Beaker culture

Eastern Europe where Corded Ware previously thrived.

Thus in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east
as Poland, there is a sequence from Corded Ware to Bell
Beaker, but this is not the case in Iberia, France or the
British Isles, where Corded Ware is unknown.
It is important to note that underlying the Bell beaker superstratum existed a wide diversity in local burial styles
(including incidences of cremation rather than burial),
housing styles, economic prole and local coarse ceramic
wares which continued to persist.
There are two main international Bell Beaker styles: the
All Over Ornamented (AOO), patterned all over with
impressions, of which a sub-set is the All Over Corded
(AOC), patterned with cord-impressions, and the Maritime type, decorated with bands lled with impressions
made with a comb or cord. Later, characteristic regional
styles developed.[5]
It has been suggested that the beakers were designed for
the consumption of alcohol, and that the introduction of
the substance to Europe may have fuelled the beakers
spread.[6] Beer and mead content have been identied
from certain examples. However, not all Beakers were
drinking cups. Some were used as reduction pots to smelt
copper ores, others have some organic residues associated with food, and still others were employed as funerary urns.[7] They were used as status display amongst disparate elites.

The distinctive Bell Beaker pottery drinking vessels shaped like

an inverted bell

The Bell-Beaker culture (sometimes shortened to

Beaker culture, Beaker people, or Beaker folk), c.
2800 1800 BCE,[1][2] is the term for a widely scattered 'archaeological culture' of prehistoric western Europe starting in the late Neolithic or Chalcolithic and run- 2 Origins
ning into the early Bronze Age. The term was coined by
John Abercromby, based on the cultures distinctive pot- There have been numerous proposals by archaeologists as
tery drinking vessels.[3]
to the origins of the Bell Beaker culture, and debates continued on for decades. Several regions of origin have been
postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe.[8] Similarly, scholars have pos1 Introduction
tulated various mechanisms of spread, including migrations of populations (folk migrations), smaller warrior
The Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a partic- groups, individuals (craftsmen), or a diusion of ideas
ular pottery type, but also a complete and complex cul- and object exchange.[9]
tural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper, gold
and later bronze, archery, specic types of ornamenta- Recent analyses have made signicant inroads to undermostly by analysing
tion and shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas.[4] standing the Beaker phenomenon,[10][11]
They have coneach
of
its
components
separately.
The Bell Beaker period marks a period of cultural concluded
that
the
Bell
Beaker
phenomenon
was a synthetact in Atlantic and Western Europe on a scale not seen
sis
of
elements,
representing
an
idea
and
style uniting
previously, nor seen again in succeeding periods. It can
dierent
regions
with
dierent
cultural
traditions
and
be seen initially as the western equivalent of the contem[11]
background.
porary Corded Ware culture, though from c. 2400 BCE
Bell Beaker expanded eastwards over parts of Central and Radiocarbon dating seems to support that the earliest
1

EXPANSION AND CULTURE CONTACT

Maritime Bell Beaker design style is encountered in

Iberia, specically in the vibrant copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary in Portugal around 28002700 BC and spread from there to many parts of western
Europe.[2][12] An overview of all available sources from
southern Germany concluded that Bell Beaker was a new
and independent culture in that area, contemporary with
the Corded Ware culture.[13][14]
The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued
to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that
have impressed decoration and which are found widely
around the Tagus estuary in Portugal.[15] Turek sees late
Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the rst half of the third
millennium BCE.[16] However, radiocarbon dating from
North African sites is lacking for the most part.
Generalised distribution and movements of Bell-Beaker
cultures[18]

AOO and AOC Beakers appear to have evolved continually from a pre-Beaker period in the lower Rhine
and North Sea regions, at least for Northern and Central partly from the Yamna culture, and therefore shared the
Europe.[17]
same type of metallurgy practised by Bell Beaker metalFurthermore, the burial ritual which typied Bell Beaker workers. But in contrast to the early Bell Beaker prefersites was intrusive into Western Europe. Individual buri- ence for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the
als, often under tumuli burials, with the inclusion of Carpathian Basin during the rst half of the 3rd millen[20]
Here Bell Beaker peoweapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic nium was the shaft-hole axe.
traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in At- ple assimilated local pottery forms such as the polypod
lantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement is rather cup. These common ware types of pottery then spread
[21]
From the
derivative of Corded Ware traditions[16] although, instead in association with the classic bell beaker.
of 'battle-axes, Bell Beaker individuals used copper dag- Carpathian Basin Bell Beaker spread down the Rhine and
eastwards into what is now Germany and Poland. By
gers.
this time the Rhine was on the western edge of the vast
Overall, all these elements (Iberian-derived maritime ceCorded Ware zone. The Corded Ware Culture shared a
ramic styles, AOC and AOO ceramic styles, and eastern
number of features with the Bell Beaker Culture, derived
burial ritual symbolism) appear to have rst fused in the
from their common ancestor the Yamna culture. These
Lower Rhine region.[10][16]
features include pottery decorated with cord impressions,
single burial and the shaft-hole axe.[22] A review in 2014
revealed that single burial, communal burial and reuse
3 Expansion and culture contact
of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout the Bell
Beaker zone.[23] This overturns a previous conviction that
The initial moves from the Tagus estuary were mar- single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell
itime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded
'enclaves were established in south-western Spain and Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transsouthern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the mitted westwards along the exchange networks from the
Po valley in Italy, probably via ancient western Alpine Rhine to the Loire, [24][25] and northwards across the
trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A north- English Channel to Britain.[2][26]
ern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identied at
The enclave established in southern Brittany was linked Ross Island in the period 2400-2200 BC, was associclosely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, ated with early Beaker pottery.[2][27] Here the local suland across the Gtinais valley to the Seine valley, and pharsenide ores were smelted to produce the rst copper
thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established axes used in Britain and Ireland.[2] The same technoloroute reected in early stone axe distributions and it was gies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and
via this network that Maritime Bell Beakers rst reached south of France.[2][28] The evidence is sucient to supthe Lower Rhine in about 2600 BC.[2][19]
port the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell
Another pulse had brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island
in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In the Carpathian Basin
the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vuedol culture, which had evolved

Beakers along the Atlantic and into the Mediterranean,

using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare
raw materials.[2]

3.1

Migration vs. acculturation

Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and

its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record, along
with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as
the Bell Beaker package, the explanation for the Beaker
culture until the last decades of the 20th century was
to interpret it as the migration of one group of people
across Europe. However, British and American archaeology since the 1960s had been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of Bell Beaker
Folk lost ground, although recent genetic ndings lend
renewed support to the migratory hypothesis. A theory
of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement
was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in
the mid-1970s.[29]

ments for a new interpretation that denies an ideological

dimension.[30]
A Strontium isotope analysis of 86 people from Bell
Beaker graves in Bavaria suggests that 18-25% of all
graves were occupied by people who came from a considerable distance outside the area. This was true of children
as well as adults, indicative of some signicant migration wave. Given the similarities with readings from people living on loess soils, the general direction of the local
movement according to Price et al., is from the northeast
to the southwest.[31]

4 Extent and impact

Under the pots, not people theory the Beaker culture

is seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious
beliefs and copper, bronze and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons and
stone wrist-guards) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new
knowledge may have come about by any combination of
population movements and cultural contact. An example
might be as part of a prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as
those demonstrated by nds made along the seaways of
Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may
be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution
of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes,
it was suggested that Beaker 'folk' were originally bronze
traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic
or early Chalcolithic cultures creating local styles. Close 3,500 years old, 40 cm (16 in) high Giant Beaker of Pavenanalysis of the bronze tools associated with beaker use stdt, Gtersloh town museum, Germany
suggests an early Iberian source for the copper, followed
subsequently by Central European and Bohemian ores.
Bell Beaker people took advantage of transport by sea
Investigations in the Mediterranean and France recently and rivers, creating a cultural spread extending from Iremoved the discussion to reemphasize the importance of land to the Carpathian Basin and south along the Atmigration to the Bell Beaker story. Instead of being lantic coast and along the Rhne valley to Portugal, North
and Sicily, even penetrating northern and central
pictured as a fashion or a simple diusion of objects Africa
[32]
Its remains have been found in what is now PorItaly.
and their use, the investigation of over 300 sites showed
tugal,
Spain,
France (excluding the central massif), Great
that human groups actually moved in a process that inBritain
and
Ireland,
the Low Countries, and Germany bevolved explorations, contacts, settlement, diusion, and
Elbe
and
Rhine, with an extension along the
tween
the
acculturation/assimilation. Some elements show the inupper
Danube
into
the
Vienna Basin (Austria), Hungary
uence from the north and east, and other elements reveal
and
the
Czech
Republic,
with Mediterranean outposts on
the south-east of France to be an important cross road
Sardinia
and
Sicily;
there
is less certain evidence for dion an important route of communication and exchange
rect
penetration
in
the
east.
spreading north. A distinctive barbed wire pottery decoration is thought to have migrated through central Italy
rst. The pattern of movements was diverse and complicated, along the Atlantic coast and the northern Mediterranean coast, and sometimes also far inland. The prominent central role of Portugal in the region and the quality
of the pottery all across Europe are forwarded as argu-

Beaker-type vessels remained in use longest in the British

Isles; late beakers in other areas are classied as early
Bronze Age (Barbed Wire Beakers in the Netherlands,
Giant Beakers (Riesenbecher). The new international
trade routes opened by the Beaker people became rmly
established and the culture was succeeded by a number

EXTENT AND IMPACT

of Bronze Age cultures, among them the ntice culture

in Central Europe, the Elp culture and Hilversum culture
in the Netherlands, the Atlantic Bronze Age in the British
Isles and the Atlantic coast of Europe, and by the Nordic
Bronze Age, a culture of Scandinavia and northernmost
Germany-Poland.

4.1

Iberian Peninsula

Reconstruction of a Beaker burial, (National Archaeological

Museum of Spain, Madrid)

BC.

Vessel from Ciempozuelos (Spain) dated from the Bronze Age

(National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid)

The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the Iberian Peninsula denes the late phase of the local Chalcolithic and even intrudes in the earliest centuries of the Bronze Age.[33] A
review of radiocarbon dates for Bell Beaker across Europe found that some of the earliest were found in Portugal, where the range from Zambujal and Cerro de la
Virgen (Spain) ran between 2900 BC and 2500 BC, in
contrast to the rather later range for Andalusia (between
2500 BC to 2200 BC).[14]
At present no internal chronology for the various Bell
Beaker-related styles has been achieved yet for Iberia.[34]
Peninsular corded Bell Beakers are usually found in
coastal or near coastal regions in three main regions: the
western Pyrenees, the lower Ebro and adjacent east coast,
and the northwest (Galicia and northern Portugal).[35] A
corded-zoned Maritime variety (C/ZM), proposed to be
a hybrid between AOC and Maritime Herringbone, was
mainly found in burial contexts and expanded westward,
especially along the mountain systems of the Meseta.

Very early dates for Bell Beakers were found in Castelo

Velho de Freixo de Numo in Guarda, northern Portugal.
The site was located on the summit of a spur. A shortlived rst occupation of pre-Bell Beaker building phase
about 3000 BC revealed the remains of a tower, some
pavings and structures for burning. After a break of one
or two centuries, Bell Beaker pottery was introduced in
a second building phase that lasted to the Early Bronze
Age, about 1800 BC. A third building phase followed directly and lasted to about 1300 BC, after which the site
was covered with layers of stone and clay, apparently deliberately, and abandoned.
The second building phase was dominated by a highly coherent group of pottery within the regional Chalcolithic
styles, representing Maritime Bell Beakers of the local
(northern Portuguese), penteada decoration style in various patterns, using lines of points, incision or impression. Three of them were carbon dated to the rst half
of the 3rd millennium BC. The site demonstrates a notable absence of more common Bell Beaker pottery styles
such as Maritime Herringbone and Maritime Lined varieties found in nearby sites like Castanheiro do Vento and
Crasto de Palheiros. One non-local Bell Beaker sherd,
however, belonging to the upper part of a beaker with
a curved neck and thin walls, was found at the bedrock
base of this second phase. The technique and patterning are classic forms in the context of pure European
and Peninsular corded ware. In the Iberian Peninsula this
AOC type was traditionally restricted to half a dozen scattered sites in the western Pyrenees, the lower Ebro and
the Spanish east coast: especially a vessel at Filomena at
Villarreal, Castelln (Spain), has parallels with the decoration. In Porto Torro, at inner Alentejo (southern Portugal), a similar vessel was found having a date ultimately
corrected to between 2823 and 2658 BC. All pottery was
locally made.

With some notable exceptions, most Iberian early Bell

Beaker burials are at or near the coastal regions. As for
the settlements and monuments within the Iberian context,
Beaker pottery is generally found in association with local Chalcolithic material and appears most of all as an The lack or presence of Bell Beaker elements is the basis
intrusion from the 3rd millennium in burial monuments for the division of Los Millares and Vila Nova cultures
whose origin may go back to the 4th or 5th millennium into two periods: I and II.

4.3

4.2

Central Europe

Balearic Islands

form the background to the Late Copper Age and Early

Bronze Age. Their development, diusion and long
Radiocarbon dating currently indicates a 1200-year du- range changes are determined by the great river systems.
ration for the use of the Beaker pottery on the Balearic As a third component counts the indigenous Carpathian
Islands, between c. 2475 BC and 1300 BC (Waldren and Mak/Kosihy-Caka culture.[38]
Van Strydonck 1996). There has been some evidence of The Bell Beaker settlements are still little known, and
all-corded pottery in Mallorca, generally considered the have proved remarkably dicult for archaeologists to
most ancient Bell Beaker pottery, possibly indicating an identify. This allows a modern view of Bell Beakers to
even earlier Beaker settlement about 2700 BC.[36] How- contradict results of anthropologic research.[39] The modever, in several regions this type of pottery persisted long ern view is that the Bell Beaker people, far from being the
enough to permit other possibilities. Surez Otero (1997) warlike invaders as once described by Gordon Childe
postulated this corded Beakers entered the mediterranean (1940), added rather than replaced local late Neolithic
by routes both through the Atlantic coast and through traditions into a cultural package and as such did not aleastern France. Bell Beaker pottery has been found in ways and evenly abandon all local traditions.[40] More reMallorca and Formentera but has not been observed in cent extensive DNA evidence, however, suggests a signifMenorca or Ibiza. Collective burials in dolmen struc- icant replacement of earlier populations.[41]
tures in Ibiza could be contrasted against the individual
burials in Mallorca. In its latest phase (c. 1750-1300 cal Bell Beaker domestic ware has no predecessors in
BC) the local Beaker context became associated with the Bohemia and Southern Germany, shows no genetic redistinctive ornamented Boquique pottery[37] demonstrat- lation to the local Late Copper Age Corded Ware, nor
ing clear maritime links with the (megalithic) coastal re- to other cultures in the area, and is considered somegions of Catalonia, also assessed to be directly related to thing completely new. The Bell Beaker domestic ware
the late Cogotas complex. In most of the areas of the of Southern Germany are not as closely related to the
mainland Boquique pottery falls into the latter stages of Corded Ware as would be indicated by their burial rites.
the Bell Beaker Complex as well. Along with other ev- Settlements link the Southern German Bell Beaker culidence during the earlier Beaker period in the Balearics, ture to the seven regional provinces of the Eastern Group,
c. 2400-2000 BC, as shown by the local presence of ele- represented by many settlement traces, especially from
phant ivory objects together with signicant Beaker pot- Moravia and the Hungarian Bell Beaker-Csepel group betery and other nds (Waldren 1979 and Waldren 1998), ing the most important. In 2002 one of the largest Bell
this maritime interaction can be shown to have a long tra- Beaker cemeteries in Central Europe was discovered at
[42]
dition. The abundance of dierent cultural elements that Hotice za Hanou (Moravia, Czech Republic).
persisted towards the end of the Bronze Age, show a clear The relationship to the western Bell Beakers groups, and
continuity of dierent regional and intrusive traditions.
the contemporary cultures of the Carpathian basin to the
[43]
The presence of perforated Beaker pottery, tradition- south east, is much less. Research in Northern Poland
ally considered to be used for making cheese, at Son shifted the north-eastern frontier of this complex to the
Ferrandell-Oleza (Waldren 1998: 95) and at Coval Sim western parts of the Baltic with the adjacent Northern
(Coll 2000), conrms the introduction of production and European plain. Typical Bell Beaker fragments from the
conservation of dairy. Also, the presence of spindles at site of Ostrikovac-Djura at the Serbian river Morava were
sites like Son Ferrandell-Oleza (Waldren 1998: 94) or Es presented at the Riva del Garda conference in 1998, some
Velar dAprop (Carreras y Covas 1984) point to knowl- hundred km south-east of the Hungarian Csepel-group.
edge of making thread and textiles from wool. However, Bell Beaker related material has now been uncovered
more details on the strategies for tending and slaughtering in a line from the Baltic Sea down to the Adriatic and
the Ionian Sea, including countries such as Bielo-Russia,
the domestic animals involved are forthcoming.
Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, AlBeing traditionally associated with the introduction of bania, Macedonia and even Greece.[44]
metallurgy, the rst traces of copper working in the
The Bell Beaker culture settlements in Southern GerBalearics was also clearly associated with Bell Beakers.
many and in the East-Group show evidence of mixed
farming and animal husbandry, and indicators such as
millstones and spindle whorls prove the sedentary char4.3 Central Europe
acter of the Bell Beaker people, and the durability
of their settlements.[43] Especially some well-equipped
In their large-scale study on radiocarbon dating of the Bell
child-burials seem to indicate sense of predestined social
Beakers, J. Mller and S. Willingen established that the
position, indicating a socially complex society. However,
Bell Beaker Culture in Central Europe started after 2500
analysis of grave furnishing, size and deepness of grave
BC.[14]
pits, position within the cemetery, did not lead to any
Two great coexisting and separate Central European strong conclusions on the social divisions.
cultures the Corded Ware with its regional groups
The Late Copper Age is regarded as a continuous culture
and the Eastern Group of the Bell Beaker Culture

6
system connecting the Upper Rhine valley to the western edge of the Carpathian Basin. Late Copper Age 1
was dened in Southern Germany by the connection of
the late Cham Culture, Globular Amphora culture and
the older Corded Ware Culture of beaker group 1 that
is also referred to as Horizon A or Step A. Early Bell
Beaker Culture intruded[13] into the region at the end of
the Late Copper Age 1, at about 26002550 BC. Middle Bell Beaker corresponds to Late Copper Age 2 and
here an eastwest Bell Beaker cultural gradient became
visible through the dierence in the distribution of the
groups of beakers with and without handles, cups and
bowls, in the three regions AustriaWestern Hungary, the
Danube catchment area of Southern Germany, and the
Upper Rhine/lake Constance/Eastern Switzerland area
for all subsequent Bell Beaker periods.[45] This middle
Bell Beaker Culture is the main period when almost all
the cemeteries in Southern Germany begin. Younger
Bell Beaker Culture of Early Bronze Age shows analogies
to the Proto-ntice Culture in Moravia and the Early
Nagyrv Culture of the Carpathian Basin.
During the Bell Beaker period a border runs through
southern Germany, which divides culturally a northern
from a southern area. The northern area focuses on the
Rhine area that belongs to the Bell Beaker West Group,
while the southern area occupies the Danube river system
and belongs to the homogeneous East Group which overlaps with the Corded Ware Culture and other groups of
the Late Neolithic and of the earliest Bronze Age. Nevertheless, southern Germany shows some independent developments of itself.[13] Although a broadly parallel evolution with early, middle and younger Bell Beaker Culture
was detected, the Southern Germany middle Bell Beaker
development of metope decorations and stamp and furrow engraving techniques do not appear on beakers in
Austria-Western Hungary, and handled beakers are completely absent. It is contemporary to Corded Ware in the
vicinity, that has been attested by associated nds of middle Corded Ware (chronologically referred to as beaker
group 2 or Step B) and younger Geiselgasteig Corded
Ware beakers (beaker group 3 or Step C). Bell Beaker
Culture in Bavaria used a specic type of copper, which
is characterized by combinations of trace elements. This
same type of copper was spread over the area of the Bell
Beaker East Group.
Previously archeology considered the Bell-beaker people to have lived only within a limited territory of the
Carpathian Basin and for a short time, without mixing
with the local population. Although there are very few
evaluable anthropological nds, the appearance of the
characteristic planoccipital (attened back) Taurid type
in the populations of some later cultures (e.g. Kisapostag and GtaWieselburg cultures) suggested a mixture
with the local population contradicting such archaeological theories. According to archaeology, the populational
groups of the Bell-beakers also took part in the formation of the Gta-Wieselburg culture on the western fringes

EXTENT AND IMPACT

of the Carpathian Basin, which could be conrmed with

the anthropological Bell Beaker series in Moravia and
Germany.[39]
In accordance with anthropological evidence, it has been
concluded the Bell Beakers intruded in an already established form the southern part of Germany as much as the
East Group area.[13]

4.4 Ireland

A modern reconstruction of the halberd from Carn, County

Mayo, which was found with its oak handle surviving. The shaft
is just over one metre long.

Beakers arrived in Ireland around 2500 BC and fell out of

use around 1700 BC (Needham 1996). The beaker pottery of Ireland was rarely used as a grave good, but is often found in domestic assemblages from the period. This
stands in contrast to the rest of Europe where it frequently
found in both roles. The inhabitants of Ireland used food
vessels as a grave good instead. The large, communal
passage tombs of the Irish Neolithic were no longer being constructed during the Early Bronze Age (although
some, such as Newgrange were re-used (OKelly 1982)).
The preferred method of burial seems to have been singular graves and cists in the east, or in small wedge tombs
in the west. Cremation was also common.
The advent of the Bronze Age Beaker culture in Ireland is accompanied by the destruction of smaller satellite tombs at Knowth[46] and collapses of the great cairn
at Newgrange,[47] marking an end to the Neolithic culture
of megalithic passage tombs.
Beakers are found in large numbers in Ireland, and
the technical innovation of ring-built pottery indicates
that the makers were also present.[48] Classication of

4.4

Ireland

pottery in Ireland and Britain has distinguished a total of seven intrusive[49] beaker groups originating from
the continent and three groups of purely insular character having evolved from them. Five out of seven
of the intrusive Beaker groups also appear in Ireland:
the European bell group, the All-over cord beakers,
the Northern British/North Rhine beakers, the Northern British/Middle Rhine beakers and the Wessex/Middle
Rhine beakers. However, many of the features or innovations of Beaker society in Britain never reached
Ireland.[50] Instead, quite dierent customs predominated
in the Irish record that were apparently inuenced by the
traditions of the earlier inhabitants.[51] Some features that
are found elsewhere in association to later types[52] of
Earlier Bronze Age Beaker pottery, indeed spread to Ireland, however, without being incorporated into the same
close and specic association of Irish Beaker context.[53]
The Wessex/Middle Rhine gold discs bearing wheel and
cross motifs that were probably sewn to garments, presumably to indicate status and reminiscent of racquet
headed pins found in Eastern Europe,[54] enjoy a general
distribution throughout the country, however, never in direct association with beakers.
In 1984, a Beaker period copper dagger blade was recovered from the Sillees River near Ross Lough, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland.[55] The at, triangular-shaped
copper blade was 171 mm (6.73 in) long, with bevelled
edges and a pointed tip, and featured an integral tang
that accepted a riveted handle.[55] Flint arrow-heads and
copper-blade daggers with handle tangs, found in association with Beaker pottery in many other parts of Europe,
have a date later than the initial phase of Beaker People
activity in Ireland.[56] Also the typical Beaker wristguards
seem to have entered Ireland by cultural diusion only,
after the rst intrusions, and unlike English and Continental Beaker burials never made it to the graves. The
same lack of typical Beaker association applies to the
about thirty found stone battle axes. A gold ornament
found in County Down that closely resembles a pair of
ear-rings from Ermegeira, Portugal, has a composition
that suggests it was imported.[56] Incidental nds suggest
links to non-British Beaker territories, like a fragment
of a bronze blade in County Londonderry that has been
likened to the palmella points of Iberia,[49] even though
the relative scarcity of beakers, and Beaker-compatible
material of any kind, in the south-west are regarded as
an obstacle to any colonisation directly from Iberia, or
even from France.[49] Their greater concentration in the
northern part of the country,[48] which traditionally is regarded as the part of Ireland least blessed with sources of
copper, has led many authorities to question the role of
Beaker People in the introduction of metallurgy to Ireland. However, indications of their use of stream sediment copper, low in traces of lead and arsenic, and Beaker
nds connected to mining and metalworking at Ross Island, County Kerry, provide an escape to such doubts.[57]

7
collared and cordoned) of the Irish Earlier Bronze Age
have strong roots in the western European Beaker tradition. Recently, the concept of this food vessels was discarded and replaced by a concept of two dierent traditions that rely on typology: the bowl tradition and the
vase tradition, the bowl tradition being the oldest[58] as it
has been found inserted in existing Neolithic (pre-beaker)
tombs, both court tombs and passage tombs. The bowl
tradition occurs over the whole country except the southwest and feature a majority of pit graves, both in at
cemeteries and mounds, and a high incidence of uncremated skeletons, often in crouched position.[59] The vase
tradition has a general distribution and feature almost exclusively cremation. The exed skeleton of a man 1.88
tall in a cist in a slightly oval round cairn with food vessel at Cornaclery, County Londonderry, was described
in the 1942 excavation report as typifying the race of
Beaker Folk",[60] although the dierences between Irish
nds and e.g. the British combination of round barrows
with crouched, unburnt burials make it dicult to establishes the exact nature of the Beaker Peoples colonization
of Ireland.[50]
In general, the early Irish Beaker intrusions don't attest[61]
the overall Beaker package of innovations that, once
fully developed, swept Europe elsewhere, leaving Ireland
behind.[62] The Irish Beaker period is characterized by
the earliness[56] of Beaker intrusions, by isolation[56] and
by inuences and surviving traditions of autochthons.[63]
Beaker culture introduces the practice of burial in single
graves, suggesting an Earlier Bronze Age social organisation of family groups.[64] Towards the Later Bronze Age
the sites move to potentially fortiable hilltops, suggesting a more clan"-type structure.[65] Although the typical Bell Beaker practice of crouched burial has been
observed,[66] cremation was readily adopted[67] in accordance with the previous tradition of the autochthons.[46]
In a tumulus the nd of the extended skeleton of a woman
accompanied by the remains of a red deer and a small
seven-year-old stallion is noteworthy, including the hint
to a Diana-like religion.[68] A few burials seem to indicate social status, though in other contexts an emphasis
to special skills is more likely.[69]
Ireland has the greatest concentration of gold lunulae and
stone wrist-guards in Europe. However, neither of these
items were deposited in graves and they tend to be found
isolated and at random, making it dicult to draw conclusions about their use or role in society at the time.

One of the most important sites in Ireland during this period is Ross Island. A series of copper mines from here
are the earliest known in Ireland, starting from around
2500 BC (O'Brien 2004). A comparison of chemical
traces and lead isotope analysis from these mines with
copper artefacts strongly suggests that Ross Island was
the sole source of copper in Ireland between the dates
2500-2200 BC. In addition, two thirds of copper arteThe featured "food vessels" and cinerary urns (encrusted, facts from Britain also display the same chemical and

isotopic signature, strongly suggesting that Irish copper

was a major export to Britain (Northover et al. 2001).
Traces of Ross Island copper can be found even further aeld; in the Netherlands it makes up 12% of analysed copper artefacts, and Brittany 6% of analysed copper artefacts[70] After 2200 BC there is greater chemical
variation in British and Irish copper artefacts, which tallies well with the appearance of other mines in southern
Ireland and north Wales. After 2000 BC, other copper
sources supersede Ross Island. The latest workings from
the Ross Island mines is dated to around 1700 BC.

EXTENT AND IMPACT

ned state.[73] It was used to turn copper into bronze from

around 2200 BC and widely traded throughout Britain
and into Ireland. Other possible European sources of tin
are located in Brittany and Iberia, but it is not thought
they were exploited so early as these areas did not have
Bronze until after it was well established in Britain and
Ireland [74]

The most famous site in Britain from this period is

Stonehenge, which had its Neolithic form elaborated extensively. Many barrows surround it and an unusual number of 'rich' burials can be found nearby, such as the
As well as exporting raw copper/bronze, there were some Amesbury Archer. Another site of particular interest is
technical and cultural developments in Ireland that had Ferriby on the Humber estuary, where western Europes
an important impact on other areas of Europe. Irish oldest plank built boat was recovered.
food vessels were adopted in northern Britain around
2200 BC and this roughly coincides with a decline in
the use of beakers in Britain (Needham 1996). The 4.6 Italian Peninsula
bronze halberd (not to be confused with the medieval
halberd) was a weapon in use in Ireland from around
2400-2000 BC[71] They are essentially broad blades that
were mounted horizontally on a meter long handle, giving greater reach and impact than any known contemporary weapon (OFlaherty 2007). They were subsequently
widely adopted in other parts of Europe (Schuhmacher
2002), possibly showing a change in the technology of
warfare.
The Bronze Age Beaker period is noteworthy, since
archeological nds seem to indicate a strong continuity
with native Bronze Age traditions in Ireland as much
as Britain. No evidence of other large-scale immigrations took place, and many scholars deny Celtic speech
originated solely from La Tne culture, whose migrations started at about 400 BC. Instead, those scholars
propose Celtic languages evolved gradually and simultaneously over a large area by way of a common heritage
and close social, political and religious links. Although
controversial, the theory ts (according to its proponents)
the archeological evidence that provides little support for
westward migrations of Celtic people matching the historically known movements south and west.[72]
Bell Beaker sites in Italy

4.5

Britain

Italian Peninsula's most aected areas are the Po Valley, in particular the area of Lake Garda, and Tuscany.
Beakers arrived in Britain around 2500 BC, declined in The bell-shaped vases appear in these areas of central and
use around 2200-2100 BC with the emergence of food northern Italy as foreign elements integrated in the pre[75]
vessels and cinerary urns and nally fell out of use around existing Remedello and Rinaldone cultures.
1700 BC (Needham 1996). The earliest British beakers Graves with Beaker artifacts have been discovered in the
were similar to those from the Rhine (Needham 2005), Brescia area, like that of Ca' di Marco (Fiesse), while in
but later styles are most similar to those from Ireland central Italy, bell-shaped glasses were found in the tomb
(Case 1993). In Britain, domestic assemblages from this of Fosso Conicchio (Viterbo).[76]
period are very rare, making it hard to draw conclusions
about many aspects of society. Most British beakers
come from funerary contexts.
4.7 Sardinia
Britains only unique export in this period is thought to be
tin. It was probably gathered in streams in Cornwall and See also: Beaker culture in Sardinia
Devon as cassiterite pebbles and traded in this raw, unre-

4.9

Jutland

Sardinia has been in contact with extra-insular communities in Corsica, Tuscany, Liguria and Provence
since the Stone Age. From the late third millennium
BC on, comb-impressed Beaker ware, as well as other
Beaker material in Monte Claro contexts, has been found
(mostly in burials, suchs as Domus de Janas), demonstrating continuing relationships with the western Mediterranean. Elsewhere, Beaker material has been found
stratigraphically above Monte Claro and at the end of the
Chalcolithic period in association with the related Bronze
Age Bonnanaro culture (1800-1600 BC), for which C-14
dates calibrate to c. 2250 BC. There is virtually no evidence in Sardinia of external contacts in the early second
millennia, apart from late Beakers and close parallels between Bonnannaro pottery and that of the North Italian
Polada culture.
Like elsewhere in Europe and in the Mediterranean area,
the Bell Beaker culture in Sardinia (2100-1800 BC) is
characterized by the typical ceramics decorated with
overlaid horizontal bands and associated nds: brassards,
V-pierced buttons etc.; for the rst time gold items appeared on the island (collier of the Tomb of Bingia 'e
Monti, Gonnostramatza). The dierent styles and decorations of the ceramics which succeed through the time
allow to split the Beaker culture in Sardinia into three
chronological phases: A1 (2100-2000 BC), A2 (20001900 BC), B (1900-1800 BC).[77] In these various phases
is observable the succession of two components of dierent geographical origin: the rst Franco-Iberian and the
second Central European.[78]
It appears likely that Sardinia was the intermediary that
brought Beaker materials to Sicily.[79]

4.8

Sicily

9
Beakers only appear 200300 years after the rst appearance of Bell Beakers in Europe, at the early part of the
Danish Late Neolithic Period (LN I) starting at 2350 BC.
These sites are concentrated in northern Jutland around
the Limfjord and on the Djursland peninsula, largely contemporary to the local Upper Grave Period. In east central Sweden and western Sweden, barbed wire decoration characterised the period 24601990 BC, linked to
another Beaker derivation of northwestern Europe.
Northern Jutland has abundant sources of high quality
int, which had previously attracted industrious mining,
large-scale production, and the comprehensive exchange
of int objects: notably axes and chisels. The Danish
Beaker period, however, was characterized by the manufacture of lanceolate int daggers, described as a completely new material form without local antecedents in
int and clearly related to the style of daggers circulating elsewhere in Beaker dominated Europe. Presumably
Beaker culture spread from here to the remainder of Denmark, and to other regions in Scandinavia and northern
Germany as well. Central and eastern Denmark adopted
this dagger fashion and, to a limited degree, also archers
equipment characteristic to Beaker culture, although here
Beaker pottery remained less common.
Also, the spread of metallurgy in Denmark is intimately
related to the Beaker representation in northern Jutland.
The LN I metalwork is distributed throughout most of
Denmark, but a concentration of early copper and gold
coincides with this core region, hence suggesting a connection between Beakers and the introduction of metallurgy. Most LN I metal objects are distinctly inuenced by the western European Beaker metal industry,
gold sheet ornaments and copper at axes being the predominant metal objects. The LN I copper at axes divide into As-Sb-Ni copper, recalling so-called Dutch Bell
Beaker copper and the As-Ni copper found occasionally
in British and Irish Beaker contexts, the mining region of
Dutch Bell Beaker copper being perhaps Brittany; and the
Early Bronze Age Singen (As-Sb-Ag-Ni) and senring
(As-Sb-Ag) coppers having a central European probably Alpine origin.

The Beaker was introduced in Sicily from Sardinia and

spread mainly in the north-west and south-west of the
island. In the northwest and in the Palermo kept almost intact its cultural and social characteristics, while
in the south-west there was a strong integration with local cultures.[80] The only known single bell-shaped glass
The Beaker group in northern Jutland forms an integrated
in eastern Sicily was found in Syracuse.[81]
part of the western European Beaker Culture, while western Jutland provided a link between the Lower Rhine
area and northern Jutland. The local ne-ware pottery
4.9 Jutland
of Beaker derivation reveal links with other Beaker reIn Denmark, large areas of forested land were cleared to gions in western Europe, most specically the Veluwe
be used for pasture and the growing of cereals during the group at the Lower Rhine. Concurrent introduction of
Single Grave culture and in the Late Neolithic Period. metallurgy shows that some people must have crossed
Faint traces of Bell Beaker inuence can be recognized cultural boundaries. Danish Beakers are contemporary
already in the pottery of the Upper Grave phase of the with the earliest Early Bronze Age (EBA) of the East
Single Grave period, and even of the late Ground Grave Group of Bell Beakers in central Europe, and with the
phase, such as occasional use of AOO-like or zoned deco- oruit of Beaker cultures of the West Group in western
ration and other typical ornamentation, while Bell Beaker Europe. The latter comprise Veluwe and Epi-Maritime
associated objects such as wristguards and small copper in Continental northwestern Europe and the Middle Style
trinkets, also found their way into this northern territo- Beakers (Style 2) in insular western Europe. The interacries of the Corded Ware Culture. Domestic sites with tion between the Beaker groups on the Veluwe Plain and

10

PHYSICAL AND GENETIC ANTHROPOLOGY

in Jutland must, at least initially, have been quite intensive. All-over ornamented (AOO) and All-over-corded
(AOC), and particularly Maritime style beakers are featured, although from a fairly late context and possibly
rather of Epi-maritime style, equivalent to the situation
in the north of the Netherlands, where Maritime ornamentation continued after it ceased in the central region
of Veluwe and were succeeded c. 2300 BC by beakers of
the Veluwe and Epi-Maritime style.[82]

related more closely to the early ntice culture across

the Baltic Sea. Before the turn of the millennium the typical Beaker features had gone, their total duration being
200300 years at the most. A similar picture of cultural
integration is featured among Bell Beakers in central Europe, thus challenging previous theories of Bell Beakers
as an elitist or purely super-structural phenomenon.[87]
The connection with the East Group Beakers of ntice
had intensied considerably in LN II, thus triggering a
Clusters of Late Neolithic Beaker presence similar to new social transformation and innovations in metallurgy
that would announce the actual beginning of the Northern
northern Jutland appear as pockets or islands of
[88]
Beaker Culture in northern Europe, such as Mecklenburg, Bronze Age.
Schleswig-Holstein, and southern Norway.[83] In northern
central Poland Beaker-like representations even occur in
a contemporary EBA setting. The frequent occurrence 5 Postulated linguistic connections
of Beaker pottery in settlements points at a large-scaled
form of social identity or cultural identity, or perhaps an Bell Beaker has been suggested as a candidate for an early
ethnic identity.
Indo-European culture; more specically, an ancestral
In eastern Denmark and Scania one-person graves occur
primarily in at grave cemeteries. This is a continuation
of the burial custom characterising the Scanian Battle-axe
Culture, often to continue into the early Late Neolithic.
Also in northern Jutland, the body of the deceased was
normally arranged lying on its back in an extended position, but a typical Bell Beaker contracted position occurs
occasionally. Typical to northern Jutland, however, cremations have been reported, also outside the Beaker core
area, once within the context of an almost full Bell Beaker
equipment.

proto-Celtic.[89] However, it has most recently been suggested that the Beaker culture was associated with a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed Northwest Indo-European, ancestral to not only Celtic but
equally Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic.[90]

The introductory phase of the manufacture and use of

int daggers, around 2350 BC, must all in all be characterised as a period of social change. Apel argued
that an institutionalised apprenticeship system must have
existed.[84] Craftsmanship was transmitted by inheritance
in certain families living in the vicinity of abundant resources of high-quality int. Debbie Olaussons (1997)
examinations indicate that int knapping activities, particularly the manufacture of daggers, reect a relatively
low degree of craft specialisation, probably in the form
of a division of labour between households.

6.1 Skeletal studies

Noteworthy was the adoption of European-style woven

wool clothes kept together by pins and buttons in contrast
to the earlier usage of clothing made of leather and plant
bres.[85] Two-aisled timber houses in Late Neolithic
Denmark correspond to similar houses in southern Scandinavia and at least parts of central Scandinavia and lowland northern Germany. In Denmark, this mode of building houses is clearly rooted in a Middle Neolithic tradition. In general, Late Neolithic house building styles were
shared over large areas of northern and central Europe.[86]
Towards the transition to LN II some farm houses became
extraordinarily large.

6 Physical and genetic anthropology

Historical craniometric studies found that the Beaker people appeared to be of a dierent physical type than those
earlier populations in the same geographic areas. They
were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic.
The early studies on the Beakers which were based on
the analysis of their skeletal remains, were craniometric. This apparent evidence of migration was in line with
archaeological discoveries linking Beaker culture to new
farming techniques, mortuary practices, copper-working
skills, and other cultural innovations. However, such
evidence from skeletal remains was brushed aside as a
new movement developed in archaeology from the 1960s,
which stressed cultural continuity. Anti-migrationist authors either paid little attention to skeletal evidence or
argued that dierences could be explained by environmental and cultural inuences. Margaret Cox and Simon
Mays sum up the position: Although it can hardly be
said that craniometric data provide an unequivocal answer to the problem of the Beaker folk, the balance of
the evidence would at present seem to favour a migration
hypothesis.[91]

Non-metrical research concerning the Beaker people

The cultural concepts originally adopted from Beaker
in Britain also cautiously pointed in the direction of
groups at the lower Rhine blended or integrated with loimmigration.[92] Subsequent studies, such as one concerncal Late Neolithic Culture. For a while the region was set
ing the Carpathian Basin,[39] and a non-metrical analysis
apart from central and eastern Denmark, that evidently
of skeletons in central-southern Germany,[93] have also

11
identied marked typological dierences with the pre- tion process between the Yamnaya; Neolithic farmers;
Beaker inhabitants.
and western European hunter gatherers who were present
[103]
Jocelyne Desideri examined the teeth in skeletons from in Europe since at least the Mesolithic.
Bell Beaker sites in Northern Spain, Southern France,
Switzerland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. Examining dental characteristics that have been independently
shown to correlate with genetic relatedness, she found
that only in Northern Spain and the Czech Republic
were there demonstrable links between immediately previous populations and Bell Beaker populations. Elsewhere there was a discontinuity.[94]

From a mitochondrial DNA perspective, haplogroup H,

which has high incidence (40%) throughout Europe, has
received similar attention. Early studies by Richards et
al (2000) suggested that it arose 2823 kya (thousand
years ago), spreading into Europe 20 kya, before then
re-expanding from an Iberian glacial refuge 15 kya,
calculations subsequently corroborated by Pereira et al.
(2005).[104] However, a larger study by Roostalu et al.
(2007), incorporating more data from the Near East, suggested that whilst Hg H did begin to expand c. 20 kya, this
was limited to the Near East, Caucasus and Southeastern
6.2 Genetic studies
Europe. Rather its subsequent spread further west occurred later, in the post-glacial period from a postulated
Early papers publishing results on European-wide YSouth Caucasian refugium.[105] This hypothesis has been
DNA marker frequencies, such as those of Semino
supported by a recent ancient DNA analysis study, which
(2000) and Rosser (2000), correlated haplogroup R1blinks the expansion of mtDNA Hg H in Western Europe
M269 with the earliest episodes of European colonizawith the Bell Beaker phenomenon.[41]
tion by anatomically modern humans (AMH). The peak
frequencies of M269 in Iberia (especially the Basque re- Whilst such studies are insightful, even if the dates postugion) and the Atlantic faade were postulated to represent lated by authors are correct, they do not necessarily imply
signatures of re-colonization of the European West fol- that the spread of a particular genetic marker represents
lowing the Last Glacial Maximum.[95][96] However, even a distinct population, 'tribe' or language group. Genetic
prior to recent criticisms and renements, the idea that studies have often been treated with suspicion not only
Iberian R1b carrying males repopulated most of western by archaeologists and cultural anthropologists, but even
Europe was not consistent with ndings which revealed by fellow population geneticists.[41]
that Italian M269 lineages are not derivative of Iberian
ones.[97]
More recently, data and calculations from Myres et
al. (2011),[98] Cruciani et al. (2011)[99] Arredi et al.
(2007),[100] and Balaresque et al. (2010)[101] suggest a
Late Neolithic entry of M269 into Europe.
These hypotheses appear to be corroborated by more direct evidence from ancient DNA. R1b was detected in
two male skeletons from a German Bell Beaker site dated
to 2600-2500 BC at Kromsdorf, one of which tested positive for M269 but negative for its U106 subclade (note
that the P312 subclade was not tested for), while for the
other skeleton the M269 test was unclear.[102] A later Bell
Beaker male skeleton from Quedlinburg, Germany dated
to 2296-2206 BC tested positive for R1b M269 P312
subclade.[103] Ancient Y-DNA results for the remains of
Beaker people from Iberia have yet to be obtained.
Haak et al. (2015) concluded that R1b was very likely
spread into Europe from the Pontic-Caspian steppe after
3,000 BCE by the Yamna people, putative Proto-IndoEuropeans under the Kurgan hypothesis. The authors noticed a paucity of haplogroup R1b in European population samples predating the Bronze Age, with only one of
the 70 individuals from Mesolithic and Neolithic Europe
belonging to haplogroup R1 or any of its branches.
The study also found, via autosomal analysis, that the majority of post-Neolithic populations in Europe, including
their ancient samples taken from Beaker culture sites in
central Europe, are the result of a three-way miscegena-

7 See also
Beaker (disambiguation)
Amesbury Archer
Prehistoric Britain
Prehistoric Iberia
Bronze Age Britain
Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric
cultures

8 Notes
[1] Bradley 2007, p. 144.
[2] Cunlie, Barry (2010). Celtic from the West Chapter 1:
Celticization from the West: The Contribution of Archaeology. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. pp. 2731. ISBN
978-1-84217-410-4.
[3] The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology
[4] Fokkens & Nicolis 2012, p. 82.
[5] Ember, Melvin; Peregrine, Peter Neal, eds. (2001). Encyclopedia of Prehistory. 4 : Europe. Springer. p. 24.
ISBN 0-306-46255-9.

12

[6] Sherratt, A. G. (1987). Cups that cheered: the introduction of alcohol to prehistoric Europe. In Waldren,
W.; Kennard, R. C. Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean: denition, interpretation, theory and new site
data. The Oxford International Conference 1986. Oxford: British Archaeology Reports. pp. 81114. ISBN
9780860544265.
[7] Doce, Elisa Guerra (2006). Sobre la funcin y el signicado de la cermica campaniforme a la luz de los anlisis de contenidos trabajos de prehistoria [Function and
signicance of bell beaker pottery according to data from
residue analyses]. Trabajos de prehistoria (in Spanish). 63
(1): 6984. doi:10.3989/tp.2006.v63.i1.5. ISSN 00825638.
[8] Lemercier 2012, p. 131.
[9] Lemercier 2012.
[10] Vander Linden, Marc (2006). Le phnomne campaniforme dans l'Europe du 3me millnaire avant notre re:
Synthse et nouvelles perspectives. British Archaeological
Reports, international series, 1470 (in French). Oxford:
Archaeopress. p. 33. ISBN 9781841719061.
[11] Fokkens & Nicolis 2012, p. 200.
[12] Case, Humphrey (2007). Beakers and the Beaker Culture. In Burgess, Christopher; Topping, Peter; Lynch,
Frances. Beyond Stonehenge: Essays on the Bronze Age in
honour of Colin Burgess. Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 237254.
ISBN 9781842172155.

8 NOTES

[20] Joseph Maran, Seaborne Contacts between the Aegean,

the Balkans and the Central Mediterranean in the 3rd
Millennium BC The Unfolding of the Mediterranean
World, Between the Aegean and Baltic Seas: Prehistory
across Borders. Proceedings of the International Conference Bronze and Early Iron Age Interconnections and Contemporary Developments between the Aegean and the Regions of the Balkan Peninsula, Central and Northern Europe, University of Zagreb, 1114 April 2005, eds. I.
Galanaki, H. Tomas, Y. Galanakis and R. Laneur, Aegaeum 27 (2007) 3-21, note 55.
[21] Piguet, M.; Besse, M. (2009). Chronology and Bell
Beaker common ware. Radiocarbon. 51 (2): 817830.
[22] Harrison, R.; Heyd, V. (2007). The Transformation
of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: the example
of 'Le Petit-Chasseur I + III' (Sion, Valais, Switzerland)". Praehistorische Zeitschrift. 82 (2): 129214.
doi:10.1515/pz.2007.010.
[23] Jeunesse, C. 2014. Pratiques funraires campaniformes
en Europe - Faut-il remettre en cause la dichotomie NordSud ? La question de la rutilisation des spultures monumentales dans lEurope du 3e millnaire, in Donnes rcentes sur les pratiques funraires nolithiques de la Plaine
du Rhin suprieur, P. Lefranc, A. Denaire and C. Jeunesse
(eds), BAR International Series 2633, 211. Oxford: Archaeopress.
[24] Salinova, Laure (2000). La question du campaniforme
en France et dans les Iles Anglo-Normandes. Bulletin
de la Socit prhistorique franaise (in French). 94 (2):
259264.

[13] Heyd, Volker (1998). Die Glockenbecherkultur in

Sddeutschland Zum Stand der Forschung einer Regionalprovinzentlang der Donau [Bell Beaker Culture
in Southern Germany, State of research for a regional
province along the Danube]. In Benz, M.; van Willigen, S. Some New Approaches to the Bell Beaker 'Phenomenon': Lost Paradise...?. British Archaeological Report S690 (in German). Oxford: Hadrian. pp. 87106.
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[25] Lanting, J. N.; van der Waals, J. D. (1976). Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin. Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974. Bussum-Haarlem: Fibula-Van
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[14] Mller & van Willigen 2001, pp. 59-75.

[27] O'Brien, William (2004). Ross Island: Mining, Metal

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[15] Fitzpatrick, A. P. (2013). The arrival of the Beaker Set

in Britain and Ireland. In Koch, John T.; Cunlie, Barry
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the arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe. Oxford:
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[16] Fokkens & Nicolis 2012, p. 201.
[17] Fokkens & Nicolis 2012, p. 172.
[18] Piggot 1965, p. 101.
[19] Johannes Muller, Martin Hinz and Markus Ullrich, Bell
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[26] Needham, S. (2009). Encompassing the Sea: Maritories and Bronze Age Maritime Interactions. In Clark,
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[28] Ambert, P. (2001). La place de la mtallurgie campaniforme dans la premire mtallurgie franaise. In Nicolis, Franco. Bell Beakers Today : pottery, people, culture,
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13

[30] Lemercier, Olivier (2004). Historical model of settling

and spread of Bell Beakers Culture in the mediterranean
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[31] Price, T. Douglas; Grupe, Gisela; Schrter, Peter (1998).
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[32] The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe - Barry Cunlie, Oxford University Press (1994), pp. 250-254.
[33] F. Jord Cerd et al., Historia de Espaa 1: Prehistoria,
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[34] Jorge, Susana Oliveira (2002). An all-over corded Bell
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[35] Prieto Martnez, M. P. (2013). Unity and Circulation:
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Age to the Early Bronze Age at the north-western edge of
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[47] Flanagan 1998, p. 99.
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[54] Flanagan 1998, pp. 86-88.
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[58] Flanagan 1998, p. 104.
[59] Flanagan 1998, pp. 104-105, 111-114.
[60] Male sizes range between 157 and 191 cm (62 and 75 in),
to average 174 cm (69 in), comparable to the current male
population: Flanagan 1998, p.116
[61] Flanagan 1998, pp. 84-85, 116.
[62] Flanagan 1998, p. 133.
[63] Flanagan 1998, p. 91.
[64] Flanagan 1998, p. 150.
[65] Flanagan 1998, p. 158.
[66] Flanagan 1998, pp. 96, 151.
[67] Flanagan 1998, pp. 105-106.
[68] Flanagan 1998, p. 156.
[69] Flanagan 1998, p. 155.
[70] Northover 1999, p.214
[71] Needham 1996, p.124

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Sources
Bradley, Richard (2007). The prehistory of Britain
and Ireland. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84811-3.
Fokkens, Harry; Nicolis, Franco, eds. (2012).
Background To Beakers: inquiries in regional cultural backgrounds of the Bell Beaker complex. Leiden: Sidestone. ISBN 978-90-8890-084-6.
Flanagan, Laurence (1998). Ancient Ireland, Life
before the Celts. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. ISBN
0-7171-2433-9.
Lemercier, Olivier (2012). The Mediterranean
France beakers transition. In Fokkens, Harry;
Nicolis, Franco. Background To Beakers: inquiries
in regional cultural backgrounds of the Bell Beaker
complex. Leiden: Sidestone. pp. 117156. ISBN
978-90-8890-084-6.
Mller, Johannes; van Willigen, Samuel (2001).
New radiocarbon evidence for European Bell
Beakers and the consequences for the diusion of
the Bell Beaker Phenomenon. In Nicolis, Franco.
Bell Beakers today: Pottery, people, culture, symbols in prehistoric Europe: Proceedings of the international colloquium Riva del Garda (Trento, Italy),
11-16 may 1998, Volume 1. Trento: Provincia Autonoma di Trento. pp. 5980. ISBN
9788886602433.
Piggot, Stuart (1965). Ancient Europe from the Beginnings of Agriculture to Classical Antiquity: a Survey. Chicago: Aldine.

10 Further reading
Bradley, Richard (2007). The Prehistory of Britain
and Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0521612705.
Case, H. (1993). Beakers: Deconstruction and
After. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 59:
241268. doi:10.1017/s0079497x00003807.
Case, H. (2001). The Beaker Culture in Britain and
Ireland: Groups, European Contacts and Chronology. In Nicolis, F. (ed.). Bell Beakers Today: pottery people, culture, symbols in prehistoric Europe.
Servizio Beni Culturali Ucio Beni Archeologici. 2.
Torento. pp. 361377.
Darvill, T. (2002). Oxford Concise Dictionary of
Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19211649-5.
Harding, Anthony; Fokkens, Harry (2013). The
Oxford Handbook of European Bronze Age (Oxford Handbooks in Archaeology). Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0199572860.
Harrison, R.J. (1980). The Beaker Folk. Thames
and Hudson.
Needham, S. (1996). Chronology and periodisation in the British Bronze Age. Acta Archaeologica.
67: 121140.
Needham, S. (2005). Transforming Beaker Culture in North-West Europe: processes of fusion and
ssion. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 71:
171217. doi:10.1017/s0079497x00001006.
Northover, J.P. (1999). Hauptmann, A., Pernicka,
E., Rehren, T. and Yalin, . (eds.), eds. The earliest metalworking in South Britain. The Beginnings
of Metallurgy. Bochum: Dt. Bergbau-Museum:
211225.
Northover, J.P.N.; O'Brien, W.; Stos, S.
(2001). Lead isotopes and metal circulation
in Beaker/Early Bronze Age Ireland. Journal of
Irish Archaeology. 10: 2547.
O'Flaherty, R. (2007). A weapon of choice:
experiments with a replica Irish early Bronze
Age halberd. Antiquity. 81 (312): 425434.
doi:10.1017/s0003598x00095284.
O'Kelly, M.J. (1982). Newgrange: Archaeology, Art
and Legend. London: Thames & Hudson.
Mallory J.P. (1997) Beaker Culture. Encyclopedia
of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn.
Piccolo, S. (2013). Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric
Dolmens of Sicily. Abingdon: Brazen Head Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9565-1062-4.

16

11

Schuhmacher, T.X. (2002). Some remarks on the

origin and chronology of halberds in Europe. Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 21 (3): 263288.
doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00162.
Tusa, Sebastiano (1999). La Sicilia nella Preistoria,
Palermo: Sellerio Editore. ISBN 88-389-1440-0.

11

External links

BBC History Bronze Age Britain

Bronze Age Beaker People Wessex Culture
The Beaker Folk in the Balkans
Historical model of settling and spread of Bell
Beakers Culture in the mediterranean France
Le Campaniforme et l'Europe la n du Nolithique
All Bell Beaker scientic articles on line free access
Latest ndings that might dispute the American
view that the Beaker Culture was a dissemination
among European natives: http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/science-environment-22252099
Henge-like sanctuary of the late Bell Beaker Culture
in Central Germany https://www.academia.edu/
1076290/Systematische_Untersuchungen_der_
Kreisgrabenanlage_von_Pommelte-Zackmunde_
Salzlandkreis._Zum_Abschluss_der_Grabungen_
an_mitteldeutschen_Rondellen_im_Rahmen_der_
Forschergruppe_FOR_550

EXTERNAL LINKS

17

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