Preventive Measures

The preceding discussion of practical experience and the many investigative studies of SCC of steels in
liquefied ammonia service suggest several measures that could prevent SCC or reduce the probability of
cracking. However, it should be recognized that each measure has limitations when considered
separately. For maximum benefit as many procedures as possible should be employed in the attempt to
combat SCC.
1. Air contamination (even a few ppm) is considered the primary cause of SCC of steels in liquefied
ammonia. It is therefore good engineering practice to purge new vessels of air and to eliminate
any conceivable possibility of air ingress into the ammonia handling system, such as at
detachable ammonia transfer points. Because air tends to concentrate in the vapor space above
a liquid ammonia pool (there is about 600 times more air in the vapor phase than in the liquid in
equilibrium with it) it is advisable in the case of large storage spheres to continuously condense
the ammonia vapor with a simultaneous discharge of the noncondensables, which is mostly air,
and to return the condensed liquid to the vessel. For relatively small units it was demonstrated
that a bleeding or boil-off method can effectively remove air from ammonia to avoid SCC [2, 13].
Good results in reducing SCC damage to storage spheres have been achieved by a careful
control of the oxygen content in ammonia having a low water content [26].
2. Similar to the detrimental effect of oxygen, the inhibitory effect of water content in liquid ammonia
has been well documented, the optimum dose apparently being 0.2 percent water in those
applications where this amount of water can be tolerated although it was suggested that a lower
water concentration may be adequate when the oxygen content is low [16, 20]. Note that for
effective inhibition of SCC the required water content must constantly be present in ammonia.
Should the water content drop below the critical concentration even for a relatively short time, as
by influx of water-free ammonia into a vessel, the irreversible-SCC damage can occur. Thus it is
important to monitor the water content on a frequent and regular basis and to replenish the water
if it starts to fall below the critical concentration. In metal heat treating and refrigeration
applications where this low concentration of water in ammonia is undesirable, laboratory tests
have shown that 0.025 percent hydrazine addition is adequate in inhibiting SCC. Although
industrial utilization of hydrazine in ammonia is still forthcoming, such use of hydrazine should
verify the laboratory findings.
3. The inhibitory effect of water may not be realized in the vapor space of liquid ammonia storage
tanks, and calculations and laboratory studies indicate that measures, which prevent
condensation of ammonia on the steel surface, would tend to avoid SCC. Simultaneous
reduction of the oxygen content of the ammonia vapor should also be beneficial.
4. Postweld heat treatments are effective in substantially reducing the probability of SCC of steel in
contact with air-contaminated ammonia. Although postweld heat treatments are frequently
considered only from the standpoint of reducing the residual stresses, it should be recognized
that such thermal treatments result in two consequences, both of which are beneficial in
reducing SCC. First, properly conceived and executed thermal treatments can substantially
lower the residual stresses that result from fabrication (welding and cold forming), erection, and
restraint of the steel structure, such as storage sphere. Secondly, an appropriate postweld heat
treatment can significantly reduce the peak hardness in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the
weldment [16]. Thus, a hardness peak of 443 HV in the HAZ of an ammonia tank of ASTM A202
Grade B hot rolled steel was reduced to 280 HV by a postweld heat treatment, and similarly a
447 HV peak hardness was reduced to 290 HV in an ASTM A517 Q & T steel weldment [6].
Such reduction in HAZ hardness benefits the resistance to SCC, especially in conjunction with
other measures. In this context note also that guidelines promulgated by the Compressed Gas
Association for repairs of vessels permit minor welding repairs to be performed without a
subsequent heat treatment [7]. However, the size of the area repaired by welding or the extent of
welding do not affect the hardness of the HAZ and its susceptibility to SCC. Therefore from the
standpoint of avoiding SCC, it is good engineering practice, that steel equipment for liquefied
ammonia service be heat treated after any welding operation regardless of size, which is a

requirement in the United Kingdom [27]. Although it is generally considered to be difficult and
costly, a successful full-scale heat treatment of a large fabricated and erected storage sphere
was reported from Japan [28]. Shot peening has been proposed to reduce residual stresses in
areas of weld joints or even to induce compressive surface stresses. However, experience has
shown that this approach only reduced temporarily the incidence of ammonia SCC, but did not
prevent it [16, 27, 31].
5. It is recognized that, in general, the probability of SCC of steel in liquefied ammonia service is
the greater, the higher the strength of the steel. The formulation of a lower strength limit, below
which SCC would not occur, is not practical because it depends on the level and nature of
contamination, the degree and nature of inhibition, the magnitude of residual and operating
stresses and the operating temperature. Nevertheless, a lower-strength steel appears to provide
a higher degree of resistance to SCC than a higher-strength variety. With respect to the stress
that exists in a steel component other aspects pertain; the upper limit is governed by applicable
statutory regulations, and the lower end, which is desirable from the standpoint of combating
SCC, is governed by the operating pressure, the technologically achievable reduction of residual
fabricating stresses, and economic and safety considerations. It is good engineering practice to
avoid stress concentrating features. Note also that if SCC has initiated, the effective stress at the
tip of the crack can be very high indeed. Novel design aspects, such as external reinforcements
that would place the interior surface of a tank in compression, could reduce the operating stress
level and benefit in decreasing the likelihood of SCC.
6. Many catastrophic failures, with resultant personal injuries and property damage that have their
origin in SCC, could be avoided by periodic and frequent inspections of the steel surfaces that
are in contact with ammonia, and by making repairs when needed. Cracknell [26] has proposed
an inspection schedule for as-welded carbon steel vessels that is based on oxygen and water
contents. Guild [30] recommends inspections to be conducted both before and after pressure
testing of storage spheres, because fine cracks can open up during the pressure test and
become visible afterward. In the writer's experience, the most sensitive inspection method for
detecting the frequently very fine stress-corrosion cracks is the wet fluorescent magnetic particle
method with an alternating current yoke 16, 7, 31]. An acoustic emission technique [32], which
detects actively propagating cracks by sensors applied to the outside of an operating vessel,
could furnish a continuous report on the soundness of the vessel if equipped with appropriate
monitoring, processing, and warning devices.