001
Dist: 5.176e+002

Rotation:
X: 0.000
Y: 0.000
Z: 270.000
Mag.: 1.25
Ang.: 22.500

Plane Origin:
X: 7.500e+001
Y: 0.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000

Plane Orientation:
Dip: 90.000
DD: 90.000

Contour of SZZ
Plane: on
Magfac = 1.000e+000
Gradient Calculation
-6.0000e+006 to -6.0000e+006
-6.0000e+006 to -5.0000e+006
-5.0000e+006 to -4.0000e+006
-4.0000e+006 to -3.0000e+006
-3.0000e+006 to -2.0000e+006
-2.0000e+006 to -1.0000e+006
-1.0000e+006 to -2.8167e+004
Interval = 1.0e+006

GEONET Consulting Group

Brisbane, Australia

Figure 11b Section of vertical stress

inside coal pillars after inundation

Figure 13 Evolution of vertical stress

inside coal pillars

Table 3 Average vertical stress (MPa)

after inundation
Pillar

A1

A2

P1

P2

Numerical
Modelling

5.3

4.0

1.6

1.4

Tributary
Area Method

N/A

1.8

1.8

1.7

N/A Not applicable

The overall effect of inundation is thus a
reduction in the effective pillar stress. The
calculated average pillar stresses are well
within the limit of pillar strengths.
5.4. Stability of Pillars
Based on a pillar strength of 11.5MPa,
corresponding with the limit of elastic
deformation, the data show that pillars
under the site have factor of safety (FoS)
greater than 7.00 indicating absolute
stability. The abutment pillars are more
highly stressed with FoS of 2.16 and 2.89.
Even so, their stability is acceptable and
they are not considered to be at risk of
failure. By virtue of their relatively large
W/H ratio, the abutment pillars should
strain harden if stressed into their plastic
range. Thus the stability of the pillars
under the site is quite unlikely to change
unless the workings are dewatered.
Dewatering of the workings will result in
removal of pillar confining pressure and
increased insitu stress by virtue of the loss
of buoyancy of the rockmass. These
changes will result in significant reduction
in pillar stability. Even so, overall pillar
stability will still be maintained.

6. Conclusions
The tributary area method of estimating
average pillar stress gives a reasonable and
conservative estimate after first workings.
However, its usefulness is lost once loading
becomes more complex when non-uniform

pillar geometries are created and roof falls

develop after secondary extraction.
Three-dimensional numerical modelling
accurately simulated the complex loading
conditions which evolved during successive
stages of mining. Since every mine site has
different geological and mining conditions,
it is important to include these details rather
than rely on conservative empirical
formulae when calculating pillar stresses.
As demonstrated in this study, the
following geotechnical conditions that
occur under the selected development site
in Newcastle were considered:
Specific local geology, bedding planes
and initial pre-mining stress conditions
Sequence of mining, including
formation of complex pillar geometries
and secondary extractions;
The development of roof falls and the
associated redistribution of stress;
Inundation with water.
Such analysis allows estimates of pillar
factor of safety with respect to a selected
pillar strength criterion, such as the limit of
elastic behaviour and/or peak pillar strength
at any time during the mining sequence.

7. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to gratefully
acknowledge Homepage Asset Pty Ltd for
commissioning the assessment upon which
this paper is based. They would also like to
thank the staff of Coffey Geoscience and
Geonet Consulting Group for their
assistance with the project.

8. References
Australian Agricultural Company Plan of
the AA Coys collieries near Newcastle
NSW Department of Mineral Resources
RT566 Sheet 10.

Badr S. and Schissler A. and Salamon M.

and Ozbay U. 2003 Numerical
modelling of yielding chain pillars in
longwall mines 5th North American
Rock Mechanics Symposium and the
17th Tunnelling Association of Canada
Conference, Vol. 1, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada, pp 99-106, ISBN 0 772767084.
Clark, I.H. 2004. Stress Conditions and
Stability of Coal Pillars in Abandoned
Mine Workings under 118 Parry Street,
Newcastle West GEONET Consulting
Group Report to Homepage Asset Pty
Ltd.
Enever J. and Glen R. and Beckett J. 1998
The stress field and structural
environment of the Hunter Valley
Australian
Geomechanics
Society
Geotechnical
Engineering
and
Engineering Geology in the Hunter
Valley. University of Newcastle, pp 3844, ISBN 1 876315 11 3.
Gregson J. 1907 The Australian
Agricultural
Company
1824-1875
Angus and Robertson, Sydney. pp 227267.
Itasca Consulting Group, FLAC-3D version
2.10, Minneapolis, MN.
Kingswell G. 1890 The coal mines of
Newcastle, NSW. There rise and
progress Newcastle Herald.
Wilson W. Approx.1932 A history of the
Australian
Agricultural
Company
Newcastle City Library manuscript