Contents

1.
2
2.
3.
4
4.
5.
6
6.
7.

Reminder
Load factor
Flightdomain
Loads
Fuselageloads
Fuselagedesign
Fuselagemanufacturing

R i d C di
Reminder:Coordinates
q
p : roll rate
q : pitch rate
r : yyaw rate

Reminder: Yawing motion

Reminder:Yawingmotion

: Side Slip
n : Rudder deflection

Reminder:pitchingmotion
: Angle of attack

m : Elevator deflection

Reminder:Rollingmotion
l

l : Aileron deflection

Reminder:moments
1
.Sl.V 2 .Cl Roll moment
2
1
M .Sl.V 2 .Cm Pitch moment
2
L

1
.Sl.V 2 .Cn Yaw moment
2

Moments in the airplane reference system

Reminder:forces
x

X, Y, Z: airplane reference system.

XA, YA, ZA: aerodynamic
y
reference system.
y

xA

1
X .S.V
S V 2 .C X Drag
D
2
1
Y .S.V 2 .CY Lateral force
2
Z

Z: Lift

X: Drag

: Angle of attack

1
.S.V 2 .CZ Lift
2

Forces in the aerodynamic reference system

z
yA

zA

Y: Lateral force

y
xA x
V

: Side Slip
p

Reminder: Aerodynamic loads

Reminder:Aerodynamicloads
They depend on :
Kinetic
Ki i pressure (q=1/2
( 1/2V)
Reference values (S, Sl)
Aerodynamic coefficient function of characteristic angles,

Example for Cz:

CZ

CZ
C
Z CZ Cz

CZ

CX

1.2

0.24

1.0

0.20

0.8

0.16

0.6

0.12

0.4

0.08

0.2

0.04

0
0

10

15

20

Load factor
Loadfactor

Aerodynamic resultant, RA
Weight, m.g

Steady level flight equation:

In ssteady
eady level
e e flight,
g , the
e lift
compensates the aircraft weigh.

Thrust, F
Inertia m
Inertia,
m.dV/dt
dV/dt

RA m g F 0

Maneuver equation:
During
maneuvers,
forces modifies the
equivalent weight.
RA m g F m

RA m g m
n.mg

inertia
aircraft
dV
dt

dV
F 0
dt

Load factor definition:

definition:
1
dV
n
g
g
dt

equivalent

n
1

n=1
weight = mg
n>1

equivalent
weight
g > mg
g
n<1

equivalent
weight < mg

Load factor
Loadfactor
x

nx

x
g

Longitudinal load factor

z

ny

nz 1

z
g

Lateral load factor

Vertical load factor

In the following, the vertical load factor will be

called by default,
called,
default load factor and written n

Loadfactor
Example of symmetric
symmetric maneuver

Aerodynamic resultant, RA

flight:

Sequence

of

Weight, m.g
Thrust, F
Inertia m
Inertia,
m.dV/dt
dV/dt

n<1

C
n

n>1

nmax
D

n=1

A E
C

E
nmin

Loadfactor

Loadfactor
Example of symmetric flight,
flight nz >1: Banked turn Radius of curvature = R; gy = 0.
0
L

ny

Lateral load factor

y
g

mV/R

Vertical load factor

1
cos

60 n 2
mg

Flightdomain
The operating flight strength limitation of an airplane are presented in the
form of a n-V diagram.
The corners correspond to the maximum permissible maneuvers and
consequently
tl it is
i sufficient
ffi i t in
i generall to
t examine
i
only
l these
th
points
i t when
h
considering loading cases.
The boundaries of the domain correspond to limit loads.
n
nmax

VA : Design maneuvering speed

VS1 : stalling speed at 1g
VC : design cruising speed
VD : design dive speed

Stall line (CZmax)

n=1

Stall line (CZmin)

nmin

VS1

VA

VC

VD

Ve

Flightdomain
n
nmax

CS 25
25..337
airplane)

nmax 2,1

Flaps up

(Civil
(Ci il

t
transport
t

24000
MTOWlbs 10000

25
nmax must not be less than 2,5
and need not be greater than
3,8

Flaps down

: Angle of attack

n=1

m : Elevator deflection

VS1

VA

nmin

AIR 2004E
2004E (military fighter)

nmax 6

nmin 0,4.nmax

VC

VD Ve

The negative limit maneuvering

load factor may not be less than
-1 at speed up to VC to zero at
VD (linear variation).
Maneuvering load factors lower
than those specified in this
approach may be used if the
airplane has features that make
it impossible to exceed these
values in flight.
flight

Flightdomain
Vc: CS 25.335 (Civil transport airplane)
Vc must be sufficiently greater than VB to provide for inadvertent speed
increases likely to occur as a result of severe atmospheric turbulence.
Vc may not be less than VB + 1,32 Uref where:
VB = design speed for maximum gust intensity
Uref = wind gust
H
V may nott exceed
d maximum
i
d in
i level
l
l flight
fli ht att maximum
i
However,
Vc
speed
continuous power.

Flightdomain
g
VD : CS 25.335 (Civil transport airplane)
VD must be selected so that VC 0,8 VD.
Diving condition to compute VD:
From an initial condition of stabilised flight
at VC, the airplane is upset, flown for 20
seconds along a flight patch 7,5 below
the initial p
path,, and then p
pulled up
p at a
load factor of 1,5g. The speed increase
occuring in this maneuver is VD.

7 5
7,5
n

n = 1,5
t = t0+20s
B

Airplane at VC
A

n=1

t = t0

nmax
n=1

nmin

B
V

Flightdomain
Checked pitch maneuver: This maneuver covers a rapid action overshooting the required
end situation (e.g. collision avoidance).
Unlike the steady pull-up, it has to be studied as a function of time.
The airplane is assumed to be initially at n=1 (not predicted maneuver).

HTP

XA

m
Stead state
Steady
nZ

CS
25.
25.331
331C
C
(Civil
transport
airplane)
Between VA and VD.
The airplane is assumed to be flying
in steady level flight at any speed
between VA and VD. The cockpit pitch
control is moved in accordance with a
specific formula (t)=1sin(t) (see
CS25 331C)
CS25.331C).

F l
Fuselageloads
l d
Pressurised cabin (12000 m outside & 2500m inside)

F l
Fuselageloads
l d
On ground and in flight loads leading to traction,

compression
p
and shear.

F l
Fuselagedesign
d i

F l
Fuselagedesign(floor)
d i (fl )

F l
Fuselagedesign(stress)
d i (
)

F l
Fuselagemanufacturing
f
i
Thefuselageisbuildwithcircularpartsatdifferent
intervalsdependingonstresscalculationresult.These
partsarecalledframes.
Theseframesarelinkedtogetherwithlongitudinal
partscalledstringers allalongthefuselage.
Theskinismountedonthisstructure.

F l
Fuselagemanufacturing
f
i

Mainframes:
Usedtodistributeloadsintothestructure
Locatedatwingfuselagejunctionorfuselageengine
pylonjunctionorjackingarea.

F l
Fuselagemanufacturing
f
i
Secondaryframes:
S
d f
Withstandstressduetopressure
Frameswithstandingtensionmustbeclosed
Frameswithstandingtensionmustbeclosed
Givegeneralshapetothefuselage

Skin
Ski
o withstandsshearingstressinducesbyTz,TyandMx
ith t d h i t
i d
b T T dM
o itsstiffnessallowstheskintowithstandtraction
compressioncausedbyMyandMz
o Absorbstressduetodeltapressureanddistribute
themintotheframes
o Skinpanelsfittedonstringerswithrivetsorwith
glue(nouseofweldwhichwoulddecreasematerial
h
t i ti )
characteristics)

S i
Stringers
o with
ith skin
ki withstand
ith t d the
th longitudinal
l
it di l traction
t ti

compression stress induced by P, My and Mz

o Continuity must be ensured from the top to the
bottom of the Aircraft. For storage reasons, they are
not of a single piece and assembled with junctions
o Cutout are made in frames to allow passage of
stringers

F
FramesandStringers
dS i

Floor
Fl

Floor
Fl
The floor is not leakproof
Ai that
Air
h enters the
h cabin
bi thanks
h k to the
h
pressurization system, goes thru the floor
and is discharged outside the aircraft thru a
valve.
cargo compartments also pressurized
No effect of P on the floor
St t are compressed
Struts
d by
b the
th floor.
fl

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi l d
Wingload

Thrust

Wi l d
Wingload

Wi
Wingandweight
d i h

Wi
Wingandweight
d i h

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(spar)
)
Wings,haveastrongframetogivethemtheirshapeandtotransferlift
fromthewingsurfacetotherestoftheaircraft.Themainstructural
elementsareoneormore sparsrunningfromroottotip,andmanyribs
runningfromtheleading(front)tothetrailing(rear)edge.

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(spar)
)

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(spar)
)
The spar is the main structural member of the wing. The spar
carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the
ground Other structural and forming members such as ribs
ground.
are attached to the spar, with stressed skin construction also
sharing
g the loads.

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(spar)
)
S
Spar
usuall forms
f

Wi d i ( ib )
Wingdesign(ribs)
By analogy
B
l
with
i h the
h anatomical
i l definition
d fi i i
off "rib",
" ib"
the ribs are attached to the main spar, and by being
repeated
d at frequent
f
i
intervals,
l form
f
a skeletal
k l l shape
h
for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil
shape
h
off the
h wing,
i
and
d the
h skin
ki adopts
d
this
hi shape
h
when stretched over the ribs.

Wi d i ( ib )
Wingdesign(ribs)

Wi d i ( ib )
Wingdesign(ribs)
Ribscontaingenerallyedges(folds).
Ribscontaingenerallyedges(folds)
Thesefoldshaveseveralfunctions:
Theyallowtherivetingofthecover/panelextradosandintrados.
Theystrengthentherigidityoftherib.
Theystrengthentherigidityoftherib
Theribsarecuttoallowtopassstringers.
Theycanalsocontainholestodecreasetheweightofthewingwithoutalteringits
resistance.
resistance

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(panel)
l)

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(panel)
l)
Stiffened covers are generally milled in the mass.
mass Therefore
they are an integral part of the cover. The manufacturing can
also be made byy chemical reaming.
g The surface of the p
piece
where no reaming is needed is protected and the chemical
attack is only made then on the unprotected parts. The
advantage
d
t
off such
h a process is
i the
th remarkable
k bl finish
fi i h state
t t and
d
the lower cost. The inconvenience are the lack of recycling of
operation the pollution.
pollution
shavings and as any chemical operation,

Wi d i (
Wingdesign(panel)
l)

Wi d i
Wingdesign
A difficult compromise
p
to find.
Still some issues with brand new aircraft (A380 example (2012))

Wi d i ( i i
Wingdesign(sizingcase)
)
To get rid of the bending phenomenon, the external wing
tanks increase the structural capability to support the loads
encountered during manoeuvre.
This is the reason why centre tanks are emptied first and
external tanks are emptied just before landing. In addition,
d to
due
t the
th impact
i
t att landing
l di extt tanks
t k with
ith fuel
f l could
ld damage
d
the structure due to Tz and Mx.

Wingfuselagejunction
Militaryaircraftorlightaviation

Wingfuselagejunction
Militaryaircraftorlightaviation

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

The centre wing box is an integral part of the centre

fuselage, and extends across its width. Access to the centre
box is provided by manholes in the rear spar web.

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

The box comprises front, centre and rear spars, upper and
lower skin panels, and is physically closed by the root ribs
( ib 1 on the
(rib
th scheme).
h
)
Spars
The front and rear spars are fabricated assemblies made
up of beams, webs, and stiffeners. The centre spar has a
stiffened web with big access holes. In case of fuel in the
centre wing box the centre spar will be closed and can
therefore be considered as a fuel barrier between a front
and rear part of the centre wing box tank.

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

Ribs
The strutted ribs consist of an upper and lower beam
connected
t d by
b a series
i
off vertically
ti ll and
d diagonally
di
ll
orientated struts. They support as well the floor structure.
Skin panels
The upper and lower skin panels are made from CFRP
material (Carbon fiberreinforced polymer: unlike
isotropic materials like steel and aluminium, CFRP has
directional strength properties).
properties)

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft
Attachmenttofuselage
The
Th centre wing
i
b
box
i
is
connected to the upper
fuselage by external frame
fittings attached to internal
reinforcing
g fittings.
g
The upper fuselage skin is
b l d
bolted
to
the
h
upper
cruciform flange.

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft
Pianojunction

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft
Piano Junction consistc of a
hundred highstrength bolts. It
allows
ll
wings
i
to be
b readily
dil replaced
l d
or interchanged after a poor
landing or takeoff roll or collision
landing,
with a rampvehicle. It also allows
the same wing
g to be used on
different models with varying cabin
widths, making for more efficient
parts distribution.
di ib i

Falcon2000wing
fuselagejunction

Wingfuselagejunction
Civilaircraft

Falcon8Xwing
fuselagejunction

Wingfuselagejunction
A380example

Wingfuselagejunction
A380example

Wingfuselagejunction

A340assemblyvideo

Stabilizersandflightcontrol
1
1.
2.

Winglet
Low speedaileron

3.

Highspeedaileron

4.
4
5.
6.
77.
8.
9.
10.

Flaps rail
Slats
Slats
Flaps
p
Flaps
Spoilers(liftreducer)
Spoilers(airbrakes,
p
speedbrake)

Stabilizersandflightcontrol
Franais
Anglais

Empennage
Vertical
Fin

Empennage
p
g
Horizontal
Horizontal
Empennage/tail
plane/stabilizer

Voilure
Wing

TraindAtterrissage
a d tte ssage
Principal
MainLandingGear

Fuselage
Fuselage

Traind Atterrissage
TraindAtterrissage
Secondaire
NoseLandingGear
Moteur
Engine

Stabilizersandflightcontrol
Franais
Anglais
Voilure,
Wing

Queue, Tail
Gouvernesde
Profondeur
Elevators

Volets
Flaps

Spoilers
Spoilers

Aileron
Aileron
Gouvernede
Direction
Rudder

Becs
Slats

Ailette
marginale
Winglet

Stabilizersandflightcontrol

Stabilizersandflightcontrol
In
the
liftingcanard
configuration, the weight of
the
h aircraft
i
f is
i shared
h d between
b
the wing and the canard. A
lifting canard generates an
upload, in contrast to a
conventional afttail which
sometimes generates negative
lift that must be counteracted
b extra lift
by
lif on the
h main
i wing.
i
This allows a smaller main
wing.
wing

Empennage
Empennage is usually made
of the horizontal stabiliser
and
d the
h vertical
i l one.
The horizontal stabilizer is
used to balance and share
lifting loads of the mainplane
dependent
on centre of
p
gravity considerations by
limiting oscillations in pitch.
The rear section is called the elevator and is usually hinged to the
horizontal stabilizer. The elevator is a movable airfoil that
controls changes in pitch.

Empennage
The vertical tail structure
(or fin) has a fixed front
section
i
called
ll d the
h vertical
i l
stabilizer, used to restrict
sidetoside motion of the
aircraft (yawing). The rear
section of the vertical fin is
the rudder, a movable airfoil
that is used to turn the
aircraft
i
f in
i combination
bi i
with
ih
the ailerons.

Empennage

H
Here
are some design
d i examples...
l

Tailplane (Ttail)

Gloster Javelin(RAFinterceptor)

The horizontal
Th
h i
t l stabilizer
t bili
i mounted
is
t d
on top of the fin, creating a "T" shape
when viewed from the front.
front T
Ttails
tails
keep the stabilizers out of the engine
wake, and give better pitch control. T
tails have a good glide ratio, and are
more efficient on low speed aircraft.
H
T t il are more likely
lik l to
t
However,
Ttails
enter a deep stall, and are more
difficult to recover from a spin. T
tails
Ttails
must be stronger, and therefore
heavier than conventional tails. T
tails also have a larger radar cross
section.

Tailplane (cruciform)
The horizontal stabilizers are placed
midway up the vertical stabilizer,
giving the appearance of a cross when
viewed from the front. Cruciform tails
are often used to keep the horizontal
stabilizers
t bili
outt off the
th engine
i
wake,
k
while avoiding many of the
Ttail.
disadvantages of a T
tail.

A4Skyhawk (USNavy)

Tailplane (twintail)
A twin tail, also called an Htail,
consists of two small vertical
stabilizers on either side of the
horizontal stabilizer.

An225

Tailplane (Vtail)
A Vtail can be lighter than a
conventional tail in some situations
and
d produce
d
l
less
d
drag.
A Vtail
V il may
also have a smaller radar signature.

Fouga Magister

HTPandVTPloads

Fy*H=F*h
y
haswideaspossibletocounterthemomentgeneratedbyFy

HTPandVTPloads

HTPandVTPdesign
Rear
spar

Rudder

Rib
Front
spar

Honeycomb
structure

Attached
points

Elevator

Wingbox

Front
spar

Rear
spar

Ruddercertification
Checked yaw maneuver (25.351):
The yawing maneuver occurs due to rudder deflection and produces three
design requirements:
With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at a speed VA, and at zero yaw,
the rudder is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection,
deflection as limited
by:
the control system or control surface stops; or
a limit pilot force of 1335 N from VMC to VA, and 890 N from VC to VD,
ith a linear
li
i ti between
b t
d VC. (VMC is
i th minimum
i i
t l
with
variation
VA and
control
speed associated with engine inoperative).
This cause a high yawing acceleration.
The airplane then yaws to a maximum sideslip angle
angle. This is a
momentary dynamic overyaw condition.
With the airplane settled down to a static side slip, the rudder is then set
to the opposite deflection
deflection.

Ruddercertification
VA

= 0

max

nmax

nmax

steady

nmax

Steady state

max

steady

RZfinmax
Ryfin

nmax

Ryfin

nmax

RZfinsteady
nmax

Ryfin

Ruddercertification
Crash example:

InFlightSeparationofVerticalStabilizer
AmericanAirlinesFlight587
AirbusIndustrie A300605R,N14053
BelleHarbor,NewYork
November12 2001
November12,2001

Flightcontrols
g

Flightcontrols(hingemoment)
g
( g
)

HingeM=Fg*d=Fc*D
=> Fc=Fg*d/D

Flightcontrols(designprinciple)
g
(
g p
p )
Singlesparconcept:

Flightcontrols(designprinciple)
g
(
g p
p )
Staticbalancingtohaveaneasiermovement

Flightcontrols(boundarylayer
Flight
controls (boundary layer
p
)
separation)
Todelaythisseparation,onecanusedifferentsolutions:

Fli h
Flightcontrols(oppositeyaw)
l (
i
)
Duringflightturn,upwardwinghasmore
drag(andalsomorelift).
g
Oppositeyaw
Solutions:

Flightcontrols(oppositeyaw)
g
( pp
y )
Aileronfrize:

Flightcontrols(oppositeyaw)
g
( pp
y )
Aileronfente:

Flightcontrols(oppositeyaw)
g
( pp
y )
Solutions:
differentialordering:Moreangleonaileron
inupposition

Rollingspoilersfordownwardwing

Flight controls (partial inversion)

Flightcontrols(partialinversion)
Partialinversionofaileronefficiencycanbeencounteredat
highspeed(aileronefficiencyleadingtowingtorsion(My)).
Solutions:
Nouseofaileronathighspeed
SeveralAilerons(highspeedandlowspeed)

Flightcontrols(partialinversion)
The largest source of torsion on a wing and,
consequently, the most serious aeroelastic
problem is aileron deflection.
Assuming a down aileron deflection, the wing is
twisted nose down. The aileron effectiveness is
d
decreased
d and
d a down
d
l d occurs on the
load
th
forward section of the wing.
At the speed VR (reversal speed), the rolling
moment caused by the wing deflection is equal
to that caused by the aileron.

Torque due to
aileron lift

Aileron lift

flexible

rigid

: aileron efficiency
flexible : roll rate for a flexible wing
rigid : roll rate for a rigid wing

VR: Reversal spee

V